1.

0 INTRODUCTION

Introduction
The word Physics originates from the Greek word Physis, which means nature. Physics in raw
terms is the study of everything around us. Physics is one of the oldest subjects (unknowing)
invented by humanity. Possibly the oldest discipline in Physics could be astronomy.
Physicists try to express everyday happenings in concise mathematical formulas. These formulas
are then used by other physicists and engineers to predict results of their experiments. For
example, Isaac Newton (1642–1727) found the laws behind the motion of bodies, which we now
use to design rockets that travel to the moon and other planets.
Physicists also revise the laws of physics from time to time according to experimental results.
Isaac Newton found the laws of motion in the 17th century. These laws work at normal speeds,
but when an object's speed approaches the speed of light, these laws fails. Albert Einstein (1879–
1955) put forward the theory of relativity, which gives the same result as Newton's laws of
motion at slow speeds, but is more accurate as speeds increase towards that of light.

Physics and Other Disciplines

Physics is the foundation of many important disciplines and contributes directly to others.
Chemistry deals with the interactions of atoms and molecules, so it is rooted in atomic and
molecular physics. Most branches of engineering are applied physics. In architecture, physics is
at the heart of structural stability and is involved in acoustics, heating, lighting, and the cooling
of buildings. Parts of geology rely heavily on physics, such as the radioactive dating of rocks,
earthquake analysis, and heat transfer in the Earth. Some disciplines, such as biophysics and
geophysics, are hybrids of physics and other disciplines.

Physics in Chemistry: The study of matter and electricity in physics is fundamental towards the
understanding of concepts in chemistry, such as the covalent bond.

Physics in Medicine: Physics has many applications in the biological sciences. On the
microscopic level, it helps describe the properties of cell walls and cell membranes. On the
macroscopic level, it can explain the heat, work, and power associated with the human body.
Physics is involved in medical diagnostics, such as X-rays, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI),
and ultrasonic blood flow measurements. Medical therapy sometimes directly involves physics:
cancer radiotherapy uses ionizing radiation, for instance.

Physics can also explain sensory phenomena, such as how musical instruments make sound, how
the eye detects color, and how lasers can transmit information.

The boundary between physics and the other sciences is not always clear. For instance, chemists
study atoms and molecules, which are what matter is built from, and there are some scientists
who would be equally willing to call themselves physical chemists or chemical physicists. It
might seem that the distinction between physics and biology would be clearer, since physics
seems to deal with inanimate objects. In fact, almost all physicists would agree that the basic
laws of physics that apply to molecules in a test tube work equally well for the combination of
molecules that constitutes a bacterium. What differentiates physics from biology is that many of
the scientific theories that describe living things ultimately result from the fundamental laws of
physics, but cannot be rigorously derived from physical principles.

It is not necessary to formally study all applications of physics. What is most useful is the
knowledge of the basic laws of physics and skill in the analytical methods for applying them.
The study of physics can also improve your problem-solving skills. Furthermore, physics has
retained the most basic aspects of science, so it is used by all of the sciences. The study of
physics makes other sciences easier to understand.

Models, Theories, and Laws

The terms model, theory, and law have exact meanings in relation to their usage in the study of
physics.

Definition of Terms: Model, Theory, Law

In colloquial usage, the terms model, theory, and law are often used interchangeably or have
different interpretations than they do in the sciences. In relation to the study of physics, however,
each term has its own specific meaning.

The laws of nature are concise descriptions of the universe around us. They are not explanations,
but human statements of the underlying rules that all natural processes follow. They are intrinsic
to the universe; humans did not create them and we cannot change them. We can only discover
and understand them. The cornerstone of discovering natural laws is observation; science must
describe the universe as it is, not as we may imagine it to be. Laws can never be known with
absolute certainty, because it is impossible to perform experiments to establish and confirm a law
in every possible scenario without exception. Physicists operate under the assumption that all
scientific laws and theories are valid until a counterexample is observed. If a good-quality,
verifiable experiment contradicts a well-established law, then the law must be modified or
overthrown completely.

Models

A model is a representation of something that is often too difficult (or impossible) to display
directly. While a model‘s design is justified using
experimental information, it is only accurate under limited
situations. An example is the commonly used ―planetary
model‖ of the atom, in which electrons are pictured as orbiting
the nucleus, analogous to the way planets orbit the Sun. We
cannot observe electron orbits directly, but the mental image
helps explain the observations we can make, such as the
emission of light from hot gases. Physicists use models for a
variety of purposes. For example, models can help physicists
analyze a scenario and perform a calculation, or they can be PLANETARY MODEL OF THE ATOM
used to represent a situation in the form of a computer
simulation.

