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No part of this publication may be

ISBN: 978-93-91505-15-8
reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or
Book Code: UG005EN transmitted, in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
Basic Electrical Engineering recording or otherwise without prior
by S. K. Sahdev permission of the publisher.
[English Edition]
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that it shall not, by way of trade, be lent,
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 Acknowledgement

T he author grateful to AICTE for their meticulous planning and execution to publish the technical
book for Engineering and Technology students.
I sincerely acknowledge the valuable contributions of the reviewer of the book Prof. Majal
Jamel, for making it students’ friendly and giving a better shape in an artistic manner.
This book is an outcome of various suggestions of AICTE members, experts and authors who
shared their opinion and thoughts to further develop the engineering education in our country.
It is also with great honour that I state that this book is aligned to the AICTE Model Curriculum
and in line with the guidelines of National Education Policy (NEP) -2020. Towards promoting
education in regional languages, this book is being translated in scheduled Indian regional
languages.
Acknowledgements are due to the contributors and different workers in this field whose
published books, review articles, papers, photographs, footnotes, references and other valuable
information enriched us at the time of writing the book.
Finally, I like to express my sincere thanks to the publishing house, M/s. Khanna Book
Publishing Company Private Limited, New Delhi, whose entire team was always ready to cooperate
on all the aspects of publishing to make it a wonderful experience.

S. K. Sahdev

(v)
 Preface

I f we look around, we will observe that our day starts with the application of electricity and
finishes with the application of electricity. We can’t imagine our life without electricity.
In the present scenario, electrical energy has become an integral part of all the engineering
applications. Therefore, a course of “Basic Electrical Engineering” has been introduced in all the
engineering disciplines by all the universities in India and abroad. Usually, this course is taught in
first year either in 1st or in 2nd semester.
It is observed that most of the students, particularly the students belonging to the disciplines
of civil, mechanical, computers, textile etc. face difficulties in understanding the contents of this
course. To keep this in mind, every effort has been made to make the text students’ friendly by using
simple and lucid language.
The book is prepared as per the latest model curriculum of All India Council for Technical
Education (AICTE) for the students per-suing UG engineering.
Each chapter of the book contains much needed text supported by neat and self-spoken
diagrams to make the subject matter self-explanatory to a great extent. Many solved and unsolved
examples have been added in various chapters to enable the students to attempt different types
of questions asked in the examination without any difficulty. Practice Exercises have been added
in all the chapters at regular intervals to keep the students regular in their studies. At the end of
each chapter Summary, Objective Type Questions, Short-Answer Questions, Test Questions and
Unsolved Examples have been added to make the book complete and comprehensive unit in all
respects.
The author lay no claim to original research in preparing the text. Materials available in
the research work of eminent authors has been used liberally. But the author claims that he has
organized the subject matter in very systematic manner. He also claims that the language of the
text is lucid, direct and easy to understand.
Although, every care has been taken to eliminate errors, but it is very difficult to claim
perfection. I shall be very grateful to the readers (students and teachers) and users of this book if
they point out any mistake that might have crept in. Suggestions for the improvement of the book
shall be highly appreciated.

S. K. Sahdev

(vii)
 Outcome Based Education

For the implementation of an outcome-based education the first requirement is to develop an outcome-
based curriculum and incorporate an outcome-based assessment in the education system. By going
through outcome-based assessments evaluators will be able to evaluate whether the students have
achieved the outlined standard, specific and measurable outcomes. With the proper incorporation of
outcome-based education there will be a definite commitment to achieve a minimum standard for all
learners without giving up at any level. At the end of the programme running with the aid of outcome-
based education, a student will be able to arrive at the following outcomes:
PO-1: Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering
fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex engineering
problems.
PO-2: Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze complex
engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of mathematics,
natural sciences, and engineering sciences.
PO-3: 
Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering problems
and design system components or processes that meet the specified needs with appropriate
consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural, societal, and environmental
considerations.
PO-4: Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and research
methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data, and synthesis of
the information to provide valid conclusions.
PO-5: Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and modern
engineering and IT tools including prediction and modelling to complex engineering activities
with an understanding of the limitations.
PO-6: The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to assess
societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities relevant to
the professional engineering practice.
PO-7: Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional engineering
solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the knowledge of, and need
for sustainable development.
PO-8: Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities and
norms of the engineering practice.
PO-9: Individual and teamwork: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or leader in
diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.

(ix)
PO-10: Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the
engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to comprehend and write
effective reports and design documentation, make effective presentations, and give and receive
clear instructions.
PO-11: 
Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the
engineering and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a member and
leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary environments.
PO-12: Life-long learning: Recognize the need for and have the preparation and ability to engage in
independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological change.

(x)
 Course Outcomes

After completion of the course the students will be able to:

CO-1 : To understand and analyse basic electric and magnetic circuits
CO-2 : To study the working principles of electrical machines and power converters.
CO-3 : To introduce the components of low voltage electrical installations.

Expected Mapping with Programme Outcomes

Course (1- Weak Correlation; 2- Medium correlation; 3- Strong Correlation)
Outcomes PO-1 PO-2 PO-3 PO-4 PO-5 PO-6 PO-7 PO-8 PO-9 PO-10 PO-11 PO-12

CO-1 3 2 1 1 1 1 1 1
CO-2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1

CO-3 3 1 1 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1

(xi)
 List of Abbreviations
Abbreviations Full form
CO Course Outcome
PO Programme Outcome
UO Unit Outcome
C coulomb
A ampere
W watt
EM electromagnetic
DC Direct Current
AC Alternating Current
CRT Cathode Ray Tube
T tesla
G gauss
V volt
LCR Inductor-Capacitor-Resistor
BW Band Width
CRO Cathode Ray Oscilloscope
Q-factor Quality factor
GHz Gigahertz
Oe Oersted
Wb weber
Hz hertz
mH milli henry
kHz kilohertz
nC nano coulomb
nA nano ampere
Ge Germanium
emf electromotive force
mmf magnetomotive force
μA micro ampere
μC micro coulomb
μF microfarad

(xii)
 List of Symbols
Symbols Description
e Electronic charge
ε0 Permittivity of free space
εr ,k Relative permittivity
ρ Volume charge density
σ Surface charge density
λ Linear charge density
φ Electric flux
E Electric field intensity
D Electric displacement
C Capacitance of a capacitor
χ Electromagnetic susceptibility
μ0 Permeability of free space
J Current density
B Magnetic induction
H Magnetic intensity
L Self-inductance
M Mutual inductance
S Reluctance
K Co-efficient of coupling
Id Displacement current
Jd Displacement current density
U Electromagnetic energy density
P Poynting vector
ψ Wave function
Z Impedance
fres Resonant frequency

(xiii)
 List of Figures
UNIT - 1
Fig. 1.1 Symbol of fixed register 3
Fig. 1.2 Carbon-composition resistor 4
Fig. 1.3 Wire-wound resistor 4
Fig. 1.4 Variable carbon-composition resistor 4
Fig. 1.5 Variable wire wound resistor 4
Fig. 1.6 Schematic symbol of variable resistor 4
Fig. 1.7 Symbol of fixed and variable inductors 5
Fig. 1.8 Inductor with magnetic core 5
Fig. 1.9 Inductor with air core 6
Fig. 1.10 Variable inductor with its schematic diagram 6
Fig. 1.11 Symbol of fixed and variable capacitor 7
Fig. 1.12 Paper capacitors 7
Fig. 1.13 Fixed mica capacitor 8
Fig. 1.14 Ceramic capacitor 8
Fig. 1.15 Electrolytic capacitors 8
Fig. 1.16 Variable capacitors 8
Fig. 1.17 Transfer of energy from source to load 9
Fig. 1.18 DC source 9
Fig. 1.19 DC source on load 9
Fig. 1.20 Ideal constant voltage source 10
Fig. 1.21 Real voltage source 11
Fig. 1.22 Ideal current source, its characteristic and symbol 11
Fig. 1.23 Real current source and its characteristic 12
Fig. 1.24 Voltage source, current source 13
Fig. 1.25 Conversion of voltage source to current source and vice-versa 14
Fig. 1.26 Voltage source 14
Fig. 1.27 Equivalent current source 14
Fig. 1.28 DC current source 14
Fig. 1.29 Equivalent voltage source 14
Fig. 1.30 A resistor is connected across a battery 15
Fig. 1.31 Simple DC circuit 16
Fig. 1.32 Three resistor connected in series 16

(xiv)
Fig. 1.33 Three resistor connected in parallel 17
Fig. 1.34 Series parallel circuit 17
Fig. 1.35 Two resistor connected in parallel 17
Fig. 1.36 Circuit diagram 18
Fig. 1.37 Given circuit 18
Fig. 1.38 Simplified view of the given circuit 18
Fig. 1.39 An electric network 19
Fig. 1.40 Five branches meeting at a junction 19
Fig. 1.41 Algebraic signs for emf and voltage drop 20
Fig. 1.42 KVL 20
Fig. 1.43 Given circuit 21
Fig. 1.44 Circuit carrying current 21
Fig. 1.45 Given circuit 22
Fig. 1.46 Circuit carrying current 22
Fig. 1.47 Given circuit 23
Fig. 1.48 Circuit carrying current 23
Fig. 1.49 Given circuit 24
Fig. 1.50 Circuit for solution 24
Fig. 1.51 Given circuit 24
Fig. 1.52 Given circuit 25
Fig. 1.53 Circuit with assumed current 25
Fig. 1.54 Circuit for bridge 26
Fig. 1.55 Given circuit 27
Fig. 1.56 Circuit for solution 27
Fig. 1.57 Given circuit 28
Fig. 1.58 Given circuit 28
Fig. 1.59 Given network 29
Fig. 1.60 Given circuit 29
Fig. 1.61 Given network 29
Fig. 1.62 Given network 29
Fig. 1.63 Given circuit 29
Fig. 1.64 Considering source E1 only 30
Fig. 1.65 Considering source E2 only 30
Fig. 1.66 Given circuit 30
Fig. 1.67 Circuit for solution 30
Fig. 1.68 Considering one source only 30
Fig. 1.69 Considering second source only 31

(xv)
Fig. 1.70 Considering third source only 31
Fig. 1.71 Given circuit 31
Fig. 1.72 Considering voltage source only 32
Fig. 1.73 Considering current source only 32
Fig. 1.74 Given circuit 32
Fig. 1.75 Figure for numerical problem 33
Fig. 1.76 Figure for numerical problem 33
Fig. 1.77 Given network 34
Fig. 1.78 Given network 34
Fig. 1.79 Given network 34
Fig. 1.80 Given network 35
Fig. 1.81 Circuit to determine Eth 35
Fig. 1.82 Circuit to determine Rth 35
Fig. 1.83 Thevenin circuit 36
Fig. 1.84 Given network 36
Fig. 1.85 Circuit to determine Eth 36
Fig. 1.86 Circuit to determine Rth 36
Fig. 1.87 Thevenin circuit 36
Fig. 1.88 Given circuit 36
Fig. 1.89 Circuit to determine Eth 37
Fig. 1.90 Circuit to determine Rth 37
Fig. 1.91 Thevenin circuit 37
Fig. 1.92 Given circuit 37
Fig. 1.93 Circuit to determine Eth 38
Fig. 1.94 Circuit to determine Rth 38
Fig. 1.95 Thevenin circuit 38
Fig. 1.96 Given circuit as per data 39
Fig. 1.97 Circuit to determine Eth 39
Fig. 1.98 Circuit to determine Rth 39
Fig. 1.99 Thevenin circuit 39
Fig. 1.100 Given circuit 40
Fig. 1.101 Circuit to determine Eth 40
Fig. 1.102 Circuit to determine Rth, simplified circuit 40
Fig. 1.103 Thevenin circuit 41
Fig. 1.104 Given circuit 41
Fig. 1.105 Circuit to determine Rth 41
Fig. 1.106 Circuit to determine Eth 41

(xvi)
Fig. 1.107 Thevenin circuit 41
Fig. 1.108 Given circuit 42
Fig. 1.109 Given circuit 42
Fig. 1.110 Given circuit 42
Fig. 1.111 Given circuit 42
Fig. 1.112 Given circuit 42
Fig. 1.113 Given circuit 42
Fig. 1.114 Given circuit 43
Fig. 1.115 Circuit to determine Rn 44
Fig. 1.116 Circuit to determine In 44
Fig. 1.117 Norton Circuit 44
Fig. 1.118 Given circuit 44
Fig. 1.119 Circuit to determine In 44
Fig. 1.120 Circuit to determine Rn 45
Fig. 1.121 Norton Circuit 45
Fig. 1.122 Given circuit 45
Fig. 1.123 Circuit to determine In 45
Fig. 1.124 Considering only current source 46
Fig. 1.125 Considering only voltage source 46
Fig. 1.126 Circuit to determine Rn 46
Fig. 1.127 Norton Circuit 46
Fig. 1.128 Closing of RL circuit 47
Fig. 1.129 Opening and short circuiting of RL circuit 49
Fig. 1.130 Graph between current and time 49
Fig. 1.131 Given circuit 51
Fig. 1.132 When S1 is closed and S2 is opened 51
Fig. 1.133 When S2 is closed and S1 is opened 51
Fig. 1.134 Graph between current and time 52
Fig. 1.135 RL Circuit with switch 53
Fig. 1.136 Closing of RL circuit 53
Fig. 1.137 Graph between current and voltage when circuit is closed 54
Fig. 1.138 Graph between current and t when circuit is opened 54
Fig. 1.139 Charged capacitor with open switch without supply 56
Fig. 1.140 Graph between v and t during discharging of capacitor 56
Fig. 1.141 Graph between i and t during discharging of capacitor 57
Fig. 1.142 Figure for numerical problem 64
Fig. 1.143 Figure for numerical problem 65

(xvii)
Fig. 1.144 Figure for numerical problem 65
Fig. 1.145 Figure for numerical problem 65
Fig. 1.146 Figure for numerical problem 65
Fig. 1.147 Figure for numerical problem 65
Fig. 1.148 Figure for numerical problem 65
Fig. 1.149 Figure for numerical problem 67
Fig. 1.150 Figure for numerical problem 67
Fig. 1.151 Figure for numerical problem 68
Fig. 1.152 Figure for numerical problem 68
UNIT -2
Fig. 2.1 Alternating voltage and current 80
Fig. 2.2 Wave shape of ac quantities 81
Fig. 2.3 Coil rotating in the stationary magnetic field 82
Fig. 2.4 field rotating in the stationary coil 82
Fig. 2.5 EMF induced in a coil at various instants 83
Fig. 2.6 EMF developed in a rotating coil 84
Fig. 2.7 Wave shape of induced EMF 84
Fig. 2.8 Considering half cycle of an alternating quantity for a symmetrical wave 86
Fig. 2.9 Sinusoidal alternating current 86
Fig. 2.10 Wave shape of an alternating current 87
Fig. 2.11 Square wave of a sinusoidal alternating current 88
Fig. 2.12 Full wave rectified wave 90
Fig. 2.13 Wave diagram 91
Fig. 2.14 Wave shape of periodic current 91
Fig. 2.15 Plotting of sign wave 93
Fig. 2.16 Phasor and wave diagram (single quantity) 93
Fig. 2.17 Phasor and wave diagram (two quantity) 93
Fig. 2.18 Circuit diagram 94
Fig. 2.19 Phasor diagram 95
Fig. 2.20 Phasor representation of three voltages 95
Fig. 2.21 Circuit containing only resistance 96
Fig. 2.22 Phasor and wave diagram 96
Fig. 2.23 Circuit containing pure inductance 97
Fig. 2.24 Phasor and wave diagram 99
Fig. 2.25 Circuit containing pure capacitance 99
Fig. 2.26 Phasor and wave diagram 100
Fig. 2.27 R-L series circuit 102

(xviii)
Fig. 2.28 Phasor diagram 102
Fig. 2.29 Phasor and wave diagram 103
Fig. 2.30 Voltage triangle for an R-L series circuit 104
Fig. 2.31 Impedance triangle 104
Fig. 2.32 Active and reactive component of current 105
Fig. 2.33 Power angle 105
Fig. 2.34 Circuit diagram 107
Fig. 2.35 Phasor diagram 107
Fig. 2.36 Phasor diagram 108
Fig. 2.37 Circuit as per given data 109
Fig. 2.38 R-C series circuit 110
Fig. 2.39 Phasor diagram 110
Fig. 2.40 Phasor and wave diagram 111
Fig. 2.41 Voltage triangle 112
Fig. 2.42 Impedance triangle 112
Fig. 2.43 Circuit diagram 112
Fig. 2.44 Resistance in series 113
Fig. 2.45 Pure inductance in series 113
Fig. 2.46 Pure capacitance in series 114
Fig. 2.47 Circuit diagram 114
Fig. 2.48 Circuit diagram 115
Fig. 2.49 Phasor diagram 115
Fig. 2.50 Impedance triangle Xl > Xc 116
Fig. 2.51 Impedance triangle Xl < Xc 116
Fig. 2.52 Resonant circuit Xl = Xc 117
Fig. 2.53 Graph for Xl and Xc 117
Fig. 2.54 Resonance curve 118
Fig. 2.55 Resonance curve showing band width 119
Fig. 2.56 Circuit as per given data 120
Fig. 2.57 Given circuit 120
Fig. 2.58 Circuit as per data 121
Fig. 2.59 Circuit diagram 121
Fig. 2.60 Circuit diagram 122
Fig. 2.61 Phasor diagram 122
Fig. 2.62 Circuit with given data 123
Fig. 2.63 Parallel AC circuit 125
Fig. 2.64 Phasor diagram 125

(xix)
Fig. 2.65 Circuit diagram 126
Fig. 2.66 Phasor diagram 126
Fig. 2.67 Circuit diagram 127
Fig. 2.68 Phasor diagram 127
Fig. 2.69 Circuit diagram 128
Fig. 2.70 Parallel resonance circuit 129
Fig. 2.71 Phasor diagram 129
Fig. 2.72 Curve between f and i 130
Fig. 2.73 Generation of 3-phase emfs 134
Fig. 2.74 Three coils representing three phases loaded separately 135
Fig. 2.75 Star connection 136
Fig. 2.76 Relationship between line and phase voltages in star connection 136
Fig. 2.77 Delta connection 137
Fig. 2.78 Relationship between line and phase currents in delta connection 138
Fig. 2.79 Three phase load, connected in star and delta 139
Fig. 2.80 Star connection 140
Fig. 2.81 Delta connection 140
Fig. 2.82 Star connection 140
Fig. 2.83 Star connected balanced load 141
Fig. 2.84 Delta connected load 142
UNIT -3
Fig. 3.1 Magnet bar with its field 164
Fig. 3.2 B-H curve 167
Fig. 3.3 B-H curve of various magnetic materials 167
Fig. 3.4 B-H curve for non- magnetic materials 167
Fig. 3.5 Transformer 168
Fig. 3.6 Transformer core windings 168
Fig. 3.7 Coupling of primary and secondary 168
Fig. 3.8 L-shaped lamination 170
Fig. 3.9 Staggering of lamination 170
Fig. 3.10 Transformer core with winding 170
Fig. 3.11 E & I lamination 170
Fig. 3.12 Winding placed on core 171
Fig. 3.13 Ideal transformer 172
Fig. 3.14 Sinusoidal flux 172
Fig. 3.15 Resistance of primary and secondary winding 176
Fig. 3.16 Transfer of resistance 177

(xx)
Fig. 3.17 Inductive reactance of primary and secondary 177
Fig. 3.18 Transfer of reactance 178
Fig. 3.19 Complete circuit diagram of an actual transformer 180
Fig. 3.20 Equivalent circuit of transformer when all the quantities are referred to 181
secondary side
Fig. 3.21 Phasor diagram 181
Fig. 3.22 Ordinary two winding and auto transformer 191
Fig. 3.23 Three phase transformer (core-type) 195
Fig. 3.24 Shell type 3-phase transformer 195
Fig. 3.25 Flux distribution in the core of a 3-phase shell type transformer 195
Fig. 3.26 Winding connected in star-star 196
Fig. 3.27 Y-Y connection 196
Fig. 3.28 Winding connected in delta-delta 197
Fig. 3.29 D-D connection 197
Fig. 3.30 Winding connected in delta-star 198
Fig. 3.31 D-Y connection 198
Fig. 3.32 Winding connected in star-delta 198
Fig. 3.33 Y-D connection 198
Fig. 3.34 Distribution transformer 201
UNIT – 4
Fig. 4.1 Stator 219
Fig. 4.2 Stator stamping 219
Fig. 4.3 Squirrel cage rotor 220
Fig. 4.4 Phasor wound rotor 220
Fig. 4.5 Wave diagram of magnetic flux produced in the stator core 221
Fig. 4.6 Resultant axis of magnetic field at instant t1 221
Fig. 4.7 Resultant axis of magnetic field at instant t2 221
Fig. 4.8 Resultant axis of magnetic field at instant t3 221
Fig. 4.9 Working principle of 3-phase induction motor 222
Fig. 4.10 Field developed in the motor 222
Fig. 4.11 Rotor leakage flux 227
Fig. 4.12 Rotor circuit X2=SX2S 227
Fig. 4.13 Rotor circuit X2 variable 228
Fig. 4.14 Rotor circuit X2 is fixed to X2S 228
Fig. 4.15 Rotor equivalent circuit and Phasor diagram 228
Fig. 4.16 Power flow diagram 229
Fig. 4.17 T-s curve 236
Fig. 4.18 Operating region of T-s curve 237
Fig. 4.19 DOL starter 239

(xxi)
Fig. 4.20 Star-delta starter 240
Fig. 4.21 Auto transformer starter 240
Fig. 4.22 Rotor rheostat starter 241
Fig. 4.23 Graph between speed and torque 242
Fig. 4.24 Speed toque curve keeping R2/S constant 243
Fig. 4.25 Speed- torque characteristic change in supply voltage 244
Fig. 4.26 Speed control by changing number of poles 245
Fig. 4.27 Two-field revolving theory 247
Fig. 4.28 Torque developed by two field 247
Fig. 4.29 Split phase motor 248
Fig. 4.30 Torque-speed curve 249
Fig. 4.31 Capacitor start motor 249
Fig. 4.32 Torque speed characteristic of capacitor start motor 250
Fig. 4.33 Capacitor run motor 250
Fig. 4.34 Capacitor start capacitor run motor 251
Fig. 4.35 Shaded pole motor 251
Fig. 4.36 Flux distribution in the pole during half cycle 252
Fig. 4.37 Torque-speed characteristic of shaded pole motor 252
Fig. 4.38 Circuit diagram of ac series motor 252
Fig. 4.39 Voltage distribution 252
Fig. 4.40 Torque-speed characteristic 253
Fig. 4.41 Universal motor 254
Fig. 4.42 Rotor of Universal motor 254
Fig. 4.43 Circuit diagram 255
Fig. 4.44 Torque developed during positive half cycle 255
Fig. 4.45 Torque developed during negative half cycle 255
Fig. 4.46 Dis-assembled view of DC machine 255
Fig. 4.47 Pole with field winding 256
Fig. 4.48 Stator and armature 257
Fig. 4.49 Armature of DC machine 257
Fig. 4.50 Commutator 258
Fig. 4.51 Magnetic field developed in a dc machine 259
Fig. 4.52 Position of axis of main field and rotor field 259
Fig. 4.53 Torque development 259
Fig. 4.54 (a) Current supplied by source 260
(b) EMF produced due to rotation (back emf)
Fig. 4.55 Circuit diagram 260
Fig. 4.56 Circuit of separately excited motor 261
Fig. 4.57 Circuit of shunt motor 261
Fig. 4.58 Circuit of series motor 262

(xxii)
Fig. 4.59 Circuit of compound motor 262
Fig. 4.60 Separately excited dc motor 263
Fig. 4.61 N-Ia characteristic 263
Fig. 4.62 T-la characteristic 263
Fig. 4.63 N-T characteristic 263
Fig. 4.64 Ward –leonard method of speed control of separately excited dc motor 264
Fig. 4.65 Generator action 265
Fig. 4.66 Motor action 265
Fig. 4.67 Generation of alternating emf 266
Fig. 4.68 Rotor having number of poles 266
Fig. 4.69 Constructional features of salient pole alternator 267
Fig. 4.70 Parts of an alternators 268
Fig. 4.71 Non-salient pole type alternator 269
Fig. 4.72 Non-salient pole type rotor 269
UNIT – 5
Fig. 5.1 Linear voltage regulator 301
Fig. 5.2 Buck converter circuit diagram 302
Fig. 5.3 Pictorial view of buck converter 302
The switch is typically a MOSFET, IGBT, or BJT
Fig. 5.4 On-state 302
Fig. 5.5 Off-state 302
Fig. 5.6 Evolution of the voltages and currents with time in an ideal buck converter 304
operating in continuous mode
Fig. 5.7 Evolution of the voltages and currents with time in an ideal buck converter 305
operating in discontinuous mode
Fig. 5.8 Boost converter circuit diagram 307
Fig. 5.9 Pictorial view of boost converter 307
The switch is typically a MOSFET, IGBT, or BJT
Fig. 5.10 Boost converter schematic 307
Fig. 5.11 On-state (boost converter) 308
For ideal operation, it is assumed that
Fig. 5.12 Off-state (boost converter) 308
Fig. 5.13 Waveforms of voltage and current in a boost converter operating in continuous 309
mode
Fig. 5.14 Waveforms of voltage and current in a boost converter operating in 310
discontinuous mode
Fig. 5.15 The basic schematic of an inverting buck-boost converter 312
Fig. 5.16 Pictorial view of a buck-boost converter 312
Fig. 5.17 Schematic of a buck-boost converter 312
Fig. 5.18 The two-operating state of a buck-boost converter 313
Fig. 5.19 The basics of the 4-switch topology 313

(xxiii)
Fig. 5.20 Transistor working in active (amplifier) mode 316
Fig. 5.21 Transistor working in switch mode 316
Fig. 5.22 Topology of a single phase VSI 317
Fig. 5.23 Topology of a three phase VSI 318
Fig. 5.24 Amplitude modulated wave 321
Fig. 5.25 Frequency modulated wave 322
UNIT - 6
Fig. 6.1 Circuit with fuse 337
Fig. 6.2 Time-current characteristic of various fuses 337
Fig. 6.3 Switch fuse unit (SFU) 338
Fig. 6.4 Outer view of MCB 339
Fig. 6.5 Internal structure of MCB 339
Fig. 6.6 Operating characteristic of an MCB 340
Fig. 6.7 4-pole ELCB 341
Fig. 6.8 Internal wire diagram of a 2-pole ELCB 341
Fig. 6.9 Circuit for 2-pole ELCB 341
Fig. 6.10 Circuit for 4-pole ELCB 341
Fig. 6.11 100 AMP MCCB Moulded Case Circuit Breakers 342
100 AMP MCCB 4 pole Electrical Circuit Breakers
Fig. 6.12 Porcelain cleats 344
Fig. 6.13 Casing – capping 344
Fig. 6.14 CTS Wiring 345
Fig. 6.15 Conduit wiring 347
Fig. 6.16 Cross-section of a four core LT cable 349
Fig. 6.17 Earthing protects the operator 350
Fig. 6.18 Pipe earthing 352
Fig. 6.19 Plate earthing 352
Fig. 6.20 Lead-acid battery 354
Fig. 6.21 Battery plates and separator 354
Fig. 6.22 Checking of electrolyte 357

(xxiv)
 Guidelines for Teachers
To implement Outcome Based Education (OBE) knowledge level and skill set of the students
should be enhanced. Teachers should take a major responsibility for the proper implementation of
OBE. Some of the responsibilities (not limited to) for the teachers in OBE system may be as follows:
• Within reasonable constraint, they should manipulate time to the best advantage of all
students.
• They should assess the students only upon certain defined criterion without considering
any other potential ineligibility to discriminate them.
• They should try to grow the learning abilities of the students to a certain level before they
leave the institute.
• They should try to ensure that all the students are equipped with the quality knowledge as
well as competence after they finish their education.
• They should always encourage the students to develop their ultimate performance
capabilities.
• They should facilitate and encourage group work and team work to consolidate newer
approach.
• They should follow Blooms taxonomy in every part of the assessment.

Bloom’s Taxonomy
Teacher should Student should be Possible Mode of
Level Check able to Assessment
Students ability to
Creating Design or Create Mini project
create
Students ability to
Evaluating Argue or Defend Assignment
Justify
Students ability to Differentiate or Project/Lab
Analysing
distinguish Distinguish Methodology
Students ability to use Operate or Technical Presentation/
Applying
information Demonstrate Demonstration
Students ability to
Understanding Explain or Classify Presentation/Seminar
explain the ideas
Students ability to
Remembering Define or Recall Quiz
recall (or remember)

Guidelines for Students

Students should take equal responsibility for implementing the OBE. Some of the responsibilities
(not limited to) for the students in OBE system are as follows:
• Students should be well aware of each UO before the start of a unit in each and every
course.
• Students should be well aware of each CO before the start of the course.
• Students should be well aware of each PO before the start of the programme.
• Students should think critically and reasonably with proper reflection and action.
• Learning of the students should be connected and integrated with practical and real life
consequences.
• Students should be well aware of their competency at every level of OBE.

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 CONTENTS

Foreword v
Acknowledgement vii
Preface ix
Outcome Based Education xi
Course Outcomes xi
Abbreviations and Symbols xii
List of Figures xiv
Guidelines for Teachers xxv
Guidelines for Students xxv

1. DC CIRCUITS................................................................................................................................. 1 - 77
Rationale 1
Unit Outcomes 1
Unit Specific 1
Mapping the Unit Outcomes with the Course Outcomes 2
1.1 Circuit Elements 3
1.2 Resistors 3
1.3 Inductors 5
1.4 Capacitors 7
1.5 Voltage And Current Sources 9
1.6 Internal Resistance 9
1.7 Constant Voltage Source 10
1.7.1 Ideal Constant Voltage Source 10
1.7.2 Real Constant Voltage Source 10
1.8 Constant Current Source 11

1.8.1 Ideal Constant Current Source 11
1.8.2 Real Constant Current Source 12
1.9 Difference Between Voltage Source and Current Source 12
1.10 Source Transformation 13
1.11 Ohm’s Law 15

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 1.12 D.C. Circuits 16
1.13 Series Circuits 16
1.14 Parallel Circuits 16
1.15 Series – Parallel Circuits 17
1.16 Division of Current in Parallel Circuits 17
1.17 Network Terminology 19
1.18 Kirchhoff ’s Laws 19
1.19 Solution of Network by Kirchhoff ’s Laws 21
Practice Exercise 28
1.20 Superposition Theorem 29
Practice Exercise 34
1.21 Thevenin’s Theorem 34
Practice Exercise 42
1.22 Norton’s Theorem 43
1.23 Conversion of Thevenin’s Equivalent Into 43
Practice Exercise 46
1.24 Time Domain Analysis of Rl and Rc Circuits 47
1.25 Analysis of Rl Circuits (Closing and Opening of Rl Circuit) 47
1.26 Rise of Current in an Inductive Circuit 47
1.27 Decay of Current in an Inductive Circuit 48
Practice Exercise 52
1.28 Analysis of Recircuits (Closing of Rc Circuit) 53
1.29 Time Constant 54
1.30 Discharging of A Capacitor 55
Practice Exercise 58
Project 59
Summary 60
Short Answer Questions 62
Numerical For Practice 64
Multi-Choice Questions 66
Test Questions 69
Answers To Multi-Choice Questions 71
Experiment 72
2. AC CIRCUITS............................................................................................................. 78 - 161
Rationale 78
Unit Outcomes 78

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 Unit Specific 78
Mapping the Unit Outcomes with the Course Outcomes 78
Interesting Facts 79
Video Resources 79
2.1 Alternating Voltage and Current 80
2.2 Advantages of AC System Over DC System 81
2.3 Difference Between AC and DC 81
2.4 Sinusoidal Alternating Quantity 82
2.5 Generation of Alternating Voltage and Current 82
2.6 Equation of Alternating e.m.f. and Current 84
2.7 Important Terms 85
2.8 Important Relations 85
2.9 Values of Alternating Voltage and Current 85
2.10 Peak Value 86
2.11 Average Value 86
2.12 Average Value of Sinusoidal Current 86
2.13 Effective Or r.m.s. Value 87
2.14 r.m.s. Value of Sinusoidal Current 88
2.15 Form Factor and Peak Factor 89
Practice Exercise 91
2.16 Phasor Representation of Sinusoidal Quantity 92
2.17 Phase and Phase Difference 93
2.18 Addition and Subtraction of Alternating Quantities 94
2.19 A.C. Circuit Containing Only Resistance (R) 96
2.20 A.C. Circuit Containing Pure Inductance (L) 97
2.21 A.C. Circuit Containing Pure Capacitance (C) 99
Practice Exercise 101
2.22 A.C. Series Circuits 102
2.23 R-L Series Circuit 102
2.24 Impedance Triangle 104
2.25 True Power and Reactive Power 104
2.26 Power Factor and Its Importance 105
2.27 Q-Factor of A Coil 106
Practice Exercise 109
2.28 R-C Series Circuit 110
Practice Exercise 114

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 2.29 R-L-C Series Circuit 115
2.30 Series Resonance 117
2.31 Resonance Curve 118
2.32 Q-Factor of Series Resonant Circuit 119
Practice Exercise 124
2.33 A.c. Parallel Circuits 125
2.34 Methods of Solving Parallel A.c. Circuits 125
2.35 Phasor (Or Vector) Method 125
Practice Exercise 128
2.36 Parallel Resonance 129
2.37 Q-Factor of A Parallel Resonant Circuit 130
2.38 Comparison of Series and Parallel Resonant Circuits 131
2.39 Poly-Phase System 132
2.40 Advantages of 3-Phase System Over 1-Phase System 133
2.41 Generation of 3-Phase e.m.f.. 133
2.42 Naming the Phases 134
2.43 Phase Sequence 135
2.44 Interconnection of Three-Phases 135
2.45 Star Or Wye (Y) Connection 135
2.46 Mesh Or Delta (D) Connection 136
2.47 Connections of 3-Phase Loads 139
2.48 Power in 3-Phase Circuits 139
Practice Exercise 142
Project 143
Summary 143
Short Answer Questions 147
Numerical for Practice 149
Multi-Choice Questions 152
Test Questions 155
Answers To Multi-Choice Questions 157
Experiment 158
3. TRANSFORMERS.................................................................................................... 162 - 216
Rationale 162
Unit Outcomes 162
Unit Specific 162
Mapping The Unit Outcomes with the Course Outcomes 163

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 Interesting Facts 163
3.1 Magnet 163
3.2 Types of Magnetic Materials 164
3.3 Electromagnetism 165
3.4 Magnetisation Or B-H Characteristics 167
3.5 Transformer 167
3.6 Working Principle of A Transformer 168
3.7 Transformer Construction 169
3.8 An Ideal Transformer 171
3.9 Transformer on D.C. 172
3.10 E.m.f. Equation 172
Practice Exercise 175
3.11 Practical (Actual) Transformer 176
3.12 Resistance of Transformer Windings 176
3.13 Reactance in Transformer Windings 177
Practice Exercise 180
3.14 Circuit Diagram of an Actual Transformer 180
3.15 Simplified Equivalent Circuit 181
3.16 Expression for No Load Secondary Voltage 181
3.17 Voltage Regulation 183
Practice Exercise 186
3.18 Losses in A Transformer 186
3.19 Efficiency of A Transformer 187
3.20 Condition for Maximum Efficiency 188
Practice Exercise 191
3.21 Auto-Transformer 191
3.22 Three-Phase Transformers 194
3.23 Merits of Three-Phase Transformers 194
3.24 Construction of Three-Phase Transformer 194
3.25 Connections of Three-Phase Transformer 196
3.26 Power Transformer And Its Auxiliaries 201
Project 202
Summary 203
Numerical For Practice 205
Multi-Choice Questions 206

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 Short Answer Questions 207
Test Questions 208
Answers To Multi-Choice Questions 209
Experiment 210
4. ELECTRICAL MACHINES....................................................................................... 217- 298
Rationale 217
Unit Outcomes 217
Unit Specific 217
Mapping the Unit Outcomes with the Course Outcomes 218
4.1 Constructional Features of A 3-Phase Induction Motor 219
4.2 Production of Revolving Field 221
4.3 Principle of Operation 222
4.4 Reversal of Direction of Rotation of 3-Phase Induction Motors 223
4.5 Slip 223
4.6 Frequency of Rotor Currents 224
Practice Exercise 225
4.7 Speed of Rotor Field Or M.M.F. 226
4.8 Rotor E.m.f. 226
4.9 Rotor Resistance 227
4.10 Rotor Reactance 227
4.11 Rotor Impedance 227
4.12 Rotor Current and Power Factor 227
4.13 Simplified Equivalent Circuit of Rotor 228
4.14 Losses in An Induction Motor 229
4.15 Power Flow Diagram 229
4.16 Relation Between Rotor Copper Loss, Slip and Rotor Input 230
4.17 Rotor Efficiency 230
Practice Exercise 233
4.18 Torque Developed by an Induction Motor 234
4.19 Condition For Maximum Torque And Equation for Maximum Torque 235
4.20 Starting Torque 235
4.21 Torque-Slip Curve 236
4.22 Torque-Speed Curve and Operating Region 237
Practice Exercise 238
4.23 Necessity of A Starter 238
4.24 Starting Methods of Squirrel Cage Induction Motors 239

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 4.25 Starting Method of Slip Ring Induction Motors 241
4.26 Speed Control of Induction Motors 242
4.27 Speed Control by Changing The Slip 242
4.28 Speed Control by Changing The Supply Frequency 244
4.29 Speed Control by Changing The Poles 244
4.30 Speed Control by Cascade Method 245
4.31 Applications of Three-Phase Induction Motors 246
4.32 Nature of Field Produced in Single Phase Induction Motors 246
4.33 Torque Produced By 1-Phase Induction Motor 247
4.34 Types of 1-Phase Ac Motors 248
4.35 Split Phase Motors 248
4.36 Capacitor Motors 249
4.37 Shaded Pole Motor 251
4.38 A.C. Series Motor Or Commutator Motor 252
4.39 Universal Motor 253
4.40 D.C. Motor 256
4.41 Main Constructional Features 256
4.42 Armature Resistance 259
4.43 Working Principle of D.C. Motors 259
4.44 Back E.m.f. 260
4.45 Types of D.C. Motors 261
4.46 Characteristics of D.C. Motors 262
4.47 Characteristics of Separately Excited DC Motors 262
4.48 Speed Control of Separately Excited Motors 263
4.49 Speed Regulation 263
4.50 Synchronous Machine 263
4.51 Basic Principles 265
4.52 Production of Sinusoidal Alternating E.m.f. 265
4.53 Relation Between Frequency Speed and Number of Poles 266
4.54 Constructional Features of Synchronous Machines 267
4.55 Advantages of Rotating Field System Over Stationary Field System 269
4.56 Three-Phase Synchronous Machines 270
4.57 E.m.f. Equation 270

Practice Exercise 273
Project 273
Summary 273

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 Short Answer Questions 277
Numerical for Practice 278
Multi-Choice Questions 280
Test Questions 282
Answers to Multi-Choice Questions 284
Experiment 285
5. POWER CONVERTERS............................................................................................. 299-332
Rationale 299
Unit Outcomes 300
Unit Specific 300
Mapping The Unit Outcomes With The Course Outcomes 300
Interesting Facts 300
Video Resources 301
5.1 DC-DC Power Converters 301
5.2 Simple Linear Voltage Regulator 301
5.3 Buck Converters 302
5.4 Boost Converters 307
5.5 Buck-Boost Converters 311
5.6 Duty Cycle 314
5.7 Voltage Source Inverters 314
5.8 Conversion of DC Input to AC Output 315
5.9 General Structure of Voltage Source Inverters (VSI) 317
5.10 Modulation 319
5.11 Need of Modulation 319
5.12 Types Of Modulation 319
5.13 Amplitude Modulation 319
5.14 Modulation Factor and Its Significance 320
5.15 Analysis of Amplitude Modulated Wave 320
5.16 Limitations of Amplitude Modulation 322
5.17 Frequency Modulation 322
5.18 Phase Modulation 324

Project 325
Summary 325
Short Answer Questions 326
Multi-Choice Questions 327
Test Questions 328

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 Answers to Multi-Choice Questions 329
Experiment 330
6. POWER CONVERTERS 333-375
Rationale 333
Unit Outcomes 333
Unit Specific 333
Mapping The Unit Outcomes with the Course Outcomes 334
6.1 Switchgear 335
6.2 Low Voltage Switchgear Or LV Switchgear 336
6.3 Fuse 336
6.4 Switch Fuse Unit (SFU) 338
6.5 Miniature Circuit Breaker (MCB) 338
6.6 Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (ELCB) 340
6.7 Moulded Case Circuit Breaker (MCCB) 342
6.8 Types of Wires and Cables 343

6.8.1 Types of Wiring 343
6.8.2 Power Rating of Basic House-Hold Equipment: 347
6.9 Classification of Cables 349
6.10 Earthing 349

6.10.1 Purpose of Earthing 349
6.10.2 Equipment Earthing 350
6.10.3 System Earthing 351
6.10.4 Methods of Earthing 352
6.10.5 Double Earthing 353
6.11 Battery 354

6.11.1 Lead-Acid Battery 354
6.11.2 Capacity of A Battery 355
6.11.3 Efficiency of A Battery 355
6.11.4 Charge Indications of A Lead-Acid Battery Or Cell 357
6.11.5 Charging Of Lead-Acid Battery 358
6.11.6 Care and Maintenance of Lead-Acid Batteries 358
6.11.7 Applications Of Lead-Acid Batteries 358
6.12 Nickel-Iron Alkaline Cell 359
6.13 Calculations For Energy Consumption 360

Practice Exercise 361

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 Summary 361
Short Answer Questions 363
Numerical For Practice 364
Multi-Choice Questions 364
Test Questions 366
Attainment & Gap Analysis 367
Answers to Multi-Choice Questions 367
Experiment 368

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 1 DC Circuits

Rationale
The path for flow of electric current in called electric circuit. The electric circuit in just an arrangement
in which electrical energy sources and various elements such as resistor, inductors and capacitors are
connected in series, parallel or series-parallel combinations.
For simplification or analysing these circuits, various laws and theorems have been developed. In this
chapter, we shall discuss some of the important laws and theorems.

Unit Outcomes
U1-O1: Unit-1 Learning Outcome-1
To know about the active and passive components of an electric circuit, various electrical quantities and
their measuring units.
U1-O2: Unit-1 Learning Outcome-2
To know about constant voltage and constant current sources, various laws related to electric networks
such as Ohm’s Law, Kirchhoff’s Laws.
U1-O3: Unit-1 Learning Outcome-3
To analyse various electric networks employing different network theorem such as Thevenin theorem,
Norton’s theorem, superposition theorem, Delta-star and Star-delta transformation etc.

unit specifics
l Study of main elements of an electric circuit, their measuring units and importance.
l Importance of constant voltage and constant current sources.
l Ohm’s law, its limitations and applications.
l Calculations of series, parallel and series-parallel circuits.
l Importance and applications of series, parallel and series-parallel circuits.
l General behaviour of different electric elements employed in an electric network.
l Analyses and designing of electric/electronic circuits by employing:
        l Kirchhoff’s law l Delta-star or star-delta transformation
2 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

• Superposition theorem • Thevenin’s theorem

• Norton’s theorem

• Maximum power transfer theorem and its applications.

MAPPING THE UNIT OUTCOMES WITH THE COURSE OUTCOMES

Unit-1 EXPECTED MAPPING WITH COURSE OUTCOMES

Outcome (1- Weak Correlation; 2- Medium correlation; 3- Strong Correlation)
CO-1 CO-2 CO-3 CO-4 CO-5
U1-O1 3 — — — —
U1-O2 3 — — — —
U1-O3 3 — — — —

Interesting facts
• Most of the people believe that Benjamin Franklin invented electricity. On the contrary, he proved
that lightning is a form of electricity. This led to invention of the lightning rod which conducts
electricity to the ground in case of lightning strokes.
• The lightning you see during storms is also a form of electricity. It is a discharge of electricity in
the atmosphere that can travel around 130,000 miles per hour.
• Electricity plays a major role to determine functioning of your heart. Muscle cells in the heart
contract due to electricity. ECG machines used by medical professionals measure the electricity
going through the heart. A healthy heart displays a pattern with regular spikes.
• A filament light bulb only uses 10% of its total energy to emit light. The other 90% emits heat(wastage).
Whereas LED lamps use 90% of its energy to emit light.
• Even when some of the appliances (desktops, laptops etc.) are switched off, they continue to use
electricity.

Video Resources
Videos Links for circuits

Simple Series and Thevenin Norton Superposition

Electric parallel Theorem Theorem Theorem
Circuit Circuit
 In general, the circuit elements can be categorised as:
1. Active and passive elements.
2. Unilateral and bilateral elements.
3. Linear and non-linear elements.
4. Lumped and distributed elements.
1. Active and passive elements: The elements which supply energy to the circuit or network are
called active elements. All energy sources (batteries or generators) are the active elements. The
elements which receive energy are called passive elements (such as resistors, inductors and
capacitors).
2. Unilateral and Bilateral Elements: The elements which conduct current in one direction only
are called unilateral elements such as semiconductor diodes, vacuum tubes, selenium rectifiers
etc.
Bilateral elements: The elements which conduct current in both the directions are called bilateral
elements such as resistors etc. In other words, the elements which behave similarly when
current flows through them in either direction are called bilateral elements.
3. Linear and Non-linear Elements:
Linear Elements: The elements which have V-1 characteristics as straight line are called linear
elements such as resistors.
Non-linear Elements: The elements which do not follow V-1 characteristics as straight line are
called non-linear elements, such as diodes, transistors etc.
4. Lumped and Distributed Elements.
Lumped Elements: The elements in which action takes place simultaneously are called lumped
elements, such as resistors, inductors and capacitors. These elements are smaller in size.
Distributed Elements: The elements in which action for a given cause is not occurring
simultaneously at the same instant but it is distributed are called distributed elements, such as
transmission line which is having distributed resistance, inductance and capacitance along its
length.

Resistor is a component, used to limit the amount of current or divide the voltage in an electronic circuit.
The ability of a resistor to oppose the current is called resistance. The unit of resistance R is ohm for
which the symbol is W (the Greek capital letter omega). The schematic symbol of R is shown in fig.1.1.
R R
Or Or

Each resistor has two main characteristics i.e. its resistance (R) in ohm and its power rating in watt
(W). The resistors having wide range of resistance (from a fraction of an ohm to many mega ohm) are
available. The power rating may be as low as 1/10 W to as high as several hundred watts. The value of
R is selected to obtain a desired current I or voltage drop IR in the circuit. At the same time wattage of
the resistor is selected so that it can dissipate the heat losses without overheating itself.
 Classification of resistors: The resistors may be classified as fixed and variable resistors.
Fixed resistors: The resistors which have fixed value of resistance are called fixed resistors. These
resistors may be carbon composition (shown in fig. 1.2) or wire-wound resistors (shown in
fig.1.3)

Colour Plastic Case

bands
Resistance Element
Lead 330E
35 W

Sectionial view

Variable resistors: The resistors in which value of resistance can be varied as per the need are
called variable resistors. The variable resistors may be carbon composition resistors (shown in
fig. 1.4) or wire-wound resistors (show in fig.1.5)

CARBON
COMPOSITION RESISTANCE
ELEMENT
KEY WAY WIRE WOUND
FOR KNOB SHAFT ADJUSTABLE RESISTOR
SPRING WIPER
CONTACT

SHAFT
ROTATING
ARM ADJUSTABLE
CONTACT
LUGS

1 2 3
FIXED CONTACT
SOLDERING LUGS

(a) External view. (b) Internal view.

The schematic symbol of variable resistor is shown in fig.1.6.

Or Or

Or Or
 The resistance of a wire depends upon:
(i) its length i.e. R l
1
(ii) its area of cross-section i.e. R  and
a l l
(iii) nature of material of which the wire is made of i.e. R  or R  
a a
where  (‘Rho’ a Greek letter) is called resistivity of the material. Its unit is ohm-m.

A component that opposes the change of current in circuit is called an inductor. The ability of an
inductor or coil due to which it opposes the change of current flowing through it is called its
inductance. The inductance of an inductor may also be defined as the ability of an inductor (or coil)
to produce voltage when the current varies through it. The unit of inductance is henry. The
schematic symbol of a fixed and variable inductor is shown in fig.1.7.

(a) Fixed inductor (b) Variable inductor

 Classification Inductors : Inductors can be classified broadly as fixed and variable inductors.
Different types of inductors are available for different applications some of them are mentioned
below.
 Fixed inductors : Some of the inductors (or coil) which have fixed inductance are mentioned
below:
 Filter Chokes : A filter choke or inductor is shown in fig.1.8. It is used to block a.c. signal
(voltage) and allows the d.c. signal (voltage) to pass through it.

(a) Filter choke. (b) Schematic diagram (symbol) of filter choke.

 Radio-Frequency Chokes : A typical air-core radio-frequency inductor (choke) is shown

with its schematic symbol in Fig.1.9.
 (a) Radio frequency choke. (b) Schematic diagram (symbol) of radio frequency choke.

