The Sport Psychologist, 1995,9,265-281

O 1995 Human Kinetics Publishers, Inc.

Participation Motivation
in Italian Youth Sport

Roberto Buonamano, Alberto Cei Antonio Mussino

Scuola dello Sport, Rome La Sapienza University
An important issue facing youth sport researchers is understanding why
youth participate in sport programs. Most participation motivation studies
have been camed out in the United States and in Anglophone countries such
as the United Kingdom, Canada, and Australia. These studies have identified
a fairly consistent set of motivational factors for participation. Starting from
this premise, descriptive research on youth participation motivation is re-
ported to verify if, in a Latin country with a sport culture different from
Anglophone countries, the same set of motivational factors could be identi-
fied. Young athletes (N = 2,598, aged 9-18 years), involved in different
sports, completed the modified Italian version of the Participation Motivation
Questionnaire (Gill, Gross, & Huddleston, 1983). Factor analyses showed a
set of motivational factors fairly consistent with the research conducted in
Anglophone countries. Differences were found among participants in relation
to gender, age, sport, parents' educational level, and geographical area.

Since the early 1980s the descriptive study of youth sport motivation has
been prominent in sport psychology. Most research stemmed from Gill, Gross,
and Huddleston's work in 1983. Prior to this study, information on participation
motivation was limited, and the topic was explored using various approaches
and different instruments (e.g., Martens, 1970; Sonstroem, 1974; Youngblood &
Suinn, 1980). For these reasons, therefore, comparison of results across these
studies was difficult. However, the main merit of Gill et al.'s work has been to
develop a standard measure of participation motivation in youth sport that has
been used extensively in subsequent research.
Gill et al. (1983) examined the participation motives of 720 boys and 418
girls attending University of Iowa Summer Sport Schools in baseball, basketball,
golf, gymnastics, football, wrestling, tennis, track and field, soccer, or cheerlead-
ing. Factor analysis revealed no gender differences and the following basic
participation motive dimensions: success/status, team atmosphere, friendship,
fitness, energy release, skill development, and fun.

Roberto Buonamano and Alberto Cei are with the Scuola dello Sport, Italian
Olympic Committee, Via dei Campi Sportivi 48, 00197 Roma, Italy. Antonio Mussino
is with La Sapienza University, Department of Statistics, Piazzale A. Noro, Roma, Italy.
266 Buonamano, Cei, and Mussino

The Participation Motivation Questionnaire has permitted a relatively ho-

mogeneous comparison among the results of different studies (e.g., Brodkin &
Weiss, 1990; CNZ & Viana, 1989; Gould, Feltz, & Weiss, 1985; Klint & Weiss,
1986, 1987; Lazaro, Villamarin, & Limonero, 1993 ). These data have shown
the presence of a fairly consistent set of motivational factors associated with the
sport involvement of children and youth. The factors are skill development,
friendship, team aspects, achievement/status, fitness, excitement, and release of
energy (Klint & Weiss, 1987; Passer, 1981). These factors, however, do not
emerge in all studies. For example, some investigations have found eight motiva-
tional factors (Gill et al., 1983), whereas others have found seven (Gould et al.,
1985; Klint & Weiss, 1986, 1987), and these are not always consistent.
The research that has been conducted has mostly been on North American
youth and on English-speaking people in Great Britain (White & Coakley, 1986),
Canada (Wankel & Kreisel, 1985), and Australia (Longhurst & Spink, 1987).
Some investigationshave been carried out in non-Anglophone European countries
(e.g., Cruz & Viana, 1989;Lazaro et al., 1993),including Israel (Geron, Mashiach,
Dunkelman, Raviv, & Levin, 1982; Weingarten, Furst, Tenenbaum, & Schaefer,
1984; for a review on this topic see Cei, 1994). The first purpose of this study,
therefore, is to provide descriptive data on Italian youth sport motivation by
selecting a large sample representing all regions of the country.
Furthermore, most of the research so far has only investigated the psycho-
logical aspects determining sport involvement without relating these aspects to
sociocultural factors such as parents' educational levels or geographical residen-
tial area. Duda and Allison (1990) reported that participants from varied ethnic
backgrounds perceive goal accomplishment differently. To date, no research
has studied the relationship between motives determining sport practice and
sociocultural background in youngsters of the same racial group.
The aims of this study, therefore, are (a) to see if the motive characteristics
confirm the factorial structure found in the North American and Anglophone
literature, and (b) to study motives across different sociocultural contexts, such
as geographical region and parents' educational level.

