Transportation in Developing Economies (2025) 11:2

https://doi.org/10.1007/s40890-024-00223-z

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Policies for Enhancement of Metro Rail Ridership: A Case Study

of Nagpur
Richa Patel1 · Ayushi Shah2 · Gaurang Joshi2 · Shriniwas S. Arkatkar2

Received: 28 December 2023 / Accepted: 24 September 2024

© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024

Abstract
The metro rail system serves as an important public transportation option that can alleviate traffic congestion and air pollu-
tion. However, the ridership of metro rail systems is often affected by various service quality indicators. Therefore, policy
making on metro rail system is essential to enhance its attractiveness and competitiveness. This research aims to evaluate
and enhance the service quality of a newly launched metro rail system by examining individuals’ perceptions. For this study
samples were collected as face-to-face interviews in Nagpur. Using Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling, the
study revealed that accessibility, waiting time, affordability, crowding level, and feeder service availability and integration
are the most critical factors in overall satisfaction. Based on these findings, the study recommends practical solutions such
as bicycle lanes, walkways, park and ride facilities, and a QR-based ticketing system to enhance connectivity and mobility
and increase ridership.

Keywords Service quality indicators · Metro rail · Ridership

Introduction urban population was around 377 million, with a projected

increase to 534 million by 2026 and 875 million by 2050
The need for an organized and efficient public transpor- [3]. Urbanization has reached 34%, the lack of a sequential
tation system becomes indispensable with the growing evolution in public transportation has contributed to many
population and urbanization in various parts of the world. issues. The resultant disparity between the demand and
Enhancing accessibility [1] and mobility [2] in urban areas supply of transportation has adversely impacted the quality
can contribute to an improved quality of life and increased of urban life, leading to issues such as severe traffic con-
economic prosperity. However, it is important to note that gestion, high vehicular emissions, and other related prob-
high mobility can lead to congestion if not accompanied by lems [4]. However, the expansion of metro rail systems in
efficient urban transport systems. India experienced a rapid cities worldwide has shown promising results in reducing
rate of urbanization, especially in the latter half of the these issues [5, 6] and achieving sustainable development
twentieth century. According to the 2011 census, India’s goals, especially in ensuring equitable mobility for all. By
leaving no one behind, these systems have become crucial
* Richa Patel in promoting a sustainable and inclusive urban environ-
[email protected] ment. Despite its advantages, private vehicles continue to
Ayushi Shah be the preferred mode of transportation. India is currently
[email protected] ranked as the sixth largest producer of vehicles worldwide,
Gaurang Joshi and its per capita vehicle ownership falls in the middle
[email protected] range compared to other countries globally [7]. However,
Shriniwas S. Arkatkar the absence of an efficient public transportation system
[email protected] has led to a boost in vehicular growth in India. It is pro-
jected that annual sales of passenger vehicles may reach
1
Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute 10 million by 2030 [8]. This trend has led to lower rider-
of Technology, Bombay, Maharashtra, India
ship of public transport than desired in cities, as people
2
Department of Civil Engineering, Sardar Vallabhbhai have become habituated to their dependency on private
National Institute of Technology, Surat, Gujarat, India

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 2 Page 2 of 11 Transportation in Developing Economies (2025) 11:2