Variable Inductors A variable inductors (or coil) is shown in fig.1.10. The inductance of the coil
is varied by varying the position of core. When current flows through a coil flux is produced by it
which links with its outer turns. If current changes in the coil, the flux linking with its own turns
changes and emf is induced in it called self induced emf which is proportional to rate of change of
current or flux linkages, i.e.

(a) Variable inductor. (b) Schematic diagram.

di di e
e or e L or L  ...............(i)
dt dt di / dt
Where L is the inductance of the coil.

d di di d
Now eN also e  L  L N
dt dt dt dt

Nd  N
Or L  .................(ii)
di I

N NI N2 N2
L   ao  r    a o  r ....................(iii)
I l Raluctance l
 e N N 2
L    ao  r
di / dt I l
The energy stored in the magnetic field of an inductor is given by the relation
1 1
W  LI 2 or w  Li 2 joule
2 2
Note : Inductance opposes the change of current, therefore, it opposes the alternating current (ac) but
does not oppose the direct current (dc)

Two conducting plates separated by an insulating material (or dielectric) forms a capacitor. Capacitor
has the ability to store electric charge. The capacity of a capacitor to store charge per unit potential
difference is called its capacitance. The unit of capacitance is farad (F). However, the unit farad is
too large, the capacitors are specified practically in microfarad (F) or pico-farad (pF).
A capacitor is a component which offers low impedance to
a.c. but very high impedance (resistance) to d.c. The
schematic symbol of fixed and variable capacitor (C) is
shown in Fig.1.11.
C C
Classification of capacitors : The capacitors can also be
classified broadly as fixed and variable capacitors. Different
types of capacitors are available for different applications.
Fixed capacitors : Some of the capacitor which have
fixed capacitance are mentioned below: (a) Fixed capacitor. (b) Variable capacitor.
 Paper Capacitors : In these capacitors, impregnated
paper is used as a dielectric.
Paper capacitors are available in a wide range of capacitance and voltage ratings. These capacitors are
used in the circuits having frequency less than radio-frequency. Such capacitors are shown in fig.1.12.

MINIROC
.068 MFD
600 VDC

TUBULAR CAPACITOR
(a) Tubular type paper capacitor ENCAPSULATED TYPED
MICA CAPACITOR

(b) Encapsulated type capacitor.

 Mica Capacitors : In these capacitors, mica is used as a dielectric. These capacitors are used in
the circuits operating at radio-frequency. One of such capacitor is shown in fig.1.13
 33
10%

(a) Fixed Mica Capacitor. (b) Ceramic Capacitor.

 Ceramic Capacitors : Ceramic is used as dielectric material in these capacitors. A disc type
ceramic capacitor is shown in fig.1.14.
 Electrolytic Capacitors : In these capacitors, an electrolyte is used as a dielectric. These are
mostly used in the filter section of dc power supplies. Such capacitors are shown in fig.1.15.

100V
40MF

+ + + ++ + +
Tubular Capacitor Can type capacitor.

The electronic circuits, in which frequency is to be changed as per requirement such as tuning circuits,
variable capacitors are used. Air-gang capacitor is, shown in fig.1.16(a). and trimmer or padder with
mica sheet capacitors are shown in fig.1.16(b). These are the most common variable capacitors.
FIXED PLATES

ADJUSTING SCREW CERAMIC BASE

SPINDLE
MOVABLE
PLATES

(a) Air-gang capacitor (b) Trimmer or padder capacitor

 The capacitance of a capacitor is defined as charge per unit potential difference, i.e.
Q q
C farad or c farad
V v
The energy stored in a capacitor is given by the relation
1 1 2
W CV 2 joule or w cv joule
2 2

To deliver electrical energy to electrical/electronic circuits, a source is required. A load is connected to

the source as shown in Fig.1.17. The source may be either a d.c. (direct current) source or an a.c.
(alternating current) source.
 DC Source : Any device that produces direct voltage continuously and has the ability to deliver
current is called a dc source, such as batteries,
dc generators and dc power supplies (regulated
power supplies).

LOAD
 AC Source : Any device that produces alter- SOURCE
nating voltage continuously and has the ability
is deliver current is called an ac source, such
as alternators and oscillators or signal genera-
tors.

All the sources (battery, dc generator or rectifier type supply) have some internal resistance Ri. The
equivalent circuit of a dc source is represented by e.m.f. E in series with internal resistance Ri of the
source as shown in fig.1.18.
DC Source

Ri Ri

+ V RL
+
E E
– –

When load (RL) is connected across the source as shown in fig.1.19.

E
Load current, IL 
RL  Ri

Terminal voltage, V  E – I L Ri
 E E
or V  I L RL   RL 
RL  Ri 1  Ri / RL
The voltage across the load terminals is reduced because of the voltage drop in the internal resistance of
the source. A source having smaller internal resistance will provide more voltage across the load termi-
nals.

An electrical source is called a constant voltage source if it supplies power at almost constant voltage to
a load irrespective to its value.

An electrical source that can deliver current at constant voltage irrespective of the value of load resis-
tance is called an ideal constant voltage source.
It is true only if a voltage source has zero internal resistance. We know,

Terminal voltage, E
V
1  Ri / RL

Since Ri = zero,
V=E
An ideal constant voltage source and its characteristics are shown in fig.1.20(a) and 1.20(b) respec-
tively..

A V
Terminal Voltage

E V

–
IL
B O Load current
(a) Ideal voltage source. (b) Characteristics of Ideal Voltage Source.

An ideal constant voltage source is just an idea, it cannot exist in nature. All the voltage sources have
some internal resistance (or impedance), although its value may be very small.

All the voltage sources have some internal resistance which limits the current at short circuit. A real
voltage source and its characteristics are shown in Fig.1.21(a) and 1.21(b) respectively.
 A V

Terminal Voltage
Ri
+

E
–
IL
D.C. Source. B O Load current
(a) Real voltage source (b) Charateristies of real voltage source

To maintain the terminal voltage of the source almost constant from no-load to full-load, the internal
resistance of the source should be very small.
A voltage source that has very low internal resistance (or impedance) as compared to load resistance (or
impedance) is known as a real constant voltage source.

An electrical source is called a constant current source if it supplies power at almost constant current to
a load irrespective to its value.

An electrical source that can deliver constant current irrespective of the value of load resistance is
called ideal constant current source.

A A

IS IS RL

B B
(a) Ideal Current Source. (b) Ideal Current Source On Load

A
IS

IS
Ri

RL B
(c) Relation Between IS And RL (d) Symbolic representation of
Current Source
 It is true only if the source has infinite internal resistance.
E E / Ri
Since, I 
RL  Ri 1  RL / Ri
E
i.e. even if RL  0, I =
Ri
This is only possible, if internal resistance (or impedance) is represented in parallel with the load as
shown in fig.1.14(d)
This shows that in this type of source, there will be internal power loss even at no-load. Hence ideal
current source is merely an idea and not the real one.

An ideal constant current source is just idea. A real constant current source is basically a voltage source
which delivers almost the same current at all values of load resistance. This is only possible if the source
has very high internal resistance i.e. Ri >> RL.
A source that has very high internal resistance (or impedance) as compared to the load resistance (or
impedance) is considered as a constant current source.
IL IL
A
1·19976 A
Ri=5 M

LOAD CURRENT

100K

1·17647 A
E=6V

1K

RL
B 1K 100K
LOAD RESISTANCE
(a) Real current source. (b) Curve Between IL And RL.

A real current source having very high internal resistance say 5 M with a comparatively low load
resistance RL (say varying from 1 K to 100 K) is shown in Fig.1.23(a). Its characteristics are show in
fig.1.23(b).
This shows that the load current remains almost constant and the source behaves as a constant current
source irrespective of the value of load resistance.

The behaviour of an electrical source depends upon its working conditions. When the value of load
resistance (or impedance) is very large as compared to the internal resistance (or impedance) of the
source, the source is treated as a voltage source.
Whereas, when the value of load resistance is very small as compared to the internal resistance of
the source, the source is treated as a current source.
For instance, consider a 12 V battery with an internal resistance of 0.5 ohm. If the load applied on
the battery varies from 1 K to 10 K, the terminal voltage varies from 11.994V to 11.9994

 E 
V   . The source is considered as constant voltage source.
 1  Ri / RL 
If the load applied on the battery varies from 1 m to 10 m the current supplied by the battery varies
 E / Ri 
from 23.952 A to 23.529 A  I   . The source is considered as constant voltage source.
 1  RL / Ri 

Ri
A + V RL
– E

SOURCE RL (b) Voltage source.

B IS
Ri RL
(a)

(c) Current source.

Conclusion : It clearly shows that the source is the same but it is considered as a constant voltage
source if Ri << RL and the same source is considered as a constant current source If Ri >> RL. Hence
practically, there is no difference between constant voltage source and constant current
source.

It has been seen that, the same electrical source behaves as a constant voltage source and as a constant
current source. Accordingly the same source can be represented in two different ways as shown in fig.
1.25(b) and 1.25(c) respectively.
Thus, a voltage source can be represented as a current source as shown in fig.1.25(a) and a current
source can be represented as a voltage source as shown in fig.1.25(b)
 IS

IS
Ri
RL Ri RL
+
– E

(a) Conversion from voltage source to current source

IS

IS
Ri
Ri RL RL
+
– E

(b) Conversion from current source to voltage source

Example 1.1. Fig.1.26 shows a d.c. voltage source having an open circuit voltage of 12 V and an
internal resistance of 1 ohm. Obtain its equivalent current source representation.

A A

1 12A
+ 1
12V
–
B B

Solution. If the terminals A and B of voltage-source are short-circuited, the current supplied by the
source,
E 12
IS    12 A
Ri 1
In the equivalent current-source representation, the current source is of 12A. The internal resistance of
the source is represented in parallel with the current source as shown in Fig.1.27.
Example 1.2. Fig.1.28 shows a d.c. current-source, obtain its equivalent voltage-source representation.

A A

5A 100
100
500V

B B
 Solution. The open circuit voltage of the current source across the terminals A and B.
E = IS Ri = 5 × 100 = 500 V
This will be the generated e.m.f. or ideal voltage of the equivalent voltage source representation. The
internal impedance (Ri = 100 ) is put in series with the ideal voltage source as shown in Fig.1.29. This
gives the equivalent voltage source representation of the given current source.

A I R B

This law states that the current flowing between any two points of a
conductor (or circuit) is directly proportional to the potential differ- V
ence across them, provided physical conditions (i.e. temperature etc.)
remain the same.
+ –
Considering circuit shown in fig.1.30. BATTERY
Mathematically ; I  V
V V1 V2 V
or  Constant or   ......  n  Constant
I I1 I 2 In
In other words, the ratio of potential difference across any two points of a conductor to the current
flowing between them is always constant, provided the physical conditions (i.e. temperature etc.)
remain the same
This constant is known as resistance (R) of the conductor (or circuit)
V
 R
I
V
It can also be written as V = IR or I =
R
Limitations of Ohm’s law : Ohm’s law cannot be applied to the circuits :
(i) Consisting of electronic tubes or transistors because these eliments are not bilateral.
(ii) Consisting of non-linear elements such as electric arc etc.
Example 1.3. The specific resistance of platinum at 0°C is 10.5 micro - ohm - cm. What should be
the length of platinum wire of diameter 0.0274 cm to have a resistance of 3 ohm at 0°C ?
Solution : Resistance of a wire at 0°C ;
l R0 a
R0  0 or l
a 0
where, R0 = 3  ; 0 = 10·5 × 10–6 cm = 10·5 × 10–8 m
  
a d2  (0.0274)2 cm 2  (0.0274)  10–4 m 2
4 4 4

3    (0.0274) 2  10 –4
 l= = 1.687 m (Ans.)
4  10.5  10 –8
 Example 1.4. A current of 0·5 A is passed through a coil of nichrome wire having a cross - sectional
area of 0·01 cm2. If the resistivity of the nichrome is 108 × 10–6 ohm – cm and the p.d. across the
ends of the coil is 54 volt, what is the length of the wire ? What is the conductivity and conductance
of the wire ?
l
Solution : Resistance, R = 
a
V 54
Where, R= =  108  ; a  0.01 cm 2  0.01  10 –4 m 2
I 0.5
 = 108 × 10–6 cm = 108 × 10–8 m
Ra 108  0.01  10 –4
 l =  = 100 m (Ans.)
p 108  10 –4
I 1
Conductivity,  =  = 92·59 × 104 mho/m (Ans.)
p 108  10 –8

I 1
Conductance, G =  = 9·259 × 10–3 mho (Ans.)
R 108

+ S
The closed path for the flow of direct current is called d.c. circuit. +
V
A simple d.c. circuit is shown in fig.1.31. which contains a d.c. source Battery
L –
(battery), a load (lamp,), a switch, connecting leads and measuring –
– A +
instruments like ammeter and voltmeter.

A circuit is which number of resistors are connected such that same current flows through them is
called series circuit.
Fig.1.32 shows a simple series circuit which carries three
R2
resistors R1, R2 and R3 connected in series across a supply I R1 R3

voltage of V volt.
Current flowing through the circuit is I ampere. V1 V2 V3

V = V1 + V2 + V3 = IR1 + IR2 + IR3

(As per Ohm’s law) V
+ –
If R is the effective resistance of the circuit, then
IR = IR1 + IR2 + IR3 or R = R1 + R2 + R3
i.e. Total resistance = Sum of the individual resistances.
This circuit is usually employed in marriages for decoration purposes.

A circuit is which number of resistors are connected such that different current flows through them but
potential difference across them is the same as shown in fig.1.33. Current flowing through the resistors
R1, R2 and R3 is I1, I2 and I3 respectively, then; I1 R1
The total current drawn by the circuit, I2
R2
V V V
I = I1 + I2 + I3 =   (according to ohm’s law)
R1 R2 R3 I3 R3
I
If R is the effective resistance of the circuit, then V
V
V V V V 1 1 1 1 + –
   or   
R R1 R2 R3 R R1 R2 R3
i.e. Reciprocal of effective resistance = sum of reciprocal of the individual resistances.
All domestic appliances are connected in parallel since these are opperated at the same voltage and
controlled independently.
I1
R1 R2
I
The circuit in which resistors are connected in series and parallel
I2
combination is called series - parallel circuit, as shown in fig.1.34.
R3
Here, resistor R2 and R3 are connected in parallel, but their com-
bination is connected in series with R1. Say effective value of R2
and R3 is RP , then V
+ –
1 1 1 R2  R3 R R
   or Rp  2 3
R p R2 R3 R2 R3 R2  R3

R2 R3
Total or effective resistance of the circuit, R = Ri + Rp= Rl 
R2  R3
 R R 
Alternately; total or effective resistance of the circuit, R  R1  ( R2 || R3 )  R1   2 3 
 R2  R3 

When two resistors having resistance R1 and R2 are connected in I1 R1

parallel across supply voltage of V volt, say the current flowing through
I2 R2
each branch is I1 and I2 respectively.
According to ohm’s law ; I
I1 R1 = I2 R2 = IR = V V
V
where R is total or effective resistance of the circuit and I is the total + –
current.
R1 R2
R =
R1  R2
R1 R2 R2
Now, I1R1 = I or I1  I
R1  R2 R1  R2
 R1
Similarly, I2 = I
R1  R2
The above equation shows that
Resistance of other branch
Current in one branch =  total current
sum of resistance of two branches
Example 1.5. A resistor R is connected in series with a parallel circuit comprising of two resistors
having resistance of 6 and 4 ohm respectively. The total power dissipated in the circuit is 48 watt,
applied voltage is 12V. Calculate the value of R .
Solution : Total power dissipated, P = 48 W ; Applied voltage, V = 12 V
The circuit is shown in Fig.1.36. 6
I R
P 48
Current supplied to the circuit, I = = = 4A 
V 12

V 12 12 V
Effective resistnace of the circuit, Reff=  = 3 ohm
I 4 + –

 6  4
Now R eff = R + 
 6  4 

Or 3 = R + 2.4 or R = 3 – 2.4 = 0.6 ohm (Ans.)

Example 1.6. Determine current I in the circuit shown in fig.1.37, all the resistors are given in
ohm.
Solution : Simplified view of the circuit is shown in fig.1.38.

5 A 4 C 4 5 A 4 C 4

I I
+ 12 +
100V 12 24 8 12 12 12 24 8
– 12 –
100V

B D B D

The effective resistance across the supply.

R = [[{(4 + 8) || 24} + 4] || 12 || 12 || 12] + 5
 12 ´ 24  
= [{(12 || 24) + 4} || 12 || 12 || 12] + 5 =   4 ||12 ||12 ||12  5
 12  24  
 12 
= [(8 +4) || 12||12||12] + 5 =   + 5 = 3 + 5 = 8 
 4
 V 100
Current, I =  = 12.5 A (Ans.)
R 8

Network theorems are applied to analyze the electrical network. While discussing these theorems one
comes across various terms discussed below :
1. Electric Network : The combination of various electric elements, connected in any manner, is
called an electric network.
2. Electric circuit : An electric circuit is a closed conducting path through which an electric
current either flows or is intended to flow.
3. Parameters : Various elements of an electric circuit are called its parameters such as resistors,
inductors, capacitors etc.
4. Active network : An electric network which contains one or more than one source of emf is
called active network.
5. Passive network : An electric network which does not contain any source of emf is called
passive network. R1 R2
A B C
6. Node : A node is a point in the network where two or more
circuit elements are joined. In fig.1.39, A, B, C and D are the + +
nodes. E1 R3 E2
– –
7. Junction : A junction is a point is the network where three
or more circuit elements are joined. In fact, it is a point where D
current is divided. In fig.1.39, B and D are junctions.
8. Branch : The part of a network which lies between two junction points is called branch. In fig.
1.39. D A B, B C D and B D are the three branches.
9. Loop : The closed path of a network is called a loop. In fig.1.39, A B D A, B C D B and A B
C D A are the three loops.
10. Mesh : The most elementary form of a loop which cannot be further divided is called a mesh.
In fig.1.39, A B D A and B C D B are the two meshes but A B C D A is the loop.

Kirchhoff’s First Law : It is also known as Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL).

It states that The algebraic sum of all the currents meeting at a point or I5
I4
junction is zero. R5
R1 R4
For algebraic sum, consider; O
I1 R3
Incoming currents as +ve ; and Outgoing currents as – ve.
R2 I3
I2
Applying Kirchhoff’s current law to junction O in fig.1.40, we get,
I1 + I2 – I3 + I4 – I5 = 0
or I1 + I2+ I4 = I3 + I5
i.e. Sum of incoming currents = sum of outgoing currents.
 In other words,
At any junction of an electric network, the sum of incoming currents are equal to the sum of outgoing
currents.
Kirchhoff’s Second Law : It is also known as a Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) or Kirchhoff’s mesh
law. It states that
In a closed circuit or mesh, the algebraic sum of all the e.m.fs. plus the algebraic sum of all the voltage
drops (i.e. product of current and resistances) is zero.
i.e. in a closed circuit or mesh,
algebraic sum of all the e.m.fs. + algebraic sum of all the voltage drops = 0
For algebraic sum, consider
A rise in potential as + ve ; and A fall in potential as – ve.
Consider a branch A B containing only one source of e.m.f. (E) as shown in fig.1.41(a). If this branch
is traced from A to B, there is fall in potential, therefore, E is taken as negative (i.e.–E).
Similarly, if the branch is traced from A to B in A
E B A – + B
fig.1.41(b), there is rise in potential and E will – +
be taken as positive (i.e.+E), i.e. (a) Fall in potential (b)Rise in potential
 In fig.1.41 (b) from A to B, E is
C V = IR C V = IR
+ D + D
negative (– E); – –
I I
 In fig.1.41(b), from A to B, E is R R
(c) Fall in potential (d)Rise in potential
positive (+ E).
Note : Direction of flow of current is
neither considered nor marked.
To determine sign for the voltage drop V ( = IR), consider a branch containing resistor of resistance R
ohm in which current I ampere flows from C to D as shown in fig.1.41(c). Therefore, C is at higher
potential w.r.t. terminal D.
Thus, tracing branch from C to D, V is negative (i.e. – V) as there is fall in potential. As we are moving
in the direction of flow of current.
Similarly, while tracing branch C to D in fig.1.41(d), V is positive (i.e. + V) as there is rise in potential
and we are moving opposite to the flow of current.
Note : Only the direction of flow of current determines the sign of V.
Illustration : R R
I +I I
A + 1 – 1 2 B 1 + 2 – C
Consider a network shown in fig.1.42. In this circuit, we
can apply kVL for the closed circuit ABEFA and form an I2
+
+

equation given below : +

E1 R3 E2
– R1 (I1  I2) – I2 R3 + E1= 0 – – –
Where R1 (I1  I2) (voltage drop) is considered as negative,
since we are tracing the circuit along the direction of flow of C E D
current.
 I2 R3 (voltage drop) in taken as negative as we are moving along the direction of flow of current.
E1 (e.m.f. of battery) in taken as positive as we move from –ve to +ve terminal at the battery and
there in rise in potential (Note : The direction of flow of current is not to be considered).
Similarly, kVL can be applied the other closed circuit BCDEB, we get, – I1R2 – E2 + I2R3 = 0

For solution of network, while applying Kirchhoff’s laws, the following steps are taken :
 Name all the nodes and junctions as A, B, C, D, .....
 Mark the assumed direction of flow of current in all the branches of the network according to K C L.
 Choose as many number of closed circuits, as the number of unknown quantities.
 For the chosen closed circuits frame the equations by applying KVL.
 Solve the equations and determine the unknown values.
Note : If the determined current carries the – ve sign, it shows that the actual direction of flow of
current is opposite to that of the assumed direction of flow of current in the given branch.
Example 1.7. In the circuit shown in fig.1.43. calculate current and power in the 6 ohm resistor.

20 5 I1+I2 20 I1 5

+ – + –
A C
I2
R1 R2 R1 R2
+ +
+ + 140V +
R3 R3 6 90V
140V 6 90V –
– – – –

F E D

Solution : The various junction points are marked in fig.1.44. According to Kirchhoff’s first law,
let the current flowing through various sections be as shown in fig.1.44.
Applying Kirchhoff’s second law to mesh ABEFA, get,
– 20 (I1 + I2) – 6I2 + 140 = 0 or 20I1 + 26I2 = 140
or 10I1 + 13I2 = 70 ................(i)
Applying Kirchhoff’s second law to mesh BCDEB, we get,
– 5I1 – 90 + 6I2 = 0 or – 5I1 + 6I2= 90
or – 10I1 + 12I2 = 180 .............(ii)
Adding equation (i), and (ii), we get,
25I2 = 250
I 2 = 10 A (Ans.)
Power in 6 ohm resistor = I22 R3 = (10)2 × 6 = 600 W (Ans.)
Example 1.8. Fig.1.45 shows two batteries connected in parallel each represented by an emf along
with its internal resistance. A load resistance of 5  is connected across the ends of the batteries.
Calculate the current through each battery and the load.

A I1 B I1 + I2 C

– I1 – I2 I1 + I2

    +
 
+ +
+ + + + –
24 V 25 V 24 V 25 V
– – – –

F E D

Solution : Assuming that the current flowing through various branches of the network is as marked
in fig.1.46.
Applying KVL to mesh ABEFA, we get,

2 I2 – 25 + 24 – 3 I1 = 0

or 2 I2 – 3 I1 = 25 – 24 or 2 I2 – 3I1 = 1 ..........(i)

Applying KVL to the mesh BCDEB, we get,

– 5 (I1 + I2) + 25 – 2 I2 = 0
or 2 I2 + 5 (I1 + I2) = 25 or 7 I2 + 5 I1 = 25 ........(ii)
Multiplying equation (i) by 5, equation (ii) by 3 and adding, we get,

80
I2 = = 2.58 A (Ans.)
31

Substituting the value of I2 in equation (i),

43
I1 = = 1.387 A (Ans.)
31

43 80 123
Current through load, IL = I1 + I2 = +  A = 3·967 A (Ans.)
31 31 31
Example 1.9. Solve the network shown in fig.1.47 for the current through 6 ohm resistor.

0·2
4 I1 0·2 4
C
+
D C D –

100V 100V
0·25 3 I 2 0·25 
A B A – + – B
90V 90V
0·3 5 I3 0·3 – 5
+ –
E F E 80V F
80V
I1 + I 2 + I 3

6 6
+ –
H G H G

Solution : Let the current flowing through various branches be as marked in fig.1.48.
Applying Kirchhoff’s second law to the following closed circuits,
Circuit CDAHGBC
– 4I1 – 0·2I1 + 100 – 6(I1 + I2 + I3) = 0
or 10·2I1 + 6I2 + 6I3 = 100 ..............(i)
Circuit BAHGB
– 3I2 – 0·25I2 + 90 – 6 (I1 + I2 + I3) = 0
or 6I1 + 9·25I2 + 6I3 = 90 .............(ii)
Circuit FEAHGBF
– 5I3 – 0·3I3 + 80 – 6 (I1 + I2 + I3) = 0
or 6I1 + 6I2 + 11·3 I3 = 80 ...........(iii)
Subtracting (ii) from (i), we get,
4·2I1 – 3·25I2 = 10 ...........(iv)
Solving (ii) and (iii), we get,
31·8I1 + 68·525I2 = 537 ............(v)
From equation (iv) and (v), we get,
391·51I2 = 137·4
1937 ∙ 4
 I2 = = 4·953 A
391 ∙ 15
Solving equation (v), we get, I 1 = 6·21 A
Solving equation (iii), we get, I 3 = 1·15 A
Current in 6 ohm resistor, I = I1 + I2 + I3
= 6·21 + 4·953 + 1·15
= 12·313 A (Ans.)
Example 1.10. In the circuit shown in fig.1.49 find the value of IS for I = 0.
 
A – B C

+
I IS I IS

+ + +
10V  IS 10V  IS
– – –

F E D

Solution : Considering circuit shown in fig.1.50, applying KCL at junction B, we get,

Current through branch BE (i.e. 4  resistor)
= I + IS = 0 + IS = IS (_ I = 0)
Appling KVL to mesh ABEFA, we get,
– 2 I – 4 IS + 10 = 0
or 2 I + 4 IS = 10
10
or IS = = 2.5 A (Ans.) (_ I = 0)
4
Example 1.11. Formulate the Kirchhoff’s voltage law equation for the circuit shown in fig.1.51.
Determine the values of currents I1, I2 and I3.
Solution : Applying KVL to closed circuit e f g d e, we get,
–10 + 0·4 I2 – 1·5 I3 + 3 (I1 + I2) = 0
3 I1 + 3·4 I2 – 1·5 I3 = 10 ........(i)
Applying KVL to closed circuit a e d c b a, we get,
– I1 – 3 (I1 + I2) – 6 (I1 + I2 + I3) – 0·5 I1 + 12 = 0
– 10·5 I1 – 9 I2 – 6 I3 + 12 = 0
1 I2
10·5 I1 + 9 I2 + 6 I3 = 12 ........(ii) A + – E F

Applying K V L to closed circuit d g h c d, I1

+ 10V
I1 + I2 3
we get, I3 – 0·4
12V + – +
d g
1·513 – 6 + 0·3 (I2 + I3) + 6 (I1 + I2 + I3) = 0 0·5 – + 1·5 + 6V
6 I1 + 6·3 I2 + 7·8 I3 = 6 .......(iii) I1 + I2 + I3
6
–
– I2 + I3 0·3
Solving equation (i), (ii) and (iii), we get,
B C H
I1 = – 1·242 A (Ans.)
I2 = 3·537 A (Ans.)
I3 = – 1·1325 A (Ans.)
The negative sign with current I1 and I3 shows that the actual flows of current is opposite to that of the
direction marked in fig.1.51.
Example 1.12. Find the magnitude and direction of the currents in all branches of the circuit shown
in fig.1.52, using Kirchhoff’s laws. All resistances are in ohm.

80A

30A

0·02
A
0·02
60A
0·01

E B

0·01
70A
0·01
C
D
0·03 60A

120A

80A
30A
0·02
–
+
A
I–80 + 0·02
– F 60A
0·01 –
+
I–50 I
B
E +
I–120
70A – 0·01
I–60 –
0·01 + I C
D
– +
0·03 60A

120A

Solution : Applying Kirchhoff’s first law, let current flowing through various branches be as
shown in fig.1.53.
Applying Kirchhoff’s second law to a closed loop ABCDEFA, we get,
– 0·02 I – 0·01 (I – 60) – 0·03I – 0·01 (I – 120) – 0·01 (I – 50) – 0·02 (I – 80) = 0
or 0·02 I + 0·01 I + 0·03 I + 0·01 I + 0·01 I + 0·02 I = 0·6 + 1·2 + 0·5 + 1·6
or 0·1 I = 3·9 or I = 39 A
Current in various branches is as under :
IAB = + 39 A (i.e. A to B)
IBC = I – 60 = – 21 A (i.e. C to B)
ICD = I = 39 A (i.e. C to D)
IDE = I – 120 = – 81 A (i.e. E to D)
IEF = I – 50 = – 11 A (i.e. F to E)
IFA = I – 80 = – 41 A (i.e. A to F)
Example 1.13. A Wheatstone bridge consists of AB = 4 ohm, BC = 3 ohm, CD = 6 ohm and
DA = 5 ohm. A 2 volt cell is connected between B and D and a galvanometer of 10 ohm resistance
between A and C. Find the current through the galvanometer.
Solution : The circuit is shown in fig.1.54.
Applying Kirchhoff’s first law at junction B, A & C, the current in various branches is marked.
Applying Kirchhoff’s second law to various closed loops ; A
Considering loop BACB, we get, I1 – I 3

4 I3 + 5
– 4I1 – 10I3 + 3I2 = 0 –
I1 –
or 4I1 – 3I2 + 10I3 = 0 ...(i) +
G
B 10 D
Considering loop ADCA, we get, I2
–
– 5(I1 – I3) + 6 (I2 + I3) + 10I3 = 0 +
3 – + 6
or – 5I1 + 5I3 + 6I2 + 6I3 + 10I3 = 0
I1 – I 2 I2 + I3
I1 + I2
or 5I1 – 6I2 – 21I3 = 0 ...(ii) C

Considering loop BADEB, we get

2V
– 4I1 – 5(I1 – I3) + 2 = 0 + –
or – 4I1 – 5I1 + 5I3 = –2
or 9I1 – 5I3 = 2 ...(iii)
Multiplying equation (i) by 2 and subtracting from equation (ii), we get,
5I1 – 6I2 – 21I3 = 0
8I1 – 6I2 + 20 I3 = 0
– + –
– 3I1 – 41I3 = 0

41
 I1 = – I3
3
Substituting the value of I1 in equation (iii), we get,
 FG 41 IJ 1
A
9 
H 3 K
I3  5 I3 = 2 or – 123I3 – 5I3 = 2 or I3 =
64
Current flowing through galvanometer is 1/64 ampere from C to A.
Example 1.14. Determine the current I in 8 ohm resistance in the circuit shown in fig.1.55.
 A I1 + 6 B
+  –
C

(I1 + I2 + 6)
+ – – +
6A
 20V  6A  20 V
– –
I1 + +  – I2 + I – I1 – 12 – 6
I G + – D
I
+
  I – I1 I – I1 – 6 H 
48V  
I 48V –
+ – + –
F E

Solution : A simplified circuit is shown in fig.1.56. Applying KCL at various junctions, different
currents are marked in various sections.
Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to
Loop A B H G A
20 I2 + 2 (I – I1 – 6) – 4I1 = 0 or 2I – 6I1 + 20I2 = 12
I – 3I1 + 10 I2 = 6 ...(i)
Loop B C D H B
– 4 (I1 + I2 + 6) – 20 + 6 (I – I1 – I2 – 6) – 20I2 = 0
6I – 10 I1 – 30 I2 = 80 or 3I – 5I1 – 15I2= 40 ...(ii)
Loop G H D E F G
–2 (I – I1 – 6) – 6 (I – I1 – I2 – 6) – 8I + 48 = 0
16I – 8I1 – 6I2= 96 or 8I – 4I1 – 3I2= 48 ...(iii)
Eliminating, I1 from equation (i) and (ii), we get,
4I – 95I2 = 90 ...(iv)
Eliminating I1 from equation (ii) and (iii), we get,
28I + 45I2 = 80 ...(v)
Eliminating I2 from equation (iv) and (v), we get,
2330
568 I = 2330 or I = 4.1 A
568
Current in 8 resistor, I = 4·1 A (Ans.)
Alternatively
The three equation are :
I – 3I1 + 10I2 = 6 3I – 5I1 – 15I2 = 40 8I – 4I1 – 3I2= 48
The three equation can be solved by the method of determinants i.e.by applying Cramer’s Rule. The
matrix from of the above equation is

F1 3 I F I I F 6I
10
GG 3 5
JG J G J
15J G I J = G 40J
1
GH 8 4
JG J G J
 3K H I K H 48K
2

F 1 3 10I
D0
G J
= G 3 5 15J = 1 (15 – 60) + 3 (–9 + 120) + 10 (– 12 + 40) = 568
GH 8 4 3JK
F6 3 10I
G
D = G 40 5
J
15J = 6 (15 – 60) + 3 (– 120 + 720) + 10 (– 160 + 240) = 2330
GH 48 4
J
3K

D 2330
I =  = 4·1 A (Ans.)
D0 568

1. Two batteries A and B are connected in parallel and a load of 5  is connected across their
terminals. A has an emf of 6 V and an internal resistance of 1  and B has an emf of 4
V and an internal resistance of 0.5 . Use Kirchhoff’s laws to determine the magnitude of
currents and also the directions in each of the batteries. Also determine the pd across external
resistance. (Ans.1.625A,–0.75A,0.875A,8.75V)
2. By using Kirchhoff’s laws find the current in XY in the circuit shown in fig.1.57. (Ans. 40A)


X 0·05
0A +
16 V
–  6
0·1 40A
0·05 0·05 
70A G
– 60V
50 A
A 0·1
Y


3. In fig.1.58 the potential of point A = – 60 V. Using Kirchhoff’s laws find (a) value of
V and (b) power dissipated by 8  resistance. (Ans. 200V, 450W)
 4. Find the value of R and the current through it in the network shown in fig.1.59, when the
current is zero in branch OA. (Ans.6, 0.5A)

 

X
+
6A 5V
 5 –


O  1.5

 R 2
+ –
12V
+ –
B C
20V 4

5. Determine the current in the 2- resistance of circuit shown in fig.1.60. (Ans. 4.1A)
6. What is the difference of potential between X and Y in the network shown in fig.1.61.
(Ans. 9.4V)
A
 8V
X + –  

+
– 10V + 6A
4V   10 D B 10V
+ –
–

 
Y
C

7. Find the total power delivered to the circuit by two sources in fig.1.62. (Ans,164W)

R1 I1 I2 R2

This theorem is applicable to liner bilateral network having two

or more than two sources. I3
+ +
According to this theorem, the current flowing through any E1 R3 E2
section is the algebraic sum of all the currents which should r1 – –
flow in that section if each source of emf would be considered
separately and other sources are replaced by their internal
resistance (or impedance).
For instant, consider a circuit shown in fig.1.63. Let the current flowing through various branches be as
marked in fig.1.63. According to superposition theorem.
 I1 I2 I1 I2
+
R1 I3 R2
R1 R2
+ I3
E1 + +
R3 r1 R3 E2
r1
–
– –

1. First, consider source E1 only and replace the other source E2 by its internal resistance. As
its inernal resistance is not given it is taken as zero (short circuit). Draw the circuit as shown
in fig.1.64 and determine currents in various section as I1 , I2 and I3 respectively..
2. Then consider the other source E2 and replace the source E1 by its internal resistance r1as
shown in fig.1.65. Determine the currents in various sections as I1, I2 and I3 respectively.
Actual flow of current in various sections ;

I 1 = I1  I1 ; I2 = I2  I 2 ; I3 = I 3  I 3

Example 1.15. Find the current in different branches of the network shown in fig.1.66.

5 I I 10
5 10 A + – 1 B 3+ – C
+ I2
+ + +
– 15V – 15V
– 15V – 15V –
– – – 25V
25V +
10 8 + 10 8
5 10 + +
– + – +
F 5 E 10 D

Solution : Let the current flowing through different branches be as marked in fig.1.67.
According to superposition theorem, reducing the circuit as shown in fig.1.68.
8× 20
Total resistance = 20  = 25·714 I1
28 A B I3
C
–
15 I2
Current supplied, I1= = 0·5833 A 20
+ +
25 ∙ 714
+ 8 20
+ – –
20 15V
Branch current I2 = 0 ∙ 5833 × = 0·4167 A –
28
F E D
8
Branch current I3 = 0 ∙ 5833 ×  1 ∙ 666 A
28
Now, reducing the circuit as shown in fig.1.69. I1 I3
A B C

20 × 20 I2
Total resistance = 8  18 +
+
+
40 – 15V
20 – 20
–
15 8 –
Current supplied, I2 = = 0·8333 A +
18
F E D
20
Branch current, I1 = 0 ∙ 8333 × = 0·4167 A
40
20
Branch current, I3 = 0 ∙ 8333 × = 0·4167 A
40
Again, reducing the circuit as shown in fig.1.70. A
I1
B
I3
C

20 × 8 I2 –
Total resistance = 20  = 25·714 – – 20
28 20 8 +
–
+ + 15V
25 +
Current supplied, I3 = = 0·9722 A
25 ∙ 714 E D
F

8
Branch current, I1 = 0 ∙ 9722 ×  0 ∙ 2778 A
28
20
Branch current, I2 = 0 ∙ 9722 ×  0 ∙ 6944 A
28
 Actual flow of current in different branches ;
I 1 = I1 – I1 + I1 = 0·5833 – 0·4167 + 0·2778 = 0·4444 A (Ans.)
I 2 = – I2 + I2 + I2 = – 0·4167 + 0·8333 + 0·6944 = 1·1111 A (Ans.)
I 3 = I3 + I3 + I3 = 0·1666 + 0·4167 + 0·9722 = 1·5555 A (Ans.)
Example 1.16. Find the current in the circuit given in fig.1.71. (UPTU)
 A 

I
+
– 48V  8A

B
  A   A 
+ – + – + –

I1
–
+
– 48V  O/C SC  8A

+
I3 I2

B B

Solution : Applying superposition theorem

Case I : Considering 48 V source only and denoting 8 A source by its internal resistance i.e. open
circuit as shown in Fig.1.72.

48
Current supplied by 48 V battery, I1=  2.18A (from A to B)
12  10

Case II : Considering 8A current source only and replacing 48 V voltage battery by its internal
resistance i.e. short circuit as shown in fig.1.73.
Current is divided in two paths ; current in 10  resistor,

12
I2 =  8  4.36A (from B to A)
10  12
 Resultant current flowing through 10  resistor
i.e. I = 2·18 – 4·36 = –2.18 A (Ans.) (from B to A)
Example 1.17. For the circuit of fig.1.74. find I using superposition theorem.
Solution : Replacing 128 V source by its   
internal resistance (i.e. short circuit), the circuit
is reduced to a circuit shown in fig. 1.75.
I
Equivalent resistance, + +
150 V 40  24  128 V
– –
R 'eq = [{( R4 || R5 )  R2 } || R3 ]  R1

= [{(8 || 24)  10}|| 40] 10

  8  24   16  40  150
=   8  24  10 40  10  16  40  10  7 
    
 R1 = 10 R2 = 10
A B C D

I
+ V1
150 V R3 40  R4 24 R5 
–

H G F E

V1 150
Current through branch AB =   7A
R 'eq 150 / 7

RBG 40
Current through branch BC, I ' = I AB  7  5A (from B to C)
RBG  RBF 40  16

R1 = 10 R2 = 10 R 5 = 8
A B C D

I

R3 R4 +
40   V2 128 V
–

H G F E

Replacing 150 V source by its internal resistance (i.e. short circuit), the circuit is reduced to a circuit
shown in fig.1.76.

Equivalent resistance, R "eq = [{( R1|| R3 )  R2 } || R4 ]  R5 = [{(10 || 40)  10}|| 24]  8

  10  40   18  24  128
=  10  40  10 || 24  8  18  24  8  7 
    

V2 128
Current through branch DC =   7A
R ''eq 128 / 7

RCF 24
Current through branch CB, I " = I DC  7  4 A (from C to B)
RCG  RCF 18  24

Current, I = I '  I " = 5 – 4 = 1 A (Ans.)

 1. By using superposition theorem, find the current in resistance R shown in fig.1.77. R1 = 0·15 ,
R2 = 0·12 , R = 3 , E1 = 6.15 V, E2 = 6·45 V. Internal resistance of cells are negligible.
(Ans.2.06A)

R1 = 0·15   

B
E1 = 6.15 V
A C
R2 = 0·12 
+ 64V
+
D 40V 20
E2 = 6.45 V  –
– 
R=3
F E

2. Determine the branch currents by superposition theorem in the network shown in fig.1.78.
(Ans.0.2A,1.5A, 1.7A)
3. Determine current through 16  resistor in the following network (fig.1.79) using superposition
theorem. (Ans.1.2A from B to A)
 A 

40V  4A

Thevenin’s theorem states that :

The current flowing through a resistor connected across any two terminals of a network can be
determined by converting the remaining network into a voltage source of emf, Eth and internal
resistance, Rth.
Where, Eth = The open circuit voltage across the two terminals of the given branch, called Thevenin
voltage.
Rth = The equivalent resistance of the network across the given terminals with all other
sources replaced by their internal resistances, called Thevenin resistance.
For illustration, consider a circuit shown in fig.1.80. To determine the current through load resistance
RL, proceed with the following steps :
 R1 R3 R1 R3
A A

+
+ E – E
R2 RL R2 Eth
– r
r

B B

 Remove the resistance RL in which current is to be determined, thus creating an open circuit
between terminals A and B as shown in fig.1.81.
 Determine the open circuit voltage (Thevenin voltage Eth) between the terminals A and B i.e.,
Voltage across R2 = I2R2

FG E IJ R
Eth =
HrR R K
1 2
2

 Replace the source (battery) by its internal resistance and determine the resistance Rth (Thevenin
resistance) of the network as seen from the terminals A and B as shown in fig.1.82.
( r  R1 ) R2
Rth =  R3
( r  R1 )  R2
 Replace the entire network by a single Thevenin voltage source having an e.m.f. Eth and internal
resistance Rthas shown in fig.1.83.
THEVENIN
R1 R3 A Rth SOURCE A

+ I
r R2 Rth Eth RL

B B

 Connect the load resistance RL back to its terminals A and B from where it was removed.
 Determine the current flowing through the load resistance RL by applying ohm’s law i.e.

Eth
I =
Rth  RL
Example 1.18. Determine current through 12 resistor connected across terminals A-B in the electric
circuit shown in fig.1.84 using Thevenin’s Theorem.
 E  C  A
  A

+ 
+  12V Eth
12V  –
–
+
+ 30 V
30 V –
–
F D B

Solution : To determine Eth, open the terminals A and B as shown in fig.1.85.

Current in the circuit DCEFD,
30 – 12 18
I   1A
12  6 18
Open circuit voltage across the terminals AB, i.e.
E th = 30 – 1 × 6 = 24 V
Thevenin resistance Rth of the network when viewed through the terminals A and B with all voltage
sources are being short circuited as shown in fig.1.86.
  A Rth IL A


Rth  Eth
 
– 24V

B B

6  12
Rth  8  (6 ||12)  8   12 
6  12
The thevenin network in shown in fig.1.87.
Current through 12 resistor connected across terminal AB.
Eth 24
IL =  = 1 A (Ans.)
Rth  RL 12  12 2 A 4

Example 1.19. Find current I using thevenin’s theorem I

in the circuit shown in fig.1.88. + +
Solution : To determining thevenin voltage or open circuit 6V 4 12V
– –
voltage across AB, remove 4 resistor connected across
AB as shown in fig.1.89.
B
 Rth = 4 
3 A
2 4 I1 2 A 4
A
I

+ + +
Eth SC SC Eth = 8V 4
6V 12V Rth –
– –

B B B

Current in the circuit shown in fig.1.89.

12  6 6
I1 =  1A
24 6
Open circuit voltage across AB i.e. thevenin voltage,
E th = 12 – 4 × 1 = 8 V
To determine thevenin resistance looking into terminal AB, replace the voltage source by their internal
resistance i.e. short circuit as shown in fig.1.90.

2×4 4
Rth = 2 || 4 =  
24 3
The thevenin equivalent circuit is shown in fig.1.91.
Current in 4 resistor connected across AB,

Eth 8 8 8
I =    × 3 = 1·5 A (Ans.)
Rth  RL 4  4 16 16
3 3
Example 1.20. Find Thevenin’s equivalent circuit at terminals BC of fig 1.92. Hence determine
current through the resistor R = 1.
11 B R = 1 C 2
Solution : To determine thevenin equivalent
resistance of given circuit with reference
to terminals BC, replace voltage sources
1 2 4 8
by this internal resistance as shown in
fig.1.93. + + + +
10 V 2V 18V 4V
R th = [(11 + 1) || 2] || [(2 + 8) || 4] – – – –

LM 2 × 12 OP || LM10 × 4 OP = F 12 I || F 20 I  15 = 1·0714 
=
N 2  12 Q N 10  4 Q H 7 K H 7 K 14
 11 B C 2 11 B C 2
Eth
Rth
1 2 4 
1 2 4 8 I1 I2
+ + + +
10V 2V 18V 4V
– – – –

To determine open circuit voltage across the terminals BC (i.e. thevenin voltage), redraw the circuit
as shown in fig.1.94.
R = 1
10  2 8 4 B C
Current in the loop of terminal B, I1 =   A
11  1  2 14 7
5·24 A
4 22 1·0714
Voltage at point B, VB = 10  (1  11)  V
7 7
–
10·857 V
18  4 14 +
Current in the loop of terminal C, I2 =  1A
4  2  8 14
Voltage at point C, VC = 18 – 4 × 1 = 14 V

F 22 I76
Thevenin voltage, Eth = VCB = VC – VB = 14 
H 7

K7
= 10·857 V

The Thevenin’s equivalent circuit is shown in fig.1.95.

Eth 10 ∙ 857
Current through resistor R of 1 , I =  = 5·24 A (Ans.)
Rth  R 1 ∙ 0714  1
Example 1.21. A bridge network ABCD is arranged as follows : resistance between terminal
A – B; B – C; C – D; D – A and B – D are 10, 30, 15, 20 and 40 ohm respectively. A 2
volt battery of negligible internal resistance is connected between terminals A and C. Determine
the value and direction of the current in 40 ohm resistor by applying Thevenin theorem.
Solution : The bridge circuit is shown in fig.1.96. To determine Thevenin voltage Eth, remove
40 ohm resistor. Then the circuit is reduced to as shown in fig.1.97.

2
Current in branch ABC, I1 =  0 ∙ 05 A
10  30

2
Current in branch ADC, I2 =  0 ∙ 05714 A
20  15
 B B

10 30 10 30

I1

A 40 C A Eth C
I2

20 15 20 15

D D

2V 2V
+ – + –

Voltage at point B, VB = 2 – 0·05 × 10 = 1·5 V

Voltage at point D, VD = 2 – 0·05714 × 20 = 0·857 V
Potential difference across terminal B and D i.e.
Thevenin voltage, Eth = 1·5 – 0·857 = 0·643V
To determine resistance Rth looking between terminals B and D, the source is replaced by its internal
resistance (zero in this case) as shown in fig.1.98(a). The circuit is further simplified as shown in
fig.1.98(b).

10 30 Rth

I B
10 30
Rth
A C 16·07
Rth + E
A C th
40
– 0·643V
20

15


20 15
D
D D

(a) Source is replaced (b) Simplified circuit FIG.1.99: Thevenin circuit.

A little thought will reveal that the resistance across terminal B and D i.e. Thevenin resistance,

10 × 30 20 × 15
Rth =  = 7·5 + 8·57 = 16·07 
10  30 20  15
 Thevenised circuit is shown in fig.1.99.
0 ∙ 643
 Current in 40 ohm resistor. I =  11 ∙ 467 mA (Ans.)
16 ∙ 07  40
Example 1.22. State Thevenin’s theorem and calculate current in a 1000  resistor connected
between terminals A and B, as shown in fig.1.100.
Solution : To determine open circuit voltage across AB i.e. Eth, consider fig.1.101.
A A A
0·05 V 0·05 V
+ +
100 – 100 – 100 85
85 85
A A A
C D C I1 D C D
Rth
B I2 B B

1000 880 1000 880 1000 880

B B B

+ – + – + –

5V 5V 5V

5  0 ∙ 05 4 ∙ 95
 A
100  85 185
4 ∙ 95
Potential at point A, VA = VC – I1 × 100 = 5  × 100 = 2·324 V
185

5 5
Current, I2 =  A
1000  880 1880

5
Potential at point B, VB = VC – I2 × 1000 = 5  × 1000 = 2·340 V
1880
Terminal B is at higher potential than terminal A. A
Thevenin voltage, Eth = VBA = 2·340 – 2·324 = 0·016 V
A
Replacing the batteries by their internal resistance (i.e. zero
resistance), the network becomes as shown in fig.1.102(a). The 100 85

network can further be simplified as shown in fig.1.102(b).