Method
Sample
Members of the Research Department of the Italian Olympic Committee's Sport
School contacted regional organizations to reach young athletes from all over
Italy. Boys and girls between 9 and 18 years of age were randomly selected and
were representative of national "major" sports practiced in Italy, including
basketball, gymnastics, judo, track and field athletics, soccer, swimming, tennis,
volleyball, weight lifting, and wrestling. Some national "minor" sports were
also chosen to reflect regional opportunities.
After a quality control on data congruity, with particular attention to the
motivational test, 2,589 questionnaires were processed. Participants who com-
pleted the inventory were distributed representatively over the country: 44% in
the north, 20% in the center, and 36% in the south and islands, according to the
national population distribution. The sample comprised 54.5% males and 45.5%
 Participation Motivation 267

females, with a homogeneous distribution in the three geographical areas. Partici-

pants were also divided into three age classes according to school attended:
elementary school, up to 11 years (23.4%); secondary school, 12-14 years
(40.4%); high school, older than 14 years (36.2%). In this case, too, there were
no significant geographical differences in the sample distribution.
However, a difference was found in gender distribution in age classes. In
fact, among the youngest there is a slight supremacy of girls (50.2%), but the
male proportion increases up to 54.3% (12-14 years) and reaches 57.8% at 14
years and above. This result confirms the fact that in Italy (Mussino, 1991; Rossi
Mori, 1987), around the age of 10, the recruiting involves boys and girls equally,
but the dropout risk for females increases with age. Sport and gender distribution
confirms the substantial representativeness of the sample.
"Minor" sports-that is, sports that have a restricted number of participants
in Italy-were placed into two categories: "other individual sports" and "other
team sports." The distribution of the athletes in terms of how long they have
been practicing sport was also noted. In this research we had those starting sport
before the age of 6 years (24.5%), between 6 and 7 (36.8%), between 8 and 10
(28.8%), and after 10 years (9.9%).
In terms of how long the children have been practicing sport, the sample
included athletes with more than 6 years of experience (45.9%),those with more
than 2 and less than 6 years (44.3%), and beginners (9.8%), those with less than
2 years of experience. During their sporting life, many athletes change sports.
The changes between sports are significant, considering that 62% of the whole
sample changed at least once.

Procedures and Instrumentation

Two measures of participation motivation were used. One was a version of the
Participation Motivation Questionnaire (Gill et al., 1983) modified by Klint and
Weiss (1987). Responses to each of the 32 items were given on a 7-point scale
ranging from 1 (not at all important) to 7 (extremely important). The translation
of the questionnaire was made following the method of two independent transla-
tions by two experts in sport psychology. Furthermore, the comprehension of
the items was tested (a) through a pilot work, administering the questionnaire to
boys and girls (N = 45; age 9-14) who practiced sport regularly, and (b) by four
experts (coaches and researchers) in youth sport who revised some items.
The first aim of the research was to evaluate motives toward sport of Italian
youth through the Participation Motivation Questionnaire (Gill et al., 1983).
However, a standardized inventory is a closed instrument and does not always
show the differences and peculiarities of the respondents. Consequently, the
second measure of sport participation motivation was used consisting of specific
questions about the most important reasons associated with why children start
and practice sport and why they drop out of a specific sport discipline for another
one. Therefore the answers were left open to allow the children and youth to
best express their motives. Furthermore, personal information (age, gender, place
of residence), educational level of parents, and composition of their family
were requested.
268 Buonamano, Cei, and Mussino