vehicles. Therefore, it is necessary to find ways to shift Literature Overview

consumer behavior towards sustainable public transport
options. Service Quality Indicator
The metro rail system contributes significantly in eco-
nomic development [9] and growth in cities by providing The utilization of public transportation in contrast to pri-
better connectivity to various parts of the city and facili- vate vehicles continues to be minimal in numerous regions
tating the movement of commuters. It has the potential to of the world [12]. In particular, the rate of rail-based pub-
transform the urban landscape by promoting sustainable lic transport usage is a significant concern in the Asian
development and reducing the environmental impact of region [13]. The preference for private transport over
transportation. The implementation of metro rail systems public transport can be attributed to its greater flexibility,
has been gaining popularity in India in recent years, and comfort, privacy, and speed, among other benefits [14].
several cities have either already implemented or are in However, the choice of public transport is influenced by
the process of implementing metro rail systems. India the quality of transit service [10]. Therefore, it is impera-
currently operates 15 metro rail systems in various cit- tive to identify the parameters that affect commuters’
ies. Metro rail provides excellent connectivity in India’s choices. By identifying these factors, the service quality of
congested cities, and its success has made the case for the metro rail system can be enhanced, ultimately increas-
installing similar systems in other urban areas facing traffic ing ridership in the metro.
congestion. As a result, 18 cities are currently in various Public transportation needs to satisfy numerous criteria
stages of developing their own metro rail systems. and meet the expectations of commuters with regard to fac-
The quality of transit service affects commuter choices tors such as convenience, frequency, accessibility, depend-
[10]. The quality of the metro rail service can be improved ability, affordability, speed, punctuality, consistency, pre-
by evaluating various performance indicators such as cise information, comfort, capacity, hygiene, connectivity,
accessibility, frequency, safety, comfort, and information environmental impact, courteous staff, safety, and security
availability. The attitude of commuters towards transport to encourage increased usage [15–17]. PT service qual-
services will play a crucial role in enhancing demand for ity can be achieved by serving following attributes, such
these services [11]. Therefore, it is highly essential to as affordability, frequency, fares, safety, accessibility, reli-
identify the service quality parameters to increase demand ability, ticket price, intermodality, information, times, space
towards the sustainable transport system. inside the vehicle, cleanliness of the vehicle and accessibil-
This paper examines the key performance indicators ity, employee service, availability of facilities, reservation,
that influence commuters’ mode choice for essential activi- security and safety in terms of the record of accidents [18].
ties and proposes policy measures to enhance the service According to researchers, ease of use is the most crucial
of the newly operational metro rail system. We integrate factor for metro riders [19, 20], while comfort, safety, and
critical service quality indicators like accessibility, wait- convenience are also important attributes [20]. In Italy,
ing time, affordability, crowding level, and feeder service information, cleanliness, on-time performance, and service
availability into our analysis. By employing Partial Least frequency are identified as critical attributes for rail transit
Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM), we [21]. Ensuring accessibility is another crucial factor in the
provide a nuanced understanding of how these factors growth of public transport usage [22, 23] and in increas-
impact overall passenger satisfaction and metro rail rider- ing stability of a transportation system [24]. Travel cost and
ship. This methodological approach allows us to identify travel time are also influencing factor for the Public transport
and prioritize effective policy measures, offering signifi- ridership [25]. The Transportation Research Board (TRB)
cant contributions to urban transportation planning and highlights the importance of integrating different facili-
policymaking. ties, such as pedestrian walkways and travel information,
The rest of the paper is structured as follows: “Litera- to facilitate access to public transportation stations [26].
ture Overview” discusses the literature related to service The quality of a transit system can be enhanced by factors
quality indicators and Partial Least Squares Structural such as frequency of service, operating speeds, as well as
Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM). “Study Area and Survey the number and frequency of feeder bus lines [27]. Metro
Database” outlines the survey design and data collection service quality can be evaluated based on several dimen-
process. “Model Development” presents the model develop- sions, including accuracy, safety, cleanliness, comfort, and
ment. The results are discussed in “Results and Discussion”. reliability [28–30]. The security check and waiting times for
Finally, “Conclusion” summarizes the significant findings boarding can impact the overall satisfaction of users [31].
and suggests policies that can improve the overall quality The frequency [17, 21, 32], service hour and reliability [32]
of public transportation services and promote sustainable of public transportation are crucial factors in general.
urban development.
Transportation in Developing Economies (2025) 11:2 Page 3 of 11 2