C D
Rth = RAB = 100 || 85 + 1000 || 880
1000 880
100 × 85 1000 × 880
=  B
100  85 1000  880
B
 = 45·946 + 468·085 Rth
A
= 514·031  

Current in 1000  resistor when connected

– RL
across AB, Eth= 0.016V
+ 1000

Eth 0 ∙ 016
IL = 
Rth  RL 514 ∙ 031  1000
B

0 ∙ 016
= = 10·6344 A (Ans.)
1514 ∙ 031 4A

The current flows from terminal B to A. 15 A

Example 1.23. Find the thevenin’s equivalent circuit for 6
terminal pair AB of the network shown in fig.1.104. +
20 V 10
Solution : For determining the Thevenin’s equivalent resistance –
Rth of the circuit with reference to terminals AB the voltage 4
source is short-circuited and current source is open-circuited,
as shown in fig.1.105. B

15 × 10
Rth= 6 + (15 || 10) + 4 = 6   4 = 16 
15  10
15 6 A A
15 6 A + –
24V
+ 16 
Rth 20 V 10 Eth
10 –
–
4 16 V
4 +
B B
B

Converting current source of 4A connected across 6 resistor source into the equivalent voltage source,
the circuit becomes as shown in fig.1.106.
Considering terminal A and B open circuited there is no current through resistor of 4  and 6 
(hence no voltage drop occurs across them),
20
Voltage across 10  resistor = × 10  8 V
15  10
Thevenin voltage across AB, Eth = 8 – 24 = – 16 V
Thevenin’s equivalent circuit is shown in fig.1.107.
1. Find current I using thevenin’s theorem in the circuit shown in fig.1.108 (Ans.2.4A).
2 A 4 2 3

I
+ + + 6 +
6V  12V 10V
– – 2V
– – +
6V –

B
Fig.1.108: Given circuit Fig.1.109: Given circuit
2. Using thevenin theorem find the current in 3 resistor in Fig.1.109. (Ans. 1.556A)
3. Using Mesh equation method, find current in the resistance R1 of the network shown in
Fig.1.110. (Ans.0.625A)
4. By applying thevenin theorem, find the current in 15 resistor of the network shown in
fig.1.111. (Ans.3.5A)

5 5 20 15 10

R1 + + +
1A 5 10V 400 V 80 90 200 V
10 – – –

5. Find the thevenin’s equivalent circuit for terminal pair AB of the network shown in fig.1.112.
(Ans. Eth= –6V, Rth=9)
4A
  A
 A

 + RN
+ 60V 20
30 V  –
–

 B
B

6. Draw the thevenins equivalent circuit across AB, and determine current flowing through 12W
resistor for the network shown in fig.1.113. (Ans. 4.533 A)
Norton’s theorem states that :
The current flowing through a resistor connected across any two terminals of a network can be
determined by converting the whole network into a current source having a current output of IN in
parallel with a resistance RN.
Where, IN = The short circuit current supplied by the source that would flow between the
two selected terminals when these are short circuited, generally called Norton’s
current.
R N = The equivalent resistance of the network across the two terminals with all other
e.m.f. sources replaced by their internal resistances and current sources replaced
by open circuit, generally called Norton’s resistance.
Steps to determine Norton’s equivalent circuit.
 Short circuit the terminals across which the load resistor in connected and calculate the current
which would flow between them. This is the Norton current IN.
 Redraw the network replacing each voltage source by a short circuit in series with its internal
resistance if any and each current source by an open circuit in parallel with its internal
resistance.
 Determine the resistance RN of the network as seen from the network terminals. (Its value is
the same as that of Rth).

A Thevenin’s equivalent can be converted into its Norton’s equivalent and vice-versa. According to
statement, Norton’s current source equals the current ISC or IN which flows across the terminals
A and B when they are short circuited.

Eth
Hence I SC = ...(i)
Rth
Like wise a Norton’s circuit can be converted into its Thevenin’s equivalent. The Thevenin’s equivalent
source VOC or Eth is the voltage on open circuit and is given as
VOC or Eth= ISC Rth ...(ii)   A
Each theorem is dual of the other.
Example 1.24. For the circuit shown in fig.1.114,obtain + RN
Norton current and equivalent resistance seen from ‘AB’. 60V 20
Solution : Equivalent resistance of the network with –

reference to terminals A and B, as shown in fig.1.115.

B
30  20
R N = (30 || 20) + 8 =  8 = 12 + 8 = 20  (Ans.)
30  20
The current supplied by 60 V source, when terminals A and B are short circuited as shown in
fig.1.116.
 60 60 42
I =   A
30  (8 || 20) 30  8  20 25
8  20
Norton’s Equivalent
30    Circuit
A A A

IN
RN + 1·2A
IN RN
20 60V 20
10
–

B B B

Norton’s current, IN i.e., the current from terminal A to B when these are short circuited as shown in
fig.1.117.
20 20 42
IN = I  = 1·2 A (Ans.)
20  8 28 25
The Norton’s equivalent circuit is shown in fig.1.117.
Example 1.25. Find the Norton’s equivalent circuit, as seen by RL in the circuit shown in
fig.1.118.

30 40V 10  RL 30 40V 10  IN

– + a b – + a b

I I

+ – + –
60 30 10V 120V I1 60 I2 30 I3 10V
– 120V + – +
1 2 3

Solution : Let the Norton’s current be IN , as shown in fig.1.119.

Applying KVL in Loop (1), we get,
30I1 + 60 (I1 – I2) = 120
or 90 I1 – 60I2 = 120
3I1 – 2I2 = 4 ...(i)
Applying KVL in Loop (2), we get,
60 (I2 – I1) + 10I2 + 30 (I2 – I3) = 40
or – 60 I1 + 100I2 – 30I3 = 40 ...(ii)
or – 6I1 + 10I2 – 3I3 = 4
Applying KVL in Loop (3), we get,
 30 (I3 – I2) = 10
or – 30I2 + 30I3= 10 or – 3I2 + 3I3 = 1 ...(iii)
Solving eqn., (ii) and (iii), we get,
– 6I1 + 10I2 – 1 – 3I2 = 4 (since 3I3 = 1 + 3I2)
6I1 + 7I2 = 5 ...(iv)
Multiplying eqn. (i) by 2 and adding eqn. (iv), we get
13
I2 = A
3

1 1 F 13 I = 14 A
from eqn. (iii), I3 =
3
(1  3 I2 ) =
3 H
1 3 ×
3 K 3
14
 Norton’s current IN = I3 = A
3
30 10 a
SC a b
RN
IN
RN = 15 RL
SC 60 30 SC 14
= A
3

Considering fig.1.120.
Norton’s Resistance RN

FG 30 × 60  10IJ || 30 = (20 + 10) || 30 = 30 × 30  15 

R N = [(30 || 60) + 10] || 30 =
H 30  60 K 30  30
Norton’s equivalent circuit is shown in fig.1.121.
Example 1.26. For the network shown in fig.1.122 draw a Norton’s equivalent circuit and
determine the current flowing through 15 resistor.
A

5 5
30A 5 30A 5
10 15 10
+ +
50V – 50V –

Solution : To determine IN , the 15 resistor is removed and terminals

A and B are short circuited as shown in fig.1.123. Since, there are two I1 A
sources due to which current will flow between terminal A and B, therefore 5
applying superposition theorem 30A
10
I N = I1 + I2
(i) Considering only current source, the circuit will be reduced as
shown in fig.1.124. B

10
Current I1 = 30 ×  20A
10  5 I2 A
(ii) Considering only voltage source, The circuit will be as shown in
fig.1.125.
5
50
I2 =  10A +
5
– 50V
According to superposition theorem :
Norton current, I N = I1 + I2 = 20 + 10 = 30 A (Ans.) B

Now replacing current source with open circuit and voltage source
with short circuit, the circuit will reduce to as shown in fig.1.126.
Looking between the terminals A and B, the Norton resistance,

5 × (5  10 )
RN = = 3·75 (Ans.)
5  (5  10 )

A I A
IN
5
RN = 3·75

RN 30A
10 5 15

B B

The Norton’s equivalent circuit is shown in fig.1.127.

Current flowing through 15 resistor,
3 ∙ 75
I = 30 × = 6 A (Ans.)
3 ∙ 75  15

Solve all the problems mentioned in the previous exercise by using Norton’s Theorem.
To analyse RL and RC circuits under time domain, the RL and RC circuits are opened and closed
and their effects are analysed.

Closing and opening of RL circuit

A coil containing resistance R  and inductance L henry is shown in fig. 1.128. When the circuit
is closed through switch S, the current increases gradually and takes some time to attain its final
value. The reason for the delay is that when current R L
increases to attain its final value, an e.m.f. (self-induced
e.m.f.) is induced in the inductance of the coil which
opposes the increase in current. R L
Let at any instant, the current in the circuit be i ampere
and is increasing at the rate of di/dt. Then applied i
voltage. S + –

V
di  di 
V = vR + vL = i R  L  vL  eL  L 
dt dt
After some time, the current (i) obtains its final value (I) and rate of change of current (di/dt)
becomes zero. Then
V = IR + 0 or I = V/R.
Similarly, when an inductive circuit (or coil) is opened, the current does not attain its zero value
instantaneously but it falls gradually.
Thus, the role of an inductance, in a d.c. circuit to delay the change (rise or fall) in current. Its
behaviour is just analogous to inertia in mechanics. The delay in change of current, in either case,
depends upon the value of R and L as explained in the next articles.

Consider an inductive circuit shown in fig. 1.128. At any instant, let the value of current be i ampere
which is changing at the rate of di/dt, then
di
V = iR  L
dt
di
or (V – i R) = L
dt
di dt
or =
(V  i R ) L
Multiplying both sides by – R and then integrating, we get,

z  R di
(V  i R )
= 
R
L z dt
 R
or loge (V – i R) =  tK ...(i)
L
where K is a constant of integration whose value can be determined from the initial known conditions,
i.e. at t = 0 ; i = 0. Substituting these values in the exp. (i), we get,
loge V = K
 Expression (i) becomes ;
R
loge (V – i R) =  t  loge V
L
V iR R
or log e =  t
V L
V iR  Rt / L
or = e or V – i R = V e Rt / L
V

or i=
V
R
e
1 e Rt / L j
Now, V/R represents the final value of the steady current I attained by the circuit.

 e
i = I 1 e j
 Rt / L
...(ii)

or i = I e1 e  j
t /

where  is called time constant of the circuit.

Expression (ii) shows the rise of current w.r.t. time t. The exponent of e is Rt/L. The quantity
L/R must have the dimensions of time so that exponent of e (i.e. Rt/L) is a number.
The quantity L/R is called the time constant of the circuit and effects the rise of current in the circuit.
It is represented by .
 Time constant,  = L/R second
If time interval, t =  (or L/R), then
i = I (1 – e–1) = 0·632 I (Rt/L = R × L/L × R = 1)
Hence, the time required for the current in an R – L circuit, to reach 0·632 times of its steady
value (I) while rising is called the time constant of the circuit.

An inductive circuit containing resistance R and inductance L in series is shown in fig. 1.129. When
switch is thrown to position 1, the current in the circuit starts rising and attains its final value I (= V/R)
after some time. If now, the switch is thrown to position 2, the current in the circuit does not cease at
once but gradually reduces to zero.
Let at any instant (during decay), the current in the circuit be i ampere and is decreasing at the rate of di/
dt, then R L
di i
0 =iR+ L
dt
S 2
di R 1
or =  dt
i L
+ –
Integrating both sides, we get,
V
R
loge i = t K ...(i)
L
where K is constant of integration whose value can be determined from the initial conditions, i.e. at
t = 0 ; i = I (= V/R). Substituting these values in exp. (i), we get,
loge I = 0 + K or K = loge I
 Expression (i) becomes ;
R
loge i =  t  log e I
L
i R i
or log e =  t or  e Rt / L
I L I
or i = I e– R t/L
i = I e– t/ ...(ii)
where  (= L/R) is called time constant of the circuit.

The quantity L/R is called the time constant of the circuit and affects the fall of current in the circuit. It
is represented by .
 Time constant,  = L/R second
i = I e–1 = 0·368 I
Hence, the time required for the current, in an R – L circuit, to reach 0·368 times of its steady value
(I) while decaying is called the time constant of the circuit.
i i

I = V/R I = V/R

0·632 I

0·368 I

0 0
 t  t

(a) Graph between i and t when RL (b) Graph between i and t when RL circuit is
circuit is conned to dc source disconnected from source and short circuited
Fig. 1.130 (a) shows a graph between current and time in an R – L circuit, when it is connected across
a d.c. source. The current rises in the circuit following exponential law. Whereas, fig.1.130 (b) shows
a graph between current and time in an R – L circuit, when it is short circuited after attaining its final
steady value of current. The current decays in the circuit following exponential law.
Example 1.27. The resistance and inductance of a coil are 4  and 0·15 m H respectively. What
potential difference exists at the terminals of the solenoid at the instant when the current is 1.5 A,
but increasing at the rate of 10000 A per second ?
di
Solution : Voltage across the solenoid, E = IR  L
dt
where, I = 1.5A ; R = 4  ; L = 0·5 × 10–3 H ; di/dt = 10000 A/s ;
 E = 1.5 × 4 + 0·15 × 10–3 × 10000 = 7.5 V (Ans.)
Example 1.28. A coil having a resistance of 10  and inductance of 6 H is connected to a constant
supply voltage of 100 V. Find (i) the rate of change of current at the instant of closing the switch ;
(ii) final steady value ; (iii) time constant of the circuit and (iv) the time taken for the current to
reach a value of 4 A.
di
Solution : We know that V = i R + L
dt
(i) At the time of closing the switch, i = 0

di di 100
 100 = 0 + 6 or  = 16.67 A/s (Ans.)
dt dt 6
(ii) Final steady value, I = V/R = 100/10 = 10 A (Ans.)
(iii) Time constant,  = L/R = 12/20 = 0·6 (Ans.)

(iv) Now, e
i = I 1 e
t /
j
or 
4 = 10 1  e  t / 0.6  or 0.4 = 1  e
 t / 0∙6

t / 0∙6
or e = 0·6 or et / 0∙6 = 1/0·6 = 1.67
or (t/0·6) loge e = loge 1.67 or t/0·6 = loge 1.67
or t = 0·6 × 0·5128 = 0·3077 s (Ans.)
Example 1.29. Consider a series R – L circuit connected to a battery source of 5 volt. If R = 5 ohm
and L = 5 henry, find the current i(t) through the inductance. Find the voltage across resistance and
inductance separately at the time of switching the supply and when sufficient time has elapsed after
switching the source.
Solution : The current flowing through the circuit is given by the expression,

i (t) =
V
R
e
1  e Rt / L j
 where, V = 5 V ; R = 5  and L = 5 H.

5
 i (t) =
5
 
1  e  t = 1 – e–t

(i) At the time of switching, t = 0

 i (t) = 1 – e–0 = 0
di
Now, V = iR  L
dt
 Voltage across resistor, i R = 0 V (Ans.)
di
Voltage across inductor, L = 5 V (Ans.)
dt
(ii) When the sufficient time is elapsed i.e. t 
i (t) = 1 – e– = 1
 Voltage across resistor, i R = 5 V (Ans.)
di
Voltage across inductor, L = 0 V (Ans.)
dt
Example 1.30. Consider the series R – L circuit connected to a battery and a switch as
shown in fig. 1.131. Switch S 1 closes at t = 2 second ; switch S 2 closes at t = 5 second. (i)
Find the current i (t) in the resistance R ; (ii) Plot the current i (t) for 0  t  10 second
to the scale. Assume R/L equal to 100.
Solution : When switch S1 is closed and switch S2 remains open the circuit becomes as shown
in fig.1.132.
The switch is closed after 2 seconds, therefore upto 2 seconds no current flows (OA) through the
circuit.
S1 S1 S1

+ +
V– S2 L – V L S2 L

R R R

After 2 second, when switch S1 is closed current starts rising exponentially (AB) given by the equation ;

i (t) =
V
R
e
1  e Rt / L =
V
R
j e
1  e100t j
After t = 5 seconds, the switch S2 is closed and the circuit becomes as shown in fig.1.133. The current
starts decaying following the exponential law (BC) and is given by the equation ;

i (t) =
R
e
V  Rt / L
e j =
V 100t
R
e e j
A graph between current and time is shown in fig.1.134. i

Example 1.31. A coil having L = 5 H and R = 10

 is connected to a constant 180 V supply source. B
I = V/R
How long does it take the voltage across the resistor
to reach 90 V ?

Solution : i =
V
R
e
1  e t /  j 0
A
2 4 6 8
C
10 t
(sec.)

or e
i R = V 1  e t /  j
where, i R = 90 V ; V = 180 V ;  = L/R = 5/10 = 0·5

 
90 = 180 1  e  t / 0.5 
or 0·5 = 1 – e–t/0·5 or e–t/0·5 = 0·5
or et/0·5 = 1/0·5 or (t/0·5) loge e = loge 2
or t = 0·5 × 0·6931 = 0·3466 s (Ans.)

1. The resistance and inductance of a coil are 3  and 0·1 m H respectively. What potential
difference exists at the terminals of the solenoid at the instant when the current is 1 A, but
increasing at the rate of 10000 A per second ?
2. A coil having a resistance of 20  and inductance of 12 H is connected to a constant
supply voltage of 100 V. Find (i) the rate of change of current at the instant of closing
the switch ; (ii) final steady value ; (iii) time constant of the circuit and (iv) the time
taken for the current to reach a value of 4 A (Ans, 8·33 A/s ,5 A , 0·6, 0·9656 s)
3. Consider a series R – L circuit connected to a battery source of 1 volt. If R = 1 ohm and L
= 1 henry, find the current i(t) through the inductance. Find the voltage across resistance
and inductance separately at the time of switching the supply and when sufficient time has
elapsed after switching the source. (Ans.0V,1V, 1V, 0V)
4. Consider the series R – L circuit connected to a battery and a switch as shown in fig.
1.131. Switch S 1 closes at t = 1 second ; switch S 2 closes at t = 2.5 second. (i) Find the
current i (t) in the resistance R ; (ii) Plot the current i (t) for 0  t  5 second to the
scale. Assume R/L equal to 100.
5. A coil having L = 6·4 H and R = 8  is connected to a constant 200 V supply source. How
long does it take the voltage across the resistor to reach 100 V ? (Ans. 0.5545 s)
 Closing of RC circuit
In an RC circuit, when the circuit is closed, the capacitor is charged from a fixed value of d.c. supply.
The rate of charging is controlled by the resistor connected in series with the capacitor.
Consider a capacitor of capacitance C farad connected in series with a resistor of R ohms, to be charged
from a d.c. source of V volt. When the switch S is open the voltage across the capacitor is zero as
shown in fig. 1.135. However, when the switch is closed, the charge on the capacitor starts rising and
so does the potential difference across it.
At the switching instant : At the instant when switch is closed, the voltage built up across the capacitor
is zero. Therefore, the entire voltage V is dropped across the resistor R and the charging current is
maximum (say Im).
V
 At the switching instant, current Im = ...(i)
R
At any instant during charging : After closing the switch, the capacitor starts S1

charging and the voltage across it increases gradually. This decreases the
charging current. Let at any instant during charging,
v = p.d. across the capacitor +
V– S2 L
i = charging current
q = charge on the capacitor = C v
According to Kirchhoff’s second law, R
Applied voltage = voltage across capacitor + voltage across resistor

V = v + i R ...(ii)
dv F dq d dv I
or V = v + C
dt
R
dv
H i  dt  dt (C v )  C dt K
or V = v + C R R C
dt
dv dt
or  = 
V v RC
Integrating both sides w.r.t. ‘t’ ;

z 
dv
V v
= 
t
zdt
RC S
loge (V – v) =  K
RC
...(iii)

where K is a constant of integration whose value can be determined from the initial conditions. At
the instant of closing the switch S, t = 0 ; v = 0

 Substituting these values in equation (iii), we get, loge V = K

Putting the value of K = loge V in equation (iii), we get,

t
loge (V – v) =   log e V
RC
V v
or log e = e t / RC
V
 or v = V 1ee t / RC
j
The above expression shows the variation of voltage (v) developed across the capacitor w.r.t. time
(t). It is represented graphically in fig.1.137.
The voltage across the capacitor is increasing following an * exponential law. The other quantities
vary as under :

(i) Variation of charge stored in the capacitor with time V

We know that v = q/C and V = Q/C ;


q
C
=
Q
C
e
1  e t / RC j .632V

or e
q = Q 1  e  t / RC j ..(v)
where q is the charge at any instant ‘t’ and Q is the full charge on 0
the capacitor. 

(ii) Variation of charging with time

From equation (ii), we have, V – v = iR

I
 t / RC
From equation (iv), we have, V – v = V e
Im
 i R = V e t / RC
V  t / RC
or e i=
R
V 0·37 Im
From equation (i) above, Im =
R
 t / RC 0 t
 i = Im e ...(iv)

where Im (= V/R) is the initial charging current.
This charging current decreases following the exponential
law and is represented graphically in fig.1.138.

The rise of p.d. across the capacitor is given by the equation ;

v = V (1 – e– t /RC)
In this equation, the exponent of e is t/RC. The exponent of e must be a number, therefore, the quantity
RC should have the ** dimensions of time. Hence, the quantity RC is called the time constant of the
circuit and affects the charging (or discharging) time. It is generally represented by  (or T or ).

* A quantity is said to vary following exponential law, if it changes to half of its value in say t seconds and in the next
t seconds the value changes to half of the new value and so on.
  Time constant,  = RC second.
The time constant will be in seconds if R and C are in ohm and farad respectively. The time constant 
affects the time period of the charging process of capacitor. The larger the time constant, the longer the
charging (or discharging) period and vice-versa.
In fact, the time constant indicates the rate at which a capacitor is charged. It can be defined in the
following ways :
(i) We have seen the expression in the previous article
dv
V = v + CR
dt
At the instant of closing the switch S, v = 0
dv dv V
 V = CR or =
dt dt CR
i.e. Rate of rise of voltage = V
CR
If this rate of rise of voltage could continues the capacitor voltage will reach to final value V in time
= V  V/RC = RC second i.e. time constant 
Hence, the time required for the capacitor voltage to rise to its final steady value (V volt) if it
continued rising at its initial rate (i.e. V/RC) is called the time constant of the circuit.
(ii) If the time internal t = RC (i.e. ),
then v = V (1 – e–t/t) = V (1 – e–1)
F 1I F 1 I
H
= V 1
eK H
 V 1
2 ∙ 718 K
 0 ∙ 632 V
Hence, the time required for the capacitor voltage to rise to 0·632 of its final steady value is known
as the time constant of the circuit. Refer fig.1.137.

(iii) If the time interval t = RC (i.e. ))

1 Im
then i = Im e–t/t = Im e–1 = Im ×   0 ∙ 37 Im
e 2 ∙ 718
Hence, the time required for the charging current to fall to 0·37 of its initial maximum value Im
(= V/R) is called the time constant of the circuit. Refer fig.1.138.

Consider a capacitor of C farad connected in series with a resistor of R ohm and a switch S. When the
switch is open, the capacitor is charged to V volt and the current in the circuit is zero as shown in
fig.1.139.

volt coulomb volt coulomb

** Units of RC = ×  ×  second .
ampere volt coulomb / sec volt
When the switch S is closed, the charge on the capacitor starts decreasing and so does the voltage
across it.
Let at any instant during discharging ;
v = p.d. across the capacitor
i = discharging current
q = charge on the capacitor = Cv
R C
According to Kirchhoff’s second law, 0 = v + iR +
+
dv V
or 0 = v + CR
dt
dv
or v = – CR
dt
dv dt S
or = 
v RC
Integrating both sides, we get

z dv
v
= 
1
RC z dt  loge v = 
t
RC
K ...(i)

where K is a constant of integration whose value can be determined from the initial conditions. At
the instant of closing the switch S, t = 0 ; v = V.
 Substituting these values in equation (i), we get,
loge V = K
Putting the value of K = loge V in equation (i), we get,
t
loge v =   log e V
RC
v t
or loge = 
V RC
v  t / RC V
or = e
V
 v = V e t / RC ...(ii) V
The above expression shows the variation of voltage (v) across
the capacitor w.r.t. time (t) while discharging and is represented
graphically in fig.1.140.
The other quantities vary as under :

(i) Variations of charge on the capacitor with time

q Q
Since v= and V = 0 t
C C
Substituting these values in equation (ii), we get,
 q Q  t / RC
0
t
= e
C C
 t / RC
or q= Qe
(ii) Variation of discharging current with time
We know that 0 = v + iR
or iR = –v –Im

V  t / RC  t / RC
or i= e =  Im e –i
R
V
where Im = = initial current
R
The variation of discharging current in shown graphically in fig.1.141.
Example 1.32. A capacitor is charged by a d.c. source through a resistor of 1.2 mega ohm. If in one
second the p.d. across the capacitor reaches 75% of the final value, calculate the capacity of the
capacitor.
Solution : Series resistance, R = 1.2 M  = 1.2 × 106  ; Time, t = 1 second
75
P.d. across capacitor, v = V = 0·75 V
100

While charging, the p.d. across capacitor is given by the equation

e
v = V 1 e
 t / RC
j
0·75 V = V e1  e j e j
 t / RC  t / RC
or 0·75 = 1  e
t
or loge 0·25 = log e e
RC

1 1
or –1·3863 =  1 or C = 1 F (Ans.)
1.3863  1.2  106 = 0·6011
1.2  10 6 C

Example 1.33. The charge on a perfect capacitor of capacitance 2  F falls to 60% of its value
in 4 minutes, when the two plates of the capacitor are joined by an unknown resistance. What
is the value of unknown resistance.
Solution : Capacitance of the capacitor, C = 2F = 2 × 10–6 F

Let the charge on the capacitor be Q coulomb when it is fully charged. This charge falls to q
coulomb after 4 minutes.
q
= 60% = 0·6
Q
and t = 4 × 60 = 240 second
while discharging through resistance of R ohm,
q = Q e–t/RC
 6
or 0·6 = e 240 / R  2  10

240
or loge 0·6 = R  2  106

240
or R= = 234·9 × 106 ohm = 234·9 M  (Ans.)
0.5108  10 6
Example 1.34 A 16  F capacitor is connected in series with a 1 M  resistor across a 240
V d.c. supply. Calculate (i) the time constant, (ii) the initial charging current, (iii) the time taken
for the p.d. across the capacitor to grow to 168 V and (iv) the current and the p.d. across the
capacitor in 4 second after it is connected to the supply.
Solution : Time constant,  = RC = 1 × 106 × 16 × 10–6 = 16 second (Ans.)

Initial charging current, Im = V/R = 240/1 × 106 = 240 A (Ans.).

v = V (1 – e–t/RC)

168 = 240 (1 – e–t/16)

or e–t/16 = 0·3 or et/16 = 1/0·3 or et/16 = 3.33

or (t/16) loge e = loge 3.33

or t = 16 loge 3.33 = 16 × 1·203 = 19.247 second (Ans.)

i = Im e–t/RC = 240 × 10–6 e–4/16 = 308·17 A (Ans.)

Now, v = 240 (1 – e–4/16) = 53.1 V (Ans.)

1. A capacitor is charged by a d.c. source through a resistor of one mega ohm. If in one second
the p.d. across the capacitor reaches 80% of the final value, calculate the capacity of the
capacitor. (Ans,0·6213 F)
2. The charge on a perfect capacitor of capacitance 1  F falls to 50% of its value in 5
minutes, when the two plates of the capacitor are joined by an unknown resistance. What
is the value of unknown resistance. (Ans.432·9 M )
3. An 8  F capacitor is connected in series with a 0·5 M  resistor across a 200 V d.c. supply.
Calculate (i) the time constant, (ii) the initial charging current, (iii) the time taken for the
p.d. across the capacitor to grow to 160 V and (iv) the current and the p.d. across the
capacitor in 4 second after it is connected to the supply.
(Ans. 4 second ,400 A, 6·4376 second, 147·15 A,126·424 V )
DC CIRCUITS 59

USE OF BREADBOARD
Please follow the instructions as per the video link given below:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6WReFkfrUIk&t=7s
Project-1: Design and build a circuit to illuminate an LED using a 9V battery. Design and build a
circuit to illuminate
an LED using a V
Step-1: Components required battery.

1. A small breadboard. 2. A 9V battery.

3. One LED of any colour. 4. A resistor of resistance ____ ohm ___ watt.
An LED operates at 2V and draws 20 mA, the larger leg is anode and shorter leg is cathode.
Colour codes: Black, Brown, Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Violet, Grey, White; these colours
represent the numeral value – 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9 respectively.
From the left end of the resistor, first colour band represent a digit, second colour band represent a
digit whereas third colour band represent a multiplier as power of 10.
The fourth band represents tolerance - silver band for 10% and gold colour for 5% tolerance. For
470 ohm resistor with 5% tolerance colour coding will be yellow, violet, black and gold.
Step-2: Selection of resistor
Voltage across resistor, VR = V - VLED= 9 – 2 = 7V
 Current in the circuit, I = VR/R
Resistance of the resistor, R = VR/I = 7V/20 mA = 7/0.02 = 350 ohm
Considering safety of LED, a resistor of 470 ohm, 0.5 W be selected.
Step-3: Circuit diagram

LED

470  Resistor
(yellow, violet, brown) R LED
Catnode
470 
Anode
+

9 V Battery

9 V Battery

Project-2: Design and build a circuit to illuminate four LEDs connected in series, using a 9V battery.

Project-3: Design and build a circuit to illuminate four LEDs connected in parallel, using a 9V battery.

1. Circuit Elements: In general, the circuit elements can be categorised as:

1. Active and passive elements. 2. Unilateral and bilateral elements.
3. Linear and non-linear elements. 4. Lumped and distributed elements.
2. Resistors: Resistor is a component, used to limit the amount of current or divide the
voltage in an electronic circuit. The ability of a resistor to oppose the current is called
resistance.
3. Classification of resistors : The resistors may be classified as fixed and variable resistors.
4. Inductors : A component that opposes the change of current in circuit is called an inductor.
The ability of an inductor or coil due to which it opposes the change of current flowing
through it is called its inductance.
5. Classification Inductors : Inductors can be classified broadly as fixed and variable inductors.
6. Capacitors : Two conducting plates separated by an insulating material (or dielectric)
forms a capacitor. Capacitor has the ability to store electric charge. The capacity of a
capacitor to store charge per unit potential difference is called its capacitance.
7. Classification of capacitors : The capacitors can also be classified broadly as fixed and
variable capacitors.
8. Voltage and current sources : To deliver electrical energy to electrical/electronic circuits,
a source is required. The source may be either a d.c. (direct current) source or an a.c.
(alternating current) source.
 9. Constant voltage source : An electrical source is called a constant voltage source if it
supplies power at almost constant voltage to a load irrespective to its value.
10. Constant Current source : An electrical source is called a constant current source if it
supplies power at almost constant current to a load irrespective to its value.
11. Source transformation (Conversion of Voltage Source to Current Source and Vice-Versa)
: It has been seen that, the same electrical source behaves as a constant voltage source
and as a constant current source.
12. Ohm’s law : This law states that the current flowing between any two points of a
conductor (or circuit) is directly proportional to the potential difference across them,
provided physical conditions (i.e. temperature etc.) remain the same.
13. D.C circuit : The closed path for the flow of direct current is called d.c. circuit.
14. Effective value of the resistance (R)
(i) in series circuit ; R = R1 + R2 + ......... + Rn

1 1 1 1
(ii) in parallel circuit ;    ........ 
R R1 R2 Rn
15. Kirchhoff ’s laws : K C L states that I = 0 at a junction. K V L states that E +
IR = 0 in a loop. While applying KCL, incoming currents are taken as +ve and
outgoing currents as – ve.
16. Superposition theorem : In this method, If there are two of more than two sources, current
is determined in the required branch by considering each source separately and then
resultant value is determined by superimposing them.
17. Thevenin’s theorem : According to this theorem, to determine current in a resistor, the
resistor is removed and an open circuit voltage across the two terminals is determined
called thevenin voltage Eth. Then, resistance of the whole network is determined across
the terminals called Thevenin resistance Rth replacing all the voltage sources by their
internal resistances, I = Eth/(Rth + RL).
18. Norton’s theorem : It is similar to Thevenin’s theorem but in this case, the network is
reduced to a current source having a current output of IN when the given terminals are
short circuited in parallel with a resistance RN similar to Rth. Then, I = IN RN/(RN + RL).
di
19. Closing and opening of an inductive circuit : V = i R  L
dt
(i) Rise of current when circuit is closed : at any instant.
i = I (1 – e–Rt/L) where I = V/R
(ii) Decay of current when circuit is opened : at any instant
i = I e–Rt/L where I = V/R
20. Time constant :  = L/R second
21. Charging of a capacitor
V
(i) Current at the switching instant, Im =
R
(ii) Voltage across capacitor at any instant, v = V (1 – e–t/RC)
(iii) Charge stored in the capacitor at any instant, q = Q (1 – e–t/RC)
(iv) Charging current at any instant, i = Im (1 – e–t/RC)
22. Discharging of a capacitor
(i) Voltage across capacitor at any instant, v = V e–t/RC.
(ii) Charge on the capacitor at any instant, q = Q e–t/RC.
(iii) Discharge current at any instant, i = – Im e–t/RC.

1. What do you mean by elements of an electric circuit?

2. How will you differentiate between active and passive elements?
3. How will you differentiate between unilateral and bilateral elements?
4. How will you differentiate between linear and non-linear elements?
5. How will you differentiate between lumped and distributed elements?
6. What are resistors? How will you classify them?
7. What are inductors? How will you classify them?
8. What are capacitors? How will you classify them?
9. What do you mean by constant voltage source?
10. How will you differentiate between ideal and real constant voltage source?
11. What do you mean by constant current source?
12. How will you differentiate between ideal and real constant current source?
13. State Ohm’s law and give its limitations.
14. In series circuits, show that effective resistance is sum of the individual resistances.
15. In parallel circuits show that
16. How will you differentiate between node and funcation in an electric network?
17. How will you differentiate between loop and mesh in an electric network?
18. State Kirchhoff’s current and voltage laws.
19. State superposition theorem.
20. State Thevenin’s theorem.
21. State Norton’s theorem.
22. How will you justify that the unit of L/R is second?
23. How will you justify that the unit of RC is second?
S No. Question (In para) Marks CO BL PO
1. What do you mean by elements of an electric circuit? 2 CO1 BL1 PO1
2. How will you differentiate between active and passive
elements? 2 CO1 BL2 PO1
3. How will you differentiate between unilateral and bilateral
elements? 2 CO1 BL2 PO1
4. How will you differentiate between linear and non-linear
elements? 2 CO1 BL2 PO1
5. How will you differentiate between lumped and distributed
elements? 2 CO1 BL2 PO1
6. What are resistors? How will you classify them? 2 CO1 BL3 PO2
7. What are inductors? How will you classify them? 2 CO1 BL3 PO2
8. What are capacitors? How will you classify them? 2 CO1 BL3 PO2
9. What do you mean by constant voltage source? 2 CO1 BL2 PO1
10. How will you differentiate between ideal and real constant
voltage source? 2 CO1 BL2 PO1
11. What do you mean by constant current source? 2 CO1 BL2 PO1
12. How will you differentiate between ideal and real constant
current source? 2 CO1 BL2 PO1
13. State Ohm’s law and give its limitations. 2 CO1 BL2 PO1
14. In series circuits, show that effective resistance is sum of
the individual resistances. 2 CO1 BL3 PO2
15. In parallel circuits show that 2 CO1 BL3 PO2
1 1 1 1
   .......... 
Reff R1 R2 Rn

16. How will you differentiate between node and function in an

electric network? 2 CO1 BL3 PO2
17. How will you differentiate between loop and mesh in an
electric network? 2 CO1 BL3 PO2
18. State Kirchhoff’s current and voltage laws. 2 CO1 BL1 PO1
19. State superposition theorem. 2 CO1 BL1 PO1
20. State Thevenin’s theorem. 2 CO1 BL1 PO1
21. State Norton’s theorem. 2 CO1 BL1 PO1
22. How will you justify that the unit of L/R is second? 5 CO1 BL4 PO3
23. How will you justify that the unit of RC is second? 5 CO1 BL4 PO3
1. There are two wires A and B of the same material. A is 10 times longer than B and has
twice the cross-section as that of B. If the resistance of A is one ohm, what is the
resistance of B ? (Ans. 1/5 ohm)
2. Calculate the resistance between the points X and Y in network shown in fig. 1.142. All the
resistors are given in ohms. (Ans. 4 ohm)
6
6

12
6 12 6

6
X Y

3. A resistance of 15  is connected in series with two resistances each of 30  arranged

in parallel. What resistance must be connected across the parallel combination that the total
current taken shall be 3 A with 75 V applied. (Ans. 30 ohm)
4. A letter A is constructed of a uniform wire of resistance 3 ohm per cm. The sides of the
letter are 20 cm long and the cross piece is 10 cm long while the apex angle is 60°. Find
the resistance of the letter between the two ends of the legs. (Ans. 80 
5. Two batteries A and B connected in parallel and load of 5 is connected across their
terminals. A has an e.m.f. of 6 V and an internal resistance of 1; B has an e.m.f. of 4V
and an internal resistance of 0.5 . Using Kirchhoff’s laws determine the value and direction
of flow of current in each battery and in the external resistance. Also determine the potential
difference across the external resistance.
(Ans. 1·625 A charging ; 0·75 A discharging ; 0·875 A ; 4·375 V)
6. A wheatstone bridge ABCD is arranged as follows :
Resistance between A – B, B – C, C – D, D – A and B – D are 20, 4, 16, 8 and 10 ohm
respectively. A 200 V supply is connected between terminals A and C. Determine the currents
in branches AB and AD of the circuit and total current taken from the supply.
(Ans. 7·44 A; 11·905 A ; 19·345 A)
7. In the circuit shown in fig.1.143, determine the current supplied by the d.c. generator
of 280V. (Ans. 4 A)
8. By using Kirchhoff’s laws, determine current in XY in the circuit shown in fig. 1.144.
(Ans. 40 A)
9. Using superposition theorem, find the current in all the branches of the circuit shown in fig.1.145.
(Ans. 4·4915 A, 2·2881 A, 2·2084 A)
10. Using superposition theorem, determine potential difference across 60 resistor in the network
shown in fig. 1.146. (Ans. 87·3 V)

40 160A  
X 0·1

+ 40A
18A 
0·2 + +
280V   0·1 0·1  60V 10V
– – –
+
50A 70A – 20V 
0·2
Y
FIG. 1.143 FIG.1.144 FIG.1.145

  
2 5

+
90 115V
– + 4
500 90 20   
– 30V
100V –
125 – 25V
+ 60
+

FIG.1.146 FIG.1.147 FIG.1.148

11. Using Thevenin’s theorem, determine the current is 20 ohm resistor of the network shown in
fig. 1.147. (Ans. 0·433 A)
12. Using Thevenin’s theorem, determine the current in 3 ohm resistor in the network shown in
fig.1.148. What will be the value of current if this resistance is replaced by 15 ohm resistor?
(Ans. 2 A, 1 A)
13. Using Norton’s theorem, determine current in 60 resistor of the network shown in
fig. 1.146. (Ans. 0·433 A)
14. Using Norton’s theorem, determine current in 3 resistor of the network shown in fig.1.148.
(Ans. 2 A)
15. The resistance and inductance of a coil are 5  and 0·15 m H respectively. What potential
difference exists at the terminals of the solenoid at the instant when the current is 3 A but
increasing at the rate of 105 A/s. (Ans. 30 V)
16. The resistance and inductance of an inductive coil are 5 and 20 H respectively. At the instant
of closing the supply, the current increases at the rate of 4 A/s. Calculate (i) the applied voltage
(ii) the rate of growth of current when the current is 5 A (iii) the time taken to reach 10 A after
closing the circuit and (iv) the time taken to reach 10 A while decaying after reaching the
maximum value. (Ans. 80 V ; 2·75 A/s ; 3·923 s ; 1·88 s)
17. A 2F capacitor is connected, by closing switch, to a supply of 100 V through a 1 M ohm
series resistance. Calculate (i) the time constants (ii) initial charging current, (iii) the initial rate
of rise of p.d. across capacitor, (iv) voltage across the capacitor 6 second after the switch has
been closed and (v) the time taken for the capacitor to be fully charged.
(Ans. 25 ; 100  A ; 50 V/s ; 95·1 V ; 10s)
18. A capacitor is charged from d.c. source through a resistance of 2 mega – ohm. If it takes 0·5
seconds for the charge to reach 75% of its initial value, what is the capacitance of the capacitor.
(Ans. 18 × 10–4 F)
19. A resistance R and a 2 F capacitor are connected in series across a 200 V d.c. supply. Across
the capacitor is connected a neon lamp that strikes at 120 V. Calculate the value of R to make
the lamp strike 5 seconds after switch is closed. (Ans. 2·73 M )

1. If the length of a conductor or wire is doubled and its diameter is also doubled, then its
resistance will
(A) increase to four times (B) decreaseto half
(C) increaseto two times (D) remain the same
2. A man has three resistances, each of value 1/3 ohm. What is the value of minimum
resistance which he can obtain by combining them?
(A) 1 ohm (B) 3 ohm
(C) 1/3 ohm (D) 1/9 ohm
3. Kirchhoff’s first law states that at a junction in an electric network
(A) The algebraic sum of all the currents is zero.
(B) The algebraic sum of all the emfs is zero.
(C) The algebraic sum of all the voltage drops is zero
(D) The algebraic sum of all the forces is zero.
4. If n identical resistors are connected in series, their total value is K ohm. What will be their
effective value if they are now connected in parallel ?
(A) K/n (B) K2/n (C) K/n2 (D) n2/K
5. A parallel arrangement of 3 ohm and 6 ohm resistors is placed in series with an 8 ohm
resistor. If p.d. of 60 V is connected across the whole circuit, the current in the three-ohm
resistor is6A
(A) 6A (B) 4A (C) 2A (D) 5A
6. A voltage sources is considered to be an ideal one if its internal resistance is
(A) almost equal to zero (B) between 100 to 1000 ohm
(C) between 1000 to 9000 ohm (D) almost equal to infinity
7. In an inductive coil, the delay in change of current depends upon the value of its
(A) Resistance (B) Inductance
(C) Capacitance (D) Earth
8. A voltage divider and its Thevenin’s equivalent circuit is shown in the fig.1.149. What
will be the value of Ethand Rth
 Rth

120
+ +
– 20V – Eth Fig. 1.149
80

(A) 8V, 48  (B) 4V, 48  (C) 4V, 24  (D) 8V, 24 

9. In the circuit shown in the fig.1.150, the power consumed in the resistor connected
across A– B is
A  B 

+ +
 24V
– 12V – Fig. 1.150
C

(A) 32 W (B) 0W (C) 16 W (D) 64 W

S No. Question (In para) Marks CO BL PO
1. If the length of a conductor or wire is doubled
and its diameter is also doubled, then its resistance will
(A) increase to four times
(B) decrease to half
(C) increase to two times
(D) remain the same 1 CO1 BL3 PO1
2. A man has three resistances, each of value 1/3 ohm.
What is the value of minimum resistance which he can
obtain by combining them?
(A)1 ohm (B) 3 ohm (C) 1/3 ohm (D) 1/9 ohm 1 CO1 BL3 PO1
3. Kirchhoff’s first law states that at a junction in an
electric network
(A) The algebraic sum of all the currents is zero.
(B) The algebraic sum of all the emfs is zero.
(C) The algebraic sum of all the voltage drops is zero
(D) The algebraic sum of all the forces is zero. 1 CO1 BL1 PO1
4. If n identical resistors are connected in series, their total
value is K ohm. What will be their effective value if they
are now connected in parallel?
(A) K/n (B) K2/n
(C) K/n2 (D) n2/K 1 CO1 BL1 PO1
5. A parallel arrangement of 3 ohm and 6 ohm resistors is
placed in series with an 8 ohm resistor. If p.d. of 60 V
is connected across the whole circuit, the current in the
three-ohm resistor is6A
(A) 6A (B) 4A
(C) 2A (D) 5A 1 CO1 BL5 PO1
6. A voltage sources is considered to be an ideal one if its
internal resistance is
(A) almost equal to zero
(B) between 100 to 1000 ohm
(C) between 1000 to 9000 ohm
(D) almost equal to infinity 1 CO1 BL2 PO2
7. In an inductive coil, the delay in change of current
depends upon the value of its
(A) Resistance (B) Inductance
(C) Capacitance (D) Earth 1 CO1 BL2 PO3
8. A voltage divider and its Thevenin’s equivalent circuit is
shown in the fig.1.151. What will be the value of Ethand Rth
(A) 8V, 48 W (B) 4V, 48 W
(C) 4V, 24 W (D) 8V, 24 W 1 CO1 BL6 PO4

Rth

120
+ +
– 20V – Eth Fig. 1.151
80

9. In the circuit shown in the fig.1.152, the power

consumed in the resistor connected across A—B is
(A) 32 W (B) 0 W
(C) 16 W (D) 64 W 1 CO1 BL6 PO4
A  B 

+ +
– 12V  24V
– Fig. 1.152
C
 1. What are the various electric circuit elements? How will you distinguish between.
(i) linear and non-linear elements (ii) Active and passive elements.
2. Giving examples, explain what do you mean by
(i) Fixed and variable resistors. (ii) Fixed and variable capacitors
3. Explain, what do you mean by real voltage and current sources.
4. State and explain Ohm’s law. Give its limitations.
5. Show that :
(i) in series circuit, the effective value of resistance ; R = R1 + R2 + ........... + Rn.
(ii) in parallel circuit, the reciprocal of the effective value of resistance, is equal to the sum
of the reciprocal of individual resistances.
6. Distinguish between
(i) Node and junction ; (ii) loop and mesh
7. State and explain Kirchhoff’s current and voltage law.
8. While applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to a loop, how signs are applied to the e.m.f. and
voltage drop?
9. State and explain superposition theorem how is it applied for solving a network?
10. State Thevenin’s theorem, illustrate the application of the theorem with reference to an
appropriate electric network.
11. State and explain Norton’s theorem. Show that this theorem is just the converse of
Thevenin’s theorem.
12. When a d.c. supply is connected to an inductive circuit and the circuit is closed, prove
that current in the circuit at any instant is given by the relation
V
i =
R
e
1  e Rt / L j
13. A d.c. voltage V is applied across a circuit consisting of resistance R ohms in series with
a capacitance C farads. Derive expression for variation of voltage across C with time.
14. A condenser and a resistor are connected in series with a d.c. source. Find the charge on
the condenser at a time ‘t’ after switching the circuit and hence determine the rate of
growth of charge?
15. A condenser and a resistor are connected in series with a d.c. source of V volt. Derive
an expression for the voltage across the capacitor after ‘t’ second when the capacitor is
discharged.
S No. Question (In para) Marks CO BL PO
1. What are the various electric circuit elements?
How will you distinguish between.
(i) linear and non-linear elements
(ii) Active and passive elements. 5 CO1 BL2 PO1
2. By giving examples, explain what do you mean by
(i) Fixed and variable resistors.
(ii) Fixed and variable capacitors 5 CO1 BL2 PO1
3. Explain, what do you mean by real voltage and
current sources. 5 CO1 BL2 PO1
4. State and explain Ohm’s law. Give its limitations. 5 CO1 BL3 PO2
5. Show that : (i)in series circuit, the effective value of
resistance. R = R1 + R2 + ........... + Rn.
(ii) in parallel circuit, the reciprocal of the effective
value of resistance, is equal to the sum of the
reciprocal of individual resistances. 8 CO1 BL3 PO2
6. Distinguish between
(i) Node and junction ; (ii) loop and mesh 5 CO1 BL4 PO2
7. State and explain Kirchhoff’s current and voltage law. 8 CO1 BL3 PO2
8. While applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to a loop,how
signs are applied to the e.m.f. and voltage drop? 8 CO1 BL5 PO4
9. State and explain superposition theorem how is it
applied for solving a network? 10 CO1 BL5 PO4
10. State Thevenin’s theorem, illustrate the application of
the theorem with reference to an appropriate electric
network. 10 CO1 BL5 PO4
11. State and explain Norton’s theorem. Show that this
theorem is just the converse of Thevenin’s theorem. 10 CO1 BL5 PO4
12. When a d.c. supply is connected to an inductive
circuit and the circuit is closed, prove that current in
the circuit at any instant is given by the relation, I = 10 CO1 BL6 PO4
13. A d.c. voltage V is applied across a circuit consisting
of resistance R ohms in series with a capacitance C
farads. Derive expression for variation of voltage
across C with time. 10 CO1 BL6 PO5
14. A condenser and a resistor are connected in series
across a d.c. source. Find the charge on the
 condenser at a time ‘t’ after switching the circuit and
hence determine the rate of growth of charge? 10 CO1 BL6 PO5
15. A condenser and a resistor are connected in series
with a d.c. source of V volt. Derive an expression
for the voltage across the capacitor after ‘t’ second
when the capacitor is discharged. 10 CO1 BL6 PO5

ATTAINMENT & GAP ANALYSIS

Attainment of the Programme Outcomes will be compiled in the table below to make a Gap Analysis
and work out remedial measures:
Course Attainment of the Programme Outcomes
Outcome (1- Weak Correlation; 2- Medium correlation; 3- Strong Correlation)
PO-1 PO-2 PO-3 PO-4 PO-5 PO-6 PO-7 PO-8 PO-9 PO-10 PO-11 PO-12
CO-1
CO-2
CO-3

Multi-Choice questions :
1. (B) 2. (D) 3. (A) 4. (C) 5. (B)
6. (A) 7. (B) 8. (A) 9. (C)
 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

LABORATORY WORK

To bridge the gap between theory and practice, it is very important to perform various experiments in
the laboratories. The following points show the importance of laboratory work.
1. By performing various experiments in the laboratory, the students can understand the subject
matter more effectively.
2. Experiments have more deep rooted effects on the developing brain of the students.
3. By performing experiments, students become more confident to handle various instruments
and devices.
4. In the laboratories, students can see the actual parts of various machines and equipment. This
improves their working knowledge.
5. Ultimately, experimentation in the Laboratories built-up self confidence in the students to work
in different industries/works/departments.