Results
An Open-Ended Approach t o Motives
The answers to the open questions about participation motivation were reclassed
in macro-categories. In particular, the main motives were as follows:
1. Enjoyment (49.2%): Need for fun, to play and to experience a pleasant
time
2. Physical motives (32.0%): To be in good health, to get stronger and "in
shape"
3. Social reasons (8.9%): To be with friends, to meet new friends, and self-
realization through the others
4. Competitive motives (4.2%): To compete with oneself and with others
5. Skill motives (2.9%): To learn new skills, to improve the skills
6. Social visibility (2.8%): To achieve social status, to get money and to be
popular with others

No gender differences were found. In relation to age, fun was more important
for the youngest (56.1%) than for the other age groups and physical motives for
the oldest group. The relevance of the competitive motives increased with age
(older than 14 years = 7.1%, 12-14 years = 3.1%, and up to 11 years = 1.9%).
Regarding the movement from one sport to another, 38% of the youngsters
practiced the same sport since the beginning of their activity, whereas 62% of
the participants changed sport discipline. The main reasons to explain this change
were the following:
1. Excitement motives (45.0%): The training was boring, not fun or enjoyable
2. Session motives (29.2%): Technical difficulties, fatigue, too much or poor
competitiveness
3. Environmental motives (20.6%): Logistic difficulties, poor structures, ex-
cessive costs, health, school
4. Interpersonal motives (5.2%): Relation with coaches, friends and parents

Factor Analyses
To achieve a first comparison with the literature, factor analysis with varimax
rotation was performed for the whole sample, as well as separately for males,
females, and the three age groups. The analysis of the combined sample showed
six factors (see Table I), which were labeled success/status,fitness/skill, extrinsic
rewards, team, friendshipifun, and energy release.
As far as gender differences were concerned, males did not differ from the
whole sample. However, the factor structure for females showed some differences
from males. Six factors were identified from the factor analysis performed for
girls, and one main difference is evident. The reasons regarding skills are divided
into two factors: fitness (as in the male group) and extrinsic rewards. Girls seem
to perceive more relevance than boys for social recognition of learning new
skills. The six identified factors for girls are shown in Table 2 and were labeled
success/status, extrinsic rewardsJskil1, fitnessiskill, team, friendshipifun, and
energy release.
 Participation Motivation a 269

Table 1 Factor Analysis (Varimax Rotation) Results for the Whole Sample

Factors
Item 1 2 3 4 5 6

SuccesslStatus
21. To be important
25. To be popular
23. To compete at higher level
3. To win
28. Others to notice me
14. To receive ribbons and trophies
26. The challenge
20. To compete
12. To do something I'm good at
FitnesslSkill
24. To stay in shape
32. To be physically active
6. To get in shape
1. To improve my skills
15. To exercise
10. To learn new skills
Extrinsic rewards
9. Parents want me to participate
31. Best friends want me to participate
30. To use the equipment
27. Like the coach
Team
18. Like the team spirit
8. Like the team work
22. Like being on a team
FriendshiplFun
2. To be with my friends
29. To have fun
11. To meet new friends
19. To get out of the house
5. To travel
Energy release
13. To release frustrations
4. To get rid of energy
16. To have something to do
17. The action
Eigenvalue
% variance
270 Buonamano, Cei,and Mussino

Table 2 Factor Analysis (Varimax Rotation) Results for Girls Only

Factors
Item 1 2 3 4 5 6

SuccesslStatus
21. To be important
25. To be popular
23. To compete at higher level
3. To win
28. Others to notice me
14. To receive ribbons and trophies
26. The challenge
20. To compete
Extrinsic rewardslSkill
9. Parents want me to participate
31. Best friends want me to participate
30. To use the equipment
27. Like the coach
10. To learn new skills
12. To do something I'm good at
FitnesslSkill
32. To be physically active
24. To stay in shape
6. To get in shape
15. To exercise
1. To improve my skills
Team
18. Like the team spirit
8. Like the team work
22. Like being on a team
FriendshiplFun
2. To be with my friends
29. To have fun
11. To meet new friends
19. To get out of the house
5. To travel
Energy release
4. To get rid of energy
13. To release frustrations
17. The action
Eigenvalue
% variance
 Participation Motivation 271