The service quality of public transportation plays a cru- The weighting scheme for Partial Least Squares Struc-
cial role in determining users’ satisfaction with it [33]. tural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) is the path weighting
People’s perception of the system is closely linked to its scheme [37]. For assessing the structural model, signifi-
performance, and improving various aspects of the system cance level of path coefficients are the primary criterion,
is essential to enhance the overall travel experience. Fac- with the determinant coefficient (­ R2) [38, 39]. To evaluate
tors such as comfort, reliability, functionality, and afford- accuracy of a model, predictive relevance ­(Q2) criterion is
ability are critical to achieving this goal. Stress is a crucial utilized, offering insights into its ability to make accurate
element of comfort, and research suggests that the level of predictions for each endogenous construct [40]. In addi-
stress experienced during travel may affect a person’s mode tion, the adequacy of the PLS-SEM model can be evalu-
of transportation [34]. However, when it comes to attracting ated by fitness parameters such as Normed Fit Index (NFI),
car and two-wheeler users, the most effective attributes are Geodesic Discrepancy (­d G), Standardized Root Mean
primarily related to individual perceptions, motivations, and Square Residual (SRMR), Unweighted Least Squares Dis-
contexts. It is essential to understand and cater to the diverse crepancy ­(dULS), and Root Mean Squared residual (RMS_
needs and preferences of potential users to encourage a shift theta). To assess the goodness of fit for a PLS-SEM model,
towards public transportation. Table 1 provides a summary an SRMR value below 0.08 is typically considered indica-
of past research studies conducted for service quality indica- tive of a well-fitting model [41]. The NFI, an incremental
tors and tick-marks indicate the presence of specific service fit measure, is considered indicative of a good model fit
quality indicators addressed in the respective studies. The when its value is 0.9 or higher [42]. To achieve a satisfac-
Service quality indicators are: I1: Accessibility; I2: Safety; tory model fit, the values of d­ ULS and d­ G should be small
I3: Comfort (Crowding); I4: Feeder Service Integration and enough to be attributed to sampling error and should not
Availability; I5: Frequency; I6: Travelling Stress; I7: Infor- exceed the 95% quantile of the bootstrapped discrepancies
mation Availability; I8: Affordable. ­(HI95) [43].Typically, a well-fitted model exhibits value of
RMS_theta is below 0.12 [41].
Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modelling This study has chosen to use PLS-SEM for several
(PLS‑SEM) significant reasons. Firstly, the data collected from the
respondents’ perceptions is heterogeneous in nature as
PLS-SEM, or Partial Least Squares Structural Equation well as not normally distributed. Secondly, this research
Modeling is a widely used statistical technique for analyzing is exploratory in the nature, seeking to predict and explore
complex relationships among variables, combining principal interrelationships among strategy parameters. Thirdly,
component analysis and ordinary least squares regression PLS-SEM does not impose a minimum number of items
to investigate the relationship between observable vari- for each construct, which avoids the model identification
ables (also referred to as manifest variables or MVs) and problem [44]. Furthermore, PLS-SEM generates scores for
unobservable variables (also known as latent variables, fac- each construct of latent variable, as constructs are mod-
tors, or constructs) [35, 36]. This approach comprises two elled as determinate [45]. These scores have proven to be
fundamental components: the measurement model, which useful for measuring overall policy outcomes in this study.
describes the relationship between manifest variables (MVs) Hence, the utilization of PLS-SEM for policy prioritiza-
and latent constructs, and the structural model, which illus- tion is thoroughly justified.
trates the interrelationships between constructs.

Table 1  List of literature reviewed

Cao and Redman Anderson, Ojo [18] Ismael Horeni Postorino and Hewage Cervero [27] Legrain Olsson
Cao [20] et al. [17] et al. [46] et al. et al. [59] Fedele [15] et al. [58] et al. [34] et al. [33]
[32]

I1 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
I2 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
I3 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
I4 ✓
I5 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
I6 ✓ ✓
I7 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
I8 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
 2 Page 4 of 11 Transportation in Developing Economies (2025) 11:2