The following are some essential tools which should be kept by each students while working in Electrical
Laboratories: (i) Test pin (ii) Screw drivers (7·5 cm & 20 cm) (iii) Cutter (with sleeves) (iv) Pliar (with
sleeves) etc.

The following important points must be kept in mind while performing various experiments in the
laboratory:
1. First of all, the students should study the general layout/ setup of the laboratory.
2. Before starting the experiment, one should check the protective and switching devices of relevant
machines / equipment.
3. Connecting leads of proper sizes (with thimbles at both ends) should be used.
4. For every experiment before energizing, the connections must be got checked by the teacher
in-charge.
5. The measuring instruments of proper range should be selected for correct results.
6. The instruments and apparatus should be carefully handled to prevent any damage.
7. Every student must be familiar with the use of three basic instruments viz voltmeter, ammeter
and wattmeter.
Voltmeter: it is always connected across the terminals (parallel) where voltage is to be measured.
Ammeter: it is always connected in series with the circuit in which current is to be measured.
Wattmeter: it has two coils, one current coil marked M-L is connected in series and the other
potential coil marked V1 – V2 is connected in parallel.
The following are some of the important precautions to be observed while performing various experiments
in electrical laboratory.
1. Never touch the bare conductors or terminals while performing experiments without switching
off the supply.
2. Always wear shoes with rubber sole while performing experiments.
3. Always check that the connections are tight otherwise sparking may occur.

Basic safety precautions. Introduction and use of measuring instruments – voltmeter, ammeter, multi-
meter, oscilloscope. Real-life resistors, capacitors and inductors.
Objective: To make the students aware of
1. Basic safety precautions.
2. The use of measuring instruments – voltmeter, ammeter, multi-meter, oscilloscope.
3. Real-life resistors, capacitors and inductors.

1. Find out the location of electrical panels of workplace so that power can be quickly shut down
in the event of a fire are electrical accident.
2. Always maintain a minimum 1metre clearance around the electrical panels at all times to permit
ready and safe operation and maintenance of equipment.
3. Never overload circuits or wires, overloading causes overheating of wireswhich can cause
arcing or fire.
4. Inspect all electrical equipment before use to ensure that chords and plugs are in good condition
not worn,twisted, abraded or missing ground points.
5. Ensure that all electrical outlets have a grounded connection requiring a three-pronged plug.All
electrical equipment should have three-pronged grounded plugs.
6. While working on electrical equipment, ensure thatpower has been disconnected.
7. Before working on electrical equipment, ensure that all extension cords used are carefully
placed and visible (not subject to any danger).
8. Ensure that extension cords are of adequate size to carry the current.The failure may lead to
electric fire.9. Always keep flammable materials away from electrical equipment.
10. Keep all the electrical equipment away from wet locations.Never handle electrical equipment
when hands feet or body are wet.
11. If an electrical fire happens, leave the area and pull the nearest fire alarm do not use water on an
electrical fire.If it is safe and possible to reach the panel, shutdown the main power source.
12. If a person gets an electric shock, do not touch the equipment, cord or person. Evaluate the
situation, if safe shut down the main power sourceand call the fire department to treat the
injured person.
 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Voltmeter is a device/instrument which is used to measure potential difference across the load or between
any two points in a circuit.Voltmeter is always connected across (in parallel with) the load or acrossthe
network.Based on circuit conditions, it carries some current.If this current is large, it disturbs the
circuit conditions.
To minimise the effect of voltmeter on the circuit conditions, the resistance of voltmeter is made very
high so that it carries a small amount of current. Hencethe resistance of a voltmeter is always kept very
high. The pictorial view of a dc and an ac voltmeter is shown in fig. P1.1(a) and (b) respectively.

Fig. P1.1(a) DC Voltmeter Fig. P1.1(b)AC Voltmeter

Ammeter is a device/instrument which is used to measure electric current flowing through the load or in
a circuit or its branch. Ammeter is always connected in series with the load or a circuit or its branch in
which current is to be measured. Accordingly, it carries the same current as that of the load or circuit.
If this instrument is having high resistance, there will be more voltage drop across the instrument, this
will definitely disturb the circuit conditions.
To minimise the effect of ammeter on the circuit conditions, the resistance of ammeter is kept very low
so that the voltage drop across it be kept low. Hence the resistance of a ammeter is always kept very
low. The pictorial view of a dc and an ac ammeter is shown in fig. P1.2(a) and (b) respectively.

Fig. P1.2(a) DC Ammeter Fig. P1.2(b) AC Ammeter

Multi-meter is a device/instrument which is used to measure resistance of a resistor, potential
difference(both dc and ac) across two terminals and current (dc and ac both) flowing through any
circuit or its branch.The pictorial view of an analogue and a digital multi-meter is shown in fig. P1.3(a)
and (b) respectively.

Fig. P1.3(a) Analog Multi-meter Fig. P1.3(b)Digital Multi-meter

Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO) is a device/instrument which is used for drawing and calibrating
graph of voltage versus time very quickly and conveniently.This instrument is obviously useful for the
design and repair of circuits in which voltages and currents are changing with time.The heart of the
oscilloscope is a cathode ray tube (CRT).The pictorial view of a CRO is shown in fig. P1.4.

Fig. P1.4 CRO (Cathode Ray Oscilloscope)

Inductoris a solenoid i.e. when a length of wire is woundin the form of a coil it obtains the properties of
a basic inductor.It is a circuit element which opposes the change of current.The property of a coil due
to which it opposes the change of current (ac current) is called inductance. The unit of inductance is
henry (H). The pictorial view of a general inductor is shown in fig. P1.5(a) whereas its symbol is shown
in fig. P1.5(b).
 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Fig. P1.5(a) Inductor Fig. P1.5(b) Symbol of an Inductor

Two conducting surfaces separated by a dielectric medium or insulator form a capacitor.Capacitors

may be classified on the basis of dielectric medium used in the capacitor or the shape of its plates.It has
the ability to store electric charge. Capacitance of a capacitor is measured in farad(F). The pictorial view
of various types of capacitors is shown in fig. P1.6(a) whereas, symbol of fixed and variable capacitor
is shown in fig. P1.6(b& c) respectively.

Fig. P1.6(a) Various types of capacitors

Fig. P1.6(b) Symbol of fixed capacitors Fig. P1.6(c) Symbol of variable capacitors
Resistor is a circuit element which restricts the flow of current. It is used to limit the current in a circuit
or in any branch. It is also used to control voltages in various sections of the networks. A resistor is
represented by a letter R or r. The resistance of a resistor is measured in ohm (Ù). Small resistors used
in electronic circuits are having colour bands on its body to represent its value. A resistor is shown in
fig.P1.7(a), fig. P1.7(b) shows the symbol of fixed resistor, whereas fig. P1.7(c) shows the symbol of
a variable resistor.

Fig. P1.7(a) Resistor Fig. P1.7(b) Symbol of fixed resistor Fig. P1.7(c) Symbol of fixed resistor

Fig. P1.7(d) Colour coding of resistors

 2 AC Circuits

Rationale
The use of d.c. is limited to a few applications e.g. electroplating, charging of batteries, electric traction,
electronic circuits etc. For large scale power generation, transmission, distribution and utilisation, a.c.
system is invariably adopted. In a.c. system, voltage acting in the circuit changes polarity and magnitude
at regular interval of time and hence the current.
Alternating supply is invariably used for domestic and industrial applications. The path for the flow of
alternating current is called an a.c. circuit. In d.c. circuits, the opposition to the flow of current is only
resistance of the circuit. Whereas, in a.c. circuits, the opposition to the flow of current is due to resistance
(R), inductive reactance (XL = 2p fL) and capacitive reactance (XC = 1/2 p fC) of the circuit. In a.c. circuits
frequency plays an important role.
Although single-phase system is employed for the operation of almost all the domestic and commercial
appliances e.g. lamps, fans, electric irons, refrigerators, TV sets, washing machines, exhaust fans,
computers etc. But it has its own limitations in the field of generation, transmission, distribution and
industrial applications. Due to this it has been replaced by poly-phase system.
In this chapter, we shall confine our attention to ac supply system, ac circuits and their practical utility
in the field of engineering.

Unit Outcomes
U2-O1: Unit-2 Learning Outcome-1
To know about ac systems, terms used in this system and theelements employed in ac circuits.
U2-O2: Unit-2 Learning Outcome-2
Phasor representation of alternating quantities with different combinations of circuit elements.
U2-O3: Unit-2 Learning Outcome-3
To analyse various series and parallel combination ac electric networks.
U2-O4: Unit-2 Learning Outcome-4
To analyse polyphase systemsand circuits.
A.C. CIRCUIT 79

UNIT SPECIFICS
• Basic idea about alternating current and alternating voltage. How is it different to d.c.?
• Importance of sinusoidal alternating voltage and current waveform
• Terms used in a.c. such as frequency, time period, cycle, wave form, instantaneous,
average, rms and peak values.
• Vector representation of a.c. quantities, phase and phase difference.
• Rectangular and polar quantities, addition, subtraction, multiplication and division of vector
quantities.
• Behaviour of resistor, inductor and capacitor when connected across ac supply.
• LC Series and Parallel circuit.
• Importance of power factor and its effects on the power system?
• Series and parallel resonant circuit and their applications,
• Three-phase system and its advantages.
• Star and delta connections and how line and phase voltages are related?

MAPPING THE UNIT OUTCOMES WITH THE COURSE OUTCOMES

Unit II EXPECTED MAPPING WITH COURSE OUTCOMES
Outcomes (1-weak Correlation: 2-Medium correlation; 3-Strong Correlation)
CO-1 CO-2 CO-3
U2-O1 3 -- --
U2-O2 3 -- --
U2-O3 3 -- --
U2-O4 3 -- --

Interesting facts
• The power plant was built in 1882 by Thomas Edison. He built his Pearl Street Power Station which
provided electricity to 85 buildings. In the beginning, people were so scared of electricity that
theywould not let their children to go near lights.
• In India, the 1st hydroelectric power plant,Sidrapong hydroelectric power plant,is located in the
Darjeeling district of West Bengal. It was established in 10 November 1897 with a capacity of 130
kW (2 units each of 65kW).
• You might be wondering to seen birds sitting on high voltage electric wires and yet not getting
electrocuted. It is because both of their feet are on the same line leading to an incomplete circuit. If
any other part of their body would touch another line or iron frame of the tower/pole, they would
feel the jolt (electric shock that may lead to death).
80 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Video Resource
Videos Links for circuit

Generation AC and DC Difference

of AC between
DC and AC

How does inductor AC Circuits Generation of

works -phase emfs

2.1. ALTERNATING VOLTAGE AND CERRENT

A voltage that changes its polarity and magnitude at regular intervals of time is called an alternating
voltage.
When an alternating voltage source is connected across a load resistor R, as shown in fig.2.1, the
current flows through it in one direction and then in opposite direction when the polarity is reversed.
A A ei

+ –
 2
e R e R 0
– + t

B B
(a) Flow of current (b) Flow of current (c) Wave shape
during first half cycle during second half cycle

Fig. 2.1: Alternating voltage and current.

Fig.2.1 (c) shows the wave shape of the source voltage (representing the variation of voltage w.r.t.
time) and current flowing through the circuit (i.e. load resistor R).
Wave form : The graph representing the manner in which an alternating voltage or current changes
w.r.t. time is known as wave-form or wave-shape. While plotting a graph, usually the instantaneous
values of the alternating quantities are taken along y-axis and time along x-axis. The alternating voltage or
current may vary in different manner, as shown in fig.2.2, accordingly their wave shapes are named in
different ways such as irregular wave ; triangular wave ; square wave ; periodic wave ; saw-tooth wave
; sine wave etc.
A.C. CIRCUIT 81

ei ei ei

 2  2  2
0 0 0
t t t

(a)Irregular wave (b)Triangular wave (c) Square wave

Fig.2.2: Wave shape of ac quantities (i)

ei ei ei

6 7 8 9 1011 2  2  2
0 0 0
1 2 34 5  12
t t
t

(d) Periodic wave (e) Saw-tooth wave (f) Sine wave

Fig.2.2: Wave shape of ac quantities

2.2. ADVANTEGES OF AC SYSTEM OVER DC SYSTEM

(i) The alternating voltage can be stepped up and stepped down efficiently by means of transformer.
To transmit huge power over a long distance, the voltages are stepped up (upto 400 kV) for
economical reasons at the generating stations. Whereas, they are stepped down to a very low
level (400/230 V) for utilisation of electrical energy from safety point of view.
(ii) The a.c. motors (i.e. induction motors) are cheaper in cost, simple in construction, more
efficientand robust as compared to d.c. motors.
(iii) The switchgear (e.g. switches, circuit breakers etc.) for a.c. system is simpler than d.c. system.
Thus, a.c. system is universally adopted for generation, transmission, distribution and utilisation
of electrical energy.

2.3. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN AC AND DC

AC current DC current
1. Alternating current reverses periodically and 1. Direct current flows only in one direction and
its magnitude changes. remains unaltered.
2. Amplitude and polarities are varying continuously. 2. Amplitude and polarities are fixed.
3. It has a particular frequency. 3. It is independent of frequency.
 4. AC can be generated at higher voltages. 4. DC cannot be generated at high voltages
because of commutation difficulties.
5. In case of ac, the cost of generation is less. 5. In case of dc, the cost of generation is more.
6. Alternating voltage can be increased (stepped 6. Direction voltage cannot be increased or
up) or decreased (stepped down) easily with decreased easily.
the help of a transformer.
7. AC motors are of less cost, more robust and 7. DC motors are costly and less durable.
durable.
8. The maintenance cost of ac equipment and 8. The maintenance cost of dc equipment and
appliances is less. appliances is more.
9. AC cannot be used directly for electroplating 9. Only dc can be used directly for
electroplating.
10. The speed of ac motors cannot be controlled 10. The speed control of dc motor is very easy
easily. and economical.

An alternating quantity (i.e. voltage or current) which varies according to sine of angle  ( =  t)
is known as sinusoidal alternating quantity. Its wave shape is shown in fig.2.2 (f). For generation
of electric power, sinusoidal voltages and currents are selected all over the world due to the following
reasons :
(i) The sinusoidal voltages and currents cause low iron and copper losses in a.c. rotating
machines and transformers. This improves the efficiency of a.c. machines.
(ii) The sinusoidal voltages and currents offer less interference to nearby communication system
(telephone lines etc.)
(iii) They produce least disturbance in the electrical circuits.
Whenever the word ‘alternating voltage or current’ is used in this text, it means sinusoidal alternating
voltage or current unless stated otherwise.

An alternating voltage can be generated either (i) by rotating a coil in a uniform magnetic field at
constant speed as shown in fig.2.3 or
COIL  MOTION STATOR

MAGNET

N
A COIL
N S
+
b B A  B
L
FIELD
a MAGNET S

M
 (ii) by rotating a uniform magnetic field within a stationary coil at a constant speed as shown in fig. 2.4.
The first method is generally applied in small a.c. generators, whereas, second method is applied in large
a.c. generators due to economical considerations. In both the cases, magnetic field is cut by the conductors
(or coil sides) and an e.m.f. is induced in them. The direction and magnitude of the induced e.m.f. in the
conductors depend upon the position of the conductors as explained below :

A B A

B
 + B  + 
A 
A
B B A B
e=0 e = Em e=0 e = –Em e=0
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v)

180° 270° 360°

0 90°


For simplicity, consider a coil placed in a uniform magnetic field to which a load (LM) is connected
through brushes and slip rings as shown in fig.2.3. When it is rotated in anticlockwise direction at a
constant angular velocity of  radians per second, an e.m.f. is induced in the coil sides. The cross-
sectional view of the coil and its different positions at different instants are shown in fig.2.5.
The magnitude of induced e.m.f. depends upon the rate at which the flux is cut by the conductors. At
(i), (iii) and (v) instants, induced e.m.f. in the conductor A and B is zero as they are moving parallel to
the magnetic lines of force and the rate of flux cut is zero. Whereas, the magnitude of e.m.f. induced in
the conductor A and B is maximum at instant (ii) and (iv) as the conductors are moving perpendicular
to the magnetic lines of force and the rate of flux cut is maximum.
The direction of e.m.f. induced in the conductors is determined by applying Fleming’s right hand rule.
At instant (ii), the direction of e.m.f. induced in conductor A is outward whereas, at instant (iv), the
direction of induced e.m.f. in the conductor A is inward (i.e. the direction of induced e.m.f. at this
instant is opposite to that of the direction of induced e.m.f. at instant (ii).
The wave shape of the e.m.f. induced in the coil is also shown in fig.2.5.
Consider a coil having N turns rotating in a uniform magnetic field of density B Wb/m2 in the counter-
clockwise direction at an angular velocity of  radians per second as shown in fig.2.6.
At the instant, as shown in fig.2.6 (b) maximum flux m is linking with the coil. After t seconds, the coil
is rotated through an angle  = t radians. The component of flux linking with he coil at this instant is m
cos t. Whereas, the other component m sint is parallel to the plane of the coil.
According to Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction, the magnitude of e.m.f. induced in the coil at
this instant i.e.
Instantaneous value of e.m.f. induced in the coil,
COIL OF
N-TURNS



N-TURNS  = t

m 
m cos
m sint m t

(a) Multi-turn coil (b) Maximum flux (c) coil is rotated through q radian
linking with the coil

d
e = N (–ve sign indicates that in effect the induced e.m.f. is opposite to the
dt
very cause which produces it)
ei AMPLITUDE
d
or e =  N m cos  t (_  = m cos  t)
dt
or e = – N m (–  sin  t)  3/2 2
0
or e =  N m sin t ...(i) /2
The value of induced e.m.f. will be maximum when angle   or t
or  t = 90° (i.e. sin t = 1) T
 Em =  N m ...(ii)
Putting this value in equation (i), we get,
e = Em sin  t = Em sin 
From the above equation it is clear that the magnitude of the induced e.m.f. varies according to sine of
angle . The wave shape of the induced e.m.f. is shown in fig. 2.7. This wave form is called sinusoidal
wave.
If this voltage is applied across resistor, an alternating current will flow through it varying sinusoidally
i.e. following a sine law and its wave shape will be same as shown in fig.2.7.
This alternating current is given by the equation :
i = Im sin  t = Im sin 
An alternating voltage or current changes its magnitude and direction at regular intervals of time. A
sinusoidal voltage or current varies as a sine function of time t or angle  ( =  t). The following
important terms are generally used in alternating quantities :
(i) Wave form : The shape of the curve obtained by plotting the instantaneous values of alternating
quantity (voltage or current) along y-axis and time or angle ( =  t) along x-axis is called wave
form or wave shape. Fig.2.7 shows the waveform of an alternating quantity varying sinusoidally.
The graphical representation of an alternating quantity is called its wave form.
(ii) Instantaneous value : The value of an alternating quantity i.e. voltage or current at any
instant is called its instantaneous value and is represented by e or i respectively.
(iii) Cycle : When an alternating quantity goes through a complete set of +ve and –ve values or
goes through 360 electrical degrees, it is said to have completed one cycle.
(iv) Alternation : One half cycle is called alternation. An alternation spans 180 electrical degrees.
(v) Time period : The time taken in seconds to complete one cycle by an alternating quantity is
called time period. It is generally denoted by T.
(vi) Frequency : The number of cycles made per second by an alternating quantity is called
frequency. It is measured in cycles per second (c/s) or hertz (Hz) and is denoted by f.
(vii) Amplitude : The maximum value (positive or negative) attained by an alternating quantity in
one cycle is called its amplitude or peak value or maximum value. The maximum value of
voltage and current is generally denoted by Em (or Vm) and Im respectively.

Some of the terms used in a.c. terminology have definite relations among themselves as given below :
(i) Relation between frequency and time period : Consider an alternating quantity having a
frequency of f c/s. Then
Time taken to complete f cycle = 1 s
Time taken to complete 1 cycle = 1/f second
Hence time period, T = 1/f second or f = 1/T c/s
(ii) Relation between frequency and angular velocity : Consider an alternating quantity having
a frequency of f c/s.
Angular distance covered in one cycle = 2 radian
 Angular distance covered per second in f cycles = 2 radian
Hence,  = 2  f radian/s

The voltage and current in d.c. system are constant so that there is no problem of specifying their
magnitudes. Whereas, in a.c. system, the alternating voltage and current varry from instant to instant.
So the question arises how to express the magnitude of alternating voltage and current. The following
three ways are adopted to express the magnitude of these quantities :
 (i) Peak Value.
(ii) Average value or Mean value.
(iii) Effective value or R.M.S. value.
The r.m.s. value of an alternating quantity (voltage or current) represents the real magnitude. Whereas,
the peak and average values are important in some of the engineering applications.

The maximum value attained by an alternating quantity during one cycle is called is peak value. This is
also called maximum value or crest value or amplitude. A sinusoidal alternating quantity obtains its
maximum value at 90° as shown in fig. 2.7. The peak of an alternating voltage and current is represented
by Em and Im. The knowledge of peak value is important in case of testing dielectric strength of insulating
materials.

The arithmetic average of all the instantaneous values considered of an alternating quantity (current or
voltage) over one cycle is called average value.
In case of symmetrical waves (like sinusoidal current or voltage wave) i

the +ve half is exactly equal to the –ve half, therefore, the average i
i2 3
value over a complete cycle is zero. Since work is being done by the i1 in
current in the +ve as well as in –ve half cycle, therefore, average  2
0
value is determined regardless of signs. Hence, to determine average
value of alternating quantities having symmetrical waves, only (+ve 
half) cycle is considered.
Divide the +ve half cycle into n number of equal parts as shown in
fig. 2.8. Let i1, i2, i3 .... in be the mid-ordinates.
Average value of current, Ia = mean of mid-ordinates.
i1  i2  i3  ...  in
=
n
Area of alternation
=
base

The alternating current varying sinusoidally, as shown in fig. 2.9, is

given by the equation :  2
0
i = Im sin  d
Consider an elementary strip of thickness d in the +ve half cycle, i be 
its mid-ordinate. Then
Area of strip = i d 
 Area of half cycle = z


0
id  z


0
Im sin  d 

b g b g
= Im  cos  0  Im  (cos   cos 0)  Im [  (  1  1)]  2 Im
Base = 0 to  =  – 0 = 
Area of alternation 2 Im I
 Average value, Ia =   m  0 ∙ 637 Im
base  / 2

That steady current which when flows through a resistor of known resistance for a given time produces
the same amount of heat as produced by the alternating current when flows through the same resistor for
the same time is called effective or r.m.s. value of the alternating current.
Let i be the alternating current flowing through a resistor of resistance R for time t seconds which
produces the same amount of heat energy as produced by Ieff (a direct current). The base of one
t
alternation is divided into n equal parts, as shown in fig. 2.10, so that interval is of second. Let i1, i2,
n
i3, ..... in be the mid-ordinate.
Then heat energy produced in the i
i3
First interval = i12 Rt / n joule i2
i1 in
Second interval = i22 Rt / n joule  2
0
Third interval = i32 Rt / n joule or t

nth interval = in2 Rt / n joule FIG. 10

 i 2  i22  i32  ......  in2 

Total heat produced  Rt  1  joule ...(i)
 n 
Since Ieff is considered as the effective value of this current.
2
Then total heat energy produced by this current = I eff Rt joule ...(ii)

Equating equation (i) and (ii), we get,

2
 i 2  i 2  i 2  ......in2 
I eff Rt  Rt  1 2 3 
 n 

i12  i22  i32  ....  in2

or Ieff = = mean of squares of instantaneous values
n
 or Ieff = Square root of mean of squares of instantaneous values
= root-mean-square (r.m.s.) value
It is the actual value of an alternating quantity which tells us the energy transfer capability of an a.c.
source. For example, if we say that 5A alternating current is flowing through a circuit, it means the
r.m.s. value of alternating current which flows through the circuit is 5A. It transfers the same amount of
energy as is transferred by 5A d.c.
The ammeters and voltmeters record the r.m.s. values of alternating currents and voltages respectively.
The domestic single-phase a.c. supply is 230 V, 50 Hz. Where 230 V is the r.m.s. value of alternating
voltage.

An alternating current varying sinusoidally is given by the equation ;

i = Im sin 
To determine the r.m.s. value, the squared wave of the alternating current is drawn as shown in fig. 2.11.
Considering an elementary strip of thickness d in the first half cycle of the squared wave. Let i2 be its
mid-ordinate. Then
i2
Area of strip = i2 d  i i2 i 2
Area of first half cycle of squared wave i

= z


0
i 2 d  z


0
( Im sin )2 d 0
d
 2

= Im2 z


0
sin 2  d   Im2 z


0
1  cos 2
2
d

I
= m
2 z
2 

0
(1  cos 2  ) d 
Im2
2
FG

H
sin 2 
2
IJ 
K0

Im2 FG
(   0) 
sin 2   sin 0 IJ
=
2 H 2 K
I2  Im2
= m [(   0)  ( 0  0) 
2 2
Base = 0 to  =  – 0 = 
Effective or r.m.s. value,
 Area of first half of squared wave  Im2 I m2 I
Ir.m.s. = =  = m = 0·707 Im
base 2 2 2
Usually r.m.s. value of alternating current is simply represented by I instead of Ir.m.s. Similarly, r.m.s.
value of alternating voltage is represented by E or V.

There exists a definite relation among the average value, r.m.s. value and peak value of an alternating
quantity. The relationship is expressed by the two factors namely, form factor and peak factor.
(i) Form factor : The ratio of r.m.s. value to average value of an alternating quantity is called form
factor.

I E
Mathematically, Form factor = r .m.s. or r.m.s.
Ia  Ea 
For the current varying sinusoidally ;

Ir.m.s. Im / 2  Im
Form factor =   = 1·111
Ia  2 Im /  2 2 Im
(ii) Peak factor : The ratio of maximum value to r.m.s. value of an alternating quantity is called
peak factor.
Im Em
Mathematically, Peak factor = or
Ir.ms. Er .m.s.
For current varying sinusoidally :
Im Im
Peak factor =  = 2 = 1·4142
Ir .m.s. Im / 2
Example 2.1. An alternating voltage is given by v = 282.8 sin 377t. Find
(i) Frequency (ii) r.m.s. value (iii) average value
(iv) the instantaneous value of voltage when ‘t’ is 3 m sec.
(v) the time taken for the voltage to reach 200V for the first time after passing through zero
value.
Solution : (i) Given that, v = 282.8 sin 377 t
Comparing above equation with
v = Vin sin  t
 = 377 rad/sec.
377 377
 Frequency, f = 2   2  3.14 = 60 Hz (Ans.)
 Vm 282.8
(ii) RMS value of the voltage, Vrms =  = 200 V (Ans.)
2 2
2Vm 2  282.8
(iii) Average value, Vav =  = 180 V (Ans.)
 
(iv) v = 282.8 sin 377 t. At t = 3 m s = 3 × 10–3 s
v = 282.8 sin 377 × 3 × 10–3 = 255.9 V (Ans.)
(v) v = 282.8 sin 377 t or 200 = 282.8 sin 377 t
1  200 
or t= sin 1  = 2·08 × 10–3 s = 2·08 m s (Ans.)
377  282.8 
Example 2.2. Find the rms value, average value and form factor of the voltage waveform shown
in fig.2.12.
Solution : Average value of voltage over one cycle

z

2 Vm sin  d
= 0
2

Vm
 z


0
sin  d 

2 Vm 2
=   200 = 127.32 V (Ans.)    
  

RMS value of voltage over one cycle

z 
2 Vm2 sin 2  d 
= 2
2

Vm2
2 z

0
2 sin 2  d  
Vm2
2 z


0
(1  cos 2 ) d 

Vm2 V 200
=   m  = 141.42 V (Ans.)
2 2 2

RMS value 141.42

Form factor = = = 1·111 (Ans.)
Average value 127.32
Example 2.3. Find the average and rms values of the current, I(t) = 10 + 10 sin 314t.
Solution : The wave diagram of given current i (t) = 10 + 10 sin 314 t is shown in fig.2.13.
Average value of the given current,
 I av = Idc + Iav of ac component.
i
2 Im 2 × 10
= 10   10 
  i = 10 sin 314 t

10 Idc = 10A
= 10 + 6·366 = 16·366 A (Ans.)
10
RMS value of the given current
I rms = Idc + Irms of ac component
0
I 10
= 10  m  10 
2 2
= 10 + 7·071 = 17·071 A (Ans.)
Example 2.4. Calculate the average value, r.m.s.
value, form factor and peak factor of a periodic
current wave having values for equal time 90
interval changing suddenly from one value to
next : 0, 30, 45, 60, 90, 60, 45, 30, 0, – 30, – 60
45, –60 etc. ampere. What would be the average
and the r.m.s. value of a sine wave having the 30
same peak value ? 9 10 11 12 13141516

Solution : The periodic wave form of the 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

alternating current is shown in fig.2.14. –30
Average value of current,
–60
i1  i2  ....  in
Ia  = (where n = 8)
n –90

0  30  45  60  90  60  45  30
=
8
= 45 A (Ans.)
R.M.S. value of current,

i12  i22  ... in2 = 0  (30) 2  (45) 2  (60) 2  (90) 2  (60)2  (45) 2  (30) 2
Ir.m.s. =
n 8

21150
= = 51.42 A (Ans.)
8

I r.m.s. 51.42
Form factor =  = 1·1427 (Ans.)
I av 45

Im 90
Peak factor =  = 1·75 (Ans.)
I r.m.s. 51.42
 Average value of sinusoidal a.c. having peak value of 90 A ;
Ia  = 0·637 Im = 0·637 × 90 = 57·33 A (Ans.)
R.M.S. value,
Im 90
Ir.m.s. =  = 63·64 A (Ans.)
2 2

1. An alternating voltage is given by v = 141.4 sin 314t. Find

(i) Frequency (ii) r.m.s. value (iii) average value
(iv) the instantaneous value of voltage when ‘t’ is 3 m sec.
(v) the time taken for the voltage to reach 200V for the first time after passing through zero
value. (Ans, 50Hz, 100V, 90V, 114.4V, 2.5ms)
2. Find the rms value, average value and form factor of a rectified simusoidal ac voltage having
maximum value of 100V. (Ans, 63.66V, 70.71V, 1.11)
3. Find the average and rms values of the current, I(t) = 15 + 15 sin 314t (Ans, 24.55A, 25.6A).
4. Calculate the average value, r.m.s. value, form factor and peak factor of a periodic current
wave having values for equal time interval changing suddenly from one value to next : 0, 20,
45, 50, 80, 50, 45, 20, 0, – 20, –45, –50 etc. ampere. What would be the average and the r.m.s.
value of a sine wave having the same peak value ?
(Ans, 38.75A, 45.07A, 1.163, 1.775, 50.96A, 56.56A)

It has been seen that an alternating quantity (varying sinusoidally) can be represented in the form of
wave and equation. The wave form shows the graphical representation, whereas, the equation
represents the mathematical expression of the instantaneous value of an alternating quantity.
The same alternating quantity can also be represented by a line of definite length (representing its
maximum value) rotating in counter-clockwise direction at a constant velocity ( radians/second).
Such a rotating line is called a phasor.
Thus, an alternating quantity can be represented by a phasor which shows its magnitude and
direction at that instant.
For instant, consider an alternating quantity (current) represented by the equation i = Im sin  t. Take
a line OA to represent the maximum value of current Im to scale. Imagine this line is rotating in
counter-clockwise direction at an angular velocity of  radian/s about point O. After t seconds the
line is rotated through an angle  ( =  t), from its horizontal position as shown in fig.2.15. The
projection of line OA on the Y-axis is OB.
OB = OA sin  = Im sin  t
= i (the value of current at that instant)
Hence, the projection of the phasor OA on the Y-axis (i.e. OB) at any instant gives the value of
current at that instant.
 
A
B i
Im
 180° 360°
O 0

Thus, a sinusoidal alternating quantity is represented by a phasor (vector) of length to scale equal
to its maximum value rotated through an angle  with the axis of reference (i.e. X-axis).
The phasor representation of an alternating quantity enables us to understand its magnitude and
position on the axis. The alternating quantities can be added and subtracted with a fair degree of ease
by representing them vectorially (phasor diagram).

The phase of an alternating quantity (current or voltage) at an instant is defined as the fractional part of
a cycle through which the quantity has advanced from a selected origin (see fig.2.16). In actual practice,
we are more concerned with the phase difference between the two alternating quantities rather than
their absolute phase.
The two alternating quantities having same frequency, when attain their zero value at different instants,
the quantities are said to have a phase difference. This angle between zero points (and are becoming
positive) of two alternating quantities is called angle of phase difference.

 i2
i2 i1
 i Im1
i1
Im Im2
Im Im1
 0  2  0  2
Im  90° Im2
 t or 

or t

In fig. 2.17, two alternating currents of magnitude Im1 and Im2 are shown vectorially. Both the vectors
are rotating at same angular velocity of  radian per second. The zero values are obtained by the two
currents at different instants. Therefore, they are said to have a phase difference of angle .
In other words, the phase difference may be defined as the angular displacement between the
maximum positive value of the two alternating quantities having the same frequency.
The quantity which attains its +ve maximum value prior to the other is called a leading quantity,
whereas, the quantity which attains its +ve maximum value after the other is called a lagging
quantity. In this case current Im1 is leading current w.r.t. Im2 or is other words current Im2 is the
lagging current w.r.t. Im1.

In a.c. circuits, sometimes it is required to add or subtract the alternating quantities. In such cases,
we proceed as follows :

The given alternating quantities are represented as phasor and then they are added in the same manner
as forces are added. Only phasors of the similar quantities are added i.e. either all the currents are
added or all the voltages are added. Voltages and currents are never added with each other. For
addition, the following method is most suitable and simple:
Method of components : In this method each phasor is resolved into horizontal and vertical
components. The horizontal components are added algebraically to obtain the resultant horizontal
component IXX. Similarly, vertical components are summed up algebraically to obtain the resultant
vertical component IYY. i1
Consider an a.c. parallel circuit consisting of three branches
each carrying a current of i1, i2 and i3 respectively as shown i2
in fig. 2.18. Let the three currents be represented by ;
i3
i1 = Im1 sin ( t + 1) ;
ir
i2 = Im2 sin  t
and i3 = Im3 sin ( t – 2)
A.C. SUPPLY
The maximum values of the three currents Im1, Im2 and Im3
are represented by the phasors as shown in fig.2.19(a).
Resolving the components horizontally and vertically.
Algebraic sum of horizontal components ;
IXX = Im1 cos 1 + Im2 + Im3 cos 2
Algebraic sum of vertical components ;
I YY = Im1 sin 1 + 0 – Im3 sin 2
Maximum value of resultant components ;

Imr = ( I XX )2  ( IYY )2
If  is the phase difference (leading) between resultant current and horizontal axis as shown in fig.
2.19(b). Then
 Y
Im1 Y

IYY
I mr
1 Im2

X X X
2 2 IXX X

Im3
Y

Y
(b) Resultant phasor diagram
(a) Phasor position of three currents

IYY
 = tan–1
I XX
The instantaneous value of the resultant current is given by the relation ;
ir = Imr sin ( t + )
However, if IYY comes out to be negative, the angle of phase difference will be lagging (i.e. –). Then
the instantaneous value of the resultant current will be given by the relation
ir = Imr sin ( t – )

The methods explained above (i.e. parallelogram method and method of components) are also applied
for the subtraction of an alternating quantity. The only difference is that in this case, the phasor of
the alternating quantity which is to be subtracted is reversed or represented 180° out of phase. Then
it is added with the other alternating quantity (or quantities) as usual.
Example 2.5. Draw a phasor diagram showing the following voltages.
v 1 = 100 sin 500 t ; v 2 = 200 sin (500 t + /3)
v 3 = – 50 cos 500 t ; v 4 = 150 sin (500 t – /4)
Find RMS value of resultant voltage. V2

Solution : v 1 = 100 sin 500 t

F  I
v 2 = 200 sin 500 t  H 3 K /3

v 3 = – 50 cos 500 t /4 V1

F   500 t I
= 50 sin
H2 K V3
V4
= 50 sin (500 t – /2)
v 4 = 150 sin (500 t – /4)
 All the four voltages are shown vectorially in fig.2.20.
Resolving the phasors in horizontal axis ;
  
Vxx = V1 cos 0 + V2 cos + V3 cos + V4 cos
3 2 4
= 100 × 1 + 200 × 0·5 + 50 × 0 + 150 × 0·707 = 306·05 V
Resolving the phasors in vertical axis ;
  
Vyy = V1 sin 0 + V2 sin – V3 sin – V4 sin
3 2 4
= 100 × 0 + 200 × 0·866 – 50 × 1 – 150 × 0·707 = 17·15 V
Maximum value of resultant voltage ;

Vmr = Vxx2  Vyy

2
 ( 306 ∙ 05)2  (17 ∙ 15)2 = 306·53 V

Vm r 306 ∙ 53
RMS value of resultant voltage, Vrms(r) =  = 216·75 V (Ans.)
2 2

The circuit containing a pure resistance (R) ohm is i R

shown in fig.2.21.
The alternating voltage applied across the circuit is
given by the equation ;
v = Vm sin  t ...(i)
The instantaneous value of current flowing through
the resistor will be ;  = Vm sin t

v Vm
i =  sin  t ....(ii)
R R
The value of current will be maximum when
 t = 90° or sin  t = 1 p

Im = Vm/R 
Substituting this value is equation (ii), we get, pi
i
i = Im sin  t ....(iii)
Phase angle : The equation (i) and (iii), clearly
 2
show that there is no phase difference between 0 0
Im Vm
applied voltage and current flowing through the 
circuit i.e. phase angle between voltage and current
is zero. The phasor diagram and wave diagram is
shown in fig.2.22 (a) and 2.22 (b) respectively. (a) Phasor diagram (a) Wave diagram
Hence, in an a.c. circuit containing pure
resistance,
 current is in phase with the voltage.
Power
Instantaneous power, p = vi = (Vm sin  t) (Im sin  t)
Vm Im
= 2 sin 2  t
2
Vm I m V Im V I
= (1  cos 2  t ) = m  m m cos 2 t
2 2 2 2 2 2
Average power consumed in the circuit over a complete cycle.
Vm I m V I
P = average of – average of m m cos  t
2 2 2 2
or P = Vr.m.s. Ir.m.s. – zero or P = VI
Power curve : Fig.2.22. (b) shows the power curve for a pure resistive circuit. Points on the power
curve are obtained from the product of the corresponding instantaneous values of voltage and current.

The circuit containing a pure inductance of L henry is shown in fig.2.23.

The alternating voltage applied across the circuit is given by the equation ;
v = Vm sin  t ...(i)
As a result, an alternating current i flows through the inductance which induces an e.m.f. in it, given by
the relation;
di
e = L
dt
This induced e.m.f. is equal and opposite to the applied voltage. i L

F di I
 v=–e =   L
H dt K
di V
or Vm sin  t = L or di  m sin  t dt
dt L
 = Vm sint
Integrating both sides,

z z di 
Vm
L
sin  t dt or i
Vm
L
(  cos  t )

Vm V
or i = sin (  t   / 2)  m sin (  t   / 2 ) ...(ii)
L XL
where XL =  L is the opposition offered to the flow of alternating current by a pure inductance and is
called inductive reactance.
 Vm
The value of current will be maximum when sin ( t – /2) = 1 i.e. Im =
XL
 i = Im sin ( t – /2) ...(iii)
p

i p 
i

0
 2
/2 Vm 0

Im

(a) Phasor diagram (b) Wave diagram

Phase angle : The equation (i) and (iii), clearly show current flowing through a pure inductive
circuit lags behind the applied voltage v by 90°. The phasor diagram is shown in fig. 2.24 (a) and
2.24 (b) respectively.
Hence, in an a.c. circuit containing pure inductance, current lags behind the voltage by 90°.
Power : Instantaneous power, p = vi = Vm sin t × Im sin ( t – /2)
Vm Im
= Vm Im sin  t cos  t = 2 sin  t cos  t
2
Vm I m
= sin 2  t
2 2
Average power consumed in the circuit over a complete cycle,
Vm I m
∙ sin 2  t
P = average 2 2 = zero
Hence, average power consumed in a pure inductive circuit is zero.
Power curve : The power curve for a pure inductive circuit is shown in fig. 3.4 (b). It is very clear that
average power in a half cycle (one alternation) is zero, as the negative and positive loop area under
power curve is the same.
It is interesting to note that during the first quarter cycle, what so ever power (or energy) is
supplied by the source to the inductance (or coil) is stored in the magnetic field set-up around it.
However, in the next quarter cycle, the magnetic field collapses and the power (or energy) stored in
the field is returned to the source. This process is repeated in each and every alternation. Hence, no
power or energy is consumed in this circuit.
The circuit containing a pure capacitor of capacitance C farad is shown in fig.2.25.
The alternating voltage applied across the circuit is given by the equation ;
v = Vm sin  t ...(i)
i C
Charge on the capacitor at any instant,
q = C v
Current flowing through the circuit,
d d
i = q (C v )
dt dt  = Vm sint

d d
or i = C Vm sin  t = C Vm sin  t
dt dt
Vm V
or i =  C Vm cos  t = sin (  t   / 2 ) = m sin (  t   / 2 ) ...(ii)
1 / C XC
where XC = 1/ C is the opposition offered to the flow of alternating current by a pure capacitor
and is called capacitive reactance.
The value of current will be maximum when sin ( t + /2) = 1
i.e. Im = Vm/XC
Substituting this value is equation (ii), we get,
i = Im sin ( t + /2) ...(iii)
Phase angle : The equation (i) and (iii), clearly show that current flowing through pure capacitive
circuit leads the applied voltage by 90°. the phasor diagram and wave diagram is shown in fig.2.26
(a) and 2.26 (b) respectively.
Hence, in an a.c. circuit containing pure capacitance current leads the voltage by 90°.
Power : Instantaneous power, p = v i = Vm sin  t × Im sin ( t + /2)

Vm I m
= Vm Im sin  t cos  t = sin 2  t
2 2
or Average power over a complete cycle,
P = zero
Hence, average power consumed in a pure capacitive circuit is zero.
Power curve : The power curve for a pure capacitive circuit is shown in fig. 2.26 (b). It is very
clear from the curve that average power in a half cycle (one alternation) is zero since the positive
and negative loop area under power curve is the same.
 p

i p 
Im
i

/2
0 2
Vm 0 

(a) Phasor diagram (b) Wave Diagram

It is interesting to note that, during the first quarter cycle, what so ever power (or energy) is
supplied by the source to the capacitor is stored in the electric field set-up between the capacitor
plates. In the next quarter cycle, the electric field collapses and the power (or energy) stored in the
field is returned to the source. This process is repeated in each alternation. Hence, no power is
consumed by this circuit.
Example 2.6. An a.c. circuit consists of a pure resistance of 8 ohm and is connected across an a.c.
supply of 240 V, 50 Hz. Calculate (i) current ; (ii) power consumed and (iii) write down the
equation for voltage and current.

V 240
Solution : (i) Current in the circuit, I =  = 30 A (Ans.)
R 8
(ii) Power consumed, P = VI = 240 × 30 = 7200 W (Ans.)

(iii) Maximum value of applied voltage, Vm = 2 V = 2 × 240 = 339.4 V

Maximum value of current, Im = 2  30 = 42.42 A

Angular velocity,  = 2  f = 2  × 50 = 314·16 rad/s
Equation for applied voltage ;
v = Vm sin  t = 339.4 sin 314·16 t (Ans.)
As in a pure resistive circuit, voltage and current are in phase with each other, therefore, current is given
by the equation ;
i = Im sin  t = 42.42 sin 314·16 t (Ans.)
Example 2.7. An inductive coil having negligible resistance and 0·1 henry inductance is connected
across 230 V, 50 Hz supply. Find (i) the inductive reactance (ii) r.m.s. value of current (iii) power
and (iv) equations for voltage and current.
Solution : Inductive reactance, XL = 2  L = 2  × 50 × 0·1 = 31·416  (Ans.)
Current, I = 230/XL = 200/31·416 = 7.32 A (Ans.)
Power, P = Zero (Ans.)
Now, Vm = 2 V = 2 × 230 = 325.27 V ;
 Im = 2 I = 2 × 7·32 = 10.35 A
and  = 2  f = 314 rad/s
 v = Vm sin  t = 325.27 sin 314 t (Ans.)
In pure inductive circuit, current lags behind voltage by /2 radian.
 i = Im sin ( t – /2) = 10.35 sin (314 t – /2) (Ans.)
Example 2.8. A capacitor has a capacitance of 50 microfarad. Find its capacitive reactance for
frequencies of 25 and 50 Hz. Find in each case the current if the supply voltage is 400 V.
Solution : Capacitance of the capacitor, C = 50 × 10–6 F
Supply voltage, V = 400 V
When supply frequency, f 1 = 25 Hz

1 1 1
Capacitive reactance, X C1 =   = 127.32  (Ans.)
1C 2 f1C 2  25  50  106

V 400
Current in the circuit, I 1 = X  127.32 = 3.14 A (Ans.)
C1

When supply frequency, f 2 = 50 Hz

1 1 1
Capacitive reactance, X C2 =   = 63.66  (Ans.)
 2C 2 f 2C 2  25  50  106

V 400
Current in the circuit, I 2 = X  63.66 = 6·28 A (Ans.)
C2

1. An a.c. circuit consists of a pure resistance of 16 ohm and is connected across an a.c. supply of
230 V, 50 Hz. Calculate (i) current ; (ii) power consumed and (iii) write down the equation for
voltage and current. (Ans, 23 A, 5290 W ; 325.27 Sin 314.16 t ; 32.53 sin 314.16 t)
2. An inductive coil having negligible resistance and 0·1 henry inductance is connected across 200
V, 50 Hz supply. Find (i) the inductive reactance (ii) r.m.s. value of current (iii) power and (iv)
equations for voltage and current.
(Ans, 31.416  ; 6.366 A; 0 W, 282.84 sin 314 t, 9 sin (314t-/2)
3. A capacitor has a capacitance of 30 microfarad. Find its capacitive reactance for frequencies
of 25 and 50 Hz. Find in each case the current if the supply voltage is 440 V.
(Ans, 212.2  2.073 A; 106.1 ; 4.146 A)
An ac circuit may have combination of resistance, inductance and capacitance. In actual practice, a.c.
circuits contain two or more than two such components connected in series or parallel. A series circuit
is a circuit in which each component carries the same current. An a.c. series circuit may be ;
(i) R – L series circuit (ii) R – C series circuit (iii) R – L – C series circuit.

An R-L series circuit contains resistance (R) and inductance (L) connected in series as shown
in fig 2.27

I R L
VL B
Z VL
V =I
VR VL
 A
0 I
V VR

 = Vm sint

Its phasor diagram is shown in fig. 2.28. To draw the phasor diagram, current I (r.m.s. value) is taken
as the reference vector. Voltage drop in resistance VR (= IR) is taken in phase with current
vector, whereas, voltage drop in inductive reactance V L (= IX L ) is taken 90° ahead of the
current vector (since current lags behind the voltage by 90° in pure inductive circuit). The vector sum of
these two voltages (drops) is equal to the applied voltage V (r.m.s. value).
Now, VR = IR and VL = IXL (where XL = 2  f L)
In right angle triangle OAB

V = (VR )2  (VL )2  ( IR )2  ( IX L )2  I R2  X L2

V V
or I = 
R2  X L2 Z

where Z = R2  X L2 is the total opposition offered to the flow of alternating current by an R

– L series circuit and is called impedance of the circuit. It is measured in ohm.
Phase angle : From the phasor diagram shown in fig.2.28, it is clear that current, in this circuit, lags
behind the applied voltage by an angle , called phase angle.