Supplemmta y Variables
In the field of factor analysis, statisticians mostly debate axis rotation, because
this method permits a clearer relationship between items and factors. Another
way of exploring the data follows the strategy of "Analyse des donnkes" (e.g.,
Lebart, Morineau, & Tabard, 1978), considering a principal component analysis
with the items as "active" variables and structural information as supplementary
so that it is possible to study categorical variables and the items jointly. Therefore,
restarting from the nonrotated factor axes, the correlations of all items with the
first factor are positive, representing a "size" factor clearly showing different
attitudes toward the scales (see Table 3). The higher scores show enthusiasm
toward sport, and lower scores underline either a critical feeling toward sport or
a better discrimination capacity. This result should not be used to strengthen
polarity on specific factors, because this analysis is done in the literature and in
our study for sake of comparison.
Regarding this nonrotated first factor, one can see that boys show positive
mean scores and girls show negative ones (see Table 4), particularly the young-
sters. Highly meaningful score differences are found between young children
living in Southern Italy (South and Islands) and children living in the North,
between children whose parents have attained medium-to-low educational level
and children with parents with university education; between children who have
brothers or sisters and children who are an only child. A stronger motivation to
achieve success and receive more status recognition through sport is associated
with younger children with greater socioeconomic difficulties.
The second factor shows the success/status polarity (positive pole) con-
trasted with the team polarity (negative pole), and is more related to the socializa-
tion dimension than to competitiveness. In this way, this factor seems to
discriminate between more success-oriented youngsters who want to achieve
status and those more motivated to be part of a group, to stay and work with
friends, and to meet new friends.
The average scores of the different subgroups are significantly different.
Males and young children living in southern Italy are closer to the first positive
pole; on the other hand, females and young children living in northern Italy are
more attracted to the negative pole. Mean scores are different with regard to the
sport discipline too. Those who report sport motives of wanting to achieve
success/status rather than socialization motives practice mainly tennis, wrestling,
judo, other fighting sports, and "other individual sports."
The flows among the sports showed a greater mobility among young
children more motivated toward social relationships; therefore, gymnastics, swim-
ming and tennis have been dropped by the athletes with a higher need for
socialization. Among team sports, soccer is the only one dropped by athletes in
which social motives are more important. This may happen because soccer in
Italy is the main sport and competition to achieve success is very strong.
The third factor shows the dichotomy between fitnesslenergy release (nega-
tive pole) and affiliation (positive pole); the first pole is represented by the
following items: "I want to stay in shape," "I want to be physically fit," "I
want to be physically active," "I like to get exercise," "I want to release
energy," and "I want to release tension." The other pole is similar to that
described by the second factor, also adding the items "I like the coach" and
272 Buonamano, Cei, and Mussino

Table 3 Nonrotated Factor Analysis for the Whole Sample

Factors
Items 1 2 3 4 5

14. To receive ribbons and trophies

30. To use the equipment
12. To do something I'm good at
21. To be important
25. To be popular
23. To compete at higher level
26. The challenge
17. The action
3. To win
7. The excitement
28. Others to notice me
5. To travel
24. To stay in shape
22. Like being on a team
20. To compete
9. Parents want me to participate
19. To get out of the house
10. To learn new skills
31. Best friends want me to participate
6. To get in shape
1. To improve my skills
16. To have something to do
27. Like the coach
11. To meet new friends
29. To have fun
15. To exercise
4. To get rid of energy
18. Like the team spirit
8. Like the team work
32. To be physically active
2. To be with my friends
13. To release frustrations

"My parents want me to play." There is no gender difference although the main
discriminating role is played by age, with younger children being more oriented
toward affiliation.
The practiced sport is an important discriminating variable between these
two polarities as all the average scores are positive in team sports (basketball,
soccer, volleyball, and "other team sports") and negative in the other sports.
This is the case where no sport change takes place in athletes satisfied by their
affiliation level, whereas those who change sport are the ones looking for fitness.
 Participation Motivation 273