Planetary Model of an Atom: The planetary model of the atom in which electrons are pictured as
orbiting the nucleus, analogous to the way planets orbit the Sun

Theories

A theory is an explanation for patterns in nature that is supported by scientific evidence and
verified multiple times by various groups of researchers. Some theories include models to help
visualize phenomena, whereas others do not. Newton‘s theory of gravity, for example, does not
require a model or mental image, because we can observe the objects directly with our own
senses. The kinetic theory of gases, on the other hand, makes use of a model in which a gas is
viewed as being composed of atoms and molecules. Atoms and molecules are too small to be
observed directly with our senses—thus, we picture them mentally to understand what our
instruments tell us about the behavior of gases.

Laws

A law uses concise language to describe a generalized pattern in nature that is supported by
scientific evidence and repeated experiments. Often, a law can be expressed in the form of a
single mathematical equation. Laws and theories are similar in that they are both scientific
statements that result from a tested hypothesis and are supported by scientific evidence.
However, the designation law is reserved for a concise and very general statement that describes
phenomena in nature, such as the law that energy is conserved during any process, or Newton‘s
second law of motion, which relates force, mass, and acceleration by the simple equation F=ma.
A theory, in contrast, is a less concise statement of observed phenomena. For example, the
Theory of Evolution and the Theory of Relativity cannot be expressed concisely enough to be
considered a law. The biggest difference between a law and a theory is that a law is much more
complex and dynamic, and a theory is more explanatory. A law describes a single observable
point of fact, whereas a theory explains an entire group of related phenomena. And, whereas a
law is a postulate that forms the foundation of the scientific method, a theory is the end result of
that process.

Key Points
 Physics is a natural science that involves the study of matter and its motion through space
and time, along with related concepts such as energy and force.
 Matter is generally considered to be anything that has mass and volume.
 Scientific laws and theories express the general truths of nature and the body of
knowledge they encompass. These laws of nature are rules that all natural processes
appear to follow.
 Many scientific disciplines, such as biophysics, are hybrids of physics and other sciences.
 The study of physics encompasses all forms of matter and its motion in space and time.
 The application of physics is fundamental towards significant contributions in new
technologies that arise from theoretical breakthroughs.
  Concepts in physics cannot be proven, they can only be supported or disproven through
observation and experimentation.
 A model is an evidence-based representation of something that is either too difficult or
impossible to display directly.
 A theory is an explanation for patterns in nature that is supported by scientific evidence
and verified multiple times by various groups of researchers.
 A law uses concise language, often expressed as a mathematical equation, to describe a
generalized pattern in nature that is supported by scientific evidence and repeated
experiments.

Key Terms
 matter: The basic structural component of the universe. Matter usually has mass and
volume.
 scientific method: A method of discovering knowledge about the natural world based in
making falsifiable predictions (hypotheses), testing them empirically, and developing
peer-reviewed theories that best explain the known data.
 application: the act of putting something into operation
 Model: A representation of something difficult or impossible to display directly
 Law: A concise description, usually in the form of a mathematical equation, used to
describe a pattern in nature
 theory: An explanation for patterns in nature that is supported by scientific evidence and
verified multiple times by various groups of researchers

1.1 MEASUREMENT

Measurement is a process by which we can weigh or measure any physical quantity of material
using equipment and instruments. Measurements of physics quantity can be expressed by a unit
known as numerical. By measuring a physics quantity, we can define the property of the
material. We can measure mass, weight, and different physical properties like distance, speed,
mass, pressure, force, momentum, and energy.

Definition

Measurement is the determination of the size or magnitude of something. By comparing that

unknown quantity with some standard quantity of equal nature, known as measurement unit.
Measurement can also be defined as "Comparison of an unknown quantity with some known
quantity of the same kind". In short, measurement, which is a fundamental tool of science, is
knowing the unknown from the known

When we measure with the help of a formula, it is called indirect measurements.

Physical Quantities

Every day, we deal with measurements. When we buy vegetables, we ask the vendor to measure
the vegetables and pay accordingly. For example, 3kgs cucumber and 500gm coriander; these
numbers are associated with measurement. These quantities are known as physical quantities.

A physical quantity is a property of a material that can be measured. Anything that can be
measured in this physical world is called physical quantity. Suppose we calculate the length of a
table, where the length is a physical quantity. The mass of any object can be measured, where
mass is the physical quantity. There are many physical quantities in this world.