VL IX L X
From phasor diagram ; tan  =   L or  = tan–1 XL/R
VR IR R
Power : If the alternating voltage applied across the circuit is given by the equation.
v = Vm sin  t
Then, i = Im sin ( t – )
  Instantaneous power, p = v i
V I
= Vm sin  t . Im sin ( t – ) = m m 2 sin  t sin (  t   )
2
Vm Im
= [cos   cos ( 2  t   )]
2 2
Vm I m V Im
= cos   m cos ( 2  t   )
2 2 2 2
Average power consumed in the circuit over a complete cycle,
Vm Im V I
P = average of cos  – average of m m cos ( 2  t   )
2 2 2 2
Vm I m
or P = cos   zero = Vr.m.s. Ir.m.s. cos  = VI cos 
2 2
where cos  is called power factor of the circuit.
VR IR R
From phasor diagram ; cos  =  
V IZ Z
Thus, power factor is defined as the cosine of the angle between voltage and current in an a.c.
circuit. It may also be defined as the ratio of resistance to impedence of an a.c. circuit.
R
Alternatively : Power, P = VI cos  = IZ·I· = I2 R
Z
This shows that power is actually consumed in resistance only ; inductance does not consume any
power.
Power curve : The phasor diagram and wave diagram for voltage and current are shown in fig.2.29 (a)
and 2.29 (b) respectively where applied voltage (v = Vm sin  t) is taken as reference quantity. The
power curve for R – L series circuit is also shown in fig. 2.29 (b). The points on the power curve are
obtained from the product of the corresponding instantaneous values of voltage and current. It is clear
that power is negative between angle 0 and  and between 180° and (180 + ). During rest of the cycle
the power is positive. Since the area under the positive loops is greater than that under the negative
loops, the net power over a complete cycle is positive. Hence, a definite quantity of power is utilised or
consumed by this circuit.
p
 i p 

2
0 
 Vm 0

Im 

(a) Phasor diagram (b) Wave diagram

The simplified phasor diagram of R – L series circuit is shown in fig. 2.30. When each side of this
phasor diagram is divided by a common factor I, we get another right angled triangle, as shown in
fig. 2.31, whose sides represent R, XL and Z. Such a triangle is known as impedance triangle.
Thus, a right angled triangle whose base represents circuit resistance, perpendicular represents circuit
reactance and hypotenuse represents circuit impedance is called an impedance triangle.
The concept of impedance triangle is useful since it enables us to calculate :
(i) the impedance of the circuit, B
B
Z = R2  X 2
IZ
V= Z
VL = IXL XL
(ii) the power factor of the circuit,  
cos  = R/Z O VR = IR A O R A

(iii) phase angle,  = tan–1 XL/R.

The power which is actually consumed or utilised in an a.c. circuit is called true power or active power
or real power. We have seen that power is consumed only in resistance. A pure inductor and a pure
capacitor do not consume any power, since in a half cycle what so ever power is received from the
source by these components the same is returned to the source. This power which flows back and forth
(i.e. in both directions in the circuit) or reacts upon itself is called reactive power. It does not do any
useful work in the circuit. It has been seen that in pure resistive circuit current is in phase with the
applied voltage, whereas, in pure inductive and capacitive circuit, current is 90° out of phase. Thus, it is
concluded that the current in phase with the voltage produces true or active power, whereas, the current
90° out of the phase with the voltage contributes to reactive power. Hence,
True power = voltage × current in phase with voltage
Reactive power = voltage × current 90° out of phase with voltage.
The phasor diagram for an inductive circuit is shown in fig. 2.32. where current I lags behind the
voltage V by an angle  °. The current I can be resolved into two rectangular components i.e. (i) I cos
, in phase with voltage V and (ii) I sin , which is 90° out of phase with voltage V.
V
 True power, P = V × I cos  = VI cos  watt O
I cos  A

Reactive power, Pr = V × I sin  = VI sin  VAR
Apparent power, Pa = V × I = VI VA
The bigger units of true power, reactive power
I B
and apparent power are kW (or MW), kVAR (or I sin 
MVAR) and kVA (or MVA) respectively.
Active component of current : The current component
which is in phase with circuit voltage (i.e. I cos ) and contributes to active or true power of the circuit
is called active component or wattfull component or in-phase component of current.
Reactive component of current : The current component which is in quadrature (or 90° out of phase) to
circuit voltage (i.e. I sin ) and contributes to reactive power of the circuit is called reactive component
of current.
Power triangle : When each component of current, in fig. (TRUE POWER)
2.32, is multiplied by voltage V, a power triangle is obtained as VIcos  A
O
shown in fig. 2.33. This right angled triangle indicates the 
relation among true power, reactive power and apparent power. VIsin 
(A
In the above discussion, the following points are worth PP (REACTIVE
AR POWER)
EN VI
noting : T
PO
(i) When an active component of current is multiplied W
ER
) B
with circuit voltage, it results in active or true power.
It is this power which produces torque in motors,
heat in heaters, light in lamps etc. wattmeters indicate
this power.
(ii) When the reactive component of current is multiplied with circuit voltage, it results in reactive
power. It is this power which merely flows back and forth without doing any work. This
power determines the power factor of the circuit.
(iii) When the circuit current is multiplied with circuit voltage, it results in apparent power. It is so
called because it appears that product of voltage and current is power. But is a.c. circuits
(except pure resistive circuit) there is usually phase difference between voltage and current so
that VI does not give real power. To avoid confusion, it is measured in volt-ampere.
(iv) From power triangle shown in fig. 2.33, the power factor may also be determined by taking
ratio of true power to apparent power, i.e. power factor, cos  = true power/apparent power.

In a.c. circuits, the power factor may be expressed as :

p.f. = cos  = R/Z = true power/ apparent power
In case of pure resistive circuit, current is in phase with circuit voltage i.e.  = 0. Therefore, power
factor of the circuit, cos  = 1. Whereas, in case of pure inductive or capacitive circuit, current is 90°
out of phase with circuit voltage i.e.  = 90°. Therefore, power factor of the circuit cos  = 0. For
circuits having resistance-inductance ; resistance-capacitance or resistance-inductance and capacitance,
the power factor lies between 0 and 1. It may be noted that the value of p.f. can never be more than one.
Usually, the word lagging or leading is attached with the numerical value of p.f. to signify whether the
current lags or leads the voltage. In inductive circuits, current always lags behind the voltage and their
power factors are mentioned as lagging p.f. Whereas, for capacitive circuits, the power factor is
mentioned as leading p.f. since in these cases current always leads the voltage vector.
The power factor of an a.c. circuit plays an important role in the power system. Since power of an a.c.
circuit is given by the relation;
P
P = VI cos  = or I =
V cos 
From the above relation, it is clear that for fixed power at constant voltage, the current drawn by the
circuit increases with decrease in p.f.
Thus at low p.f., a.c. circuits draw more current from their mains and results in the following
disadvantages :
1. Greater conductor size : At low p.f., the conductors are to carry more current for the same
ower therefore, they require larger area of cross-section.
2. Poor efficiency : At low power factors, the conductors have to carry larger current which
increases copper losses (I 2 R) and results in poor efficiency.
3. Larger voltage drop : At lower power factors, the conductors have to carry larger current
which increases voltage drop (IR) in the system and results in poor regulation.
4. Larger kVA rating of equipment : The kVA rating of electrical machines and equipment
connected in the power system such as alternators, transformers, switch gears etc. will be
more at lower power factors since it is inversely proportional to power factor (i.e. kVA = kW/
cos ).
To improve the power factor of an a.c. circuit a capacitor is connected across the circuit i.e. parallel to
the circuit.

Reciprocal of power factor of a coil is known as its Q-factor. It is also called quality factor or figure of
merit of the coil.
1 1 Z
Mathematically, Q-factor = p. f .  cos   R

If the value of R is very small in comparison to its inductive reactance XL then,

XL  L
Q-factor = 
R R
maximum energy stored
Also, Q = 2  ×
energy dissipated per cycle
Example 2.9. A coil having a resistance of 15  and an inductance of 63.66 mH is connected
across a 250 V, 50 Hz supply. Calculate (i) the reactance and impedance of the coil, (ii) the current,
(iii) the phase difference between current and the applied voltage and (iv) the power factor. Draw
also the phasor diagram showing voltage and current.
Solution : The circuit is shown in fig.2.34.
(i) Reactance, XL = 2  f L = 2  50 × 63.66  10-3 = 20  (Ans.)
Impedance, Z = R 2  X L2  (15) 2  (20) 2 = 25  (Ans.)

I R = 15 L = 63.66 mH
B C
(IXL)
Z
V=I
250 V, 50 Hz 
I
O (IR) A

V 250
(ii) Current, I =  = 10 A (Ans.)
Z 25

XL 20
(iii) Phase difference,  = tan
1
 tan 1 = tan–1 1.333 = 53.13° (Ans.)
R 15
(iv) Power factor, cos  = 0·6 lag (Ans.)
The phasor diagram for the circuit is shown in fig. 2.35.
Example 2.10. A coil connected to 50 V d.c. supply ,draws 5 A and the same coil when connected
to 50 V, a.c. voltage of frequency 50 Hz draws 2.5A. Calculate the parameters of the coil and power
factor.
Solution : Let the resistance and inductance of the coil be R ohm and L henry respectively.
When coil in connected to d.c. supply, the opposition is only resistance of the coil,
Vd .c. 50
 Resistance of the coil, R =  = 10 (Ans.)
I d .c. 5
When coil is connected across a.c. supply of 50 V, 50 Hz, the opposition is impedance of the coil,
Vac 50
 Impedance of the coil, Z =  = 20 
I ac 2.5

Now, Z = R 2  X L2 or Z2 = R 2  X L2

or XL = Z 2  R2  ( 20 )2  (10 ) 2  300

XL 300
and L =  = 55·13 mH (Ans.)
2 f 2  × 50
 Parameters are R = 10  and L = 55·13 mA
R 10
Power factor, cos  =  = 0·5 lagging (Ans.)
Z 20
Example 2.11. A coil when connected to 230 V d.c. supply dissipates 2645 watt of power. When
connected across 230 V a.c. supply of frequency 50 Hz., it dissipates 1058 watt of power. Calculate
the value of resistance and inductance of the coil.
Solution : When d.c. is applied across the coil, the opposition is only resistance of the coil,

2
Vdc (230) 2
R=  = 20  (Ans.)
Pdc 2645

When a.c. is applied across the coil ;

2
Pac = Iac R or Iac = Pac / R  1058 / 20 = 7.273 A

Vac 230
Impedance, Z =  = 31·623 
I ac 7.273

XL = Z 2  R2  ( 31 ∙ 623)2  ( 20 )2 = 24·495 

XL 24 ∙ 495
Inductance, L = 
2 f 2  × 50 = 0·078 H (Ans.)
Example 2.12. The voltage and current through a circuit element are
v = 100 sin (314 t + 55°) volt
i = 10 sin (314 t + 325°) ampere
Find the value of power drawn by the element.
Solution : Given v = 100 sin (314 t + 55°) V
50 V
i = 10 sin (314 t + 325°) A
or i = 10 sin (314 t – 35°) A
Now their phasor representation is shown in fig. 2.36
 Phase difference between voltage and current is 90°.
55° Reference
Now power drawn by the circuit, P = VI cos 
35°
100 10
=   cos 90° 10 A
2 2

1000
=  0 = 0 W (Ans.)
2
which indicates that element is pure inductive.
Example 2.13. A coil of resistance 1·5 ohm and impedance 6 ohm is placed in series with a second
coil of resistance 2 ohm. When a voltage of 230 V, 50 Hz is applied to the circuit, the current flowing
through the circuit is 7 A. Find the inductance of the second coil.
Solution : The circuit is shown fig. 2.37. R1=1·5 XL1 R2=2 XL2
Impedance of whole circuit,
Z1 = 6
Z = V/I = 230/7 = 32·86  I = 7A
230 V, 50 Hz
Resistance of whole circuit,
R = R1 + R2 = 1·5 +2 = 3·5 
Inductive reactance,

XL = Z 2  R2  ( 32 ∙ 86)2  ( 3 ∙ 5)2 = 32·67 

Inductive reactance of I coil, X L1 = Z12  R12  ( 6)2  (1 ∙ 5)2 = 5·81 

Inductive reactance of II coil, XL2 = XL – XL1 = 32·67 – 5·81 = 26·86 
 Inductance, L2 = XL2/2  f = 26·86/2  × 50 = 85·5 m H (Ans.)

1. A coil having a resistance of 12  and an inductance of 0.1 H is connected across a 100 V, 50

Hz supply. Calculate (i) the reactance and impedance of the coil, (ii) the current, (iii) the phase
difference between current and the applied voltage and (iv) the power factor. Draw also the
phasor diagram showing voltage and current.
(Ans, 31.416 ; 33.63 ; 2.97 A; 69.1°; 0.3568 lag)
2. A coil connected to 100 V d.c. supply draws 10 and the same coil when connected to 100 V, a.c.
voltage of frequency 50 Hz draws 5A. Calculate the parameters of the coil and power factor.
(Ans, 10 ; 55.13 mH; 0.5 lagging )
3. A coil when connected to 230 V d.c. supply dissipates 2000 watt of power. When connected
across 230 V a.c. supply of frequency 50 Hz., it dissipates 800 watt of power. Calculate the
value of resistance and inductance of the coil. (Ans, 20  0.078 H)
4. The voltage and current through a circuit element are
v = 50 sin (314 t + 70°) volt
i = 10 sin (314 t + 340°) ampere
Find the value of power drawn by the element. (Ans.0 W )
5. A voltage e = 200 sin 100  t is applied to a coil having R = 200 ohm and L = 638 millihenry.
Find the expression for the current and also determine the power taken by the coil.
(Ans. 0.706 sin (100  t – 45.06° ) 50 W)
6. A non-inductive resistance of 10 ohm is connected in series with an inductive coil across 200 V,
50 Hz ac supply. The current drawn by the series combination is 10 ampere. The resistance of
the coil is 2 ohm. Determine (i) inductance of the coil (ii) Power factor (iii) voltage across the
coil. (Ans. 50.93 mH; 0.6 lag, 161.24 V)
7. An inductive load is connected in series with a non-inductive resistance of 8 ohms. The
combination is connected across an a.c. supply of 100 volt, 50 Hz. A voltmeter connected
 across the non-inductive resistor and then across the inductive load gives the reading of 64 volt
and 48 volt respectively. Calculate the following :
(i) impedance of the load ; (ii) Impedance of the combination ;
(iii) Power absorbed by the load ; (iv) Power absorbed by the resistor ;
(v) Total power taken from the supply ; (vi) Power factor of the load ;
(vii) Power factor of the whole circuit.
(Ans. 6 ohm; 12.5  0.586 lag; 225 W; 512 W; 737 W; 0.586 lag; 0.92 lag)
8. An arc lamp (which may be regarded as being non-inductive) takes 10 A at 50 V. Calculate the
impedance of choke of 1ohm resistance to be placed in series with it in order that it may be
operated at 200 V, 50 Hz supply. Find also the total power used and the power factor.
(Ans. 19.105 ; 0.3 lag; 600 W)

A circuit that contains a pure resistance R ohm connected in series with a pure capacitor of capacitance
C farad is known as R – C series circuit.
An R – C series circuit and its phasor diagram is shown in fig.2.38 and 2.39 respectively. To draw, the
phasor diagram, current I (r.m.s. value) is taken as the reference vector. Voltage drop in

R C
I

VR A I
VR VC O 
V= VC
VC IZ
V
B
 = Vm sint

resistance VR (= IR) is taken in phase with current vector, whereas, voltage drop in capacitive reactance
VC (= IXC) is taken 90° behind the current vector (since current leads the voltage by 90° in pure
capacitive circuit). The vector sum of these two voltage drops is equal to the applied voltage V (r.m.s.
value).
Now VR = IR and VC = IXC (where XC = 1/2  f C)
In right angled triangle OAB

V = (VR )2  (VC ) 2  ( IR )2  ( IX C )2  I R 2  X C2

V V
or I = 
2
R  X C2 Z

where Z = R2  X C2 is the total opposition offered to the flow of alternating current by an R – C series
circuit and is called impedance of the circuit. It is measured in ohm.
Phase angle : From the phasor diagram it is clear that current in this circuit leads the applied voltage by
an angle  called phase angle.
From the phasor diagram shown in fig.2.38 ;
V IX C X
tan  = C   C or  = tan–1 XC/R
VR IR R
Power : If the alternating voltage applied across the circuit is given by the equation :
v = Vm sin  t ...(i)
Then, i = Im sin ( t + ) ...(ii)
 Instantaneous power,
Vm Im
p = vi = Vm sin  t Im sin ( t + ) = 2 sin (  t   ) sin  t
2
Vm I m V I V I
= [cos   cos( 2  t   )] = m m cos   m m cos( 2  t   )
2 2 2 2 2 2
Average power consumed in the circuit over a complete cycle,
Vm I m V I
P = average of cos  – average of m m cos( 2  t   )
2 2 2 2
Vm Im
or P = ∙ cos   zero = Vr.m.s. Ir.m.s. cos  = VI cos 
2 2
where cos  is called power factor of the circuit.
From phasor diagram
VR IR R
cos  =   same as in R – L series circuit.
V IZ Z
Alternatively ; Power,
R
P = VI cos  = I Z ∙ I ∙ = I2R
Z
p

 i p
i
Im

 2
0 Vm 
0


(a) Phasor diagram (b) Wave diagram

This shows that power is actually consumed in resistance only ; capacitor does not consume
any power.
Power curve : The phasor diagram and wave diagram for voltage and current are shown in fig.2.40 (a)
and 2.40 (b) respectively, where applied voltage (v = Vm sin  t) is taken as reference quantity. The
power curve for R – C circuit is also shown in 2.40 (b). The points on the power curve are obtained
from the product of the corresponding instantaneous values of voltage and current. It is clear that
power is negative between angle (180° – ) and 180° and between (360° – ) and 360°. During rest of
the cycle, the power is positive. Since the area under the positive loops is greater than that under the
negative loops, the net power over a complete cycle is positive. Hence, a definite quantity of power is
utilised or consumed by this circuit.

When each side of the simplified phasor diagram shown in fig. 2.41 is divided by a common factor I, we
get another right angled triangle (shown in fig. 2.42 known as impedance triangle.

O VR = IR R
A O A
 

VC = IXC XC
V=
IZ Z

B B

Example 2.14. A resistance of 20 ohm and capacitor of 212.2  F capacitance are connected in
series across a 250 V, 50 Hz supply. Calculate (i) impedance of the circuit ; (ii) current ; (iii) power
factor and phase angle ; (iv) power consumed in the circuit.
Solution : The circuit is shown in fig. 2.43.

Impedance, Z = R2  X C2
where, X C = 1/2  f C = 1/2  × 50 × 212.2 × 10–6
= 15  ; F
I 20
R = 20 

(i) Z = (20) 2  (15)2 = 25  (Ans.)

250V, 50 Hz
V 250
(ii) Current, I =  = 10 A (Ans.)
Z 25

R 20
(iii) Power factor, cos  =  = 0·8 leading (Ans.)
Z 25
Phase angle,  = cos–1 0·8 = 36.87° (Ans.)
(iv) Power, P = V I cos  = 250 × 10 × 0·8 = 2000 W (Ans.)
Example 2.15. A 110 V, 100 W lamp is to be operated on 220 V, 50 Hz supply mains. In order that
lamp should operate in correct voltage. Calculate value of :
(i) non inductive resistance (ii) pure inductance (iii) pure capacitance
Ans. Lamp’s rating : 110 V, 100 W
Supply voltage, VS = 220 V and Frequency, f = 50 Hz
(110)2
Resistance of the lamp, RL =  121 
100
100
Operating current, I =  0 • 9091 A
110

(i) For operating the lamp using non-inductive resistance, as shown in fig. 2.44.
Let the value of resistance be R .
 I (R + RL) = V
220
or R + RL =  242 ohm
0.9091
or R = 242 – RL = 242 – 121 = 121  (Ans.)
(ii) For operating the lamp using pure inductance as shown in Fig.2.45.
Let the value of inductance be L henry and XL = 2  fL,
V 220
 IZ =V or   242 
I 0.9091

or RL2  X L2 = 242

RL2  X L2 = (242)2 or X L2 = 2422 – 1212

or XL = 2422  1212 = 209.58 

209.58
or 2  f L = 209.58 or L = 2   50 = 0.667 H (Ans.)

(iii) For operating the lamp using pure capacitor, as shown in fig.2.46.
Let C be the capacitance of the capacitor.
 1
XC = 2  fC

V 220
And IZ=V or Z =   242 
I 0.9091

RL2  X c2 = Z or RL2  X C2  Z 2

or XC = Z 2 – RL2  (242) 2  (121) 2 = 209.58 

1 1
 Xc or C 
or 2 fC 2   50  209.58 = 15.188 F (Ans)
Example 2.16. A 400 Hz generator has an induced
e.m.f. of 100 V and an internal impedance (5 + j0)
ohm. If it supplies an impedance consisting of a 40 RI = 5
R = 10
ohm capacitive reactance in series with 10 ohm
resistance, what is the magnitude of the current passing VL
through it ? Determine also the voltage at the 100V
XC = 40
terminals of the generator. 400Hz
Solution : Simple circuit is shown in fig.2.47.
Total impedance of the circuit.

ZT = ( Ri  R )2  ( X C )2

= (5  10 )2  ( 40 )2 = 42·72 
Circuit current, I = V/Z = 100/42·72 = 2·341 A (Ans.)

Load impedance, ZL = R2  X C2 = (10)2  ( 40)2 = 41·231 

Terminal voltage, VL = IZL = 2·341 × 41·231 = 96·52 V (Ans.)

1. A resistance of 15 ohm and capacitor of 150  F capacitance are connected in series across a
230 V, 50 Hz supply. Calculate (i) impedance of the circuit ; (ii) current ; (iii) power factor and
phase angle ; (iv) power consumed in the circuit.
(Ans, 25·987 8·85 A; 0·577 leading, 54.75° ; 1174·9 W)
2. A 120 V, 60 W lamp is to be operated on 220 V, 50 Hz supply mains. In order that lamp should
operate in correct voltage. Calculate value of : (i) non inductiv e resistance, (ii) pure
inductance, (iii) Pure capacitance (Ans, 200 1·174 H; 8.63F 
 3. A voltage of 125 V at 50 Hz is applied across a non inductive resistor connected in series with
a condenser. The current in the circuit is 2·2 A. The power loss in the resistor is 96·8 W and that
in the condenser is negligible. Calculate the resistance and the capacitance.
(Ans, 20 ohm; 53.18 ohm; 59·85  F)
4. A resistor R in series with a capacitor C is connected to a 50 Hz, 240 V supply. Find the
value of C so that R absorbs, 300 W at 100 V. (Ans, 43·77  F)

A circuit that contains a pure resistance of R ohm, a pure inductance of L henry and a pure capacitor of
capacitance C farad ; all connected in series is known as R – L – C series circuit.
An R – L – C series circuit is shown in fig.2.48.
Here XL = 2  f L and XC = 1/2  f C
When a resulting current I (r.m.s. value) flows through the circuit, the voltage across each component
will be
VR = IR i.e. voltage across R ........... in phase with I ;
VL = IXL i.e. voltage across L ........... leads I by 90° ;
VC = IXC i.e. voltage across C ........... lags I by 90° ;
R L C
I VL

IZ
VR VL VC VL – VC V= VL – VC

V O
VR A I
VC XL > XC
 = Vm sint

The phasor diagram is shown in fig.2.49 where current is taken as the reference phasor. Since voltage
across inductance VL leads the current vector I by 90° and voltage across capacitance VC lags the
current vector I by 90°, they act opposite to each other. If VL > V C, in effect, the circuit behaves as an
inductive circuit but when VL < VC, the circuit behaves as a capacitive circuit. Here, the phasor diagram
is drawn for an inductive circuit (i.e. when VL > VC).

V = (VR )2  (VL  VC )2  ( IR )2  ( IX L  IX C )2

or V = I R2  ( X L  X C ) 2

V V
or I = 
2
( R)  ( X L  XC ) 2 Z

where Z = R2  ( X L  X C )2 is the total opposition offered to the flow of alternating current by an

R – L – C series circuit and is called impedance of the circuit.
 VL  VC X  XC
Phase angle : From phasor diagram : tan  =  L
VR R
X L  XC
or  = tan–1
R
Power : Average power, P = VI cos  = I 2 R
VR R
Power, factor, cos  = 
V Z
If the alternating voltage applied across the circuit is given by the equation
v = Vm sin  t
the circuit current is represented by the equation as per the constants or parameters explained below :
Three cases of R – L – C series circuit
(i) When XL > XC, the phase angle  is positive. In effect, the circuit behaves as an R – L series
circuit. The circuit current lags behind the applied voltage and p.f. is lagging. The current is
given by the equation.
i = Im sin ( t – )
(ii) When XL < XC, the phase angle  is negative. In effect, the circuit behaves as an R – C series
circuit. The circuit current leads the applied voltage and p.f. is leading. The current is given by
the equation.
i = Im sin ( t + )
(iii) When XL = XC, the phase angle  is zero. In effect, the circuit behaves like a pure resistive circuit.
The circuit current is in phase with applied voltage and p.f. is unity. The current is given by the
equation.
i = Im sin  t

Fig. 2.50 shows the impedance triangle of the circuit when XL > XC, whereas, fig. 2.51 shows the
impedance triangle of the circuit when XL < XC.
B
R A

XL > XC
Z XL – XC
XC – XL
Z
XC > XL

R A
B
In an R – L – C series circuit, when circuit current is in phase with the applied voltage, the circuit is said
to be in series resonance. This condition is obtained in an R – L – C circuit, shown in fig.2.52,
when XL = XC (or XL – XC = 0)
At resonance ; XL – XC = 0 or XL = XC

Impedance, Zr = R2  ( X L  X C )2 = R
V V
Current, Ir = 
Zr R

VL
I
90°
VR XC
90°
VC
I I C XL XC
R L XL

VR VL VC
I
P (XL=XC)

fr
f

Since, at resonance, the opposition to the flow of current is only resistance (R) of the circuit, the circuit
draws maximum current under this conditions.
Resonant frequency : The value of XL (= 2  f L) and XC (= 1/2  f C) can be changed by changing the
supply frequency. When frequency increases, the value of XL, increases, whereas, the value of XC
decreases, and vice-versa. Thus to obtain series resonance, the frequency is adjusted to fr so that XL =
XC, the condition at point P shown in fig.2.53.
 At series resonance, XL = XC
1 1
2  fr L = or fr =
2  fr C 2  LC
where fr is the resonant frequency in Hz when L and C are measured in henry and farad respectively.

The following are the main effects of series resonance :

(i) At resonance XL = XC, therefore, the impedance of the circuit is minimum and is reduced to the
resistance of the circuit only, i.e.
Zr = R
 (ii) Since, impedance is minimum, the circuit current is maximum at resonance, i.e.
I r = V/Zr = V/R
(iii) Power taken by the circuit is maximum, as Ir is maximum, i.e.
P r = Ir2 R
(iv) As the current drawn by the circuit, at resonance, is very large (maximum), the voltage drop
across L (i.e. VL = IXL = I × 2  fr L) and C (i.e. VC = IXC = I × 1/2  fr C) are also very large.
In power system, at resonance, the excessive voltage built up across the inductive and capacitive
components (such as circuit breakers, reactors, etc.) may cause damage. Therefore, series resonance
should be avoided in power system. However, in some of the electronic devices (such as antenna circuit
of radio and TV receiver, tuning circuits etc.), the principle of series resonance is used to increase the
signal voltage and current at a desired frequency (fr).
Since a series resonant circuit has the capability to draw heavy current and power from the mains, it
is often regarded as acceptor circuit.

SMALLER (R)
The curve obtained by plotting a graph between current Ir
and frequency is known as resonance curve. A resonance LARGER (R)
curve of a typical R – L – C series circuit is shown in
fig2.54. It may be noted that current reaches its maximum I
value at the resonant frequency (fr), falling off rapidly on
either side of that point. It is because when the value of
frequency is lower than resonance frequency, XC > XL
and when the value of frequency is higher than fr, XC <
XL. In both the cases, impedance of the circuit increases O
fr
(Z > Zr) and the value of current decreases.
f
Note that resistance of the circuit also plays its own role.
Smaller the resistance, the greater the current at resonance.
Bandwidth : The range of frequency over which circuit current is equal to or more than 70·7% of
maximum value (i.e. Ir, current at resonance) is known as the bandwidth of a series resonant circuit.
Fig.2.55 shows a resonance curve of a typical R – L – C circuit where the circuit current is
equal to or greater then 70·7% of maximum current (i.e. I r = V/R) between frequency range
f 1 to f 2 .
 Bandwidth, BW = f2 – f1
Here, the frequency f1 is called the lower cut-off frequency and the frequency f2 is called the
upper cur-off frequency. The bandwidth represents the frequency range at which the circuit
offers low impedance to circuit current.
The following points may be noted here :
 (i) If the resonant frequency is not located at the centre of upper and lower cur-off frequency,
then

fr = f1 f 2
(ii) When the resonant frequency is located Ir = V/R
sufficiently near to the centre of the two cut-
off frequencies and Q of the circuit is  10, 0.707 Ir BAND WIDTH
then I

BW BW
f 1 = fr  and f2 = f r 
2 2
Selectivity : From the resonance curve, it is clear that O
f1 fr f2
for smaller resistance the resonance curve is sharp and
flat for the larger resistance. A sharper resonance curve f

provides smaller band of frequencies to give reasonable

response and hence provides better selectivity. It also
shows that selectivity is reciprocal of bandwidth.

We have seen that at series resonance, the circuit draws largest current from the mains, this produces
a heavy voltage across L or C. The factor by which the p.d. across L or C rises to that of the applied
voltage is called the Q-factor of the series resonant circuit.

Voltage across L or C I r X L X L  r L
 Q-factor =   
Applied voltage Ir R R R

1 1
where, r = 2  fr = 2  
2 LC LC

L 1 1 L
 Q-factor = × 
R LC R C
The value of Q-factor depends entirely upon the design of coil (i.e. R – L which is a part of R – L – C
circuit).
Example 2.17. A coil resistance 10 and inductance 111.4 mH is connected in series with a capacitor
of 159.16 F across a 200 V, 50 Hz supply. Calculate (a) inductive reactance (b) capacitive reactance
(c) impedance (d) current (e) voltage across coil and capacitor.
Solution : The circuit is shown in fig.2.56.
Where, R = 10  ; L = 111.4 mH ; C = 159.16 F = 159.16 × 10–6 F ; V = 200 V ; f = 50 Hz
(a) Inductive reactance, XL = 2  f L = 2  × 50 × 111.14 × 10–3 = 35  (Ans.)
 1  
(b) Capacitive reactance, XC =
2 f C

1
=
2  50  159.16  10 6

= 20  (Ans.)

(c) Impedance, Z = R 2  ( X L – X C )2  102  (35 – 202 )

= 25  (Ans.)

V 200
(d) Current, I =  = 8 A (Ans.)
Z 25

(e) Voltage across coil, V1= I ZCOIL = I R2  X L2

2 2
= 8 10  35 = 291.2 V (Ans.)
Voltage across capacitor, V2 = I XC = 8 × 20 = 160 V (Ans.)
Example 2.18. Find applied voltage and power loss in the circuit shown in fig. 2.57.

1 1
Solution : Here, C = 39.79 F ; X C   = 80 
2 fC 2  50  39.79  10 –6

Applied voltage, V = 202  (55  40) 2 = 25 V (Ans.)

VC 40
Current, I = X  80  0.5A
C

Power loss, P = VR × I = 20 × 0·5 = 10 watt (Ans.)

Example 2.19. A coil of resistance 12  and inductance 0·051 H, a non-inductive resistance of 20
 resistance and a loss-free 212.2 F capacitor are connected across a 240 V, 50 Hz sinusoidal
supply, Calculate (i) the current and (ii) the power factor of the circuit.
Solution : The circuit is shown in fig.2.58.
Here, R1 = 12  ; L = 0·051 H ; R2 = 20  ;
C = 212.2 F = 212.2 × 10–6 F ; V = 240 V ; f = 50 Hz
Resistance of the whole circuit, R = R1 + R2
= 12 + 20 = 32   

Inductive reactance, XL = 2  f L 
I
= 2 × 50 × 0·051
= 16 
1
Capacitive reactance, XC =
2 f C
1
=  15 
2  50  212.2  10 6

Impedance, Z = R2  ( X L  X C )2

= 322  (16 – 15)2 = 32.016 

V 240
(i) Circuit current, I =  = 7.496 A (Ans.)
Z 32.016

R 32
(ii) Power factor of the circuit, cos  =  = 0.9995 (lagging) (Ans.)
Z 32.016
(since XL > XC)
Example 2.20. A series R-L-C circuit consisting of a resistance of 20 , inductance 0·2 H and
capacitance of 150 F is connected across a 230 V, 50 Hz source. Calculate (i) the impedance (ii)
the current (iii) the magnitude and nature of the power factor (iv) the frequency of supply to be
adjusted to make power factor unity.
Solution : The circuit is shown in fig.2.59
Here, R = 20  ; L = 0·2 H ; C = 150 F = 150 × 10–6 F
Inductive, reactance, XL = 2 f L = 2  × 50 × 0·2 = 62·83 
1 1
Capacitance reactance, XC =  = 21·22 
2  f C 2  × 50 × 150 × 106
 
(i) Impedance, Z = R2  ( X L  X C )2
I
= 2 2
20  ( 62 ∙ 83  21 ∙ 22 )

= 46·17  (Ans.)
 V 230
(ii) Circuit current, I =  = 4·98 A (Ans.)
Z 46 ∙ 17
R 20
(iii) Power factor = cos    = 0·433 (Ans.)
Z 46 ∙ 167
The power factor, is lagging because inductive reactance is more than capacitive reactance i.e. the
circuit behaves as an inductive circuit.
Power factor will be unity when
1
X L = XC or 2  fr L =
2  fr C
1 1 1
or fr =  = 29·06 Hz (Ans.)
2 LC 2  0 ∙ 2 × 150 × 106
Example 2.21. An inductive coil takes 10 A and dissipates 1500 W when connected to a 250 V, 25
Hz supply. Calculate the following, (i) the impedance ; (ii) the effective resistance ; (iii) the reactance
; (iv) the value of the capacitance required to be connected in series with coil to make the power
factor of the circuit unity ; and (vi) what is now the current taken by the coil ? Also draw the phasor
diagram of the two cases.
I R L
Solution : The circuit is shown in fig.2.60.
I = 10A
Power dissipated in the coil, I2 R = 1500 W
 Resistance of the coil, R = 1500/(10)2 = 15  (Ans.) 250V, 25 Hz

Impedance of the coil, Z = V/I = 250/10 = 25  (Ans.)

Inductive reactance of the coil, XL = Z 2 – R 2  (25) 2 – (15)2

= 20  (Ans.)
Power factor, cos  = R/Z = 15/25 = 0·6 lag (Ans.)
The p.f. of the circuit will be unity when, XC = XL
or 1/2  f C = 20
1
or C = = 159.2  F (Ans.)
2  25  20

IXL
V
IXL


0 0
IR I IR = V I

IXc
(a) (b)
 V 250
Now, current, I =  = 16.67 A (Ans.)
R 15
The phasor diagram for the two cases is drawn in fig. 2.61 (a) and (b) respectively.
Example 2.22 A choke coil is connected series with a 100 F capacitor. With a constant supply
voltage of 250 V, it is found that the circuit takes its maximum current of 50 A when the supply
frequency is 100 Hz. Determine (i) resistance and inductance of the choke coil ; (ii) voltage across
the capacitor and (iii) Q-factor of the circuit.
Solution : At resonance ; Current, Ir = V/R
or R = V/Ir = 250/50 = 5  (Ans.)
Also 2  fr L = 1/2  fr C
1 1
or L =  = 25.33 mH (Ans.)
(2 f r ) C (2  100)  100  10 –6
2 2

Voltage across capacitor,

V C = Ir XC = 50 × 1/2  × 100 × 100 × 10–6 = 795.8 V (Ans.)

VL X L 2 f r L 2   100  25.33  103

Q- factor =    = 3.183 (Ans.)
VR R R 5
Example 2.23. A series resonant circuit has a Q-factor of 150 ; an inductance of 0·1 H and a
capacitance of 0·1 F. Calculate the band width of the circuit.
Solution : At resonance, frequency
1 1 104
fr = =  Hz
2  LC 2  0.1 × 0.1 × 106 2

fr
Now, Q =
BW
fr 104
 Bandwidth, BW = = = 10·61 Hz (Ans.)
Q 2  × 150
Q-factor = VC/V = 397·88/250 = 1·59 (Ans.)
Example 2.24. A coil of resistance 40 and inductance 0·75 H are in a series circuit with a
capacitor C. The resonant frequency is 60 Hz. If supply is 250 V, 50 Hz find
(i) line current, (ii) power factor, (iii) power consumed.
Solution : Here, R = 40  ; L = 0·75 H ; fr = 60 Hz ; V = 250 V ; f = 50 Hz.
  
 1
At resonance, XL = XC or 2frL =
2 fr C
1 1
or C =  = 9.38 F
(2 f r ) L (2  60) 2  0.75
2

At 50 Hz, XL = 2fL = 2 × 50 × 0·75 = 235·6 

1 1
XC =  = 339.35 
2 fC 2  50  9.38  10 6

Impedance, Z = R 2  ( X L  X C )2  (40)2  (235.6  339.35)2 = 111.2 

V 250
(i) Line current, I =  = 2·248 A (Ans.)
Z 111.2
R 40
(ii) Power factor, cos  =  = 0·36 leading (Ans.)
Z 111.2
(iii) Power consumed, P = VI cos  = 250 × 2.248 × 0·36 = 202.32 W (Ans.)

1. A coil of resistance 8 and inductance 0·12 henry is connected in series with a condenser of
capacitance 140 microfarad across a 230 volt, 50 Hz supply. Determine :
(i) Impedance of the entire circuit, (ii) Current flowing through the condenser,
(iii) Power factor of the circuit, (iv) Voltage across the condenser.
(Ans. 17 13·53 A; 0·471 (lagging); 307·7 V)
2. A coil of resistance 10 ohms and inductance 0.1 H is connected in series with a condenser of
capacitance 150 micro-farad across a 200 V, 50 Hz supply. Determine (i) impedance ; (ii)
current ; (iii) power factor ; (iv) voltage across the coil ; (v) voltage across the condenser.
(Ans. 14·28  ; 14 A ;0·7 lag; 461·57 V; 297·08 V)
3. A series R-L-C circuit with R = 10 ; L = 0·02 H, C = 2 F is connected to 100 V variable
frequency source. Find the frequency for which the current is maximum. (Ans. 795·77 Hz)
4. Determine the parameters of an R – L – C series circuit that will resonate at 1000 Hz, has a
bandwidth of 100 Hz and draws 16 W from a 200 V generator operating at the resonant
frequency of the circuit. (Ans. 2500  ; 3·98 H, 6.3  10–6F)
5. A 10 mH coil is connected in series with a loss free capacitor to a variable frequency source of
20 V. The current in the circuit has maximum value of 0·2 A at a frequency of 100 kHz.
Calculate :
(i) the value of capacitance ; (ii) the Q factor of the coil ; (iii) the half power frequencies.
(Ans. 253·3 pF; 62·8 ; 99·204 kHz ; 100·796 kHz)
The a.c. circuits in which number of branches are connected in such a manner so that voltage across
each branch is the same but current flowing through them is different, are called a.c. parallel circuits.
The parallel circuits are used more frequently in a.c. system because of the following reasons :
(i) Almost all the electrical appliances (or devices) of different ratings are operated at the same
supply voltage and are connected in parallel.
(ii) Each device is required to be operated independently (with a switch) without disturbing the
operation of other devices. Hence, connected in parallel.

In parallel circuits, number of branches are connected in parallel. Each branch, generally, contains
number of components like resistance, inductance and capacitance forming series circuits. Therefore
each branch is analysed separately as a series circuit and then the effects of separate branches are
combined together. While carrying out circuit calculations, the magnitudes and phase angles of voltages
and currents are taken into account. The following methods may be applied for solving a.c. parallel
circuits.
(i) Phasor (or vector) method.
(ii) Admittance method.
(iii) Method of phasor algebra (or symbolic method or J-method).
The method to be applied for the solution, depends upon the conditions of the problem. However, in
general, the method which yields quick results is applied.

To solve parallel a.c. circuits by this method, proceeds as follows :

R1 Y
I1 L1
I2

R2 C2
2
I I2 
X 1

Y I1

Step I : Draw the circuit as per the given problem as shown in fig. 2.63. (Here, for illustration, we
have considered two branches connected in parallel. One branch contains resistance and
inductance in series, whereas second branch contains resistance and capacitance in series.
The supply voltage is V volts).
Step II : Find the impedance of each branch of the circuit separately, i.e.

Z1 = R12  X L21 where XL1 = 2  f L1

 Z2 = R22  X C2 2 where XC2 = 1/2  f C2
Step III : Determine the magnitude of current and phase angle with the voltage in each branch.
V X L1
I1 = ; 1 = tan–1 (lagging) [for inductive branch]
Z1 R1
V X C2
I2 = ; 2 = tan–1 (lagging) [for capacitive branch]
Z2 R2
Step IV : Draw the phasor diagram taking voltage as the reference phasor. Represent the branch
currents on it as shown in fig. 2.64.
Step V : Find the phasor sum of branch currents by the method of components.
IXX = I1 cos 1 + I2 cos 2
I YY = – I1 sin 1 + I2 sin 2 (negative)

I = ( I XX )2  ( IYY )2
Step VI : Find the phase angle  between the total current I and circuit voltage V.
IYY
 = tan–1 lagging (since, IYY is negative)
I XX
Power factor of the circuit = cos  (lagging)
I XX
or Power factor = (lagging)
I
Example 2.25. The circuits A and B are connected in parallel to a 250 V, 50 Hz supply. Circuit A
consists of resistance 15 ohm in series with an inductive reactance of 15 ohm and circuit B consists
of resistance 30 ohm in series with a capacitive reactance of 15 ohm. Determine (i) the current
drawn by each circuit ; (ii) total current drawn from the mains.
Solution : The circuit is shown in fig.2.65.

Impedance, Z1 = R12  X L21  (15) 2  (15) 2 = 21.21 

Impedance, Z2 = R22  X C2 2  (30) 2  (15) 2 = 33.54 

V 250
Current, I1 =  = 11.78 A (Ans.)
Z1 21.21

I1  150 5.143A

I2 30 15 26.56°

I 45°

250V, 50Hz
11.78A
 V 250
Current, I2 =  = 7.45 A (Ans.)
Z 2 33.54

X L1 15
Phase angle, 1 = tan–1 = tan–1 = 45° lag
R1 15

X C2 15
Phase angle, 2 = tan–1 = tan–1 = 26·56° leading
R2 30
The phasor diagram representing voltage as reference phasor is shown in fig. 2.66.
Resolving the currents horizontally and vertically, we get,
IXX = I1 cos 1 + I2 cos 2 = 11.78 cos 45° + 7.45 × cos 26·56° = 15 A
I YY = – I1 sin 1 + I2 sin 2
= – 11.78 × sin 45° + 7.45 sin 26·56° = – 5 A

Current drawn from the mains, I = I XX 2  IYY 2  (15) 2  (5)2 = 15.81 A (Ans.)
Example 2.26. A coil of resistance 30 ohm and inductance 0·1 H is connected in parallel with a
non-inductive resistance of 40 ohm. Find (i) current in each branch of the circuit, (ii) total current
supplied, (iii) phase angle and p.f. of combination when a voltage of 200 volt at 50 Hz is applied
(iv) power consumed in the circuit.
Solution : The circuit is shown in fig.2.67.
I1  0·15H
5A V

I2 40 46.3°
I 4.6 A

8.83A
200V, 50 HZ

Applied voltage, V = 200 V ; Supply frequency, f = 50 Hz

Branch I
R2 = 30  ; XL1 = 2  f L1 = 2 × 50 × 0·1 = 31·4 

Impedence, Z1 = R12  X L2  (30) 2  (31.4)2 = 43.43 ohm

V 200
Current in the coil, I1 =  = 4.6 A (Ans.)
Z1 43.43

X L1 31.4
Phase angle,  1 = tan–1  tan –1 = 46·3° lagging
R1 30
 Branch II
Resistance, R 2 = 40 ohm
V 200
Branch current, I 2 = R  40 = 5 A (Ans.)
2

Phase angle,  2 = 0 (I2 is in phase with V)

The two currents are shown vectorially in fig. 2.68. Resolving the currents horizontally and vertically,
IXX = I2 + I1 cos 1 = 5 + 4.6 cos 46·3° = 5 + 4.6 × 0.691 = 8.18 A
I YY = 0 – I1 sin 1 = 0 – 4.6 sin 46·3° = – 4.6 × 0·723 = – 3.33 A

Total current supplied, I = I 2XX  IYY

2 = (8.18) 2  (–3.33) 2 = 8.83 A (Ans.)

1 YYI  3• 33 
 = tan I  tan 1 
Phase angle,
XX  8.18  = –22·126° (Ans.)

Power factor of the circuit, cos  = cos (– 22·126°) = 0·9264 (lagging) (Ans.)
Power, P = VI cos  = 200 × 8.83 × 0·9264 = 1635.7 W (Ans.)
Example 2.27. A single phase motor takes 30 A at a pf of 0·6 lagging from 230 V, 50 Hz supply.
What value of capacitance must a shunt capacitor have to raise the overall power factor to 0·9 ?
Solution : Active component of current drawn by motor, Ia = I cos 1 = 50 × 0·6 = 30 A
Initial power factor, cos 1 = 0·6 lagging I

tan 1 = tan cos–1 0·6 = 1·333 IC

Improved power factor, cos 2 = 0·9 lagging
V = 250 V Motor
tan 2 = tan cos–1 0·9 = 0·4843 C

Let C be the capacitance of capacitor connected across

the motor as shown in fig. 2.69
The reactive current drawn by capacitor,
IC = I r  Ir = Ia tan 1 – Ia tan 2
1 2
IC = Ia (tan 1 – tan 2) = 30 (1·333 – 0·4843) = 25·47 A
IC 25 ∙ 47
The value of capacitance required, C =  = 324·3 F (Ans.)
2  f V 2  × 50 × 250

1. A coil of resistance 15 ohm and inductance 0·05 H is connected in parallel with a non-inductive
resistance of 20 ohm. Find (i) current in each branch of the circuit, (ii) total current supplied,
 (iii) phase angle and p.f. of combination when a voltage of 200 volt at 50 Hz is applied (iv)
power consumed in the circuit.
(Ans. 9·2 A; 10 A; 17·656 A; -22·126°; 0·9264 (lagging); 3271·3 W)
2. A series ac circuit has a resistance of 15  and inductive reactance of 10 . Calculate the
value of capacitor which is connected across this series combination so that system has unity
power factor. The frequency of ac supply is 50 Hz. (Ans. 97.94F)
3. The circuits A and B are connected in parallel to a 230 V, 50 Hz supply. Circuit A consists of
resistance 20 ohm in series with an inductive reactance of 20 ohms and circuit B consists of
resistance 40 ohm in series with a capacitive reactance of 20 ohm. Determine (i) the current
drawn by each circuit ; (ii) total current drawn from the mains. (Ans. 8·13 A; 5·143 A; 10·91 A)
4. A single phase motor takes 5 A current at 230 V, 50 Hz supply at a p.f. 0·707 lagging. It is
required to improve the p.f. of the motor to 0·9 by connecting a capacitor in parallel with it.
Determine the capacitance of capacitor. (Ans. 25·23 m F)
5. A single phase motor takes 50 A at a pf of 0·6 lagging from 250 V, 50 Hz supply. What value of
capacitance must a shunt capacitor have to raise the overall power factor to 0·9 ?
(Ans.324·3 mF)

An a.c. circuit containing an inductor and capacitor in parallel is said to be in parallel resonance when the
circuit current is in phase with the applied voltage. Consider an inductor of L henry having some
resistance R ohm connected in parallel with a capacitor of capacitance C farad across a supply voltage
of V volt as shown in fig.2.70. The phasor diagram of the circuit is shown in fig.2.71.
The circuit current Ir will only be in phase with the supply voltage when
IC = IL sin L

IL R L
IC
IC C Ir = IL cos L V
O
Ir 

V
IC = IL sin L IL

Since, at resonance the reactive component of current is suppressed, the circuit draws minimum
current under this condition.

The value of XL (= 2  f L) and XC (= 1/2  f C) can be changed by changing the supply frequency.
When frequency increases, the value of XL and consequently the value of ZL increases. This decreases
the magnitude of current IL which also lags behind the voltage V by a progressively greater angle. On the
other hand, the value of XC decreases and consequently the value of IC increases. At some frequency fr
(called resonance frequency), IC = IL sin L and resonance occurs.
  At parallel resonance, IC = IL sin L
V X V V V X 2
where, IL = ; sin L = L and IC =  = × L or XL XC = Z L
ZL ZL XC XC ZL ZL
L
or
C
2 2
e
2
= ZL  R  X L j ...(i)

L L
or = R2 + (2  fr L)2 or 2  fr L =  R2
C C

1 L 1 1 R2
or fr =  R2   2 ...(ii)
2 L C 2 LC L
If R is very small as compared to L, then
1

CURRENT
Resonance frequency, fr =
2  LC

At parallel resonance ; Line current, Ir = IL cos 

Ir = V/Zr
V V R 1 R
or = × or  2
Zr ZL ZL Zr Z L
fr
1 R CR FREQUENCY
or   (since Z L2 = L/C from exp. i.)
Zr L/ C L
 Circuit impedance, Zr = L/CR
It shows that
(i) Circuit impedance Zr (= L/CR) is a pure resistive because there is no frequency terms present.
If the value of L, R and C is in henry, ohm and farad then the value of Zr is in ohm.
(ii) The value of Zr is very high because the ratio L/C is very large at parallel resonance.
(iii) The value of circuit current Ir (= V/Zr) is very small, as shown in fig.2.72, because the value
of Zr is very high.
(iv) The current flowing through the capacitor and coil is much greater than the line current because
the impedance of each branch is quite low than circuit impedance Zr.
Since a parallel resonant circuit can draw a very small current and power from the mains, it is often
regarded as rejected circuit.
Resonance curve : A current-frequency curve for a typical parallel resonant circuit is shown
in fig.2.72. The value of line current I r (= V r/Z r) is minimum at resonance.