Study Area and Survey Database important tool in transportation demand management
(TDM) worldwide, as cities aim to achieve their sustain-
Questionnaire Design ability goals. The implementation of parking charges has
been identified as a viable solution to alleviate traffic con-
A paper-based questionnaire was designed to collect gestion, making it the second-best alternative available
responses from non-users of the metro in Nagpur. The [49, 50]. Parking policies involve changes in parking type
questionnaire was divided into four parts. The first part (e.g., between on- and off-street parking), transportation
was to collect respondents’ socioeconomic characteristics mode, parking location, car occupancy, and frequency and
which include attributes, age, occupation, total number of trip-time.
household members, working members and vehicle own- Trade-offs were made among different policies based
ership whereas second part comprises information about on these parameters, resulting in a set of policies evaluated
travel characteristics such as purpose of travel, present using a five-point Likert scale. All mentioned parameters
mode of travel, origin, destination, and trip length. Third have different levels in different policies, as detailed in the
part was to collect their preferences for key performance Table 2. The strategy parameters were named as A_FS1,
indicators of metro rail system. Based on the research, A_FS2, A_FS3, A_FS4 (Accessibility and feeder services),
quality of a transit system’s services is greatly influenced AF1, AF2, AF3, AF4 (Affordability), PC1, PC2, PC3, PC4
by various attributes, including accessibility [18, 22], com- (Parking costs) and F_W1, F_W2, F_W3, F_W4 (Frequency
fort [17], safety [32], integration with feeder services [27], and waiting time). Policy 1 (A1) combined A_FS1, AF1,
frequency [17, 46], level of stress during travel, availabil- PC1, and F_W1; Policy 2 (A2) combined A_FS2, AF2, PC2,
ity of information[21], and affordability [15]. The fourth and F_W2; Policy 3 (A3) combined A_FS3, AF3, PC3, and
part was to collect response to transit supportive policies. F_W3; and Policy 4 (A4) combined A_FS4, AF4, PC4,
All attributes that influence the service quality of metro and F_W4. Each policy had 4 bunch of strategies with their
rail service were taken into consideration while creating satisfaction levels, which contributed to the overall policy
the policies. The overall satisfaction with the policy, which satisfaction.
comprises various strategies, was evaluated. The accessibility and feeder service parameters include
The strategies are grouped under each policy with four the distance from the metro station and integrated feeder
parameters: Accessibility and Feeder service [27, 47], facilities. The parking charges strategy includes scenarios
Parking Charges [48], Affordability and Crowding and in which the out-vehicle travel time (OVTT) for private
Frequency. Parking policies are becoming an increasingly vehicles is increased, and a pay and park system should
be implemented instead of on-street parking and increase

Table 2  Attribute levels of policies

Parameters Policy I Policy II Policy III Policy IV

Accessibility and feeder A_FS1 A_FS2 A_FS3 A_FS4

service 1000–1500 m distance to a 750–1000 m distance to a 500–750 m distance to a Less than 500 m distance to
metro station metro station metro station a metro station
Integrated bus services E-rickshaw/auto/taxi Exclusive lane for bicycle Exclusive walkway
Displays information services Public bike sharing docks
regarding available Information about fare with smart card payment
feeder services at transit structure discounts and
stops other concessions
Parking charges PC1 PC2 PC3 PC4
3 times the current parking 2 times the current parking 1.5 times the current park- 1.25 times the current park-
charge charge ing charge ing charge
OVTT = 3 × present time OVTT = 2 × present time OVTT = 1.5 × present time OVTT = 2 × present time
Affordability and crowding AF1 AF2 AF3 AF4
level Up to 20% of monthly 15% of monthly income 10% of monthly income 5% of monthly income
income 2 passenger/m2 3 passenger/m2 More than 3 passenger/m2
1 passenger/m2 Structured fare system for Incentives in metro fare Prior QR-based ticketing
Integrated fare system-one IPT before entering the station
card one fare area
Frequency F_W1 F_W2 F_W3 F_W4
6 min 8 min 10 min 15 min
Transportation in Developing Economies (2025) 11:2 Page 5 of 11 2