All the physical quantities have two factors, a numerical and a unit, through which we can
express the measurement. We study an immense number of phenomena and objects in physics.
These can range from the tiny diameter of the atomic nucleus to the universe. The numerical
provides much more understanding of physical quantity.

Since physical quantities can be a minute or extremely large, the unit plays a significant role
while writing the expression of the given measurements. Although there are many units, the
International System of Units or the SI system was developed to prevent confusion. It would
have been tough to measure if an internationally accepted system were absent. For example,
measuring the room‘s length can be expressed in metres, centimetres, and feet. These units can
be converted into each other, and thus, without such a well-defined system, it could be difficult
to express the quantity.

Two Forms of Fundamental Quantities

 The physical quantity independent of any other physical quantity is called fundamental
quantity. The fundamental quantity (length, mass, time, temperature, etc.) is also known as
the BASE QUANTITY.

 The physical quantity dependent of any other physical quantity is called DERIVED
QUANTITY. The derived quantity (Force, Velocity, Acceleration, etc.) are derived from
other physical quantities.
 TABLE 1.1: SOME BASIC PHYSICAL QUANTITIES

Quantity Description English System Metric System

Length The one-dimensional Inches (in), Foot (ft), Meter: centimeter (cm),
extent of an object. Mile (mi), and Yard kilometer (km), millimeter
(yd) (mm), etc.

Mass The amount of matter in Pound (lb), tons, Once Gram: centigram (cg),
an object. (oz), etc kilogram (kg), milligram
(mg), etc.

Time The duration of an event. Second, Minute, Hour, Second, Minute, Hour, Day,
Day, etc. etc.

Area The two-dimensional in2, ft2,, mi2, and yd2 m2,cm2,km2,mm2, etc.
extent of an object.

Volume The three-dimensional in3, ft3,, mi3, and yd3 m3,cm3,km3,mm3, etc.
(SOLID) extent of an object.

Volume Conforms to the shape of Gallon, Quatz (qz), Liter: centiliter (cl), kiloliter
(LIQUID) its container (kl), milliliter (ml), etc

1.2 SYSTEM OF MEASUREMENT

There are two systems of measurement; English System and the Metric System

The English System of measurement is a collection of measures for length, volume, weight, area,
etc. that have their roots in hundreds of years of history. They were standardized somewhat by
the British Weights and Measure Act of 1824, which defined the Imperial Units to be used
throughout the British Empire.

The Metric System is an international agreed decimal system of measurement created in France
in 1799. The International System of Units (SI), the official system of measurement in almost
every country in the world, is based upon the Metric System.

In the metric system, each basic types of measurement (length, weight, capacity) have one basic
unit of measure of measure (meter, gram, volume).
The SI (International System) system of units is a modern form of the metric system. All of the
SI units and standards are agreed upon and understood by scientists all over the world. In the SI
system, prefixes are used to make the base units larger or smaller by multiples of ten.

In the SI, designations of multiples and subdivision of any unit may be arrived at by combining
with the name of the unit the prefixes deka, hecto, and kilo meaning, respectively, 10, 100, and
1000, and deci, centi, and milli, meaning, respectively, one-tenth, one-hundredth, and one-
thousandth. In certain cases, particularly in scientific usage, it becomes convenient to provide for
multiples larger than 1000 and for subdivisions smaller than one-thousandth. The following table
of 24 SI prefixes ranging from 1030 to 10-30 are currently recognized for use.

TABLE 1.2: PREFIXES

Purpose Name Symbol Factor Name
Quetta Q 1030 Nonillion
Ronna R 1027 Octillion
larger quantities Yotta Y 1024 Septillion
or whole units
Zetta Z 1021 Sextillion
Exa E 1018 Quintillion
Peta P 1015 Quadrillion
tera T 1012 Trillion
Example: terahertz
giga G 109 Billion
Example: gigawatt
Mega M 106 Million
kilo k 103 Thousand
Example: kiloliter
hecto h 102 Hundred
Example: hectare
deka da 101 Ten
Example: dekameter
100 One
smaller quantities deci d 10-1 Tenth
or sub units Example: decimeter
centi c 10-2 Hundredth
Example: centimeter
milli m 10-3 Thousandth
Example: millimeter
micro μ 10-6 Millionth
Example: microgram
nano n 10-9 Billionth
Example: nanometer
pico p 10-12 trillionth
Example: picogam
 Purpose Name Symbol Factor Name
femto f 10-15 quadrillionth
Example: femtosecond
Atto a 10-18 quintillionth
zepto z 10-21 sextillionth
Example: zeptosecond
yocto y 10-24 septillionth
Example:yoctosecond
Ronto r 10-27 octillionth
Quecto q 10-30 nonillionth
Scroll
The simplified table below shows common metric prefixes and the relationship with their place
values.