We have seen that at parallel resonance, the current circulating between the two branches is many times
greater than the line current drawn from the mains. This current simplification produced by the resonance
is called the Q-factor of the parallel resonant circuit.
 Current circulating between L and C IC
 Q-factor = 
Line current Ir
V
Now, I C = V/XC = 2  fr CV and Ir =
L / CR
2  f r CV L 2  fr L
 Q-factor = ×  ...same as for series circuit
V CR R
2 L F f 1 I
or Q-factor =
R
∙
1
2  LC
GH r 
2  LC
neglecting R JK
1 L L
or Q-factor = or Q-factor = (neglecting R)
R C C
The value of Q-factor is same as for series resonance.

The comparison of series and parallel resonant circuit is given below :

S.No. Particulars Series Circuit Parallel Circuit
1. Impedance, Minimum i.e. Zr = R Maximum i.e. Zr = L/CR
2. Current Maximum i.e. Ir = V/R Minimum i.e. Ir = V/Zr

1 1 1 R2
3. Resonant frequency fr = fr =  2
2  LC 2 LC L
4. Power factor Unity Unity
5. Q-factor X L/R X L/R
6. Amplification It amplifies voltage It amplifies current
Example 2.28. A parallel circuit consists of a coil having 25  resistance and 300 mH inductance
in parallel with a capacitor of capacitance 4F. Determine (i) the resonant frequency (ii) dynamic
impedance of the circuit and (iii) Q-factor of the circuit at resonance.

1 1 R2
Solution : (i) Resonant frequency, fr =  2
2 LC L

1 1 (25) 2
or fr = – = 144·68 Hz (Ans.)
2 0.3  4  10 –6 (0.3) 2
L 0.3
(ii) Dynamic impedance, Zr =  = 3000  (Ans.)
CR 4  10 60  25
2  f r L 2   145.27  0.3
(iii) Q-factor =  = 10.953 (Ans.)
R 25
 Example 2.29. A coil of 15 resistance and 0·1 H inductance is connected in parallel with a
capacitor of 15 F. Calculate the frequency at which the circuit will act as a non-inductive resistance
of R ohm. Find also the value of R, input current at resonant frequency and the ratio of the
circulating current to the supply current at resonant frequency. The applied voltage is 100 V (rms).
Solution : Capacitance, C = 10  F = 10 × 10–6 F ; R = 10  ; L = 0·1 H ; V = 100 V
The circuit will act as a resistive circuit at resonant frequency, i.e.

1 1 R2 1 1 (10) 2
fr = – 2  – = 127.74 Hz (Ans.)
2 LC L 2 0.1  15  10 –6 (0.1) 2

L 0.1
Dynamic resistance (or impedance) =  = 444.44  (Ans.)
CR 15  10 6  15

V 100
Input current at resonant frequency, I =  = 0·225 A (Ans.)
L / CR 444.44
The ratio of circulating current to line current at resonant frequency,
IC 2 f r L 2  127.74  0.1
=  = 5.35 (Ans.)
I R 15
Example 2.30. An inductive circuit of resistance 2  and inductance 0·01 H is connected to
a 250 V, 50 Hz supply. What value of capacitance is required to be placed in parallel with
it to produce resonance ?
Solution : Here, R = 2  ; L = 0·014 H ; V = 250 V ; f = 50 Hz
Inductive reactance, XL = 2  f L = 2  × 50 × 0·01 = 3·14 

Impedance, Z = R 2  X L2  (2)2  (3.14) 2 = 3.72 

L
At resonance, Z =
C
L 0.01
or C = 2
 = 722.6 F (Ans.)
Z (3.72) 2

Poly means many (more than one) and phase means windings or circuits, each of them having a single
alternating voltage of the same magnitude and frequency. Hence, a polyphase system is essentially a
combination of two or more than two voltages having same magnitude and frequency but displaced
from one another by equal electrical angle. This angular displacement between the adjacent voltages is
called phase difference and depends upon the number of phases.
360 electrical degrees
Phase difference =
Number of phases
 360
For three-phase system phase difference = = 120° electrical.
3
Thus, an a.c. system having a group of (two or more than two) equal voltages of same frequency
arranged to have equal phase difference between them is called a polyphase system.

1. Constant power : In single phase circuits, the power delivered is pulsating, whereas, in poly-
phase system, power delivered is almost constant when the loads are balanced.
2. Higher rating : The rating (output) of a 3-phase machine is nearly 1.5 times the rating (output)
of a single-phase machine of the same size.
3. Power transmission economics : To transmit the same amount of power over a fixed distance
at a given voltage, 3-phase system requires only 75% of the weight of conducting material as
required by single-phase system.
4. Superiority of 3-phase induction motors : The 3-phase induction motors are considered to
be superior because of the following reasons :
(i) Three-phase induction motors are self starting, whereas 1-phase induction motors have no
starting torque without auxiliary means.
(ii) Three-phase induction motors have higher power factor and efficiency than that of single-
phase induction motors.

In a 3-phase system, three are three equal voltages (or e.m.fs.) of the same frequency having a phase
difference of 120°. These voltages can be produced by a three-phase, a.c. generator having three
identical windings (or phases) displaced 120° electrical apart. When these windings are rotated in a
stationary magnitude field [see fig. 2.73 (a)] or when these windings are kept stationary and the magnetic
field is rotated [see fig. 2.73 (b)], an e.m.fs. is induced in each winding or phase. These e.m.fs. are of
same magnitude and frequency but are displaced from one another by 120° electrical.
Consider three identical coils a1 a2, b1 b2 and c1c2 mounted as shown in fig. 2.73 (a and b). Here, a1, b1
and c1 are the start terminals, whereas, a2, b2 and c2 are the finish terminals of the three coils. It may be
noted that a phase difference of 120° electrical is maintained between the corresponding start terminals
a1, b1 and c1. Let the three coils mounted on the same axis be rotated (or the magnetic field system be
rotated keeping coils stationary) is anticlockwise direction at  radians/second, as shown in fig. 2.73 (a)
and 2.73 (b) respectively. Three e.m.fs. are induced in the three coils respectively. Their magnitude and
direction, at this instant, are as mentioned below :
(i) The e.m.f. induced in coil a1a2 is zero (consider start terminal a1) and is increasing in the
positive direction as shown by wave ea1a2 in fig. 2.73 (c).
 STATOR
N
c2 b1 b2 c1
S
120°
a1 120° a2 a1 a2
ws

120°
N
b1
S c2

(a) Rotating coil system

(b) Rotating field system
ea a e b b ec c Em(c1c2)
1 2 1 2 1 2
e
120°

O 120°
120° 240° Em(a1a2)
120°

Em(b1b2)
(c) Wave diagram (d) Phasor diagram
Fig. 2.73: Generation of 3-phase emfs
(ii) The coil b1b2 is 120° (electrical) behind the coil a1a2. The e.m.f. induced in this coil is negative
and is becoming maximum negative (consider start terminal b1) as shown by the eb1b2 in
fig.2.73 (c).
(iii) The coil c1c2 is 120° (electrical) behind b1b2 or 240° (electrical) behind a1a2. The e.m.f.
induced in this coil is positive and is decreasing (consider start terminal c1) as shown by wave
ec1c2 in fig.2.73 (c).

The e.m.fs. induced in three coils are of the same magnitude and frequency but are displaced by 120°
(electrical) from each other as shown by phasor diagram in fig. 2.73 (d). These can be represented by
the equations ;
ea1a2 = Em sin  t ;
eb1b2 = Em sin (t – 2 /3)
ec1c2 = Em sin (t – 4 /3) = Em sin (t – 240°)

The three phases may be named out by numbers (1, 2 and 3) ; by letters (a, b and c) or by colours (Red,
Yellow and Blue i.e. R Y B). In India they are named by R Y B i.e. red, yellow and blue.
In a three phase system, there are three voltages having same magnitude and frequency displaced by an
angle of 120° electrical. They are attaining their positive maximum value in a particular order.
The order in which the voltages (or e.m.fs.) in the three phases attain their maximum positive value is
called the phase sequence.
In the above article, the e.m.fs. in the three phases attain their positive maximum vlaue in the order of
a1a2, b1b2, c1c2, therefore, the phase sequence is a, b, c. However, if the coils, or phases are being
named out as R, Y, B in place of a, b, c respectively, then the phase sequence will be RYB.
The sequence RYB (or YBR or BRY) is considered as positive phase sequence, whereas, the RBY (or
BYR or YRB) is considered as negative phase sequence.
The sequence knowledge of phase sequence is essential in the following important applications :
(i) The direction of rotation of 3-phase induction motors depends upon the phase sequence of 3-
phase supply. To reverse the direction of rotation, the phase sequence of the supply given to
the motor has to be changed.
(ii) The parallel operation of 3-phase alternators and transformers is only possible if phase sequence
is known.

In a 3-phase a.c. generator, three are three windings. Each

a1 1
winding has two terminals (start and finish). If a separate load
is connected across each phase winding as shown in fig.2.74, Z1
then each phase 2

supplies an independent load through a pair of leads (wires). b1 3

Thus, six wires will be required in this case to connect the Z2
load to generator. This will make the whole system complicated 4
b2
and expensive. c1 5
In order to reduce the number of the conductors, the three
Z3
phase windings of the a.c. generator are suitably inter- 6
connected. The following are the two universally adopted c2
methods of inter-connecting the three phases :
1. Star or wye (Y) connection ; 2. Mesh or delta ()
connection.

In star or wye (Y) connections, the similar ends (either start or finish) of the three windings are
connected to a common point called star or neutral point. The three line conductors are run from the
remaining three free terminals called line conductors. Ordinarily only three wires are carried to the external
circuit giving 3-phase, 3-wire star connected system. However, sometimes a fourth wire is carried from
the star point to the external circuit, called neutral wire, giving 3-phase, 4- wire star connected system.
 a1 lL
R R
R
lph
a2
Eph
b1 Y
EL
N
b2
c1 B
B
Y
Y
c2 B
(a) Finish terminals connected together (b) Represention of phase and line voltages

As shown in fig.2.75, the finish terminals a2, b2 and c2 of the three windings are connected to form a
star or neutral point. From the remaining three free terminals three conductors are run, named R, Y and
B. The current flowing through each phase is called phase current Iph and current flowing through each
line conductor is called line current IL. Similarly, voltage across each phase is called phase voltage (Eph)
and voltage across two line conductors is called line voltage (EL).

The connections are shown in fig.2.76 (a). Since the system is balanced, the three voltages ENR, ENY
and ENB are equal in magnitude but displaced from one another by 120° electrical. Their phasor are
shown in fig. 2.76 (b). The arrow heads on e.m.fs. and currents indicate the positive direction and not
their actual direction at any instant.
IR EYB
INR R

ENR
ENB –ENY
ERY
EBR
N 120º 120º
E NB ENY
–ENR ENR
IY
B INB Y 60º
INY
EYB
IB ERY ENY –ENB EBR
B
(a) Circuit diagram for star-connection (b) Phasor diagram

Now, ENR = ENY = ENB = Eph (in magnitude)

It may be seen that between any two lines, there are two phase voltages.
Tracing the loop N R Y N, we get E NR  E RY  E NY = 0

or E RY = E NY  E NR (vector difference)
To find the vector sum of ENY and – ENR, reverse the vector ENR and add it vectroialy with ENY as
shown in fig. 2.76(b).
  E RY = 2 2
E NY  E NR  2 E NY E NR cos 60

or EL = E 2ph  E 2ph  2 E ph E ph × 0 ∙ 5 = 3 E 2ph  3 E ph (in magnitude)

Similarly, EYB = E NB  E NY or EL = 3 Eph = E NR  E NB or EL = 3 Eph

Hence, in star connections ; Line voltage = 3 × Phase voltage

From fig.2.76(a), it is clear that same current flows through phase winding as well as the line conductor
since line conductor is just connected in series with the phase winding.
 IR = INR ; IY = INY and IB = INB
where, INR = INY = INB = Iph (phase current) and IR = IY = IB = IL (line current)
Hence, is star connections ; Line current = Phase current

In delta () or mesh connections, the finish terminal of one winding is connected to start terminal of the
other winding and so on which forms a closed circuit. The three line conductors are run from three
junctions of the mesh called line conductors, as shown in fig.2.77.

a1 IL
R R
1
a2
b1 Y Eph EL

b2
2
c1 B 3 Y
Iph
c2
B
(a) Finish terminal of one phase connected to (b) Phase and line voltages
start of the next to from delta connections in delta connections

To obtain delta connection a2 is connected with b1, b2 is connected with c1 and c2 is connected with a1
as shown in fig. 2.77 (a). The three conductors R, Y and B are run from the three junctions called line
conductors. The current flowing through each phase is called phase current (Iph) and the current
flowing through each line conductor is called line current (IL) as shown in fig.2.77(b). Similarly, voltage
across each phase is called phase voltage (Eph) and voltage across two line conductors is called line
voltage (EL).
 lR l31 – l23
lY

1 lR lL 120°
l31 R
I12 60°
E31 E12 – l12 l12
ERY 120° 120°
EBY
lY
3 Y l23 – l31
l23 2
E23 lB EYB
B

lB

(a) Circuit diagram for delta connection (b) Phasor diagram

From fig. 2.78 (a), it is clear that voltage across terminals 1 and 2 is the same as across terminals R and Y.
 E12 = ERY ; similarly E23 = EYB and E31 = EBR
where E12 = E23 = E31 = Eph (phase voltage) and ERY = EYB = EBR = EL (line voltage)
Hence, in delta connection ; Line voltage = Phase voltage.

Since the system is balanced, therefore, the three phase currents I12, I23 and I31 are equal in magnitude
but displaced from one another by 120° electrical. Their phasors are shown in fig.2.78 (b).
Thus I12 = I23 = I31 = Iph (in magnitude)
In fig. 2.78 (a), it may be seen that current is divided at every junction 1, 2 and 3.
Applying Kirchhoff’s first law at junction 1 ;
Incoming currents = outgoing currents

I 31  I R  I12 or I R  I 31  I12 (vector difference)

To find the vector sum of I31 and – I12, reverse the vector I12 and add it vectorially with I31 as shown in
fig. 2.78 (b).

 IR = 2
I12 2
 I12  2 I31 I12 cos60 = I 2ph  I 2ph  2 I ph I ph × 0 ∙ 5 (_ IR = II)

or IL = 3 I 2ph  3 I ph (in magnitude)

Similarly, IY = I12  I 23 or IL = 3 Iph

and I B = I 23  I 31 or IL = 3 Iph
 Similar to 3-phase supply, the three-phase loads may also be connected in
(i) Star or (ii) Delta
lL
R
Iph lL
R Iph
Z1 Vph
VL Z3
VL
Z1
Z3
Z2
Z2 Y
Y

B B
(a) star connections

Fig. 2.79: Three-phase load, connected in star and delta

The 3-phase loads connected in star and delta are shown in fig. 2.79 (a) and (b) respectively.
The 3-phase loads may be balanced or unbalanced. If the three loads (impedances) Z1, Z2 and Z3 are
having same magnitude and phase angle, then the 3-phase load is said to be a balanced load. Under such
connections, all the phase or line currents and all the phase or line voltages are equal in magnitude.
Throughout this book, balanced 3-phase system will be considered unless stated otherwise.

Power in single-phase system or circuit is given by the relation ;

P = VI cos , where, V = voltage of single-phase i.e. Vph
I = current of single-phase i.e. Iph and
cos  = power factor of the circuit
In 3-phase circuits (balanced load), the power is just the sum of powers in three phases,
i.e., P = 3 Vph Iph cos .
In star-connections
V
P = 3 L I L cos  (since Vph = VL/ 3 and Iph = IL)
3
or P = 3 VL IL cos 
In delta-connections
IL
P = 3 VL cos  (since Vph = VL and Iph = IL/ 3 )
3
or P = 3 VL IL cos 
Thus, the total power in a 3-phase balanced load, irrespective of connections (star or delta), is given by
the relation 3 VL IL cos . Its units are kW or W (watt).
Apparent power, Pa = 3 VL IL Its units are kVA or VA (volt-ampere)
Reactive power, Pr = 3 VL IL sin  (volt-ampere-reactive).
Its units are kVAR or VAR
Example 2.31. Three resistors each of 200  are connected in star across 400 V, 3-phase supply.
Calculate the line current, phase current and power taken from the source. What will be the same
values if the resistors are connected in delta?
Solution : When the resistors are connected in star as shown in fig.2.80.

lL
lph lL
R
Vph 200 V ph lph
VL = 400 V VL = 400 V 200 
200 
200
Y
200 200 
Y
B
B

Fig.2.80: Star connections Fig. 2.81: Delta connections

Phase voltage, Vph = VL/ 3 = 400/ 3 = 231 V
Phase current, Iph = Vph/Zph = 231/200 = 1.155 A (Ans.)
Line current, I L = Iph = 1.155 A (Ans.)

Power drawn, P = 3 I 2ph R ph = 3 × (1.155)2 × 200 = 800 W (Ans.)

When the resistor are connected in delta as shown in fig.2.81.
Vph = VL = 400 V
Iph = Vph/Zph = 400/ 200 = 2 A (Ans.)
IL = 3 × 2 = 3·464 A (Ans.)
Power drawn, P = 3 I 2ph R ph = 3 × (2)2 × 200 = 2400 W (Ans.)
Example 2.32. Three similar coils each having a resistance of 6 ohm and an inductance of 0·0255
H in are connected in star across a , three phase, 400 V, 50 Hz supply. Calculate the line current,
power factor, power in kW, kVA and kVAR .
IL
Solution : The connection are shown in fig.2.82. R Iph
Here, R = 6 , L = 0·0255 H, f = 50 Hz R = 6
X L = 2 fL = 2 × 50 × 0·0255 = 8 
L = 0·0255 H
Line voltage, VL = 400 V VL = 400 V
L L
VL 400
Phase voltage, Vph =   231 V R R
3 3 Y

Z ph = R 2  X L2 = 62  82  10 B

V ph 231 Fig. 2.82: Star connections

Phase current, Iph = Z  10  23 ∙ 1 A
ph
 Line current, IL = Iph = 23·1 A (Ans.)
R ph 6
Power factor, cos  =  = 0·6 lagging (Ans.)
Z ph 10

Power input, P = 3 VL I L cos  = 3  400  23.1  0.6 = 9600 W = 9·6 kW (Ans.)

kW 9.6
Power in KVA =  = 16 (Ans.)
cos  0.6
Power in kVAR = kVA  sin  = kVA  sin Cos-1 = 16  0.8 = 12.8 (Ans.)
Example 2.33. A 3-phase star connected balanced load is connected across a 3-phase 400V, 50Hz
supply. The line current is 20 A and the power consumed by the load is 12 kW. Calculate the, phase
current, power factor resistance and inductance of the load.
Solution : The connection are shown in fig.2.83.
IL = 20 A
Here, P = 12 kW = 12000 W ; R

VL = 400 V ; f = 50 Hz ; IL = 20 A
Z
VL 400
Phase voltage, Vph =   231 V VL = 400 V
3 3
Phage current, Iph = IL = 20 A (Ans.) Z

V ph Z
231 Y
Phase impedance, Zph =  = 11·55 
I ph 20
B
In 3-phase balanced load, Fig. 2.83: Star connected balanced load

Power P = 3 VL I L cos 
P 12000
 Power factor, cos  = 
3 VL I L 3 × 400 × 20
= 0·866 (Ans.)
Resistance, R = Z cos  = 11.55  0.866 = 10  (Ans)

Inductive reactance, XL = Z ph 2 – R 2  (11.55) 2 – (10) 2 = 5.78 

XL 5.78
Inductance, L=  = 0.0184 H (Ans.)
2 f 2  50
Example 2.34. A 3-phase balanced delta connected load is connected to a 3-phase, 400 V, 50 Hz
supply. It draws a line current of 17.32 A at 0·866 power factor lagging. Determine resistance and
inductance of each branch. Also determine the power drawn by the load.
Solution : The connection are shown in fig.2.84.
Line voltage, VL = 400 V, f = 50 Hz
 Line current, IL = 17·32 A, power factor, cos  = 0·866 (lag).

I L 17.32
Phase current, Iph =   10 A IL = 17·31 A
3 3 R Iph
cos  = 0·866 R R
  = cos–1 (0·866) VL = 400 V
L L
= 30°
Phase voltage, Vph = VL = 400 V Y
R L
V ph 400 B
Impedance of each branch, Zph =   40 
I ph 10 Fig. 2.84: Delta connected load

R ph
Power factor, cos  =
Z ph
Resistance of each branch, Rph = Zph cos  = 40 × 0·866 = 34.64  (Ans.)
2
Inductive reactance, Xph = Z ph  R ph
2
 (40) 2  (34.64) 2 = 20 

X ph 20
Inductance, L =  = 63.66 mH (Ans.)
2 f 2  50
Power drawn , P = 3Vph Iph cos  = 3 × 400 × 10 × 0·866 = 10392 W (Ans.
R 15
Power factor of the load, cos  =  = 0·7661 lagging
Z 19 ∙ 58
Power absorbed in each phase, Pph = Vph Iph cos 
= 200 × 10·215 × 7661 = 1565 W (Ans.)
Total power absorbed, P = 3 VL I L cos  = 3 × 200 × 17·69 × 0·7661 = 4695 W (Ans.)

1. Three 100  resistors are connected first in star and then in delta across 415 V, 3-phase
supply. Calculate the line and phase currents in each case and also the power taken from
the source. (Ans: 1.155 A; 800 W; 2 A; 3·464 A; 2400 W)
2. Three similar coils each having a resistance of 8 ohm and an inductance of 0·0191 H in series
in each phase is connected across a 400 V, three phase, 50 Hz supply. Calculate the line current,
power input, kVA and kVAR taken by the load.
(Ans: 23·1 A ; 0·6 lagging; 9·6 kW; 16; 12.8 )
3. A 3-phase, 400 V supply is connected to a 3-phase star connected balanced load. The line
current is 20 A and the power consumed by the load is 12 kW. Calculate the impedance of the
load, phase current and power factor. (Ans: 20 A; 0·866; 10 0.0184 H)
A.C. CIRCUIT 143

4. A 3-phase balanced delta connected load is connected to a 3-phase, 400 V, 50 Hz supply. It

draws a line current of 34·64 A at 0·8 power factor lagging. Determine resistance and inductance
of each branch. Also determine the power drawn by each phase.
(Ans: 34.64 Ω; 63.66 mH; 10392 W; 1565 W; 4695 W)
5. A 3-φ, 3-wire, Y-connected system has 150 V between phase to phase. Each phase has Z = 5 ∠
– 30°. Find current in each phase and total power drawn from the mains. Draw the phasor
diagram. (Ans: 17.32 A; 3897 W)
6. Three similar coils each having a resistance of 15 ohm and an inductance of 0·04 henry are
connected in star to a 3-phase 50 Hz supply, 200 volts between lines. Calculate the line current.
If they are now connected in delta, calculate the phase current, line current and the total power
absorbed in each phase. (Ans: 5·9 A; 17·69 A; 1565 W; 4695 W)

Project- : Project- : Project- :

Easy AC to DC Touch On-Off Basic Electronic
converting circuit Sensor Switch projects: How to
on breadboard Circuit on create series and
Breadboard | IC parallel circuits in
Timer project Breadboard

1. Alternating voltage : A voltage that changes its polarity and magnitude at regular inervals of
time is called an alternating voltage.
2. Sinusoidal alternating quantity : An alternating quantity that varies according to sine of angle θ
is known as sinusoidal alternating quantity.
3. Equation of an alternating quantity :
e = Em sin θ = Em sin ω t ; i = Im sin θ = Im sin ωt
4. Wave form : The shape of the curve obtained by plotting the instantaneous values along y-axis
and time or angle θ (= ω t) along x-axis is called wave form or wave shape.
5. Cycle : When an alternating quantity goes through a complete set of +ve and –ve value or goes
through 360 electrical degrees, it is said to have completed a cycle.
6. Alternation : One half of cycle is called an alternation.
7. Time period (T) : Time taken to complete one cycle in second is called time period.
 8. Frequency (f) : The number of cycles made per second by an alternating quantity is called its
frequency. It is measured in c/s or Hz (Hertz).
9. Relations : f = 1/T and  = 2  f
10. Instantaneous value ( or i) : The value of an alternating quantity at any instant is called its
instantaneous value.
11. Amplitude (Vm or Im) : The maximum value obtained by an alternating quantity during a cycle is
called its amplitude or maximum value or peak value or crest value.
12. Average value (Va or Ia) : The arithmetic average of all the instantaneous values considered of
an alternating quantity over one cycle is called its average value.

i1  i2  i3  ...  in
Ia  =
n
For sinusoidal current, Ia = 2 Im/ = 0·637 Im.
13. Effective or r.m.s. value (Vr.m.s. or Ir.m.s.) : That steady current which when flows through a
resistor of known resistance for a given time produces the same amount of heat as produced
by the alternating current when flows through the same resistor for the same time is called
effective or r.m.s. value of the alternating current.

i12  i22  i32  .....  in2

Ir.m.s. =
n
For sinusoidal current, Ir.m.s. = Im/ 2 = 0·707 Im.
14. Form factor : Ir.m.s./Ia ; For sinusoidal quantities, its value is 1.11.
15. Peak factor : Im/Ir.m.s. ; For sinusoidal quantities, its value is 1.414.
16. Phase : The phase of an alternating quantity at an instant is defined as the fractional part of a
cycle through which the quantity has advanced from a selected origin. It has less importance,
in practice.
17. Phase difference : The angular displacement between the maximum positive values of two
alternating quantities having the same frequency is called the phase difference between them.
Mathematically ; If i1 = Im1 sin  t the i2 = Im2 sin ( t + )
18. Leading quantity : An alternating quantity that attains its + ve maximum value prior to the
other is called leading quantity.
19. Lagging quantity : An alternating quantity that attains its +ve maximum value after the other
is called lagging quantity.
20. A.C. Circuit : The path for the flow of alternating current is called a.c. circuit.
21. Pure resistive circuit : Circuit contains pure resistance.
v = Vm sin  t ; i = Im sin  t ; Im = Vm/R ; P = VI ; p.f. = 1 ;
Current is in phase with voltage vector.
22. Pure inductive circuit : Circuit contains pure inductance.
v = Vm sin  t ; i = Im sin ( t – /2) ; Im = Vm/XL ; XL = 2  f L ; P = 0 ; p.f. = 0
lag ; Current lags behind voltage vector of 90° (i.e. /2)
23. Pure capacitive circuit : Circuit contains pure capacitance.
v = Vm sin  t ; i = Im sin ( t + /2) ; Im = Vm/XC ; XC = 1/2  f C ; P = 0 ; p.f. =
0 lead ; Current leads the voltage vector by 90° (i.e. /2).
24. R—L series circuit : Circuit contains resistance and inductance in series. It is generally
called inductive circuit. v = Vm sin  t ; i = Im sin ( t – ) ;  = tan–1 XL/R ; Im = Vm/
Z ; Z = R2  X L2 ; P = VI cos  = I2 R ; p.f. = cos  = R/Z lag ;
25. Power triangle : The three components of a right angled power triangle are :
(i) True power : It is the base or horizontal component of the power triangle which
represents the actual or true power consumed in an a.c. circuit.
P = VI cos  ; unit of true power is watt (W), kilowatt (kW) or megawatts (MW)
(ii) Reactive power : It is the perpendicular or vertical component of the power triangle
which represents reactive power of the circuit. This is the power which reacts in circuit,
in fact, it is that power which is supplied by the source in a quarter cycle and the same
is fed back in the next quarter cycle.
Pr = VI sin  ; units of reactive power are volt-ampere-reactive (VAR), kVAR or MVAR.
(iii) Apparent power : It is the hypotenuse of the power triangle. It is the power which
looks to be consumed in the circuit but actually it is not so.
Pa = VI ; units of apparent power are volt-ampere (VA), kVA or MVA.
26. Power factor and its importance : p.f. = cos  = R/Z = true power/apparent power
Ill-effects of poor p.f. (i) greater conductor size, (ii) poor efficiency, (iii) poor voltage
regulation and (iv) larger kVA rating of equipment.
27. R—C series circuit : Circuit contains resistance and capacitance in series. It is generally
called capacitive circuit. v = Vm sin  t ; i = Im sin ( t + ) ;  = tan–1 XC/R ; Im =
Vm/Z ; Z = R2  X C2 ; P = VI cos  = I2 R ; P.f. = cos  = R/Z leading ;
28. R—L—C series circuit : Circuit contains resistance, inductance and capacitance in series.
This circuit behaves as under :
(i) When XL > XC..........inductive circuit..........p.f. lagging ....0 to 1
(ii) When XL < XC..........capacitive circuit........p.f. leading ....0 to 1
(iii) When XL = XC..........resistive circuit.........p.f. unity....1 only.
29. Series resonance : An R – L – C circuit is said to be in series resonance, when

XL = XC ; Zr = R2  ( X L  X C )2  R

Resonance frequency, fr = 1/2  LC

Current is maximum i.e. Ir = V/Zr = V/R

1 L
Q-factor = 2  fr L/R =
R C
30. A.C. Parallel Circuit : An a.c. circuit in which number of branches (each branch contains
number of component in series) are connected in parallel is called an a.c. parallel circuit.
31. Method of solving parallel a.c. circuits : The following methods are used :
(i) Phasor or vector method (ii) Admittance method (iii) Symbolic or j-method
Phasor or vector method : The magnitude and direction of the currents flowing through
various branches is determined are represented as phasors. The phasors are resolved to
determine the resultant.
32. Parallel resonance : A parallel circuit, containing inductor and capacitor in parallel, is said
to be in parallel resonance when circuit current is in phase with the applied voltage, i.e.

1 1 R2
IC = IL sin  ; Resonance frequency, fr =  2
2 LC L

1
If R is very small and neglected, fr =
2 LC

1 L
Current is minimum, i.e., Ir = V/Zr ; Q-factor = 2  fr L/R =
R C
33. Polyphase system : An a.c. system having a group of (two or more than two) equal
voltages of same frequency arranged to have equal phase difference between them
(adjacent e.mfs.) is called polyphase system.
34. Advantage of 3-phase system : Constant power ; higher rating (1.5 times), economy in
power transmission ; superiority of 3-phase induction motor etc.
35. Generation of 3-phase e.m.fs. : ea1a2 = Em sin  t ; eb1b2 = Em sin ( t – 120°) ; ec1c2
= Em sin ( t – 240°)
36. Interconnection of three-phases : (i) Star-connection : EL = 3 Eph ; IL = Iph
(ii) Delta-connection : EL = Eph ; IL = 3 Iph
Power, P = 3 VL IL cos  = 3 Vph Iph cos 
 1. What do you understand by alternating current ?
2. What is difference between ac and dc ?
3. What is meant by instantaneous value ?
4. What is meant by peak value of an alternating quantity ?
5. What are scalar and vector quantities ?
6. What do you mean by phase ?
7. What is an in-phase condition ?
8. What is an out of phase condition ?
9. List the various factors governing the emf generation ?
10. Define average value of an alternating quantity.
11. What is RMS value of an alternating quantity ?
12. Why are alternating voltages and currents expressed in RMS values instead of average
values ?
13. Define form factor.
14. Define peak factor of an alternating quantity.
15. What is significance of form factor ?
16. What is the significance of peak factor ?
17. Differentiate between form factor and peak factor.
18. How will you calculate average value for symmetrical waves ?
19. What is a phasor ?
20. What is the significance of the phasor representation of an alternating quantity ?
21. What is meant by phase difference ?
22. What are leading and lagging quantities ?
23. What is an A.C. circuit ?
24. What are the differences between DC circuit and AC circuit
25. What is the phase difference between voltage and current in a resistor ?
26. What is the average power in a resistor ?
27. What is the phase difference between current and voltage in an inductor (pure inductance ?
28. Define inductive reactance.
29. What is the value of average power in an inductor ?
30. What is the phase difference between voltage and current in a capacitor ?
31. Define capacitive reactance.
32. What is the value of average power in a capacitor.
33. What is a series RL circuit ?
34. What is the impedance of RL series circuit ?
35. What is apparent power of an AC circuit ?
36. What is real power of an A.C. circuit ?
37. What is power factor ?
38. What is reactive power of an a.c. circuit ?
39. What is active component of an a.c. current ?
40. What is a reactive component of an a.c. current ?
41. What do you understand by RC series circuit ?
42. What is the impedance of RC series circuit ?
43. What is meant by RLC series circuit ?
44. What is the impedance of RLC series circuit ?
45. What is parallel ac circuit ?
46. What is mean by resonance circuit ?
47. What happens when RLC series circuit is at resonance ?
48. How does series resonance result in voltage amplification ?
49. The Q of a coil is 20 what does it mean ?
50. What are important points to be noted for a parallel circuit when it is at resonance ?
51. At parallel resonance why impedance of the circuit is pure resistance ?
52. Three-phase system is preferred over single-phase system, why ?
53. The knowledge of phase sequence is very important in industries and power system, why ?
54. In star connections the voltage between the two line terminals is not double to that of
phase voltage but it is 3 times, why ?
55. What do you understand by the following terms :
(i) Three phase balanced supply, (ii) Three phase balanced load, (iii) Three phase unbalanced
supply, (iv) Three phase unbalanced load, (v) Single phasing.
56. Write down the advantages of 3-phase system over single phase.
57. What are the two ways of connecting a 3-phase system ? Draw their phasor diagrams and
write down the relationship between phase and line voltages and currents for these systems.
 58. Show that the total power in a 3-phase balanced load is P = 3 V I cos  where V is
the rms line voltage, I is the rms line current and  is the phase angle between phase
voltage and phase current.
59. Compare 3-phase star and delta-connected systems

S No. Question (In para) Marks CO BL PO

1. What do you understand by alternating current ? 2 CO1 BL2 PO2

1. A current is given by i = 45.34 sin 377 t, find (i) maximum value of current ; (ii) r.m.s.
value of current ; (iii) frequency of current ; (iv) radians through which its phasor has
advanced after 0·01 second ; (v) number of degrees in (iv) and (vi) value of current at
instant mentioned in part (iv).
(Ans. 45.34 A ; 32 A ; 60 Hz ; 3·77 rad. ; 216° ; –26.6 A)
2. An alternating voltage is given as  = 200 sin 314 t determine its (i) maximum value ; (ii)
effective value ; (iv) form factor ; (v) value of voltage after 0·0025 second taking reckoning
time from the instant when voltage is zero and becoming positive ; (vi) time after which
voltage attains 200 V for the first time.
(Ans. 200 V ; 141.42 V ; 50 Hz ; 1·11 ; 141.42 V ; 1·67 ms)

3. A sinusoidal voltage of 50 Hz has a maximum value of 100 2 V. At what time measured

from a positive maximum value will the instantaneous voltage be 70.7 V ?
(Ans. 3·33 ms)
4. Calculate the r.m.s. value of a periodic voltage having the following values for equal intervals
changing suddenly from one value to the next : 0, 10, 30, 60, 30, 10, 0, – 10, – 30, – 60,
– 30, – 10 etc. (Ans. 30·55 V)
5. For a full wave rectified alternating current, determine (i) average value ; (ii) r.m.s. value
; (iii) form factor and (iv) peak factor. (Ans. 0·637 Im ; 0·707 Im ; 1·11 ; 1·4142)
6. Represent the following alternating currents as phasors on the same axes and determine
phase angle of all other currents with I1 : i1 = 15 sin ( t + /3) ; i2 = 16 cos ( t – /
6) ; i3 = 20 cos (t –  /3) ; i4 = 10 sin ( t – /6). (Ans. 60° ; 30° ; 90°)
7. An e.m.f. e1 = 50 sin  t and the other e2 = 30 sin ( t – /6) act together in the same
circuit. Find the resultant e.m.f. (Ans. 77·45 sin ( t + 11·17°))
 8. A 230 V water heater operating for 3 hours daily on a.c. mains is found to give 250 k calorie
per hour, the efficiency of heater system being 90%. Determine (i) the r.m.s. and the
maximum value of current ; (ii) resistance of the heater ; (iii) also write down the equations
for voltage and current when the supply frequency is 50 Hz.
(Ans. 1·41 A ; 1·993 A ; 163·1  ; v = 325·27 sin 314 t ; i = 1·993 sin 314 t)
9. An inductive coil has negligible resistance and inductance of 0·1 henry. It is connected
across a 220 V, 50 Hz supply. Find the current and power. Also write down the expression
for instantaneous value of applied voltage and current.
(Ans. 7 A ; zero ; v = 311 sin 314 t, i = 9·9 sin (314 t – /2))
10. A capacitor has a capacitance of 30 microfarad. Find its capacitive reactance for frequency
of 25 and 50 Hz. Find in each case the current if the supply voltage is 400 V.
(Ans. 212·2 ; 106·1 ; 2·073 A ; 4·146 A)
11. A coil having a resistance of 7  and an inductance of 31·8 m H is connected to 230 V,
50 Hz supply. Calculate (i) the circuit current, (ii) phase angle, (iii) power factor and (iv)
power consumed. (Ans. 18·85 A ; 55° lag ; 0·573 lag ; 2484·24 W)
12. A voltage e = 200 sin 100  t is applied to a coil having R = 200 ohm and L = 638 millihenry.
Find the expression for the current and also determine the power taken by the coil.
(Ans. 0·706 sin (314 t – 45·06°) ; 50 W)
13. A 100 V, 60 W lamp is to be operated at 220 V, 50 Hz mains. What (i) pure resistance (ii)
pure inductance or (iii) pure capacitance should be, placed in series with the lamp, which
enable it to run without being damaged ? Which method would be preferred and why ?
(Ans. 200  ; 1·038 H; 9.75F)
14. Two coils are connected in series having resistance and inductive reactance 5 and 6 ohm,
3 and 7 ohm respectively. A sinusoidal voltage of 200 V, 50 Hz is applied across the
combination. Calculate (i) current, power factor and power absorbed in the whole circuit
; (ii) voltage drop across each coil ; (iii) power factor and power absorbed in each coil.
(Ans. 13·1 A, 0·5241 lag, 1373W ; 102·3 V, 99·77 V ; 0·64 lag, 858 W, 0·394 lag, 515 W)
15. A voltage of 125 V at 50 Hz is applied across a non-inductive resistor connected in series
with a condenser. The current in the circuit is 2·2 A. The power loss in the resistor is 96·8
W and that is the condenser is negligible. Calculate the resistance and the capacitance.
(Ans. 20  ; 59·85  F)
16. An a.c. circuit having a resistance of 10 ohm, an inductance of 0·2 henry and a capacitance
of 100  F in series, is connected across a single-phase 110V, 50 Hz supply. Calculate the
following for this circuit. (i) Resultant reactance ; (ii) Impedance ; (iii) Current ; (iv)
Voltages across R, L and C ; (v) Phase difference between the current and supply voltage
; (vi) Draw the phasor diagram of the circuit.
(Ans. 31 ohm ; 32·573 ohm ; 3·377 A, 33·77V, 212·18 V, 107·49 V ; 72·12°)
17. A coil of resistance 100  and inductance 100  H is connected in series with a 100 p F
capacitor. The circuit is connected to a 50 V variable frequency supply. Calculate (i) the
resonant frequency ; (ii) current at resonance ; (iii) voltage across L and C at resonance
and (iv) Q-factor of the circuit. (Ans. 1·59 × 106 Hz ; 0·5 A ; 500 V ; 500 V ; 10)
18. A capacitor of capacitance C farads is connected in series with a coil having 75  resistance
and 12 henry inductance. Calculate the value of C when the circuit is connected across 220
V, 60 Hz supply. (Ans. 0·587  F)
19. Determine the parameter of an R – L – C series circuit that will resonate at 10000 Hz, has
a bandwidth of 1000 Hz and draws 15·3 W from a 200 V generator operating at the resonant
frequency of the circuit. (Ans. 2·614 ohm, 416 m H, 609 p F)
20. A coil of resistance 15 ohm and inductance 0·05 henry is connected in parallel with a non-
inductive resistor of 20 ohm. Find (i) the current in each branch of the circuit, (ii) the total
current supplied, and (iii) the phase angle of the combination, when a voltage of 230 volt
at 50 hertz is applied across the circuit. Draw the relevant phasor diagram.
(Ans. 10·59 A , 11·5 A ; 20·31 A ; 22·14° lagging)
21. Two coils are connected in parallel across a 200 V, 50 Hz supply. At the supply frequency,
their impedances are 6 and 10 ohm respectively and their resistances are 2 and 3 ohm
respectively, calculate : (i) The current in each coil ; (ii) the total current ; (iii) The total
power. (Ans. 33·33 A ; 20 A ; 53·3 A ; 3421·6 W)
22. A single phase motor draws 10 A at 230 V at a power factor of 0·8 lagging. Calculate the
value of the capacitor which when connected across the terminals of the motor will bring
the line current in phase with the voltage. Frequency of supply may be assumed as 50 Hz.
(Ans. 166  F)
23. A parallel circuit consists of a 2·5  F capacitor and a coil whose resistance and inductance
are 15  and 260 m H respectively. Determine (i) the resonant frequency ; (ii) Q of the
coil and (iii) dynamic impedance of the circuit. (Ans. 197 Hz, 21·45, 6933·33 )
24. A coil has a resistance of 500  and inductance of 350  H. Find the capacitance of a
capacitor which when connected in parallel with the coil, will produce resonance with a
supply frequency of 106 Hz. If a second capacitor of capacitance 30 p F is connected in
parallel with the first capacitor, find the frequency at which resonance will occur.
(Ans. 68·8 p F, 0·825 M Hz)
25. Three similar coils each having a resistance of 15 ohm and an inductance of 0·04 henry are
connected in star to a 3-phase, 50 Hz supply, 200 volt between lines. Calculate the line
current. If they are now connected in delta, calculate the phase current, line current and
the total power absorbed in each phase.(Ans. 5·9 A, 10·215 A, 17·69 A, 1565 W, 4695 W)
26. Three identical impedances are connected in delta to a 3-phase, 400 V, 50 Hz supply. The
line current is 34·65 A and total power taken from supply is 14.14 kW. Calculate the value
of resistance and inductance of each phase. (Ans. 11·78 , 51·45 mH)
27. Three inductive coils each of inductances 50 mH are connected in star to a 3-phase, 200
V, 50 Hz system. Calculate the inductance of each coil, which when connected in delta to
the same supply, will taken the same line current. (Ans. 150 mH)
28. Three 100 ohm non-inductive resistances are connected in (i) star (ii) delta across a 400
V, 50 Hz supply. Calculate the power taken from the supply in each case. In the event of
one of the resistance getting opened what would be the value of the total power taken from
the supply in each case. (Ans. 1600 W, 4800 W ; 800 W, 3200 W)
 29. Show that the power consumption, when three identical impedances are connected in delta
across a balanced 3-phase supply is three times that when the same impedances are
connected in star across the same 3-phase supply.
30. A 400 V, 3-phase system is connected to a balanced star load with the load impedance in
each phase as 40 60° ohm. Find (i) the line and phase currents and (ii) draw phasor
diagram showing line voltages, line currents and phase currents.
(Ans. 5·775 A ; 5·775 A)

Fill the following table yourself

S No. Question (In para) Marks CO BL PO

1. The r.m.s. value of an alternating current is given by steady current which when flowing
through a given circuit for a given time produces
(A) more heat than produced by a.c. when flowing through the same circuit
(B the same amount of heat as produced by a.c. when flowing through the same circuit.
(C) less heat than produced by a.c. when flowing through the same circuit.
(D) 144 joule.
2. The average value of sinusoidal current is given by the relation
(A) Im/ 2 (B) 0·707 Im (C) 2 Im/ (D) none of above.
3. In case of an unsymmetrical alternating quantity, the average value must always be taken
over
(A) the half cycle (B) the quarter cycle
(C the whole cycle (D) any fraction of the cycle.
4. The r.m.s. value of sinusoidal alternating current is given by the relation
(A) Im/ 2 . (B) 0·637 Im (C) 2 Im/ (D) Im/2
5. The amplitude factor of sinusoidal current is
(A) 1·11 (B) 1·414 (C) 0.707 (D) 0·637
 6. The r.m.s. value is a fraction of maximum value of sinusoidal current, the value of the
fraction is
(A) 1/1·414 (B) 0·637 (C) 2 (D) none of above.
7. The r.m.s. value of an a.c. signal is 10 volt. The peak to peak value will be
(A) 6·37 V (B)14·14 V (C) 141 V (D) 28·28 V
8. A wave completes one cycle in 10 seconds, its frequency will be
(A) 0.1 M Hz (B) 100,000 Hz (C) 100 k Hz (D) All of these.
9. An alternating quantity which attains its positive maximum value prior to the other is
called the
(A) in phase quantity (B) lagging quantity (C) leading quantity (D) none of above.
10. If the effective value of the sinusoidal voltage is 222 volt. Its average value will be
(A) 200 V (B) 246.42 V (C) 313.02 V (D) none of above
11. The inductive reactance is measured in ohm because it
(A) Opposes the alternating current
(B) Helps the alternating current
(C) is the product of frequency and inductance
(D) has a back e.m.f.
12. In an R-L series circuit, if R = X2, the phase difference between ac voltage and current
will be
(A) 0° (B) 30° (C) 45° (D) 90°
13. If an a.c. voltage is applied across a capacitor, the alternating current flows through the
circuit because
(A) of high peak value of voltage. (B) capacitor offers low opposition
(C) electrons can pass through capacitor (D) capacitor charges and discharges according
to the supply frequency.
14. As frequencies increases, the value of capacitive reactance
(A) increases (B) decreases
(C) remains the same (D) First decreases then increases
15. In a pure inductive a.c. circuit :
(A) voltage leads the current vector by 90°
(B) current lags the voltage vector by 90°
(C) current is in phase with voltage vector.
(D) both a and b
16. In an a.c. circuit, the true expression for apparent power is
(A) Va Ia (B) VI cos  (C) Vr.m.s. Ir.m.s. (D) VI sin 
17. If the frequency of power supply offered to a pure capacitive circuit is doubled,
(A) the current will also be doubled
(B) the current will reduce to half
(C) the opposition to current decreases to half
(D) both a and b
18. The power factor of a series resonance circuit is
(A) zero (B) 0·5 lagging (C) unity (D) 0·5 leading
19. The current in a parallel resonance circuit will be
(A) zero (B) infinity (C) very small (D) very large
20. An R—L—C series circuit contains resistance 25 , inductance 8 m H and capacitance of
80  F, the p.f. of the circuit will be
(A) unity (B) zero (C) lagging (D) leading
21. For the same rating, the size of 3-phase machine to that of 1-phase machine will be
(A) more (B) less (C) same (D) none of the above.
22. To transmit the same amount of power over a particular distance at a given voltage, the
amount of conducting material required in a 3-phase system to that of 1-phase system will
be
(A) 1·5 times (B) 0·5 times (C) 3 times (D) 0·75 times
23. The phase sequence of a 3-phase system is RYB. The same phase sequence can be
represented as
(A) RBY (B) BYR (C) YBR (D) YRB
24. In a balanced 3-phase, star-connected system, the phase difference between phase voltages
and their respective line voltages are
(A) 30° (B) 60° (C) 120° (D) 45°
25. In a balanced 3-phase, star-connected system, the relation between phase voltage (Vph)
and line voltage (VL) is
(A) Vph = 3 VL (B) Vph = 0·577 VL (C) Vph = VL 2 (D) none of above
26. A 3-phase load is said to be a balanced load, if all the three phases have the same
(A) impedance (B) power factor (C) both a and b (D) none of above
27. Three 100 ohm resistors are connected in star across a 400 V, 3-phase supply, if one of
the resistors is disconnected, then the line current will be
(A) 2 A (B) 4 A (C) 4 / 3 A (D) 4 3 A
28. Three 50 ohm resistors are connected in delta across a 400 V, 3-phase supply, if one of
the resistor is disconnected, then the phase current will be
(A) 8 / 3 A (B) 8× 3 A (C) 8 A (D) 4 3 A
 29. In a 3-ohase, balanced load, the power consumed is given by the relation
(A) 3 VL IL cos  (B) 3 Vph Iph cos  (C) both a and b (D) none of the above
30. When three 10 ohm resistors are connected in star across a 400 V, 3-phase supply, each
resistor must have a power rating.
(A) 5290 W (B) 2300 W (C) 4000 W (D) 4600 W
31. Three delta connected resistors absorb 30 kW when connected to a 400 V, 3-phase supply.
When they are connected in star across the same supply the power absorbed will be
(A) 60 kW (B) 90 kW (C) 20 kW (D) 10 kW
32. Three identical resistances, each of 15 , are connected in star across a 400 V, 3-phase
supply. The value of resistance the each phase of the equivalent delta-connected load
would be
(A) 5  (B) 45  (C) 30  (D) 7.5 

Fill the following table yourself

S No. Question (In para) Marks CO BL PO

1. Explain how a sinusoidal e.m.f. is generated.

2. Derive an expression for the instantaneous value of alternating voltage varying sinusoidally.
3. Explain the terms amplitude, cycle, time period, frequency and phase difference as applied
to alternating wave forms.
4. Define r.m.s. value and average value of an alternating quantity.
5. Show that the r.m.s. value of a sinusoidal a.c. voltage of amplitude Vm is Vm/ 2 .
6. Derive the expression for average and r.m.s. value of a sinusoidally varying quantity.
7. Show that the form factor of the sinusoidal wave form is 1.11.
8. Derive the values of form factor and peak factor of a sinusoidally varying quantity.
9. Explain how sinusoidal quantities can be represented by vectors.
10. Explain the component method for addition of alternating quantities.
11. Distinguish between
(i) Time period and frequency (ii) Cycle and alternation
(iii) Peak factor and form factor (iv) Average and rms value of an alternating current.
12. Explain why the phasor of current across an inductor lags its voltage by 90° and the
phasor of current across a capacitor leads its voltage by 90°.
13. Determine phase angle relationship between alternating voltage and current in a purely
inductive and a purely capacitance circuit under steady state condition.
14. Explain with mathematical expression that power consumed in a pure inductance in zero.
15. Explain with mathematical expression that power consumed in a pure capacitance is zero.
16. Show that power consumed in a pure resistive circuit is not constant but it is fluctuating.
17. Develop the expression for the power consumed in an ac single-phase R-L serirs circuit.
18. What do you mean by ‘watt-less current’.
19. What do you understand by real power, reactive power and apparent power ?
20. What is power factor ? Discuss its practical importance.
21. Explain how capacitor is used to improve the pf.
22. What is power factor in R—L—C series circuit ; when XL > XC , XL < XC , XL = XC?
23. Define Q-factor for the series resonant circuit and express it in terms of the circuit
parameters.
24. If the voltage of R-phase is represented by R = Vm sin  t, write down similar expression
for the voltage of Y-phase and B-phase. The phase sequence being RBY.
25. What are the advantages of 3-phase system over 1-phase system ?
26. What do you understand by 3-phase power supply ? Describe star and delta-connections
by showing line voltages and phase voltages, line currents and phase currents.
27. Derive the relation between phase and line voltages and currents for a balanced 3-phase
star-connected system.
Or
For star connected system in a 3-phase circuit prove that VL = 3 Vph and IL = Iph.
Or
Derive the relationship between the line and phase voltages of an alternator.
28. Write down the relationship between line voltage and line current with phase voltage and
phase current in star-connected and delta-connected circuits.
29. Derive expression for power in 3-phase star and delta connections.
30. Obtain the line and phase relationships for voltages and currents for a delta-connected 3-
phase power system. Also obtain the expression of total power and per phase power.
31. Develop an expression for the total power in a balanced 3-phase load.
32. Describe the basic features of a balanced 3-phase system.
33. Show that power consumption, when three identical impedances are connected in delta
across a balanced 3-phase supply, is three times that when the same impedances are
connected in star across the same 3-phase supply.
Fill the following table yourself

S No. Question (In para) Marks CO BL PO

ATTAINMENT & GAP ANALYSIS

Attainment of the Programme Outcomes will be compiled in the table below to make a Gap Analysis
and work out remedial measures:
Course Attainment of the Programme Outcomes
Outcome (1- Weak Correlation; 2- Medium correlation; 3- Strong Correlation)
PO-1 PO-2 PO-3 PO-4 PO-5 PO-6 PO-7 PO-8 PO-9 PO-10 PO-11 PO-12
CO-1
CO-2
CO-3

Multi-choice questions :
1. (B) 2. (C) 3. (C) 4. (A) 5. (B)
6. (A) 7. (D) 8. (D) 9. (C) 10. (A)
11. (A) 12. (C) 13. (D) 14. (B) 15. (D)
16. (C) 17. (D) 18. (C) 19. (C) 20. (D)
21. (B) 22. (D) 23. (C) 24. (A) 25. (B)
26. (C) 27. (A) 28. (C) 29. (C) 30. (A)
31. (D) 32. (B)
 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Measuring the steady-state and transient time-response of R-L, R-C, and R-L-C circuits to a step
change in voltage (transient may be observed on a storage oscilloscope). Sinusoidal steady state response
of R-L, and R-C circuits – impedance calculation and verification. Observation of phase differences
between current and voltage. Resonance in R-L-C circuits.
To analyse the ac circuits,we can perform the following experiments:
1. To find voltage – current relationship in an R-L series circuit and to determine power factor of
the circuit.
2. To verify series and parallel resonance in AC circuits.
Objective:
1. After performing the experiment, one understands the relation between alternating current and
voltage in ac circuits. He also becomes familiar with p.f. in ac circuits.
2. To make the students familiar with RLC-series and parallel resonance.
Apparatus/Instruments/Components required:
(i) Single-phase 230V ac supply.
(ii) One switch S.
(iii) One choke coil (say choke of a fluorescent tube).
(iv) A single-phase autotransformer or variac.
(v) One ac ammeter of range .............
(vi) One wattmeter of range ...............
(vii) One ac voltmeters of range ..............
(viii) One power factor meter.
(ix) Connecting leads etc.
Additional Apparatus/Instruments/Components required:
(x) Signal generator to supply variable frequency to the circuit.
(xi) An electrolytic capacitor (ac capacitor).
(xii) A variable resistance Rh (Rheostat).