parking charges to discourage the usage of private vehi- 6% of households with two members. Only 10% of house-
cles. The affordability and crowding parameter measure holds have more than five members. Households with four
the travel expenses towards the metro as a percentage of members are the most common, accounting for almost half
monthly income and the corresponding crowding levels. The of all households. The average household size is 4.12, with
frequency and waiting time parameter refer to the headway an average working member is 1.6. The monthly house-
of the metro service, which varies across different policies. hold income has been categorized into six groups, i.e., less
In the table below, accessibility distance increases from less than Rs.20,000, Rs.20,000–40,000, Rs.40,000–60,000,
than 500–1500 m, and headway is reduced from 15 to 6 min. Rs.60,000–80,000, Rs.80,000–1,00,000, and greater than
As travel expenses increase, the crowding level decreases Rs.1,00,000. The majority of the respondents fell under the
from more than 3 passengers/m2 to 1 passengers/m2. All income class of Rs.20,000 to Rs.60,000, which accounted
policies include park-and-ride facilities. Respondents were for approximately 63% of the total respondents. The income
asked to rate their satisfaction with the accessibility and group of less than Rs.20,000 accounts for only 15% of
feeder services, affordability and crowding level, and fre- the population, which is the lowest among all the income
quency on a scale of one to five, with one being very dis- classes. The average monthly household income is approxi-
satisfied and five being very satisfied. Similarly, respondents mately Rs.43,000. The collected sample revealed that 46%
rated the parking charges on a scale of one to five, with one of individuals are employed in the private service sector,
being very low and five being very high. while 24% of individuals work in private business. The
remaining individuals contribute to the government sector
Data Collection and education. This indicates that a significant proportion of
the population is engaged in the private sector. In terms of
The Nagpur Metro, which began operating in March 2019, travel purposes, the majority of respondents (74%) reported
consists of two lines: the orange line between Khapri and traveling for work purposes. This is followed by education,
Kasturchand Park and the aqua line between Lokmanya which accounts for 21% of the respondents. Summary of
Nagar and Sitabuldi, spanning a 24.39 km stretch with 23 socio demographic characteristics of Nagpur are represented
operational stations as of December 11th, 2022. The Metro in the Table 3.
corporation plans to extend the network by 43.8 km in the When residents of Nagpur were asked about the most
next three years towards Kanhan and Butibori [51]. The important attribute for selecting a metro, Accessibility was
average daily ridership of Nagpur Metro is 42,680 (2022), ranked as number 1 with 36% of the respondents indicating
whereas the total capacity of the Nagpur Metro is designed it as their top priority as shown in Fig. 1. Then, Frequency
to handle up to 98,000 passengers daily across both its is also an important factor for them, as it has been ranked
Orange and Aqua Lines [51]. This indicates that the cur- number 2 with 26%. Overall, commuters seem to prioritize
rent ridership accounts for approximately 43.5% of the total accessibility, frequency, and safety when using public trans-
capacity. Efforts must be made to increase ridership to meet portation. Feeder service availability and integration, and
desired levels. Therefore, measures need to be taken to boost comfort are also important factors that contribute to a good
ridership on this newly established metro system. To for- commuting experience. While affordability is important, it
mulate strategies and policies supportive of transit develop- is not considered as crucial as other factors.
ment, a study was undertaken to ascertain the need.
The survey was conducted in Nagpur from 3rd January Data Base Preparation
to 15th January through a personal interview-based survey.
The survey focused on areas within a 1-km radius of operat- The appropriate policy and strategy were determined
ing metro stations of two lines, and the sample was evenly through the application of Principal Component Analysis
distributed across all the metro stations except at interchange (PCA) with Varimax Rotation on the 16 strategy param-
station. A total of 840 responses have been collected after eters combined into four policies, using exploratory fac-
discarding the redundant data with incomplete information. tor analysis (EFA). Indicators with a factor loading of 0.4
or higher are extracted in accordance with the literature
Sample Statistics [52]. The strategy parameters were mentioned in Table 2.
Another PCA was conducted on ‘Overall Policy Satisfaction
Based on the analysis, out of the 840 samples, 80% of for Policy I’(AP1), ‘Overall Policy Satisfaction for Policy
the respondents were male, and of those males, 35% fell II’(AP2), ‘Overall Policy Satisfaction for Policy III’(AP3)
within the age group of 18–30 years. In contrast, 20% of and ‘Overall Policy Satisfaction for Policy IV’(AP4) vari-
the respondents were female, and of those females, 53% fell ables to extract ‘Overall Policy Satisfaction’ (OPS) factor,
within the age group of 18–30 years. According to the sur- which combined the overall satisfaction of each 4 policies
vey, 17% of households have three members, followed by (AP1, AP2, AP3 and AP4). In PCA, indicators with a factor
 2 Page 6 of 11 Transportation in Developing Economies (2025) 11:2