The fourth factor sets competence (negative pole), the need to learn and
improve skills both during competition and in team work, against the need for
fun (positive pole), as seen by the simple wish to have fun and excitement, to
release energy and tension, to get out of the house, to travel, and to meet old
and new friends. This opposition strongly depends on age and is the second pole
significantly related to athletes aged 15-18. No gender difference was found.
The fifth factor points out two polarities strictly linked to specific reinforce-
ments necessary for young children according to the sport they practice. Actually,
the negative pole is represented by the need to compete, to challenge, and to
win (Competitiveness/Team). Motives connected with the positive pole are the
general extrinsic reinforcements we have already discussed concerning parents,
friends, coach, and sport equipment.
It is evident that the first aspect is related to all team sports (particularly
basketball, volleyball, and soccer), to the youngest athletes and to males, whereas
girls reported the need for more extrinsic reinforcements.

A Graphical Approach to the Results

Relationships pointed out by studying each nornotated factor can be more easily
read if they are represented on 2 x 2 factorial planes. In this way, possible
"nonlinear" relationships can be seen. As an example of the analysis performed
with this new strategy, two graphs are presented where the items of the question-
naire and the categories of the supplementary variables are plotted. They represent
the planes defined by second and third and third and fourth factorial axes described
above. Item numbers are given in Tables 1-3.
The first graph (Figure 1) shows a nonlinear run of these relations that
depicts four interesting aggregation poles. Items on the top left describe affiliation
team motives (Items 2, 8, 11, 18, and 22). These items contrast with the items
on the top right showing the desire to achieve social status and success (Items
3, 14, 21, 25, and 28) and with the items on the bottom left, indicating physical
motives (Items 6, 15, 24, and 32).
Around the axis center are points describing items not correlated with the
two axes, and they mostly represent enjoyment reasons and competition aspects
(Items 5,7, 17, 19,29, and 30). Points representing answers to the open question
about main motives to practice a sport (except for answers concerning "skill")
are well situated in the plane, and have been placed close to the items representing
the above-listed motives. The attraction toward the practiced sport is also very
strong: basketball, volleyball, and soccer are on the top left, surrounding the
socialization/team area. However, tennis, wrestling, weight lifting, judo, "other
individual sports," and track and field are situated on the opposite side of the
plane, more related to fitness, success/status, and competition motives.
In the horizontal axis, gender differences are stressed: males look for
success/status whereas females mostly need socialization/team. In addition, age
discriminates on the vertical axis such that younger children choose socialization/
team and extrinsic reinforcements, and older participants are more oriented to-
wards fitness.
In Figure 2, items representing the success/status dimension flatten near
by the gravity center. The dichotomy of fitness versus socialization/team (extrinsic
reinforcements are included in this last polarity) is found out on the third factor
 N
Table 4 Coordinates and Test Values of the Supplementary Variable Modalities on the Five Factorial Axes for the Whole Sample 2
m
Coordinates Test values o
h
Variables N 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
3

Family
Parents + sonldaughter
Parents + more sonsldaughters
1 parent + sonldaughter
1 parent + more sonsldaughters
Gender
Males
Females
Sport practiced
Track and field
Basketball
Soccer
Gymnastics
Judo/wrestling/karate
Swimming
Volleyball
Tennis
Other individual sports
Other team sports
Previous sport practiced
Track and field
Basketball
Soccer
Gymnastics
Judo/wrestling/karate
Swimming
Volleyball
Tennis
Other individual sports
Other team sports
NO-sports
Motives to drop out previous sport practiced
External reasons
Personal reasons
Sport technical reasons
Generic reasons
Father study title
Elementary school
Graduate school
College
University
Mother study title
Elementary school
Graduate school
College
University
Geographic area
North
Center
South/islands
276 Buonamano, Cei, and Mussino

AXE 2 ' AXE 3

I
18
118
Age1
.30 r I22 I31

Soccer I9

I11 I2 I27

128
.IS Volley

114

'I
121
125
I19 Center South I3
I7

.oo .--------------------------------------.-----------
......................................
Female Gymn
112
I 2 0 Swim
mle
I23
I 26