AMMETER
WATTMETER pf
METER CHOWK
S W
A
R
V
VARIAC L

Fig.P2.1: Circuit to determine relation between V and I in R-L series circuit

 Theory: Wattmeter reading = W; Voltmeter reading = V
Ammeter reading = I; P.f. meter reading = K
W
Calculated p.f.=
VI
Plot a curve between V and I from the readings recorded.
Procedure:
To perform the experiment, proceed as follows:
(i) Make the connections as per the circuit diagram shown in fig. P2.1.
(ii) Get the connections checked by the teacher in-charge.
(iii) Bring the variac at lowest point and switch ON the switch S.
(iv) Increase the voltage through variac in steps and take the readings of voltmeter, ammeter,
wattmeter and p.f. meter.
(v) Plot the curve between voltage and current.
(vi) Dismantle the circuit.
Observation Table:
Calculations Observations
S No. Voltmeter reading Ammeter reading Wattmeter reading p.f. meter Calculated
(V) in volt (I) in ampere (W) in Watt reading (K) P.f.= W/VI
1.
2.
3.

1. Current increases when voltage increases. It can be shown graphically by plotting a curve
between V and I.
2. Calculated p.f.,it comes out to be the same as measured.
3. Observe the wave shapes at various terminals of the circuit with the help of CRO.
Circuit Diagram for RLC series resonance
SIGNAL GENERATOR CHOKE CAPACITOR
Rh R L C
A

kHz

Fig. P2.2: Circuit to determine resonance in R-L-C series circuit

Theory: At resonance, XL = XC
 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

I 1
At resonance, ; 2  fr L  fr 
2  fr C 2  LC

then impedance, Zr = R
Current is maximum at resonance in RLC series circuit.
In RLC parallel circuits, the current will be minimum at resonance.

To perform this experiment, proceed as follows:

1. Make the connections as per the circuit diagram shown in fig. P2.2.
2. Get the connections checked by the teacher in-charge.
3. Bring the needle of signal generator to minimum (zero) frequency.
4. Switch-ON the supply to the signal generator.
5. Increase the frequency supplied to the circuit gradually and record
the ammeter readings in the observation table.
6. Note the value of frequency on the signal generator against maximum current; It represents
the resonance frequency.
7. Switch-OFF the supply bring the needle of signal generator to zero, change the value of Rh
and repeat the steps 4, 5 and 6.
8. Switch-OFF the supply and change the connections as shown Fig. P2.3.
9. Repeat the experiment, by changing the frequency get minimum value of current.
10. Record the readings in the above table for parallel ac circuits.
Circuit Diagram for Parallel resonance:
SIGNAL GENERATOR Rh
R L
A

C
kHz

Fig. P2.3: Circuit to determine resonance in R-L-C parallel circuit

 SNo. Rheostat set for Rh1 Rheostat set for Rh2 Rheostat set for Rh3
Reading of Reading of Reading of Reading of Reading of Reading of
signal signal signal signal signal signal
generator (f) Ammeter (I) generator (f) Ammeter (I) generator (f) Ammeter (I)

For Series resonance circuit

1.
2.
For Parallel resonance circuit
1.
2.

In all the three settings, the value of resonance frequency comes out to be the same because resonance
frequency is independent of circuit resistance.

1. What do you mean by impedance of an ac circuit?

2. What do understand by resonant ac series circuit?
3. What do understand by resonant ac parallel circuit?
 3 Transformers

Rationale
The operation of all the electrical machines such as transformers, d.c. machines, synchronous machines,
induction motors etc. rely upon their magnetic circuits. The closed path followed by the magnetic lines of
force is called a magnetic circuit. The operation of all the electrical devices and machines depend upon
the magnetism produced by their magnetic circuits. Therefore, to obtain the required characteristics of
these devices, their magnetic circuits have to be designed carefully.
Transformer is a major electrical machine or device which is used in the power system. At generating
stations, it is used to step-up the voltage for economical reasons whereas, it is used to step-down the voltage
at receiving stations for safety reasons (for utilisation of electrical energy voltage is reduced to 220 volt)
In this chapter, we shall focus our attention on magnetic materials, transformer and its working.

Unit Outcomes
U3-O1: Unit-3 Learning Outcome-1
To know about the magnetic effect of electric current and its applications.
U3-O2: Unit-3 Learning Outcome-2
To understand how electric power is transferred from one circuit to the other.
U3-O3: Unit-3 Learning Outcome-3
To analyse the effect of load power factor on the working of transformer.
U3-O4: Unit-3 Learning Outcome-4
To analyse losses and efficiency of a transformer.
U3-O5: Unit-3 Learning Outcome-5
To know about autotransformers and 3-phase transformers.

Unit Specific
•l Study of magnetic materials and significance of B-H curve.
•l Basic idea about a single-phase transformer and its construction.
•l Principle of operation of transformer.
•l Transformer equivalent circuit.
TRANSFORMERS 163

• Major losses which occur in transformer and voltage regulation of a transformer.

• Study of an auto-transformer.
• Basic idea about 3-phase transformers.

MAPPING THE UNIT OUTCOMES WITH THE COURSE OUTCOMES

Unit-II EXPECTED MAPPING WITH COURSE OUTCOMES
Outcome (1- Weak Correlation; 2- Medium correlation; 3- Strong Correlation)
CO-1 CO-2 CO-3
U3-O1 1 3 --
U3-O2 1 3 --
U3-O3 1 3 --
U3-O4 1 3 --
U3-O5 -- 3 --

Interesting facts
• In a typical microwave, more energy is used to power its digital clock than it uses to heat the food
inside it.
• Till today, most of the world’s power generation depends on coal. United States produces half of its
electricity with coal. In China, over 3/4th power is generated by coal. No doubt all efforts are going
on to exploit other renewable sources of electricity generation such as wind, water and the sun.

Video Resources
Videos Links for circuit

B-H Curve; Principle and Energy Losses in Energy losses in

Working of a Transformer | transformer and
Transformer Hysteresis, Cooling system
Copper, Eddy
Current losses

3.1. MAGNET
A magnet is a material or object that exhibits a magnetic field around it (see Fig. 3.1) and has the ability
to attract iron (ferromagnetic) pieces. Although, magnetic field is invisible but it is responsible for the
most notable property of a magnet. A magnet has a north and south pole at opposite ends.
 Iron Filings
Representing Magnetic
Lines of force Magnetic Needle

N S
Magnet

A magnet contains electrons that have both uneven orbits and uneven spins. Those magnetic atoms are
aligned in nice straight rows inside each domain. And those domains are also lined up all in the same
direction. If a piece of metal satisfies ALL these conditions only then it become a magnet.

All materials can be classified in terms of their magnetic behavior. The two most common types of
magnetism are diamagnetism and paramagnetism, which account for the magnetic properties of most of
the periodic table of elements at room temperature. These elements are usually referred to as nonmagnetic,
whereas those which are referred to as magnetic are actually classified as ferromagnetic.
When a material is placed within a magnetic field, the magnetic forces of the material’s electrons will be
affected. This effect is known as Faraday’s Law of Magnetic Induction. However, materials can react
quite differently to the presence of an external magnetic field. This reaction is dependent on a number of
factors, such as the atomic and molecular structure of the material, and the net magnetic field associated
with the atoms. The magnetic moments associated with atoms have three origins. These are the electron
motion, the change in motion caused by an external magnetic field, and the spin of the electrons.
In most atoms, electrons occur in pairs. Electrons in a pair spin in opposite directions. So, when
electrons are paired together, their opposite spins cause their magnetic fields to cancel each other.
Therefore, no net magnetic field exists. Alternately, materials with some unpaired electrons will have a
net magnetic field and will react more to an external field. Most materials can be classified as diamagnetic,
paramagnetic or ferromagnetic.
Diamagnetic materials: The material which have a weak, negative susceptibility to magnetic fields are
called diamagnetic materials.
These materials are slightly repelled by a magnetic field and they do not retain the magnetic properties
when the external field is removed. In diamagnetic materials all the electron are paired so there is no
permanent net magnetic moment per atom. Diamagnetic properties arise from the realignment of the
electron paths under the influence of an external magnetic field. Most elements in the periodic table,
including copper, silver, and gold, are diamagnetic.
Paramagnetic materials: The material which have a small, positive susceptibility to magnetic fields
are called paramagnetic materials.
These materials are slightly attracted by a magnetic field and they do not retain the magnetic properties
when the external field is removed. Paramagnetic properties are due to the presence of some unpaired
electrons, and from the realignment of the electron paths caused by the external magnetic field.
Paramagnetic materials include magnesium, molybdenum, lithium, and tantalum.
Ferromagnetic materials: The material which have a large, positive susceptibility to an external magnetic
field are called ferromagnetic materials.
These materials exhibit a strong attraction to magnetic fields and are able to retain their magnetic properties
after the external field has been removed. Ferromagnetic materials have some unpaired electrons so their
atoms have a net magnetic moment. They get their strong magnetic properties due to the presence of
magnetic domains. In these domains, large numbers of atom’s moments (1012 to 1015) are aligned
parallel so that the magnetic force within the domain is strong. When a ferromagnetic material is in the
un-magnetized state, the domains are nearly randomly organized and the net magnetic field for the part
as a whole is zero. When a magnetizing force is applied, the domains become aligned to produce a
strong magnetic field within the part. Iron, nickel, and cobalt are examples of ferromagnetic materials.

The phenomenon by which magnetism is produced by the effect of electric current is called
electromagnetism.

While studying magnetic circuits, generally, we come across the following terms :
1. Magnetic field : The region around a magnet where its poles exhibit a force of attraction or
repulsion is called magnetic field.
2. Magnetic flux () : The amount of magnetic lines of force set-up in a magnetic circuit is called
magnetic flux. Its unit is weber (Wb). It is analogous to electric current I in electric circuit.
3. The magnetic flux density at a point is the flux per unit area at right angles to the flux at that
point.
It is, generally, represented by letter ‘B’. Its unit is Wb/m2 or Tesla, i.e.

B = Wb/ m2 or T (1 Wb/m2 = 1 × 104 Wb/cm2)
A
4. Permeability : The ability of a material to conduct magnetic lines of force through it is called
the permeability of that material.
It is generally represented by  (mu, a Greek letter). The greater the permeability of a material, the
greater is its conductivity for the magnetic lines of force and vice-versa. The permeability of air or
vacuum is the poorest and is represented as 0 (where 0 = 4  × 10–7 H/m).
Relative permeability : The absolute (or actual) permeability  of a magnetic material is much greater
than absolute permeability of air 0. The relative permeability of a magnetic material is given in comparison
with air or vacuum.
 Hence, the ratio of the permeability of material  to the permeability of air or vacuum 0 is
called the relative permeability r of the material.

i.e. r = or            = 0 r
0
Obviously, the relative permeability of air would be 0/0 = 1. The value of relative permeability of
all the non-magnetic materials is also 1. However, its value is as high as 8000 for solf iron, whereas,
its value for mumetal (iron 22% and nickel 78%) is as high as 1 20 000.
5. Magnetic field intensity : The force acting on a unit north pole (1 Wb) when placed at
a point in the magnetic field is called the magnetic intensity of the field at that point. It is
denoted by H.
In magnetic circuits, it is defined as mmf per unit length of the magnetic path. It is denoted
by H, mathematically,
m.m.f . NI
H=  AT / m
length of magnetic path l
6. Magnetomotive force (m.m.f.) : The magnetic pressure which sets-up or tends to set-up
magnetic flux in a magnetic circuit is called magnetomotive force. As per work law it may
be defined as under :
The work done in moving a unit magnetic pole (1 Wb) once round the magnetic circuit is
called magnetomotive force. In general
m.m.f. = NI ampere-turns (or AT)
It is analogous to e.m.f. in an electric circuit.
7. Reluctance (S) : The opposition offered to the magnetic flux by a magnetic circuit is called
its reluctance.
It depends upon length (l), area of cross-section (a) and permeability ( = 0 r) of the
material that makes up the magnetic circuit. It is measured in AT/Wb.
l
Reluctance, S =
a 0 r
It is analogous to resistance in an electric circuit.
8. Permeance. It is a measure of the ease with which flux can be set-up in the material.
It is just reciprocal of reluctance of the material and is measured in Wb/AT or henry.
1 a 0 r
Permeance =  Wb/AT or H
reluctance l
It is analogous to conductance in an electric circuit.
9. Reluctivity : It is specific reluctance and analogous to resistivity in electric circuit.
The graph plotted between flux density B and magnetising force H of a material is called the magnetisation
or B – H Curve of that material.

B (Wb/m2)
The general shape of the B – H Curve of a magnetic material is B SATURATION
shown in fig. 3.2 The shape of the curve is non-linear This
indicates that the relative permeability (r = B/0 H) of a magnetic
material is not constant but it varies. The value of r largely
depends upon the value of flux density.
The first part of magnetisation curve is OA. In OA flux density
rises with the rise in magnetising force H.
A
The second part of the magnetisation curve is AB. In AB we see
that the curve becomes steep and straight i.e. after point A, the O
H (AT/m)
rise in flux density (B) is quite high even when the magnetising
force H increases slightly.
The third portion of the magnetisation curve is B onwards. The curve becomes almost a horizontal
straight line. This straight lining of magnetisation curve is called magnetic saturation and point B is called
point of saturation. After B the rise in flux density B is negligible. This shows that with the rise in
magnetising force, flux density increases but if the magnetising force goes on increasing, then a stage
will arrive when change in flux density (B) will be negligible. This condition is called magnetic saturation
and after magnetic saturation, the flux density remains constant.
The B – H curves of some of the common magnetic materials are shown in fig.3.3. The B – H curve
for a non-magnetic material is shown in fig.3.4. It is a straight line curve since B = 0 H or B 
H as the value of 0 is constant.

1·50 2.0
EL
STE
B (m Wb/m2)

1·25
E ET-
SH
B (m Wb/m2)

EL 1.5
1·00 STE
-
ST
0·75 CA 1.0
ON
0·50 T-IR
CAS 0.5
0·25

0 500 1000 1500 O 400 800 1200

H(AT/m) H (AT/m)

A transformer is a static device which transfers a.c. electrical power from one circuit to the other at the
same frequency but the voltage level is usually changed as shown in fig. 3.5(a). When the voltage is
raised on the output side (V2 > V1), the transformer is called a step up transformer, whereas, the
transformer in which the voltages is lowered on the output side (V2 < V1) is called a step down
transformer.
In our country, usually electrical power is generated at 11 kV. For economical reasons, a.c. power is
transmitted at very high voltages (220 kV or 400 kV) over long distances, therefore, a
CONSERVATOR
TANK OIL GAUGE
COVER BREATHER
HV BUSHINGS
TEMPERATURE
I1 I2 GAUGE

INPUT V1 TRANSFORMER V2 OUTPUT TAPPING MAIN

SWITCH TANK
HAND-WHEEL
V2 > V1 (STEP-UP) COOLING
V2 < V1 (STEP-DOWN) NAME TUBES
PLATE

DRAIN
COCK

(a) Block diagram (b) Pictorial view

step up transformer is applied at the generating station. Then to feed different areas, voltages are
stepped down to different levels (for economical reasons) by transformer at various substations. Ultimately
for utilisation of electrical power, the voltage is stepped down to 400/230 V for safety reasons.
Thus, transformer plays an important role in the power system. The pictorial view of a power transformer
is shown in fig. 3.5(b). The important accessories are labeled on it.

The basic principle of a transformer is electromagnetic induction

A simple form of a transformer is shown in fig. 3.6. it essentially consists of two separate windings
placed over the laminated silicon steel core. The winding to which a.c supply is connected is called
primary winding and the winding to which load is connected is called a secondary winding.
When a.c. supply of voltage V1 is connected to primary winding, an alternating flux is set up in the core.
This alternating flux when links with the secondary winding, an e.m.f. is induced in it called mutually
induced e.m.f. The direction of this induced e.m.f. is opposite to the applied voltage V1, according to
Lenz’s law as shown in fig. 3.7.
I1 m
I2

I1 L

~ E2 O
A V1 E1 E2
V1 E1
D
The same alternating flux also links with the primary winding and produces self induced e.m.f. E1 This
induced e.m.f E1 also acts in opposite direction to the applied voltage V1 according to Lenz’s law.
Although, there is no electrical connection between primary and secondary winding but electrical power
is transferred from primary circuit to the secondary circuit through mutual flux.
The induced e.m.f. in the primary and secondary winding depends upon the rate of change of flux
 d
linkages  i.e. N  . The rate of change of flux (d / dt) is the same for both primary and
 dt 
secondary. Therefore, the induced e.m.f. in primary is proportional to number of turns of the
primary winding (E1  N1) and in secondary is proportional to number of turns of the secondary
winding (E2  N2) .
 In case, N2 > N1, the transformer is step up transformer and
When N2 < N1, the transformer is step down transformer.
Turn ratio : The ratio of primary to secondary turns is called turn ratio, i.e., turn
ratio = N 1 / N 2 .
Transformation ratio : The ratio of secondary voltage to primary voltage is called voltage
transformation ratio of the transformer. It is represented by K.
E N
K  2  2 (since E  N and E  N )
E1 N1 2 2 1 1

The main elements of a transformer are ; two coils and a laminated steel core. The two coils are
insulated from each other as well as from the steel core. The core of the transformer is constructed
from laminations of sheet or silicon steel assembled to provide a continuous magnetic
path. At usual flux densities the silicon steel material has low hysteresis losses. The core is laminated to
minimise the eddy current loss. The laminations are insulated from each other by a light coating of
varnish or by an oxide layer. The thickness of laminations varies from 0.35 mm to 0.5 mm for a
frequency of 50 Hz.
According to the core construction and the manner in which the primary and secondary are placed
around it, the transformers are named as (i) core type transformers (ii) shell type transformers.
Core-type transformers
In a simple core type transformer the magnetic core is built up of laminations to form a rectangular
frame. The laminations are cut in the form of L-shape strips as shown in fig. 3.8. In order to avoid high
reluctance at the joints where laminations are butted against each other the alternate layers are stacked
differently to eliminate continuous joint as shown fig.3.9.
 L-SHAPE STRIPS

In actual transformer construction, the primary and secondary windings are interleaved to reduce the
leakage flux. Half of each winding is placed side by side or concentrically on either limb or leg of the
core as shown in fig. 3.10(a). However, for simplicity, the two windings are shown in fig. 3.10(b)
located on separate limbs of the core.
LAMINATED
L.V. CORE CORE
WINDING
P P

S S
H.V.
WINDING
(a) Placement of windings (b) Winding placed on core

Fig. 3.10: Transformer core with windings

While placing these windings, an insulation layer (bakelite former) is provided between core and lower
winding and between the two windings. To reduce the insulation, low voltage winding is always placed
nearer the core as shown in fig. 3.10(a). The windings used are form wound (usually cylindrical in
shape) and the laminations are inserted later on.
 -SHAPE STRIP E-SHAPE STRIP

In case of shell type transformer, each

lamination is cut in the form of long strips of
E’s and I’s as shown in fig. 3.11. In order to
avoid high reluctance at the joints where the
laminations are butted against each other, the
alternate layers are stacked differently to
eliminate continuous joints.
In a shell-type transformer, the core has three limbs. The central limb carries whole of the flux, where
as the side limbs carry half of the flux. Therefore, the width of the central limb is about double to that of
the outer limbs.
 PRIMARY

 

SECONDARY BAKELITE CORE L.V. WINDING

FORMER H.V. WINDING

Both the primary and secondary windings are placed on the central limb side by side or concentrically
(see fig.3.12). The low voltage winding is placed nearer the core and high voltage winding is placed
outside the low voltage winding to reduce the cost of insulation placed between core and low voltage
winding. In this case also the windings are form wound is cylindrical shape and the core laminations are
inserted later on.
The whole assembly i.e. core and winding is then usually placed in tank filled with transformer oil. The
transformer oil provides better cooling to the transformer and acts as a dielectric medium between
winding and outer tank which further reduces the size of outer tank of the transformer.

An ideal transformer is one which has no ohmic resistance and no magnetic leakage flux i.e. all the flux
produced in the core links with primary as well as secondary. Hence, transformer has no copper losses
and core losses. It means an ideal transformer consists of two purely inductive coils wound on a loss
free core. Although in actual practice, it is impossible to realize such a transformer, yet for convenience,
it is better to start with an ideal transformer and then extend it to an actual transformer.
In an ideal transformer there is no power loss, therefore, output must be equal to input.
E2 I
i.e. E2 l2 cos  = E1 I1 cos or E2 I2 = E1 I2 or  1
E1 I 2
since E2  N2 ; E1  N1 and E1 V1 ; E2  V2
V2 E 2 N 2 I
   1  K (transformation ratio)
V1 E1 N1 I 2
Hence, primary and secondary currents are inversely proportional to their respective turns.
The ratio of secondary turns to primary turns is called transformation ratio of the transformer
and is represented by K.

Consider an ideal transformer whose secondary is open as shown in fig. 3.13(a). When its primary is
connected to sinusoidal alternating voltage V1, a current Im flows through it. Since the primary coil is
pure inductive, the current Im lags behind the applied voltage V1 by 90°. This
 V1

m
Im
90°
~ V1 E1 N1 N2 E2 Im
m

E2

E1

(a) Circuit diagram (b) Phasor diagram

current sets up alternating flux (or mutual flux fm) in the core and magnetises it. Hence it is called
magnetising current. Flux is in phase with Im as shown in the phasor diagram in fig. 3.13(b). The
alternating flux links with both primary and secondary windings. When it links with primary, it produces
self induced e.m.f. E1 in opposite direction to that of applied voltage V1. When it links with secondary
winding, it produces mutually induced e.m.f. E2 in opposite direction to that of applied voltage. Both the
e.m.f.s. E1 and E2 are shown in phasor diagram in fig.3.13(b).

A transformer can not work on d.c supply. If a rated d.c voltage is applied across the primary, a flux of
constant magnitude will be set up in the core. Hence, there will not be any self induced e.m.f. (which is
only possible with the rate of change of flux linkages) in the primary winding to oppose the applied
voltage. As the resistance of the primary winding is very low, the primary current will be quite high as
given by the ohm’s law.
d.c. applied voltage
Primary current =
resistance of primary winding
This current is much more than the rated full load current of primary winding. Thus it will produce lot
of heat (I2 R) loss and burns the insulation of the primary winding, consequently the transformer will be
damaged. That is why, d.c is never applied to a transformer.

When sinusoidal voltage is applied to the primary winding of a

transformer, a sinusoidal flux, as shown in fig.3.14. is set up in the 

iron core which links with primary and secondary winding. m

Let,  m = Maximum value of flux in Wb;

f = supply frequency in Hz (or c/s) ; 1/f
– m
N1 = No. of turns in primary ;
N2 = No. of turns in secondary.
1/2f
As shown in fig. 10, flux changes from
 1
+ m to – m in half a cycle i.e. 2 f second,
Average rate of change of flux
m  (m )
=  4 f m Wb/s
1/ 2 f
Now, the rate of change of flux per turn is the average induced e.m.f. per turn in volt.
 Average e.m.f. induced per turn = 4 f m volt

R.M .S. value

For a sinusoidal wave,  Form factor  1·11
Average value

 R.M.S. value of e.m.f. induced/turn, E = 1.11 × 4 f m = 4.44 f m volt

Since primary and secondary have N1 and N2 turns respectively.
 R.M.S. value of e.m.f. induced in primary,
E 1 = (e.m.f. induced/turn) × No. of primary turns
= 4·44 N1 f m volt ...(i)
Similarly, r.m.s. value of e.m.f. induced in secondary,
E 2 = 4·44 N2 f m volt ...(ii)
Again, we can find the voltage ratio,

E2 4·44 N 2 f m E N
or 2  2  K (transformation ratio)
E1 = 4·44 N1 f m E1 N1

Equation (i) and (ii) can be written in the form of maximum flux density Bm using relation,
f m = Bm × Ai (where Ai is iron area)
 E 1 = 4·44 N1 f Bm Ai volts and E2 = 4·44 N2 f Bm Ai volt.
Example 3.1 : The primary winding of a 50 Hz single phase transformer has 500 turns and is fed
from 6500 V supply. The secondary winding has 25 turns. Find peak value of flux in the core and secondary
voltage.
Solution :
Here, f = 50 Hz ; N1 = 500 ; E1 = 6500 V; N2 = 25
Now, E1= 4·44 N1 f m
E1
Peak value of flux, m =
4·44 N1 f

6500
= = 0·05856 Wb = 58.56 mWb (Ans.)
4·44  500  50
 N2 25
Secondary voltage, E2 =  E1 =  6500  325 V (Ans.)
N1 500

Example 3.2 : A 3300/300 V, 50 Hz, single-phase transformer is built on a core having an effective
cross-sectional area of 130 cm2 and 80 turns on the low voltage winding. Calculate (a) the value of
the maximum flux density (b) number of turns on the high voltage winding.
Solution : Here, E1 = 3300 V ; E2 = 300 V ; f = 50 Hz ; N2 = 80 ;
A = 130 cm2 = 130 × 10–4 m2
We know, E2 = 4·44 N2 f A Bm
E2
Maximum value of flux density, Bm =
4 ∙ 44 f N A
300
= = 1.3 T (Ans.)
4.44  50  80  130  10 4
E1
× N2
FG since N2 
E2 IJ
(b) Number of turns on high-voltage winding, N1 =
E2 H N 1 E1 K
3300
=  80 = 880 (Ans.)
300
Example 3.3 : A 30 kVA transformer has 600 turns on the primary and 50 turns on the secondary
winding. The primary is connected to 3300 V, 50 Hz mains, calculate (i) primary and secondary
currents at full load ; (ii) The secondary e.m.f. and (iii) The maximum flux in the core. Neglect
magnetic leakage, resistance of the winding and the primary no load current in relation to the full
load current.

30  103
Solution : (i) At full load, I1 = = 9.1 A (Ans.)
3300
I1 E2 N 2
Now 
I 2 = E1 N1
N1 600
secondary current, I 2 = N  I1 =  9.1 = 109·1 A (Ans.)
2 50
N2 50
(ii) Secondary e.m.f., E 2 = N  E1 =  3300 = 275 V (Ans.)
1 600
(iii) Using relation, E 1 = 4·44 N1 f m
3300 = 4·44 × 600 × 50 x m

3300
or m = = 24.77 mWb (Ans)
4·44  600  50
Example 3.4 : A single-phase, 50 Hz transformer has 35 primary and 350 secondary turns. The net
cross sectional area of core is 300 cm2. If the primary winding is connected to a 230 V, 50 Hz supply,
calculate (i) Peak value of flux density in the core ; (ii) Voltage induced in the secondary winding.
Neglect losses, what is the primary current when the secondary current is 120 amperes ?
Solution : E 1 = 4·44 N1 f Bm Ai
where, E 1 = 230 V ; N1 = 35 ; f = 50 Hz and Ai = 300 × 10–4 m2
or 230 = 4·44 × 35 × 50 × 300 × 10 – 4 × Bm
 Max flux density, Bm = 0·987 Tesla (or Wb/m2) (Ans.)
N 2 E2 I1
Using relation, K=  
N1 E1 I 2

N2 350
E2 =  E1 =  230 = 2300 V (Ans)
N1 35

N2 350
I1 =  I2 =  100 = 1000 A (Ans)
N1 35
Example 3.5 : A 200 kVA, 3300/240 volts, 50 Hz. Single –phase transformer has 100 turns on the
secondary winding. Assuming an ideal transformer, calculate (i) primary and secondary current on
full load ; (ii) the maximum value of flux ; (iii) the number of primary turns.

200  1000
Solution : I1 = = 60·6 A (Ans.) ;
3300

200  1000
I2 = = 833·3 A (Ans.)
240
E 2 = 4·44 N2 f m ;
240 = 4·44 × 100 × 50 × m
  m = 10.81 m Wb (Ans.)
N1 E1 N1 3300
Now, = or  or N1 = 1375 turns (Ans)
N2 E2 100 240

1. The primary winding of a 50 Hz single phase transformer has 480 turns and is fed from 6400 V
supply. The secondary winding has 20 turns. Find peak value of flux in the core and secondary
voltage. (Ans. 0.06Wb, 266.67 V)
2. A 3300/250 V, 50 Hz, single-phase transformer is built on a core having an effective cross-
sectional area of 125 cm2 and 71 turns on the low voltage winding. Calculate (a) the value of the
maximum flux density (b) number of turns on the high voltage winding. (Ans.1·269 T, 937 )
 3. A 25 kVA transformer has 500 turns on the primary and 40 turns on the secondary winding. The
primary is connected to 3000 V, 50 Hz mains, calculate (i) primary and secondary currents at
full load ; (ii) The secondary e.m.f. and (iii) The maximum flux in the core. Neglect magnetic
leakage, resistance of the winding and the primary no load current in relation to the full load
current. (Ans. 8·33A, 104.15 A, 240V, 0.027 Wb)
4. A single-phase, 50 Hz transformer has 30 primary and 350 secondary turns. The net
cross sectional area of core is 250 cm 2. If the primary winding is connected to a 230 V, 50
Hz supply, calculate (i) Peak value of flux density in the core ; (ii) Voltage induced in
the secondary winding. Neglect losses, what is the primary current when the secondary
current is 100 amperes ? (Ans. 1·38 Tesla or Wb/m2, 2683.33 V, 1166.67 A )
5. A 200 kVA, 3300/240 volts, 50 Hz. Single –phase transformer has 80 turns on the secondary
winding. Assuming an ideal transformer, calculate (i) primary and secondary current on full
load ; (ii) the maximum value of flux ; (iii) the number of primary turns.
(Ans. 60.6A, 833.3A, 13.51mWb, 1100 turns)

An actual transformer has primary and secondary winding resistance. These windings also have
inductances due to leakage fluxes which develop inductive reactance. These effects cause voltage
drop in a transformer. Also there is copper loss in primary and secondary winding due to their
resistances. Since alternating magnetic flux is set-up in core that causes iron or magnetic (hysteresis
and eddy current) losses in it.
All these facts are further explained in articles to follow

Actual transformers have some primary and secondary winding resistance represented by R1 and R2
respectively. These resistances are shown external to the windings in fig.3.15.

R1 R2

To make the calculations easy the resistance of the two V1 V2

windings can be transferred to either side. The resistance is
transferred from one side to the other in such a manner that
percentage voltage drop remains the same when represented
on either side.
Let the primary resistance R1 be transferred to the secondary side and the new value of this resistance
be R1 called equivalent resistance of primary referred to secondary side as shown in fig.3.16(a). I1 and
I2 be the full load primary and secondary currents respectively.
I R I R
Then 2 1 × 100  1 1 × 100 (% voltage drops)
V2 V1
I1 V2
or R1'  × × K 2 R1
I2 V1
 Total equivalent resistance referred to secondary.
Res = R2 + R1 = R2 + K2 R1
Now consider resistance R2, when it is transferred to primary, let its new value be R2 called equivalent
resistance of secondary referred to primary as shown in fig. 3.16(c).

R2 R1 Res

V1 V2 V1 V2

(a) Primary resistance (b) Equivalent resistance

referred to secondary referred to secondary
R1 R2 Rep

V1 V2 V1 V2

(c) Secondary resistance (d) Equivalent resistance

referred to primary referred to primary

Fig. 3.16: Transfer of resistance

I1 R2' I R I V R
Then × 100  2 2 × 100 or R2'  2 × 1 × R2  22
V1 V2 I1 V2 K
 Total equivalent resistance referred to primary,
R2
Rep = R1 + R2¢ = R1 +
K2

In idear transformer, it was assumed that when a.c. supply is given to the primary winding of a transformer,
an alternating flux is set up in the core and whole of this flux links with both the primary and secondary
windings. However, in an actual transformer, both the windings produce some flux that links only with
the winding that produces it.
CORE
X1 X2
I1 I2
l L
2
~ V1 N1
l
V2 O
A V1 N1 N2 V2
1 D

(a) Leakage flux of primary (b) Windings having

and secondary inductive reactance

The flux that links with both the windings of the transformer is called mutual flux and the flux which
links only with one winding of the transformer and not to the other is called leakage flux.
The primary ampere turns produce some flux l which is set up in air and links only with primary
1
winding, as shown in fig.3.17(a), is called primary leakage flux.
Similarly, secondary ampere turns produce some flux l which is set up in air and links only with
2
secondary winding is called secondary leakage flux.
The primary leakage flux l is proportional to the primary current I1 and secondary leakage flux l
1 2
is proportional to secondary current I2. The primary leakage flux fl1 produces self inductance L1 (=
N1l1/I1) which in turn produces leakage reactance X1(= 2 f L1). Similarly, secondary leakage flux l2
produces leakage reactance X2 (= 2 f L2). The leakage reactance (inductive) have been shown
external to the windings in fig. 3.17(b).

To make the calculations easy the reactances of the two winding can be transferred to any one side. The
reactance from one side to the other is transferred in such a manner that percentage voltage drop
remains the same when represented on either side.
Let the primary reactance X1 be transferred to the secondary and the new value of this reactance is X1
called equivalent reactance of primary referred to secondary, as shown in fig.3.18(a).
I2 X1 I X
Then × 100 = 1 1 × 100 (% voltage drops)
V2 V1
I V 2
or X 1  = 1 × 2 × X1  K X1
I2 V1
X2 X 1 Xes

V1 N1 N2 V2 V1 V2

(a) Primary reactance (b) Equivalent reactance

referred to secondary referred to secondary

X1 X 2 Xep

V1 V2 V1 V2

(c) Secondary reactance (b) Equivalent reactance

referred to primary referred to primary

 Total equivalent reactance referred to secondary.

Xes = X2 + X1 = X2 + K2 X1
Now, let us consider secondary reactance X2 when it is transferred to primary side its new value
is X2 called equivalent reactance of secondary referred to primary, as shown in fig.3.18(c).
 I1 X2 I2 X 2
× 100
Then × 100 =
V1 V2
I V X
or X 2  = 2 × 1 × X2  22
I1 V2 K
 Total equivalent reactance referred to primary.
X2
Xep = X1 + X2 = X1 
K2
Example 3.6. A 2000/200 volt transformer has a primary resistance 2.5 ohm and reactance 4.5
ohm, the secondary resistance 0.025 ohm and reactance 0·045 ohm. Determine total resistance and
reactance referred to primary side.
Solution : Primary resistance, R1 = 2·5 ohm
Primary reactance, X1 = 4·5 ohm
Secondary resistance, R2 = 0·025 ohm
Secondary reactance, X2 = 0·045 ohm
V2 200
Transformation ratio, K = V  2000 = 0.1
1

Total resistance referred to primary side,

R 0.025
Rep = R1  22  2.5  = 5  (Ans.)
K (0.1)2
Total reactance referred to primary side,
X2 0.045
Xep = X 1  2
 4 .5  = 9  (Ans.)
K (0.1)2
Example 3.7. A single phase transformer having voltage ratio 2500/250V (primary to econdary)
has a primary resistance and reactance 2 ohm and 4·5 ohm respectively. The corresponding secondary
values are 0·025 and 0·04 ohm. Determine the total resistance and reactance referred to secondary
side. Also calculate the impedance of transformer referred to secondary side.
Solution :
Here, R1 = 2  ; X1 = 4·5  ; R2 = 0·025  ; X2 = 0·04 
V 250
Transformation ratio, K = 2   0 ∙1
V1 2500
Total resistance referred to secondary side,
Res = R2 + R1¢ = R2 + R1 × K2
= 0·025 + 2 × (0·1)2 = 0·045  (Ans.)
Total reactance referred to secondary side,
Xes = X2 + X1¢ = X2 + X1 × K2
 = 0·04 + 4·5 × (0·1)2 = 0·085  (Ans.)
Impedance of transformer referred to secondary side,

Zes = ( Res )2  ( Xes )2  (0.045)2  (0.085)2

= 0·096  (Ans.)

1. A 2000/200 volt transformer has a primary resistance 2.3 ohm and reactance 4.2 ohm, the
secondary resistance 0.025 ohm and reactance 0·04 ohm. Determine total resistance and reactance
referred to primary side. (Ans. 4·8 8·2 
2. A single phase transformer having voltage ratio 2500/250V (primary to secondary) has a
primary resistance and reactance 1·8 ohm and 4·2 ohm respectively. The corresponding secondary
values are 0·02 and 0·045 ohm. Determine the total resistance and reactance referred to secondary
side. Also calculate the impedance of transformer referred to secondary side.
(Ans. 0·038  .0·087 0·095 .)

An actual transformer has (i) Primary and secondary resistances R1 and R2, (ii) primary and secondary
leakage reactances X1 and X2 and (iii) iron and copper losses. The equivalent circuit of an actual
transformer is shown in fig. 3.19.
Primary impedance,
Z1 = R1 + j X1
CORE

R1 I1 X1 R2 X2 I 2
L
~ V1 Z1 E1
N1 N2
Z2 V2
O
A
D

Supply voltage is V1. The resistance and leakage reactance of primary winding are responsible for some
voltage drop in primary winding.
 V1 = E1  I1 ( R1  j X1 )  E1  I1 Z1

Secondary impedance, Z2 = R2 + j X2
Similarly, the resistance and leakage reactance of secondary winding are responsible for some voltage
drop in secondary winding. Hence,
V2 = E2  I2 ( R2  j X2 )  E2  I2 Z2
The simplified equivalent circuit of a transformer is drawn by representing all the parameters of the
transformer either on the secondary or on the primary side. The no load current I0 is neglected as its
value is very small as compared to full load current, therefore, I1 = I1
(i) Equivalent circuit when all the quantities are referred to secondary.
The primary resistance when referred to secondary side, its value is R1 = K2 R1 and the total or
equivalent resistance of transformer referred to secondary, Res = R2 + R1. Similarly, the primary
Res Xes I2 Res Xes I2=I1/K

LOAD
Zes
V1 = E1 N1 E2 V2 E2 = KE1 V2
N2 = KV1

reactance when referred to secondary side, its value is X1 = K2X1 and the total or equivalent reactance
of transformer referred to secondary, Xes = X2 + X1. All the quantities when referred to the secondary
side are shown in fig. 3.20.
Total or equivalent impedance referred to secondary side,
Zes = Res + j Xes
There is some voltage drop in resistance and reactance of transformer referred to secondary. Hence,
V2 = E2  I2 ( Res  j Xes )  E2  I2 Zes

For a loaded transformer when all the quantities are referred to secondary side, its phasor diagram can
be drawn as shown in fig.3.21.
E2 E2 C
C
2
es
I2 Z

Z es
I2
es

I2 Xes
I2 X

A D 1 V2
2  E B
O 1 V2 2
O I2 A I2 Res
I2
R
es
B F
(b) For resistive load
I2

G H

H E2 C
(a) For induction load G 2 I2 Xes

I2
1
F B
es
R
2
I

2 V2 2

O D
E A

(c) For capacitive load

Complete the phasor diagram as shown in fig. 3.21. From the phasor diagram we can derive the
approximate as well as exact expressions for no load secondary voltage.
(i) Approximate expression ;
(a) for lagging p.f. (inductive load),
Consider right angle triangle OEC [see fig 3.21(a)].
OC  OE = OA + AD + DE = OA + AD + BF
or E 2 = V2 + I2 Res cos 2 + I2 Xes sin 2
(b) for unity p.f. (resistive load),
Consider rt.  triangle OBC [see fig. 3.21(b)]
OC  OB = OA + AB ; E2 = V2 + I2 Res
(c) for leading p.f. (capacitive load),
Consider rt.  triangle OEC [see fig.3.21(c)]
OC  OE = OA + AD – DE = OA + AD – BF
or E 2 = V2 + I2 Res cos 2 – I2 Xes sin 2
(ii) Exact expression :
(a) for a lagging p.f. (inductive load),
Consider rt.  triangle OHC [see fig. 3.21(a)]

OC = (OH ) 2  ( HC )2 = (OG  GH )2  ( HB  BC )2

= (OG  AB) 2  (GA  BC )2

or E2 = (V2 cos 2  I 2 Res ) 2  (V2 sin 2  I 2 X es )2

OH OG  GH OG  AB V2 cos 2  I 2 Res
Primary p.f., cos 1 = OC  OC

OC

E2

(b) for unity p.f., (resistive load)

Consider rt. triangle OBC [see fig. 3.21(b)]

OC = (OB) 2  ( BC )2

or OC = (OA  AB) 2  ( BC ) 2
 or E2 = (V2  I 2 Res ) 2  ( I 2 X es )2

OB OA  AB V2  I 2 Res
Primary p.f., cos 1 = OC  OC  E2

(c) for leading p.f. (capacitive load),

Consider rt.  triangle OHC [see fig.3.21(c)]

OC = (OH ) 2  ( HC )2 = (OG  GH ) 2  ( HB  BC )2

= (OG  AB) 2  (GA  BC )2

or E2 = (V2 cos 2  I 2 Res )2  (V2 sin 2  I 2 X es )2

HC OG  GH OG  AB V2 cos 2  I 2 Res
Primary p.f., cos 1 = OC  OC

OC

E2

When a transformer is loaded, with a constant supply voltage, the terminal voltage changes due to
voltage drop in the internal parameters of the transformer i.e. primary and secondary resistances and
inductive reactances. The internal voltage drop also depends upon the load and its power factor. The algebraic
difference between the no-load and full-load terminal voltage is measured in terms of voltage regulation.
At a constant supply voltage, the change in secondary terminal voltage from no-load to full-load
with respect to no load voltage is called voltage regulation of the transformer.
Let, E2 = Secondary terminal voltage at no-load.
V2 = Secondary terminal voltage at full-load.
E 2  V2
Then, voltage regulation = (per unit)
E2
E2  V2
In the form of percentage, % Reg =  100
E2
When all the quantities are referred to the primary side of the transformer ;
V1  E1
% Reg =  100
V1

The approximate expression for the no-load secondary voltage is derived in article 15.
(i) For inductive load : E 2 = V2 + I2 Res cos 2 + I2 Xes sin 2
or E2 – V2 = I2 Res cos 2 + I2 Xes sin 2
E2  V2 I R I  Xes
or × 100 = 2 es × 100 cos  + 2 × 100 sin 2
E2 E2 2 E2
I2 Xes
where, × 100 = percentage resistance drop and
E2
I2 Xes
× 100 = percentage reactance drop
E2
 % Reg = % resistance drop × cos 2 + % resistance drop
Similarly
(ii) For resistive load : % Reg = % resistance drop
(iii) For capacitive load :
 % Reg = % resistance drop × cos 2 – % reactance drop × sin 2
Example 3.8 : A single phase transformer with a ratio 1 : 2 has primary resistance of 0.25 ohm and
reactance of 0.5 ohm and the corresponding values for the secondary are 0.8 ohm and 1.8 ohm
respectively. Determine the no load secondary terminal voltage of the transformer if it is delivering
10 A and 400 V at 0.8 p.f. lagging.
Solution : Primary resistance, R1 = 0.25 
Primary reactance, X1 = 0.5 
Secondary resistance, R2 = 0.8 
Secondary reactance, X2 = 1.8 
Secondary current, I2 = 10 A
Load p.f., cos 2 = 0.8 lagging
Secondary terminal voltage at load, V2 = 400 V
2
Transformation ratio, K= =2
1
Primary resistance referred to secondary R 1 = K 2 R1 = 2 × 2 × 0.25 = 1.0 
Primary reactance referred to secondary X 1 = K 2 X1 = 2 × 2 × 0.5 = 2.0 
Equivalent resistance referred to secondary Res = R 2 + R 1 = 0.8 + 1.0 = 1.8 

Equivalent reactance referred to secondary Xes = X 2 + X 1 = 1.8 + 2.0 = 3.8 

Load p.f., cos 2 = 0.8  sin 2 = sin cos–1 0.8 = 0.6

Secondary terminal voltage at no load, E2 = (V2 cos 2  I 2 Res ) 2  (V2 sin 2  I 2 X es )2

= (400  0.8  10  1.8) 2  (400  0.6  10  3.8)2

= (338)2  (278) 2 = 437.64 V (Ans.)