Table 3  Summary of socio-demographic characteristics of Nagpur loading of 0.4 or higher were retained and grouped with their
Sr. no. Category Sub-category Proportion corresponding factors [11]. As a result, ‘PC1’ ‘PC2’, ‘PC3’,
of samples and ‘PC4’ (Parking Charges) from Policy 1, 2, 3, and 4 were
(%) removed due to their loadings being less than 0.4. Table 4
represents the strategy parameters and their corresponding
1 Gender Male 80
factor loadings obtained from PCA. The twelve extracted
Female 20
parameters representing the strategy and overall satisfac-
2 Age group < 18 4.52
tion construct with four indicators of this research are as
18–30 38.33
follows: A_FS1, A_FS2, A_FS3, A_FS4 (Accessibility and
30–40 26.55
feeder services), F_W1, F_W2, F_W3, F_W4 (Frequency
40–50 16.79
and waiting time), AF1, AF2, AF3, AF4 (Affordability &
50–60 9.52
Crowding), AP1(overall policy I), AP2 (overall policy II),
> 60 4.29
AP3 (overall policy III), and AP4 (overall policy IV) and
3 Occupational structure Unemployed 1
abbreviation 1,2,3,4 after the emblem show policy I, Policy
Education 21
II, Policy III and Policy IV respectively.
Government 7
Private service 46
Private business 23
Retired 1
Model Development
4 Household size 1 1
The Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling
2 6
(PLS-SEM) approach is used in SmartPLS software to test
3 17
and analyze the exploratory factors that have been extracted
4 40
from Principal Component Analysis. The (PLS-SEM) algo-
5 25
rithm is a statistical approach used to estimate partial path
>5 10
coefficients and latent variable scores through an iterative
5 Monthly household income < 20,000 15
procedure [53]. The scores of latent variables are used to
20,000–40000 38
40,000–60000 25
estimate the outer loadings of observed variables. The meas-
60,000–80000 13
urement and structural models were tested independently in
80,000–100000 6
the study. The measurement model, which shows the rela-
> 100,000 3
tionships between observed variables and their correspond-
ing constructs, was tested for reliability and validity as per
[53]. Figure 2 shows detailed methodology of analysis.
The structural model shows the interrelationships
between the constructs by determining path coefficients, was
evaluated and examined for the significance level (p-value

Fig. 1  Ranking of Service Qual-

ity Attributes of Nagpur Ranking of Service Quality Indicators
Affordability 5 4 8 Rank 1 Rank 2 Rank 3
Information Availability 2 3 6
Service Quality Indicator

Travelling Stress 1 2 6
Frequency 16 26 24
Feeder Service 12 15 12
Comfort (Crowding) 8 20 21
Safety 20 12 11
Accessibility 36 18 12

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Percentage
Transportation in Developing Economies (2025) 11:2 Page 7 of 11 2

Table 4  Factors extracted from PCA analysis

Factor Strategy parameters Emblem Factor loading

Policy I Accessibility and feeder A_FS1 0.781

service
Affordability and crowding AF1 0.74
Frequency and waiting F_W1 0.571
time
Parking charges PC1 0.399
Policy II Accessibility and feeder A_FS2 0.651
service
Affordability and crowding AF2 0.789
Frequency and waiting F_W2 0.71
time
Parking charges PC2 -0.015
Policy III Accessibility and feeder A_FS3 0.401
service
Affordability and crowding AF3 0.64
Frequency and waiting F_W3 0.578
time
Parking charges PC3 -0.583
Policy IV Accessibility and feeder A_FS4 0.572
service
Affordability and crowding AF4 0.622
Frequency and waiting F_W4 0.729
time
Parking charges PC4 0.2
Overall Overall policy I AP1 0.69
policy sat- Overall policy II AP2 0.583
isfaction
Overall policy III AP3 0.842
Overall policy IV AP4 0.791

and T-statistics) by means of bootstrapping. Additional eval-

uation measures, including Q2 and R2 (determined through
blindfolding), were determined to evaluate the model's pre-
dictive relevance and explanatory power, respectively. Also,
the model’s fitness was assessed using fitness parameters
such as NFI, SRMR, dG, dULS, and RMS_theta [54, 55].
Once it was determined that the model was valid and statisti-
cally significant, scores for the latent variable were obtained
from the parameter estimation process in PLS-SEM. These
scores were then directly utilized to quantify the overall pref-
erences of the respondents towards the strategy and policy.