TABLE 1.3: SIMPLIFIED TABLE

Whole Units Decimal Units
thousands Hundreds tens SI unit* tenths hundredths thousandths
1000 100 10 1 0.1 0.01 0.001
kilo- hecto- deka- Meter; gram; liter deci- centi- milli
Scroll
1.3 CONVERSIONS

Unit conversion is a multi-step process that involves multiplication or division by a numerical

factor, selection of the correct number of significant digits, and rounding

TABLE 1.4: CONVERSION TABLE

LENGTH Mass Volume Time

1 in = 2.54 cm 1 g = 0.0022 lb 1 L = 1.0567 quart (US) 60 sec = 1 min

1 m = 39.37 in 1 kg = 2.21 lb 1 L = 0.2642 gallon (US) 60 min = 1 hr
1 m = 1.049 yd 1 once (oz) = 2835 g 1 quart (qz) = 946 Ml 24 hr = 1 day
1 cm = 0.3937 in 1 ton = 907.2 kg 1 m3 = 106 cm3 7 days = 1 week
1 km = 0.6214 mi 1 ton = 2000 lb 1 m3 = 35.31 ft3 12 months = 1 year
1 km = 3281 ft 1 ton = 62.16ton 1 cm3 = 0.001 L 365 ¼ days = 1 year
1 mi = 1609 m 100 cg = 1 g 1 L = 61.02 in3
1 mi = 63360 in 1000 g = 1 kg 1 L = 0.001 m3
1 mi = 5280 ft 1000 mg = 1 g 1 L = 0.001 m3
100 cm = 1 m 1 dg = 10 cg 1 dL = 10 cL
1000 m = 1 km 1000 mL = 1 L
1000 mm = 1 m 1000 L = 1 kL
12 in = 1 ft
3 ft = 1 yd
Dimensional analysis is a technique used to convert measurements. For example, changing the
magnitude of a SI quantity or converting between SI and non-SI units. Some measurements have
one dimension, for example length. A square shape (area) has two dimensions (e.g., length and
width), while a cube (volume) has three dimensions (e.g., length, width, and height). Converting
between measurement units is a very important skill when working within and between
measurement systems.

Solved Examples
Problem 1.1: Convert the following (a) 3 ft to in; (b) 20 yd3 to mi3; (c) 27 m/s to ft/hr;
(d) 80g/ml to cg/in3

SOLUTIONS
(a) 3 ft to in

( )

(b) 20 yd3 to mi3

(c) 27 m/s to ft/hr

( ) ( )( )( )( )

(d) 80g/ml to cg/in3

( )( )( )( )

1.4 DENSITY
Density is a measurement that compares the amount of matter an object has to its volume. An
object with much matter in a certain volume has a high density. In this article, we will learn
about the definition of density and the units of density.
Definition

The density of material shows the denseness of that material in a specific given area. A material‘s
density is defined as its mass per unit volume. Density is essentially a measurement of how
tightly matter is packed together. It is a unique physical property of a particular object. The
principle of density was discovered by the Greek scientist Archimedes. It is easy to calculate
density if you know the formula and understand the related units The symbol ρ represents density
or it can also be represented by the letter D.

Density Examples

Iron, platinum, and lead are examples of dense materials. Many types of rock and minerals are
examples of dense material. Materials that are dense are most likely to ‗feel‘ heavy or hard. The
opposite of dense is sparse and a few examples of sparse material are glass, bamboo, aluminium,
and styrofoam.

In general, liquids are less dense than solids and gases are less dense than liquids. This is due to
the fact that solids have densely packed particles, liquids are materials where particles can slide
around one another, and gases have particles that are free to move all over the place.

How to Density Calculated

Mathematically, the density of an object is expressed as follows:

where ρ is the density, m is the mass, and V is the volume.

Applications of Density in Real Life

Many applications of density are there in our real-life, life a few examples are in pipe design,
shipbuilding, helium balloons, weight distribution in the aeroplane, and the fact that ice floats on
water.