I29 North
I10

I17
I16
-.IS t

I1 hack

113

I4

-.I0 +
Judo
I15 Age3

-.65 +

-.68 3 2
I6
------+----------.---------132-------124--.----.----------.----------.----------.----------.---------.
-.I2 .00 .12 .24 .36 .dB
""'1 .60
A x 2

Figure 1 -Factorial plane concerning second and third factor axes for the whole
sample.

now represented on the horizontal axis while before it was on the vertical one.
Finally, a dichotomy between fun and skill is shown on the vertical axis
(fourth factor).
It is interesting to note that fun, at the top of Figure 2, is characterized by
two items concerning physical aspects (Items 2 and 19) on the top right toward
the fitness pole and two other items that are socialization/team oriented (Items
4 and 13). On the other side, at the bottom center, competence, skill, physical
exercise, and competition are the main dimensions of the opposite pole, moving
toward the left when concerning physical aspects and toward the right when
concerning extrinsic reinforcements and team.
 Participation Motivation 277

Figure 2 -Factorial plane concerning third and fourth factor axes for the whole
sample.

By observing points reproduced in Figure 2, one notices that even in this

case there is similarity to the answers from the open question about motivation.
It is also interesting to stress the presence of gymnasts, wrestlers, judoists, and
weight lifters in the skill and fitness areas. But the most characteristic variables
in these relations are concerned with age, whose modalities are located from top
left (oldest, Age3) to bottom right (youngest, Agel) and so on.

Attitudes Toward Sports: The Typologies

Further analysis, using nonhierarchic cluster analysis procedure applied to the
factor scores (SEMIS procedure of SPAD.N, Systkme Portable pour 1'Analyse
278 Buonamano, Cei, and Mussino

des DonnCes; Lebart, 1987), allowed results to be seen in terms of five typologies
of motives toward sport:

1. Enthusiasts: They believe that sport leads to success and fame, but their
approach to sports is very uncritical. In fact, they do not distinguish among
different motives, responding to the items always at the positive extreme.
They also belong to large families, with a medium-to-low educational level,
living in the south of Italy.
2. Looking for socialization: Most of these children practice team sports,
belong to families living in the north-central region of Italy, and have
medium-to-high educational level. It is a feature mainly represented by
athletes dropping out of swimming.
3. Competitors: They consider competitiveness and winning as a means of
self-realization. Achieving social status is not one of their main aims. This
is a transversal group, independent from any structural variables.
4. Individualists: These youngsters do not care to socialize. Through sport
they try to satisfy their need for improving their shape, gaining skill, and
releasing energy.
5. Noncompetitors: They answered negatively to the questionnaire, even
though they showed the need to receive extrinsic reinforcers either directly
(girls) or through the team (boys). They are more likely to live in northern
Italy and belong to medium-to-high educational level families.

Discussion
The results carried out with rotated factor analysis confirm the set of motivational
factors consistent with previous investigations. For the whole group and for male
samples, the rotated factors are consistent with the ones described by Passer
(1981), Klint and Weiss (1987), and Lazaro et al. (1993). Four factors are common
to those found in these three studies. Although the fitnesslskill factor in our
research constitutes a single motivational dimension, in these previous studies it
was subdivided into two different factors. Passer (1981) suggested some other
factors, and in the Italian sample, a further factor of extrinsic reward emerged.
This dimension is characterized by items in which parents, friends, coaches, and
sport equipment play an important role, that of external support in sport. Moreover,
this factor can also be found in Gill et al.'s (1983) work, and was labeled a
situational factor.
In the Italian sample, rotated factors concerning affiliation were classified
in two categories: friendship and team. These are common to most of the other
studies (Gill et al., 1983; Gould et al., 1985; Klint & Weiss, 1987). The same
conclusion can be drawn about the energy release factor.
Therefore, from the cross-cultural point of view, these results are relatively
consistent with the research carried out on Anglophone samples and in non-
Anglophone European countries. The main differenceconcerns the female sample.
The motives concerning skills are in two distinct factors (extrinsic rewardslskill
and fitness/skill). This result underlines that for girls' sport, skill learning is also
related not only to a good shape but also to external support given by parents,
best friends, and coaches and to support provided by sport equipment.
 Participation Motivation 279