Results and Discussion

The PLS-SEM model was constructed using SmartPLS

Software (Version 4.0), to investigate the interrelationships
between policy and strategy constructs (factors) that were
extracted from Principal Component Analysis (PCA). The
model included four policy constructs described by 12 strat-
egy parameters, as well as an ‘Overall Policy Satisfaction’
(OPS) construct with four indicators (i.e., AP1, AP2, AP3, Fig. 2  Methodology for Analysis
 2 Page 8 of 11 Transportation in Developing Economies (2025) 11:2

& AP4). In the PLS-SEM measurement model, two essen- each construct in the model was confirmed as the Average
tial tasks were performed, namely evaluating the interrela- Variance Extracted (AVE) value was equal to or greater than
tionships of MVs (i.e., 12 strategy parameters, AP1, AP2, 0.5 as shown in Table 5.
AP3, & AP4) with their corresponding constructs, as well Furthermore, the discriminant validity of the indicators
as verifying the reliability and validity of the model. The was confirmed, as each indicator had a standard loading
findings revealed that the factors for Policy 1 (AP1) and that was greater than its cross-loadings, indicating that the
Policy 2 (AP2) were not significantly related to their cor- model exhibited adequate discriminant validity. Figure 3
responding constructs concerning the path relations, having depicts the Path model with significant interrelationships.
standard loadings less than 0.4 (−0.294 and −0.335, respec- The VIF values obtained for both the indicators and con-
tively). Therefore, these two policies were removed to make structs were found to be within acceptable limits (i.e., < 5),
the model significant, along with the removal of respective indicating that there was no limitation of multicollinearity
strategy parameters. On the other hand, all indicators for in the model. The ­R2 value of OPS was 75.1% in the model,
strategy satisfaction (AF3, AF4, A_FS3, A_FS4, F_W3, which indicated that the combination of AF3, AF4, A_FS3,
and F_W4) and policy satisfaction (AP3 and AP4) were A_FS4, F_W3, and F_W4, AP3, and AP4 can explain 75.1%
significantly related to their corresponding constructs, with variance in OPS construct in the model.
standard loadings of less than 0.4, and satisfactory values of The evaluation of goodness-of-fit of the PLS-SEM model
Composite Reliability (CR) greater than 0.7 and Cronbach’s demonstrated that all the fit indices values were within the
alpha (α) values exceeding 0.6. The convergent validity of acceptable limits, indicating that the model had a good fit.

Table 5  Measurement model results

Factor Strategy parameters Emblem Standard loadings Cronbach’s alpha Composite Average variance
reliability extracted (AVE)

Policy III Accessibility and feeder service A_FS3 0.794 0.836 0.702 0.547
Affordability and crowding AF3 0.525
Frequency and waiting time F_W3 0.659
Policy IV Accessibility and feeder service A_FS4 0.752 0.748 0.701 0.545
Affordability and crowding AF4 0.517
Frequency and waiting time F_W4 0.709
Overall policy Policy III AP3 0.738 0.702 0.705 0.645
Policy IV AP4 0.738