 The knowledge of the densities of two substances helps you in separation techniques. For
example, the separation of oil from water. If there is a leakage of an oil tank in the ocean
then oil drops start to float on the water due to less density than the water.
Another well-known application of density is determining whether an object will float on water
or not. The floating of ships and diving of submarines are due to their density difference
1.5: FACTORS AFFECTING DENSITY

Density is a measure of how much mass is in a given volume. Factors that affect density
include:
 Temperature: As temperature increases, molecules move faster and spread out, increasing
the volume and decreasing the density.
𝐾𝑔
For example, at normal atmospheric pressure air at 0°C has a density of 3 . But at
𝐾𝑔
10°C, the density of air is 3 , which is slightly less.

 Pressure: As pressure increases, volume decreases, increasing the density.

𝐾𝑔 𝑔
For example, the density of air is 3 or . However, when confined in
𝑐 3
a balloon, the density can be much greater.

 State of matter: Changes in temperature can cause a substance to change state, which also
changes its density. Generally, solids are denser than liquids while liquids are denser than
gases.
There are a few exceptions to this rule. For example, solid water is less dense than cold
liquid water and as a result, ice floats above liquid water in cold seas.

 Compression: When a substance is compressed, its volume decreases, increasing its

density.

 Expansion: When a substance expands, its volume increases, decreasing its density.

 Mass: The mass of a substance affects its density.

 Size: The size of a substance's molecules affects its density.

 Arrangement: The arrangement of a substance's molecules affects its density.

 Purity: The purity of a substance affects its density. For example, saline water is denser
than pure water because it contains salt.
TABLE 1.5: The below table shows the densities of some common substances

SOLID LIQUID GAS

No Substance 𝐾𝑔 Substance 𝐾𝑔 Substance 𝐾𝑔
Density( 3 ) Density ( 3 ) Density ( 3 )
.
1 Butter 900 Water 1,000 Air 1.30
2 Ice 920 Gasoline 800 Hydrogen 0.09
3 Sand (dry) 1,600 Olive Oil 900 Helium 0.18
4 Concrete 2,400 Milk 1,030 Methane 0.72
5 Aluminum 2,700 Sea Water 1,030 Nitrogen 1.25
6 Steel 7,800 Glycerin 1,260 Oxygen 1.43
7 Copper 8,900 Dead Sea 1,800 Carbon dioxide 1.98
8 Lead 11,300

Solved Examples
Problems 1.2: (a) Calculate the density of a block whose mass is 20 Kg and volume of 80 mL
𝑔
(b) What will be the mass of a substance whose volume is 93 m3 ? (Density is 0.33 3 ); (c) A book
𝑔
mass is 34 g and density of . Calculate its volume
𝐿

(a) Soln (b) Soln (c) Soln

Data Data Data
D =? m =? m = 34 g
g
m = 20 kg v = 93 m3 D
v = 78 ml g L
D V =?
m Kg m m g
D g V
V mL m DxV x m D g
m L
𝐊𝐠 𝐃 𝟑𝟎 𝟔𝟗 𝐠
𝐃 𝟎 𝟐𝟓
𝐦𝐋 𝐃 𝟏𝟑 𝟔 𝐋

Problems 1.3: Calculate the mass of a gold sphere (density is 19.3 g/cm3) (a) of radius 2.00 cm
and (b) of diameter 2.00 cm.

𝑣 𝜋

Thinking 1: Why the density of ice is less than water?

 MORE PRACTICE WORK

Solve each of the problems below. Show all work, including writing (and rewriting) the density
formula and plugging in the numbers appropriately. Your answers should include units.

1. What is the density of on object with a mass of 120 g and a volume of 7mL?

2. What is the volume of 220 g of an object with a density of 55 g/cm3?

3. We have an object with a density of 620 g/cm and a volume of 75cm . What is the mass
of this object?
4. What would be the mass of #3 in kilograms?
5. A block of wood has a mass of 180 g. It is 10.0 cm long, 6.0 cm wide, and 4.0 cm thick.
What is its volume and density?
6. A 500 g piece of metal has a volume of 2.75 cm . What is its density?
7. Find the volume of 20.0 g of benzene. Density of benzene is 0.88 g/mL
8. Find the mass of either which can be put into a beaker holding 130 mL.
9. Find the volume of 10 g of gasoline.
10. A cube measures 3.0 cm on each side and has a mass of 25 g. What is the density of the
cube?
11. Will the cube in #10 float in water? Will it float in benzene?
12. An irregularly shaped stone was lowered into a graduated cylinder holding a volume of
water equal to 20.0 mL. The height of the water rose to 30.2 mL. If the mass of the stone
was 25.0 g, what was its density?
13. A solid object listed below has a volume of 10.0 cm . It has a mass of 86 g. What is its
density?