Furthermore, the nonrotated factor analysis showed different attitudes to-

ward sports, which are particularly significant from a cross-cultural point of view.
In fact, to date, studies have not been conducted to point out these kinds of
differences. Generally, information about sociocultural characteristics and geo-
graphic area are not available. Where these variables have been studied (see
Duda & Allison, 1990; Geron et al., 1982; Weingarten et al., 1984), interesting
differences have been noticed.
As far as the results of the cluster analysis are concerned, from the five
groups (enthusiasts, looking for socialization, competitors, individualists, and
noncompetitors), only the competitors and individualists were independent from
structural variables. It may be useful in the future to test if these clusters are related
to Nicholl's (1984, 1989) task (individualist) and ego (competitors) constructs.
Enthusiasts and noncompetitors show opposite attitudes, and one could
hypothesize that members of these groups will drop out of sport if an activity
fails to satisfy their motivation. For noncompetitors dropping out is likely if they
do not like all aspects of competition and do not want to 1earnJimprove their
skills. Enthusiasts may drop out because they cannot distinguish between motives
and because their acceptance of sport is uncritical. Finally, it should be noted
that the youth motivated by socialization are prevalent in team sports, and this
choice appears to be consistent with their motivational needs.
Based on these results, it appears that the factors associated with youth
sport motivation are generally the same in Italy as in Anglophone countries or
elsewhere in Europe. The relevance of these dimensions, however, changes not
only in relation to individual differences (e.g., perceived competence; Brodkin &
Weiss, 1987) but also in relation to sociocultural and geographic factors.

Implications for the Sport Psychologist

These results have a number of practical implications for the sport psychologist
involved in youth programs. First, these findings confirm that young athletes
have multiple motives for participation. Consequently, the training must satisfy
this diversity. Sport psychologists could work with coaches to assess if the
program and the sport environment help the youngsters to achieve their main
goals. Coaching could be oriented to fulfill most of the young athletes' motives.
Therefore, the challenge for sport psychologists is to work with coaches to
propose practical sessions that integrate diverse motives.
According to Gould et al. (1985), useful coaching strategies that the sport
psychologist and coach might consider include providing time for fun, keeping
practices exciting, providing time to be with friends and teammates, helping skill
acquisition and improvement, providing for health enhancement, and feeling in
good shape.
Two other main characteristics that the sport psychologist has to study
concerns boredom and self-fulfilling prophecies. If athletes feel that their sessions
are boring, the sport psychologist must be oriented to give the coach information
that can help him or her to become more aware of how the athletes feel and in
which sessions the boredom is more evident.
The second question concerns the coach's expectations that may influence
sport participation motivation. The sport psychologist must observe if all athletes
280 Buonamano, Cei, and Mussino

receive the same opportunities to participate and to satisfy their motives or if

the coach prefers one group over the other. In fact, there is some evidence that
dislike for the coach is one of the reasons to drop out from sport.
In conclusion, the sport psychologist's role could be to work jointly with
coaches to create programs oriented toward satisfying the motives of sport ex-
pressed by youngsters.

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Manuscript submitted: June 1, 1994

Revision received November 7 , 1994

Fourth International Congress

on Physical Education and Sport

Sponsored by the Department of Physical Education m d Sport Science

of Democritus University of Thrace, this Congress will be held in Ko-
motini, Greece on May 17-19, 1996. The scientific program of the Con-
gress includes main lectures by invited speakers, round tables, and free
communications (oral and poster) which cover every aspect of physical
education and sport science.
The deadline for submissions is February 29, 1996. For abstract forms
and M h e r information, contact Secretariat 4th ICPES, Democritus Uni-
versity of Thrace, Department of Physical Education and Sport Science,
Komotini, 69100 Greece. Tel: 30-531-26908; fax: 30-531-33582.