Fig. 3  Path Model depicting Significant interrelationships

Transportation in Developing Economies (2025) 11:2 Page 9 of 11 2

Specifically, SRMR model fit index was smaller than 0.08, Satisfaction, and were further analyzed using PLS-SEM.
and the ­dULS and ­dG values were also smaller than 95% The findings indicate that most of the strategy parameters
quantile of the bootstrapped discrepancies ­(HI95) indicating have a positive and significant impact on overall Policy
a good fit of the model (i.e., ­dG < ­HI95 of d­ G, and d­ ULS < ­HI95 Satisfaction. Moreover, the study identified several crucial
of ­dULS). Additionally, the substantial fit of the model was interrelationships among the strategy parameters, which
indicated by the NFI value, which is close to 0.90. play a significant role in policy implications for transit
The study’s findings reveal that Policy 3 (AP3) and Policy providers to enhance service quality and augment tran-
4 (AP4), which have an accessibility distance of 500–750 m sit ridership. The changes that are required at and around
and less than 500 m to a metro rail system, significantly transit terminals are also highlighted.
influence users’ satisfaction towards public transport. The This research suggests that to promote the use of metro
study also identifies that of strategy parameters for Acces- rail systems, measures such as facilitating accessibility
sibility and feeder services, affordability and crowding, and within 500–750 m distance or less than 500 m through
frequency and waiting time significantly affect users’ satis- the provision of exclusive bicycle lanes and walkways for
faction towards public transport for both policies. Policy 3 last-mile and first-mile connectivity are essential. In addi-
(AP3) and Policy 4 (AP4), with equal weightage (0.677), tion, park and ride facilities at all metro stations, equipped
have the most substantial impact. The strongest predictor for with real-time parking availability displays, surveillance
Policy 3 (AP3) is the bunch of Accessibility and feeder ser- systems, and security personnel, should be there to ensure
vices, with a weightage of 0.749, followed by frequency and safety against theft and damage. Maintaining a 10–15-min
waiting time (0.659), and affordability and crowding (0.525). headway of metro rail services and keeping the crowding
For Policy 4 (AP4), the bunch of affordability and crowd- level below 3 passengers/sq.m can attract more riders. To
ing has the most significant influence, with a weightage of reduce the hassle during ticketing, it is recommended to
0.752, followed by frequency and waiting time (0.709) and implement a QR-based ticketing system before entering
Accessibility and feeder services (0.517). The findings sug- into statin area. However, to discourage the use of private
gest that passengers’ perceptions regarding accessibility and vehicles, the cost of private vehicle usage should increase
feeder services are significantly positively correlated with to 1.5–2 times its present value, and on-street parking must
the highest satisfaction levels for Policy 3. Similarly, percep- be prohibited.
tions related to affordability and crowding show a substantial Our findings align with several key studies in the field,
positive correlation with satisfaction levels for Policy 4. reinforcing the critical factors identified for enhancing metro
rail ridership. The importance of accessibility, frequency,
safety, and comfort in passenger satisfaction, as highlighted
Conclusion in our results, resonates with the study by Eboli and Maz-
zulla [21]. Similarly, the significance of safety, cleanliness,
The use of public transportation is greatly influenced by comfort, and reliability in urban rail transit, emphasized by
passengers’ perceptions of its service quality. By under- Shen et al. [29] supports our focus on accessibility, wait-
standing these perceptions and the factors that affect ing time, and crowding levels. The need for convenience,
them, transport planners can develop policies to improve frequency, accessibility, and affordability in attracting car
the quality of public transportation and encourage its users to public transport, discussed by Redman et al. [17],
use. These models help in identifying the factors which mirrors our emphasis on accessibility and feeder service
greatly affect the choice of individuals. This study has integration. Our recommendations for integrated solutions
provided valuable insights into the strategies and policies like bicycle lanes, walkways, and QR-based ticketing sys-
related to metro stations in urban India, with a particu- tems align with Xu et al. [31] who identified accessibility
lar focus on the city of Nagpur. Here, accessibility and and information availability as crucial for passenger satis-
frequency were found to be the most important service faction. Additionally, studies specific to the Indian context,
quality parameters as per the respondents of the Nagpur. such as those by Mandhani et al. [56] and Verma et al. [57],
The study also employs PLS-SEM to establish interrela- underscore similar factors like safety, reliability, cleanliness,
tionships between strategy factors and policies, which can and frequency, highlighting the importance of these attrib-
guide future efforts to enhance public transportation ser- utes in improving metro rail service quality and ridership in
vices. It is essential for policymakers to consider service cities like Delhi and Bengaluru. These comparative insights
quality factors to attract more passengers towards public underscore the validity and relevance of our findings within
transport, thereby reducing traffic congestion and improv- the broader context of public transportation research.​These
ing urban sustainability. This research paper analyzed 16 policy recommendations can improve the overall quality of
strategy parameters using Principal Component Analy- public transportation services and promote sustainable urban
sis (PCA) and extracted 11 factors and 4 overall Policy development.
 2 Page 10 of 11 Transportation in Developing Economies (2025) 11:2

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