Example 3.9 : A single phase transformer with a ratio 5 : 1 has primary resistance of 0·4 ohm and
reactance of 1·2 ohm and the secondary resistance of 0·01 and reactance of 0·04 ohm. Determine
the percentage regulation when delivering 125 A at 600 V at (i) 0·8 p.f. lagging (ii) 0·8 p.f.
leading.
Solution : Data given, R1 = 0·4  ; X1 = 1·2  ; R2 = 0·01  ;
X 2 = 0·04  ; I2 = 125 A and V2 = 600 V
Transformation ratio, K = 1/5 = 0·2
Now, R 1  = K2 R1= (0·2)2 × 0·4 = 0·016  ;
Res = R2 + R1 = 0·01 + 0·016 = 0·026 
X 1  = K2 X1 = (0·2)2 × 1·2 = 0·048 
Xes = X2 + X1 = 0·04 + 0·048 = 0·088 
(i) For p.f. cos 2 = 0·8 lag ; sin 2 = sin cos–1 0·8 = 0·6
Secondary induced voltage,
E 2 = V2 + I2 Res cos 2 + I2 Xes sin 2
= 600 + 125 × 0·026 × 0·8 + 125 × 0·088 × 0·6
= 600 + 2·6 + 6·6 = 609·2 V
E2  V2 609 ∙ 2  600
% Reg = × 100  × 100 = 1·51 % (Ans.)
E2 609 ∙ 2
(ii) For p.f., cos 2 = 0·8 leading ; sin 2 = 0·6
Secondary induced voltage,
E 2 = V2 + I2 Res cos 2 – I2 Xes sin 2
= 600 + 125 × 0·06 × 0·8 – 125 × 0·088 × 0·6
= 600 + 2·6 – 6·6 = 596 V
E2  V2 596  600
% Reg = × 100  × 100 = – 0·67 % (Ans.)
E2 596
Example 3.10 : Calculate the regulation of transformer in which ohmic loss is 1% of the output and
reactance drop 5% of the voltage when the power factor is (i) 0·8 lagging (ii) 0·8 leading (iii) unity.
Solution : Ohmic loss or resistance drop = 1% ; Reactance drop = 5%
(i) When p.f., cos 2 = 0·8 lagging ; sin 2 = sin cos–1 0·8 = 0·6
% Reg = % resistance drop × cos 2 + % reactance drop × sin 2
= 1 × 0·8 + 5 × 0·6 = 3·8% (Ans.)
(ii) When p.f., cos 2 = 0·8 leading ; sin 2 = sin cos–1 0·8 = 0·6
% Reg = % resistance drop × cos 2 – % reactance drop × sin 2
= 1 × 0·8 – 5 × 0·6 = – 2·2 % (Ans.)
(iii) When p.f. is unity % Reg = % resistance drop = 1% (Ans.)
 1. A 10 kVA, 1-phase transformer with 2000/400 V at no load, has resistance and leakage reactance
of primary winding 5·5 W and 12 W respectively, the corresponding values of secondary winding
being 0·5 W and 0·45 W. Determine the value of secondary voltage at full load, 0·8 pf lagging,
when the primary applied voltage is 2000 V. (Ans.377.65V)
2. A 10 kVA, 2000/400 V, single phase transformer has resistance and leakage reactance as follows :–
Primary winding : Resistance = 5.5 ohms, Reactance = 12 ohms
Secondary winding : Resistance = 0.2 ohm, Reactance = 0.45 ohm
Determine the value of the secondary voltage at full load, 0.8 p.f. leading, when the primary
supply voltage is 2000 V. (Ans. 405.55V)
3. The primary and secondary windings of a 40 kVA, 6600/250 V single phase transformer have
resistance of 10 ohm and 0.02 ohm respectively. The total leakage reactance is 35 ohm as
referred to primary winding. Find full load regulation of at a p.f. 0.8 lagging. (Ans, 3.56%)

The losses which occur in an actual transformer are :

(i) Core or iron losses (ii) Copper losses
(i) Core or iron losses : When ac supply is given to the primary winding of a transformer an
alternating flux is set up in the core, therefore, hysteresis and eddy current losses occur in the
magnetic core.
(a) Hysteresis loss : When the magnetic material is subjected to reversal of flux, power is
required for the continuous reversal of molecular magnets. This power is dissipated in the
form of heat and is known as hysteresis loss (Ph = Kh V f Bm1.6). This loss can be minimized
by using silicon steel material for the construction of core.
(b) Eddy current loss : Since flux in the core of a transformer is alternating, it links with the
magnetic material of the core itself also. This induces an e.m.f. in the core and circulates
eddy currents. Power is required to maintain these eddy currents. This power is dissipated
in the form of heat and is known as eddy current loss (Pe = Ke V f2 t2 B 2m ). This loss can
be minimised by making the core of thin laminations.
It is already seen in article–8 that the flux set up in the core of the transformer remains constant from no
load to full load. Hence, iron loss are independent of the load and are known as constant losses.
(ii) Copper losses : Copper losses occur in both the primary and secondary windings due to their
ohmic resistance. If I1, I2 are the primary and secondary currents and R1, R2 are the primary
and secondary resistances respectively.

Then, total copper losses = I12 R1 + I 22 R2 = I12 Rep = I 22 Res

The currents in the primary and secondary winding vary according to the load, therefore, these losses
vary according to the load and are known as variable losses.
 Example 3.11. A 50 kVA, 2000/200 V, single phase, 50 Hz transformer has primary resistance of
3·5 ohm and reactance of 4·5 ohm. The secondary resistance and reactance are 0·015 ohm and 0·02
ohm respectively. Find (i) equivalent resistance, reactance and impedance referred to the primary
side (ii) Total copper losses in the transformer.
Solution : Transformer rating = 50 kVA, 2000/200 V, 1-, 50 Hz
Primary resistance, R1 = 3·5 
Primary reactance, X1 = 4·5 
Secondary resistance, R2 = 0·015 
Secondary reactance, X2 = 0·02 
V2 200
(i) Transformation ratio, K =   0∙1
V1 2000
Equivalent resistance referred to primary side,
R ep = R1 + R2'
R2 0 ∙ 015
= R1 
2
 3∙ 5   3 ∙ 5  1 ∙ 5 = 5  (Ans.)
K ( 0 ∙ 1)2
Equivalent reactance referred to primary side,
X ep = X1  X 2'
X2 0 ∙ 02
= X1  2
 4∙5   4 ∙ 5  2 ∙ 0 = 6·5  (Ans.)
K ( 0 ∙ 1)2
Equivalent impedance referred to primary side,
2 2
Zep = Rep  X ep  (15)2  ( 6 ∙ 5) 2 = 8·2  (Ans.)
50  1000
(ii) Primary rated current, I1 =  25 A
2000
Full-load copper losses in transformer,
P c = I12 Rep = (25)2 × 5 = 3125 W (Ans.)

The efficiency of a transformer is defined as the ratio of output to the input power, the two being
measured in same units (either in watts or in kW).
output power output power
Transformer efficiency, = 
input power output power  losses

output power V2 I 2 cos  2

or = =
output power  iron losses  coper losses V2 I 2 cos 2  Pi  Pc

where, V 2 = Secondary terminal voltage

I 2 = Full load secondary current
 cos 2 = p.f. of the load
P i = lron losses = Hysteresis losses + eddy current losses (constant losses)
Pc = Full load copper losses = ResI22 (variable losses)
If x is the fraction of the full load, the efficiency of the transformer at this fraction is given by the
relation ;
x  output at full load xV2 I 2 cos 2
x = =
x  output at full load  Pi  x 2 Pc x V2 I 2 cos 2  Pi  x 2 I 22 Res
The copper losses vary as the square of the fraction of the load.

The efficiency of a transformer at a given load and p.f. is expressed by the relation
V2 I 2 cos 2 V2 cos  2
= =
V2 cos  2  Pi / I 2  I 2 Res
V2 I 2 cos 2  Pi  I 22 Res
The terminal voltage V2 is approximately constant. Thus for a given p.f., efficiency depends upon the
load current I2. In expression (i), the numerator is constant and the efficiency will be maximum if
denominator is minimum. Thus the maximum condition is obtained by differentiating the quantity in the
denominator w.r.t. the variables I2 and equating that to zero i.e.
d  Pi 
 V2 cos  2   I 2 Res  = 0 or 0  Pi  R  0
d I2  I2  I 22
es

or I 22 Res = P i
i.e. Copper losses = lron losses
Thus, the efficiency of a transformer will be maximum when copper (or variable) losses are equal to
iron (or constant) losses.
V2 I 2 cos 2
 max = V I cos   2 P [since Pc = Pi]
2 2 2 i
From equation (ii), the value of output current I2 at which the efficiency of the transformer will be
maximum is given by ;
Pi
I2 =
Res
If x is the fraction of full load kVA at which the efficiency of the transformer is maximum.
Then, copper losses = x2 Pc (where Pc is the full load Cu losses)
Lron losses = P i
Pi
For maximum efficiency, x2 Pc = Pi ; x =
Pc
 Output kVA corresponding to maximum efficiency
 Pi
= x × full load kVA = full load kVA ×
Pc
iron losses
= full load kVA × copper losses at full load
Example 3.12 : In a 25 kVA, 2000/200 V power transformer the iron and full load copper losses
are 350 W and 400 W respectively. Calculate the efficiency at unity power factor at (i) full load
and (ii) half load.
x kVA  1000  cos 
Solution : x =
x kVA  1000  cos   Pi  x 2 Pc
where, cos f = 1 : Pi = 350 W ; Pc = 400 W
(i) At full-load x = 1

= 1  25  1000  1
  100 = 97·087 % (Ans)
1  25  1000  1  350  1  1  400
(ii) At half-load ; x = 0·5

= 0·5  25  1000  1
  100 = 96·525 % (Ans)
0·5  25  1000  1  350  (0·5)2  400
Example 3.13 : At full load current, the iron and copper losses in a 100 kVA transformer are each
equal to 2·5 kW. Find the efficiency of the transformer at a load of 75 kVA and 0·8 power factor
lagging.
Solution : Efficiency of a transformer at any fraction x of full load,

 = x kVA × cos 
× 100
x
x kVA × cos   Pi  x 2 Pc
Where, Transformer rated capacity = 100 kVA
Operating load = 75 kVA
75
Fraction of load, x =  0 ∙ 75
100
Iron losses, P i = 2·5 k
Full load copper losses, Pc = 2·5 k
Power factor of load, cos  = 0·8 lagging
0 ∙ 75 × 100 × 0 ∙ 8
 x = × 100
0 ∙ 75 × 100 × 0 ∙ 8  2 ∙ 5  ( 0 ∙ 75)2 × 2 ∙ 5
= 93·88% (Ans.)
Example 3.14 : The efficiency of a 1000 KVA, 110/220 V, 50 Hz single phase transformer is 98·5%
at half load at 0·8 power factor leading and 98·8% at full load unit power factor. Find (i) Iron loss
(ii) Full load copper loss.
Solution : Efficiency at any fraction x of the load ;
x kVA × cos 
x = × 100
x kVA × cos   Pi  x 2 Pc
where, Pc is full-load copper loss and Pi is the iron loss.
(i) When, x = 0·5 ; cos  = 0·8 ; x = 98·5%
0 ∙ 5 × 1000 × 0 ∙ 8
 98·5 = × 100
0 ∙ 5 × 1000 × 0 ∙ 8  Pi  ( 0 ∙ 5)2 Pc
400 × 100
or 400 + Pi + 0·25 Pc = or Pi + 0·25 Pc = 6·1 kW ...(i)
98 ∙ 5
(ii) When, x = 1 ; cos  = 1 ; x = 98·8%
1 × 1000 × 1
 98·8 = × 100
1 × 1000 × 1  Pi + (1)2 Pc
1000 × 100
or 1000 + Pi + Pc =
98 ∙ 8
or Pi + Pc = 12·15 kW ...(ii)
Subtracting equation (i) from (ii), we get,
0·75 Pc = 6·05
or Pc = 8·07 kW (Ans.)
and P i = 12·15 – 8·07 kW = 4·08 kW (Ans.)
Example 3.15 : In a 25 kVA, 2000 V/200 V transformer the iron and copper losses are 200 W and
400 W respectively. Calculate the efficiency at half load and 0·8 power factor lagging. Determine
also the maximum efficiency and the corresponding load.
Solution : Transformer rating= 25 kVA ; Iron losses, Pi = 200 W ;
Full load copper losses, Pc = 400 W
1
Fraction of load, x = = 0·5 ; Power factor, cos  = 0·8
2
x × kVA × 1000 cos 
Efficiency, x = × 100 %
x × kVA × 1000 cos   Pi  x 2 PC

( 0 ∙ 5) × 25 × 103 × 0 ∙ 8
= × 100 %
0 ∙ 5 × 25 × 103 × 0 ∙ 8  200  ( 0 ∙ 5)2 × 400
= 97·08 % (Ans.)
For maximum efficiency P i = x2 Pc
Fraction of load at which efficiency is maximum,
Pi 200
x =   0 ∙ 707
Pc 400
 x × kVA × 1000 × cos 
Maximum efficiency, max =
x × kVA × 1000 × cos   2 Pi

0 ∙ 707 × 25 × 103 × 0 ∙ 8
= = 97·25% (Ans.)
0 ∙ 707 × 25 × 103 × 0 ∙ 8  2 × 200
Load at max. efficiency = x rated kVA = 0·707 × 25 = 17·675 kVA (Ans.)

1. The primary and secondary windings of a 500 kVA transformer have resistance of 0·42 ohm
and 0·0011 ohm respectively. The primary and secondary voltages are 600 V and 400 V
respectively. The iron loss is 2·9 kW. Calculate the efficiency at half full load at a power factor
of 0·8 lagging. (Ans. 98.07%)
2. A 220/400 V, 10 kVA, 50Hz, single-phase transformer has copper loss of 120 W at full load. If
it has an efficiency of 98% at full load, unity power factor, determine the iron losses. What
would be the efficiency of the transformer at half full–load at 0.8 p.f. lagging.
(Ans. 84.08W;97.23%)
3. A 40 kVA transformer has a core loss of 400 watt and full-load copper loss of 800 watt. If the
power factor of the load is 0·9 lagging, calculate :
(i) the full-load efficiency, and
(ii) percentage of the full-load at which the maximum efficiency occurs.
(Ans. 96.77%; 70.7%)

An auto-transformer is a transformer with only one winding wound on a laminated core. A part of this
winding is common to both primary and secondary sides. On load, a part of the load current is
I1 A I1 A

N1 – N2
V1 I2 V1 C I2
N1 N1

L L
N2 V2 O O
A I2–I1 V2 A
D D
N2
B B
(a) Ordinary 2-winding transfomar (b) Auto transfomar

obtained direct from the supply and remaining part is obtained by transformer action. In an ordinary
transformer the primary and secondary windings are electrically insulated from each other but connected
magnetically [see fig.3.22(a)], whereas, in an auto-transformer the primary and secondary windings are
connected magnetically and electrically. Fig.3.22(b). shows the primary winding AB from which a
tapping at C is taken, such that CB acts as a secondary winding. The supply voltage is applied across AB
and the load is connected across CB. The tapping may be fixed or variable.
When a.c. voltage V1 is applied across AB, an alternating flux is set up in the core, it induces an e.m.f.
E1 in the winding AB. The part of this e.m.f. is taken in the secondary circuit.
Let V 1 = primary applied voltage ; V2 = secondary voltage across the load ;
I 1 = primary current ; I2 = load current.
N1 = number of turns between A and B and
N2 = number of turns between C and B
Neglecting no-load current, leakage reactance and losses, V1 = E1 and V2 = E2
V N I
 Transformation ratio, K = 2  2  1
V1 N1 I 2
As the secondary ampere turns are opposite to primary ampere turns so the current I2 is in phase
opposition to I1. The secondary voltage is less than the primary, therefore, current I2 is more than I1.
The resultant current flowing through section BC is (I2 – I1).
Now, ampere turns due to section BC = current × turns

 I1 
= (I2 – I1) N2 =   I1  × N1K = I1 N1 (1 – K) ...(i)
K 
Ampere turns due to section AC = I1 (N1 – N2)

 N2 
= I1 N 1  1   = I1 N1 (1 – K) ...(ii)
 N1 
Equations (i) and (ii) show that the ampere turns due to section BC and AC balance each other which
is the characteristic of transformer action.

Volume, and hence weight of copper, is proportional to the length and area of X-section of the conductor.
The length of conductor is proportional to number of turns whereas area of X-section is proportional to
the current flowing through it. Hence the weight of copper is proportional to the product of current and
number of turns.
Now, with reference to fig. 3.22(b), weight of copper required in an auto-transformer.
Wa = weight of Cu in section AC + weight + Cu in section CB
 Wa  I1 (N1 – N2) + (I2 – I1) N2  I1 N1 + I2 N2 – 2 I1 N2
If an ordinary two winding transformer is to perform the same duty, then with reference to fig. 3.22(a).
Total weight of copper required in the ordinary transformer.
W0 = weight of Cu on its primary + weight of Cu on its secondary.
 W0  I1 N1 + I2 N2
Now, the ratio of weight of copper in auto-transformer to the weight of copper in an ordinary transformer,
Wa I N  I N  2 I1 N 2 I N I N 2 I1 N 2
= 1 1 2 2  1 1 2 2 
W0 I1 N1  I2 N 2 I1 N1  I2 N 2 I1 N1  I 2 N 2
2 I1 N 2 / I1 N1
= 1  1 K
I1 N1 / I1 N1  I 2 N 2 / I1 N1
or Wa = (1 – K) W0
Saving of copper affected by using an auto-transformer
= wt. of cu required in an ordinary transformer – wt. of copper required in an auto-transformer.
= W0 – Wa = W0 – (1 – K) W0 = KW0
 Saving = K × Wt. of copper required for two winding transformer
Hence, saving in copper increases as the transformation ratio approaches to unity, therefore, auto
transformers are used when K in nearly equal to unity.
Uses of auto-transformer : (i) It is used as an auto-transformer starter to give upto 50 to 60% of full
voltage to the stator of a squirrel cage induction motor during starting.
(ii) It is used to give a small boost to a distribution cable to correct the voltage drop.
(iii) It is used as a regulating transformer (the top point C is variable in this case).
Disadvantages : Although auto-transformers have less cost, better regulation and low losses as compared
to the ordinary two winding transformer of same rating. But still they are not widely used due to one
major disadvantage that the secondary winding is not insulated from the primary. If an auto transformer
is used to supply low voltage from a high voltage and there is a break in the secondary winding, the full
primary voltage comes across the secondary terminals which may be dangerous to the operator and
equipment (load). Therefore, it is advisable not to use an auto transformer for interconnecting high
voltage and low voltage system. Their use is only limited to the places where slight variation of output
voltage from the input voltage is required.
Example 3.16 : The primary and secondary voltages of an auto transformer are 500 V and 400
V respectively. Show with the aid of diagram the current distribution in the winding when the
secondary current is 100 A. calculate the economy of copper in this particular case.
V2 400
Solution : Transformation ratio, K = V  500 = 0·8
1

I1
Using the relation, I2 = K
Primary current, I 1 = Kl2 = 0·8 × 100 = 80 A (Ans)
Current in section BC = l2 – l1 = 100 – 80 = 20 A (Ans)
For distribution of current in different sections of the winding please see fig. 31 (b).
Economy or saving of copper = KW0 = 0.8 W0
Percentage saving = 0·8 × 100 = 80% (Ans)
Three phase system is invariably adopted for generation, transmission and distribution of electrical
power due to economical reasons. Usually, power is generated at the generating stations at 11 kV
(or 33 kV), whereas, it is transmitted at 400 kV, 220 kV, 132 kV or 66 kV due to economical reasons.
At the receiving stations, the voltage level is decreased and power is transmitted through shorter distances.
While delivering power to the consumers, the voltage level is decreased to as low as 400V (line value)
for safety reasons.
To handle 3-phase electrical power and to increase the voltage level at the generating stations and to
decrease the voltage level at the receiving stations, 3-phase step-up and step down transformers are
employed.

The voltage level in 3-phase system at the generating stations and at the receiving stations can be
changed by employing three single-phase transformers (inter connecting them in star or delta) or by
employing one three phase transformer. Generally, one three phase transformer is preferred over single
phase transformers because of the following reasons.
(i) It requires smaller quantity of iron and copper.
(ii) It has smaller size and can be accommodated in smaller tank and hence needs smaller quantity
of oil for cooling.
(iii) It has less weight and occupies less space.
(iv) It needs fewer number of bushings.
(v) Over and above, it costs nearly 15% lesser than a bank of three single phase transformers of
equal rating.
(vi) It operates at slightly better efficiency and regulation.
Hence, three phase transformers are invariably employed in the power system to step-up and
step–down the voltages. Although, these transformers suffer from the following disadvantage.
(i) It is more difficult and costly to repair 3-phase transformers.
(ii) It is difficult to transport single large unit of 3-phase transformer than to transport three
single phase transformers individually.

Form construction point of view, 3-phase transformers are also classified as

(i) Core type transformers (ii) Shell type transformers
(i) Core type transformers : In core type 3-phase transformers, the core has three limbs of equal
area of cross-section. Three limbs are joined by two horizontal (top and bottom) members
called yokes. The area of cross- section of all the limbs and yokes is the same since at every
instant magnitude of flux set-up in each part is the same. The core consists of laminations of
silicon steel material having oxide film coating on both the sides for insulation. The laminations
are usually of E and I shape and are staggered alternately.
 L.V.
WINDING
H.V.
WINDING

BAKELITE
FORMER

LAMINATED
CORE

The complete section of a 3-phase core type transformer with its plan is shown in fig.3.23. This type of
transformers are usually wound with circular cylindrical coils. The low voltage (LV) winding is wound
nearer the core and high voltage (HV) winding is wound over low voltage winding as shown in fig.3.23.
Insulation is always provided between the core and low voltage winding and between low voltage
winding and high voltage winding.
(ii) Shell type transformers : In shell type transformers, the core construction is such that the
windings are embedded in the core instead of surrounding the iron as shown in fig.3.24. The
area of cross section of the central limbs is double to that of the side limbs and horizontal
members.
CORE H.V. WINDING
L.V. WINDING

A a a

B
c c
C

d d

The low voltage and high voltage windings of the three-phases are wound on the central limbs. These
windings are placed vertically in the three portions as shown in fig.3.25.
The three primary and three secondary windings of a three-phase transformers may be connected in
star od delta, accordingly the transformers are named as:
(i) Star-star connected 3-phase transformers
(ii) Delta-Delta connected 3-phase transformers
(iii) Delta-Star connected 3-phase transformers
(iv) Star-Delta connected 3-phase transformers
(i) Star-Star connected 3-phase transformers : Bunches of three windings of 3-phase
transformer connected in Star (Y) on both primary and secondary sides are shown in fig.3.26
and fig. 3.27. If the ratio of transformation of each transformer is K, the same ratio will exist
between the line voltages on the primary and secondary sides. This connection works
satisfactorily only when load is balanced.

a A
a A

b B

b B
c C
c C


The advantages and disadvantages of these connections are

(i) This type of connections require less number of turns as each phase winding carries 57.8%
 EL 
  of the line voltage. Hence it is cheaper..
3
(ii) Conductors for the winding have larger cross- sectional area as line and phase currents are the
same, therefore, the winding is stronger to bear the stresses imposed upon it during heavy
loads or short circuit.
(iii) Very high voltages are possible as the dielectric stress on the insulating material is less due to
1
the lesser voltage i.e. line voltage.
3

(i) If one of the phase fails in this connection the other phases go out of action and possibly the
transformer may shut down.
(ii) In case, there is unbalancing of the secondary phases, it may vary star point potential which
may assume any value with respect to earth if it is not earthed. The shifting of neutral point
can be prevented by connecting the star point of primary to the star point of the alternator.
 (iii) Even if the star point of the primary in earthed, still if there is a third harmonic present in the
alternator voltage, it causes interference to the telephone lines run on the same routes.
The triple frequency currents can be eliminated by means of tertiary winding on each transformer.
(iv) The regulation of the phases will be poor if the star points of both the primary and secondary
are not earthed.
(ii) Delta-Delta connected 3-phase transformers : Bunches of these windings of a 3-phase
transformer are connected in delta on both the primary and secondary sides are shown in fig.
3.28. and fig.3.29. The line voltages are now simply the voltages across the individual transformer
windings and there is no visible neutral.

a
A

a A

b B

b B
c C
c C

In this case, it is necessary that the transformation ratio of all the three sets of windings be same,
otherwise circulating currents round the windings will be set up even at no load. The voltages on the
primary and secondary sides of a given line will be more or less in the same phase, only small difference
may be found due to the reactance of the winding. These connections have the following advantages :
1. In this case, there is no distortion of the flux, since the third harmonic component of the
exciting current (magnetising current) finds a return path in each of the primary windings.
2. No difficulty is experienced from unbalanced loading as in the Y/Y connection. The three phase
voltages remain practically equal regardless of the degree of load unbalance.
1
3. The cross sectional area of the wire is reduced as the phase current is times the line
3
current, and hence it is comparatively cheaper as the copper used is less.
4. These connections are more suitable for large transformers working on low voltages and high
currents.
5. If one of the three windings becomes disabled for any reason, the delta-delta connections
continue to operate uninterrupted in open delta or V-V connection. Mostly for this advantage
the delta connections are preferred.
It has only one disadvantage that no neutral is available. The neutral can be created by star connecting
three equal resistances, inductances and capacitances to the three line conductors.
(iii) Delta-Star connected 3-phase transformers. In these connections, primary is connected in
delta and secondary in star as shown in fig.3.30. and fig. 3.31. The primary input voltage then
must be equal the primary voltage of the individual transformer winding and the exciting
current drawn by the bank
 a A
A

a
b B

b B
c C
c C


connected in delta may be of any required wave form. If the impressed voltages are balanced and
sinusoidal, the output voltages also are balanced and sinusoidal. The ratio of secondary to primary line
voltage is 3 times the transformation ratio of transformer..
E2 3 E2 ( ph )
i.e. =  3k
E1 E1 ( ph)
Where, E 2 = Secondary line voltage
E 1 = Primary line voltage
1
Also secondary line currents are times the primary line currents.
3K
I2 I 2 ( ph ) I2 1
 or 
I1 3 I1 ( ph ) I1 3K
Out of all the arrangements of connections, this type is one commonly used in distribution system,
because it can be used to supply both 3 phase power equipment and single phase lighting circuits.
The advantages of delta-star connections over the delta-delta connections is that for high voltages less
insulation is required.
(iv) Star- Delta connected 3-phase transformers. When the primaries are connected in star and
secondaries in delta as shown in fig. 3.32. and 3.33, exactly the opposite of that which is
described above in delta-star would hold. Such a combination then would be suitable for
stepping up the voltages at the generating stations.
a A
a
A

b B

B
b
c C
c C


E2 E2 ( ph) 1
In these connections : = = K
E1 3 E1 ( ph) 3
 I2 3 I 2 ( ph ) 3
and I1 = =
I1 ( ph ) K
Example 3.17 : A 3-phase step down transformer is connected to 6600 volt mains and takes a
current of 24 amperes. Calculate the secondary line voltage, line current and output for the
following connections (i) Delta/delta (ii) Star/star (iii) Delta/star (iv) Star/delta. The ratio of
turns of per phase is 12. Neglect losses.
Solution : Ratio of turns per phase = 12
1
Transformation ratio, K =
12
(i) Delta-Delta connections :
In Delta connections, line voltage = phase voltage.
Primary line voltage = 6600
Primary phase voltage = 6600 V
6600
Secondary phase voltage = = 550 V
12
Secondary line voltage = 550 V (Ans)
Line current = 3 × phase current
24
 Primary phase current =
3

24
Secondary phase current =  12
3

24
Secondary line current = 3   12 = 288 A (Ans)
3

3  550  288
Output = 3 VL I L = kVA
A= 274.36 kVA
A (Ans)
1000
(ii) Star-Star Connections :
In star connections, line voltage = 3 × phase voltage
Also, line current = phase current.
6600
Primary phase voltage =
3

6600
Secondary phase voltage =
3  12
 6600
Secondary line voltage = 3 = 550 V (Ans)
3  12
Primary line current = 24 A
Secondary line current = 24 ×12 = 288 A (Ans)

3  550  288
Output in kVA = = 274.36 kVA
A (Ans)
1000
(iii) Delta/Star Connections :
Primary phase voltage = 6600 volts

6600
Secondary phase voltage = = 550 V
12

Secondary line voltage = 3 × 550 = 952·63 V (Ans)

24
Primary phase current =
3

24
Secondary phase current =  12 = 116·27 A
3
Secondary line current = 116.27 A (Ans)

3  952·63  166·27
Output in kVA = = 274·36 kVA (Ans)
1000
(iv) Star/Delta connections :
6600
Primary phase voltage =
3
6600 1
Secondary phase voltage =  = 317·54 V (Ans)
3 12

Secondary line voltage = 317·54 V (Ans)

Primary line current = primary phase current = 24 A (Ans)
Secondary phase current = 24 × 12 = 288 A
Secondary line current = 3 × 288 = 498·83 A (Ans)

3  317·54  498·83
Output in kVA = = 274.36 kVA
A (Ans)
1000
The transformers used in the power system for transfer of electric power or energy from one circuit
to the other are called power transformers. The rating of a transformer includes voltage, frequency
and kVA. The kVA rating is the kVA output that a transformer can deliver at the rated voltage and
frequency under general service conditions without exceeding the standard limit of temperature rise
(usually 45º to 60ºC) The power transformer has the following important parts :
1. Magnetic circuit : The magnetic circuit comprises of transformer core. The transformer
core may be core type or shell type in construction. The power transformers used in the
power system are mostly three phase transformers. In a core type 3-phase transformer core
has three limbs of equal area of cross-section.
2. Electrical circuit : In three phase transformers there are three primary (H.V.) windings and
three secondary (L.V.) windings. Whole of the L.V. winding is wound over one limb next
to the core, then whole of the H.V. winding is wound over the L.V. winding. In between the
L.V. winding and H.V. winding and between core and L.V. winding insulation is provided.
3. Transformer oil : Transformer oil is a mineral oil obtained by fractional distillation of crude
petroleum. The oil is used only in the oil cooled transformers. The oil not only carries the
heat produced due to losses in the transformer, by convection from the windings and core
to the transformer tank, but also has even more important function of insulation.

OIL GAUGE CONSERVATOR

TANK
COVER BREATHER
HV BUSHINGS
TEMPERATURE
GAUGE

TAPPING MAIN
SWITCH TANK
HAND-WHEEL
COOLING
NAME TUBES
PLATE

DRAIN
COCK

When transformer delivers power, heat is produced due to the iron and copper losses in the transformer.
This heat must be dissipated effectively otherwise the temperature of the winding will increase. The
raise in temperature further increases the losses. Thus, the efficiency of the transformer will decrease.
As there is no rotating part in the transformer, it is difficult to cool down the transformer as compared
to rotating machines. Various methods are adopted to cool down the transformers of different rating.
The common methods are air natural cooling, oil immersed natural cooling, oil immersed forced oil
circulation natural cooling, oil immersed forced oil circulation with air blast cooling, oil immersed forced
oil circulation with water cooling etc.
202 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Generally, for cooling of distribution transformers, oil immersed natural cooling method is adopted.
Cooling tubes or small cooling radiators are used with the main tanks, as shown in
fig.3.34, to increase the surface area for the dissipation of heat.
4. Tank Cover : A number of parts are arranged on the tank cover of which most important are :
(i) Bushing : The internal winding of the transformer are connected to the lines through copper
rods or bars which are insulated from the tank cover, these are known as bushings. Upto 33 kV
ordinary porcelain bushing can be used. Above this voltage oil filled bushings or condenser
bushing are employed.
(ii) Oil conservator tank : Oil conservator is also known as an oil expansion chamber. It is a
small cylindrical air tight and oil tight vessel. The oil conservator is connected with a tube to the
main transformer tank at the tank cover. This tank is partially filled with oil. The expansion and
contraction of oil, changes the oil level in the conservator.
(iii) Breather : The transformer oil should not be allowed to come in contact with atmospheric air,
since a small amount of moisture causes a great decrease in the dielectric strength of transformer
oil. All the tank fittings are made air tight. When oil level in the oil conservator changes, air
moves in and out of the conservator. This action is known as breathing.
The breathed air is made to pass through an apparatus called breather to abstract moisture. Breather,
contains Silica-gel or some other drying agent such as calcium chloride. This ensures that only dry air
enters the transformer tank.
(iv) Buchholz Relay : This is installed in between the main tank and the oil conservator. It is a gas
relay which gives warning of any fault developing inside the transformer, and if the fault is
dangerous, the relay disconnects the transformer circuit. This relay is installed in the transformer
having capacity more than 750 kVA.
All the important parts of a 200 kVA, 11 kV/400 V oil immersed natural cooled distribution transformer
are shown in fig 3.34.

Project- : Project- : Project- :

How To Make V How To Make How to make V
A Transformer Simple Inverter v W Free Energy
To v IRFZ N,
No IC
1. Magnet: A magnet is a material or object that exhibits a magnetic field around it and has
the ability to attract iron (ferromagnetic) pieces.
2. Types of Magnetic Materials: All materials can be classified in terms of their magnetic
behaviour such as diamagnetic, paramagnetic or ferromagnetic.
(i) Diamagnetic materials: The material which have a weak, negative susceptibility
to magnetic fields are called diamagnetic materials.
(ii) Paramagnetic materials: The material which have a small, positive susceptibility
to magnetic fields are called paramagnetic materials.
(iii) Ferromagnetic materials: The material which have a large, positive susceptibility
to an external magnetic field are called ferromagnetic materials.
3. Important terms: The important terms related to magnetism are:
(i) Magnetic field : The region around a magnet where its poles exhibit a force is
called magnetic field.
(ii) Magnetic flux : The magnitude of magnetic lines of force set-up in a magnetic
circuit as called magnetic flux.
(iii) Mangetic flux density : The flux per unit area at right angles to the flux at a point
is called magnetic flux density at that point.
(iv) Permeability : The ability of a material to conduct magnetic lines of force through
it is called the permeability of that material.
(v) m.m.f. : The work done in moving a unit magnetic pole once round the magnetic
circuit is called m.m.f., m.m.f. = NI AT.
(vi) Reluctance (S) : The opposition offered to the magnetic flux by a magnetic circuit
l
is called its reluctance. S = AT/Wb
a 0 r
(vii) Magnetic flux () : The amount of magnetic lines of force set-up in a magnetic
circuit is called magnetic flux.
(viii) Relation between m.m.f., reluctance and flux.
m.m.f . NI
 = or  = a 0 r .
reluctance l
(ix) Permeance : It is reciprocal to reluctance.
4. B—H Curve ; The graph between B and H of a material is called B – H curve of that
material. It shows the properties of the material.
5. Transformer : A static device which transfers a.c electrical power from one circuit to the
other at same frequency but usually at different voltage level is called a transformer. It works
on the basic principle of electromagnetic induction (mutually induced e.m.f).
6. Ideal transformer : Losses are neglected ; E1 l1 cos  =E2 l2 cos 
 7. Transformer on d.c. : It is never applied on d.c. otherwise it will burn since there is no
counter of self induced e.m.f. and it draws heavy current on d.c.
8. E.M.F. equation : E2 = 4.44 N2 f fm = 4.44 N2 f Bm Ai

9. Transformer winding resistance : R1 ; R2 ; R1  = R1 × K2 ; Res = R2 + R1 ;

R 2 = R2/K2 ; Rep = R1 + R2

10. Leakage flux : A part of the flux produced by a winding which is not linking with the other
is called leakage flux. It develops leakage reactance X1 and X2, X1¢ = X1 K2 ; Xes = X2
+ X1¢ ; X2¢ = X2/K2 ; Xep = X1 + X2¢
11. Voltage regulation : At constant supply voltage, the change in secondary terminal voltage
from no-load to full load is called voltage regulation. It is generally taken as percentage
of no-load voltage.
E2  V2
% Reg =  100
E2

12. Losses in a transformer : 1. lron loss (Pi), 2. Cu. loss (Pc at full-load)
V2l2 cos 2 x V2 I 2 cos 2
13. Efficiency of a transformer :  = V l cos   P  P x =
2 2 2 i c x V2 I 2 cos 2  Pi  x 2 Pc
14. Condition for max. efficiency : Cu. loss = lron loss ; I2 = Pi / Res

15. Auto-transformer : A transformer, having only one winding, a part of which acts as
primary and the other as secondary is called an auto transformer. Saving in copper = K
× Wt. of Cu. required for two winding transformer.
16. Three-phase transformer : A static device that transfers 3-phase power from one circuit
to the other keeping frequency to be the same but (usually) changing the voltage level is
called a 3-phase transformer.
17. Merits of 3-phase transformers : They require smaller quantity of iron and copper, have
smaller size, occupy less space, light in weight, better efficiency and regulation, smaller
cost etc.
18. Construction of 3-phase transformers : They are either core type or shell type.
19. Connections of three-phase transformers : According to the interconnection of primaries
and secondaries, these transformers may be classified as (i) Star-star connected (ii) Delta-
delta connected (iii) Delta-star connected (iv) star-delta connected.
20. Distribution/power transformer and its auxiliaries : A transformer employed in the power
system to step-up or step-down the voltage as per the need is called power transformer.
The main auxiliaries of these transformers are (i) conservator tank (ii) cooling tubes (iii)
breather, (iv) Buchholz relay (v) temperature gauge etc.
 1. A sinusoidal flux 0.2 Wb (max.) links with 55 turns of a transformer secondary coil.
Calculate the r.m.s. value to the induced e.m.f. in the secondary. The supply frequency is
50 Hz. (Ans. 244.2 V)
2. The design requirements of a 6600/400 V, 50 Hz, single phase, core type transformer are
: e.m.f. per turn 15 V; maximum flux density 1.5 Tesla (i.e.Wb/m2). Find a suitable number
of primary and secondary turns and the net cross sectional area of core.
(Ans. 440 ; 26·67 ; 450 cm2)
3. A single phase transformer has 400 primary and 1000 secondary turns. The net cross
sectional area of the core is 60 cm2. If the primary winding is connected to a 50Hz supply
at 500 V, calculate the value of maximum flux density in the core and the e.m.f. induced
in secondary winding. Draw the vector diagram representing the condition.
(Ans.0·938 Tesla, 1250 V)
4. A 33 kVA, 2200/220 V, 50 Hz single phase transformer has the following parameters :
Primary winding (hv side) ; resistance r 1 = 2·4 , leakage reactance x1 = 6·0 .
Secondary winding (Iv side) : resistance r2 = 0·03 , leakage reactance x2 = 0·07 .
Find the primary resistance and leakage reactance referred to secondary.
(Ans. 0·024  and 0·06 )
5. A single-phase transformer with a ratio of 4 :1 has primary resistance and reactance of 0·5
ohm and 1·5 ohm and the corresponding values for the secondary are 0·034 ohm and 0·1
ohm respectively. Determine the percentage regulation when delivering 120 A at 600 V at p.f.
(i) 0·707 lagging (ii) 0·8 leading. (Ans. 3·53% ; – 3·26%)
6. Calculate the value of voltage regulation at 0·8 p.f. lagging for a transformer with resistance
drop 2% and reactance drop 4% of the voltage. (Ans. 4·0%)
7. A 230/460 V, single-phase transformer has a primary resistance of 0·2 ohm and reactance
0·5 ohm. The corresponding values for the secondary are 0·75  and 1·8W  respectively.
Find the secondary terminal voltage when supplying 10 A at 0·8 p.f. lagging.
(Ans. 424·8 V)
8. The primary and secondary windings of a 500 kVA transformer have resistance of 0·42 ohm
and 0·0011 ohm respectively. The primary and secondary voltages are 6600 V and 400 V
respectively. The iron loss is 2·9 kW. Calculate the efficiency at half full load at a power
factor of 0·8 lagging. (Ans. 98·07%)
9. A 50 kVA 1transformer has an efficiency of 98% at full-load at 0.8 p.f and an efficiency of
96.9% at full load, 0.8 p.f. Determine the iron loss and full load copper loss.
4
(Ans.287 W ; 529 W)
10. A 440/110 V transformer has an effective primary resistance of 0.3 ohm and a secondary
resistance of 0.02 ohm. If iron loss on normal input voltage is 150 W, calculate the
secondary current at which maximum efficiency will occur. What is the value of this
maximum efficiency for unity power factor load ? (Ans. 62·22 A ; 94·8 %)
11. In a 25 kVA, 1100/400 V, single phase transformer, the iron and copper loss at full load are 350
and 400 watt respectively. Calculate the efficiency on unity power factor at half load. Determine
the load on maximum efficiency. (Ans. 96·52% ; 23·85 kW)
12. A 2000/200 V transformer has primary resistance and reactance of 2 ohm and 4 ohm respectively.
The corresponding secondary values are 0·025 ohm and 0·04 ohm. Determine : (i) Equivalent
resistance and reactance of primary referred to secondary ; (ii) Total resistance and reactance
referred to secondary ; (iii) Equivalent resistance and reactance of secondary referred to primary
; (iv) Total resistance and reactance referred to primary.
(Ans. 0·02  ; 0·04  ; 0·045  ; 0·08  ; 2·5  ; 4 ; 4·5  ; 8)

1. during unsaturated portion of a B-H curve

(A) B < H (B) B > H (C) B  H (D) B = O
2. Transformer core is laminated
(A) because it is difficult to fabricate solid core
(B) because laminated core provides high flux density
(C) to reduce eddy current losses.
(D) to avoid hysteresis losses.
3.A transformer with output of 250 kVA at 3000 V, has 600 turns on its primary and 60 turns
on secondary winding. What will be the transformation ratio of the transformer ?
(A) 10 (B) 0·1 (C) 100 (D) 0·01
4. If R1 is the resistance of primary winding of the transformer and K is transformer ratio (N2/
N1) then the equivalent primary resistance referred to secondary will be
(A) KR12 (B) KR1 (C) K2R1 (D) R1/K2
5. The condition for maximum efficiency of the transformer is that
(A) copper losses are half of the iron losses
(B) copper losses are square of the iron losses
(C) copper losses are equal to the iron losses
(D) copper losses are zero
6. The induced e.m.f. in the transformer secondary will depend on
(A) frequency of the supply only.
(B) Number of turns in secondary only.
(C) Frequency and flux in core.
(D) Frequency, number of secondary turns and flux in the core.
7. A transformer is never connected in the d.c. line because
(A) there is no need to step up or step down the d.c. voltage
(B) Faraday’s law is not valid as the rate of changed of flux is zero.
 (C) Losses in the d.c. circuit are high.
(D) It is not economical.
8. The eddy current loss in the transformer occurs in the
(A) primary winding (B) core
(C) secondary winding (D) none of the above.
9. Which of the following electrical machines has the highest efficiency?
(A) d.c. generator (B) a.c. generator (C) transformer (D) induction motor.
10. The condition for maximum efficiency of the transformer is that
(A) copper losses are half of the iron losses
(B) copper losses are square of the iron losses
(C) copper losses are equal to the iron losses
(D) copper losses are zero
11. If the iron losses and full load copper losses are given then the load at which the efficiency
of a transformer is maximum, is given by
iron loss iron loss
(A) full load × f .l.cu loss (B) full load × f .l.cu loss

 iron loss  f .I .cu. loss

(C) full load ×  f .i. cu. loss  (D) full load × iron loss
 

12. The transformation ratio of a 3-phase transformer is given by the relation.

E2 ( L ) E2( ph) E2 ( L ) E2( ph)
(A) (B) (C) (D)
E1( L) E1( ph) E1( ph) E1( L)
13. The cost of single 3-phase transformer in comparison to a bank of three 1-phase transformers
of equal rating is
(A) 15% less (B) 15% more (C) 50% less (D) 50% more
14. Usually HV winding is placed
(A) next to the core (B) over the low voltage winding
(C) both a and b (D) none of these

1. What is a magnet ?
2. What do you understand by magnetic field ?
3. Define magnetic flux density.
4. Explain the term MMF.
5. Define relative permeability.
6. Define reluctance in a magnetic circuit and give its formula.
 7. Explain B-H characteristics of a magnetic materiel.
8. What is a transformer ?
9. What are step-up and step-down transformers ?
10. What are the applications of step-up and step-down transformers ?
11. Which are the two winding present in a transformer ?
12. Explain the working principle of a transformer.
13. What are the functions of a transformer ?
14. Define voltage transformation ratio.
15. From construction point of view, name different types of transformers ?
16. Why the core of a transformer is laminated ?
17. Why is a transformer also called the static device ?
18. Why do we use iron - core in a Transformer ?
19. Explain with reasons what happens when a power transformer is connected to dc supply
of the same voltage rating ?
20. Why is the efficiency of a transformer maximum among electrical equipments ? Explain.
21. What is the difference between an ideal and practical transformers ?
22. How does leakages flux occur in a transformer ?
23. Write a short note on a star-Delta transformer.

1. Why the B-H curve of iron is not a straight line?)

2. Define the terms : permeability, reluctance and permeance.
3. How is B-H curve of ferromagnetic material different from that of non-magnetic material ?
Name all the salient regions of B-H curve of magnetic material.
4. What is a transformer ? What is its necessity in the power system ?
5. Explain the working principle of a transformer.
6. State why the core of a transformer is laminated ?
7. State why silicon steel in selected for the core of a transformer ?
8. Give the constructional details of a core-type transformer.
9. In a transformer explain how power is transferred from one winding to the other.
10. Show that (E1/E2 ) = (l2/l1) = (T1/T2) in a transformer.
11. What happens when d.c. voltages is applied to the primary of a transformer ?
12. Derive an expression for the e.m.f. induced in a transformer winding. Show that the e.m.f.
induced per turn in primary is equal to the e.m.f. per turn in secondary.
13. Explain what is meant by regulation of a transformer.
14. What are the various losses in a transformer ? Where do they occur and how do they vary
with load ?
 15. Define efficiency of a transformer and find the condition for obtaining maximum efficiency.
16. In what ways does an auto transformer differ from a conventional two winding transformer?
What are its application?

ATTAINMENT & GAP ANALYSIS

Attainment of the Programme Outcomes will be compiled in the table below to make a Gap Analysis
and work out remedial measures:
Course Attainment of the Programme Outcomes
Outcome (1- Weak Correlation; 2- Medium correlation; 3- Strong Correlation)
PO-1 PO-2 PO-3 PO-4 PO-5 PO-6 PO-7 PO-8 PO-9 PO-10 PO-11 PO-12
CO-1
CO-2
CO-3

Multi-choice questions :
1. (C) 2. (C) 3. (B) 4. (C) 5. (C)
6. (D) 7. (B) 8. (B) 9. (C) 10. (C)
11. (B) 12. (B) 13. (A) 14. (B)
 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Transformers: Observation of the no-load current waveform on an oscilloscope (non-sinusoidal wave-

shape due to B-H curve nonlinearity should be shown along with a discussion about harmonics).
Loading of a transformer: measurement of primary and secondary voltages, currents, and power.

1. To make the students familiar withtransformer and explore the characteristics of a common
power transformer in its simplest form.
Apparatus/Instruments/Components required
1. Transformer (230/12-0-12V)
2. Function generator or single-phase autotransformer (variac)
3. Oscilloscope (Two-channel)
4. Digital multi-meter

Transformer is a static electric device/machine that transfers ac electric power from one circuit to
the other. Transformers are mo st often used for three principal reasons:
1. To change ac voltage level whiletransferring electric power from one circuit to the other.
If the voltage level is increased at the output side, the transformer is called step-up
transformer.Whereas it is called a step-down transformer when the voltage level is decreased
at the output side.
2. For electrical isolation for safety of equipment.
3. For impedance matching, these are often used to connect two components with mismatched
impedances.For instance, to obtain maximum power output from an audio amplifier,a high
impedance stereo amplifier and a low impedance speakerare connected together with an
impedance matching transformer.
Often, we can assume that transformer is ideal device thatmeans it has no internal power loss and
all magnetic flux link with the primary as well as secondary. The ideal model suits to large power
transformer where the losses are very small as compared to the power transferred.An ideal
transformer delivers all the input power to the loadi.e.power input is equal to power output
V1I1 = V2I2
Circuit diagram

Fig.P3.1(a): Connections to trace B-H Curve Fig. P3.1(b): B-H Curve

Transformer
Variac A1
Oscilloscope
X1

AC Supply Ch1 Ch2

X2

X3
A2

Fig. P3.2: Transformer testing at no load

1. Connect the apparatus as per the circuit shown in fig. P3.1(a).

2. Get you connections checked by the teacher in-charge.
3. Switch-ON the supply through switch if switch is connected in the circuit.
4. Connect a CRO across the terminals marked dotted and adjust its knobs to obtain the curve
shown in fig.P3.1(b).
5. If the transformer is to be tested at no-load, make the connections as shown in fig. P3.2 and
proceed further.
(a) Use the CRO to measure the transformer voltages mentioned below and record the
results in tabulated form.
- Vpp across primary A1 and A2 (On channel-1)
- Vpp across primary X1 and X3 (On channel-2)
 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

- Vppfrom centre-tap to one side of the secondary X1toX2 (Move the channel-2 ground
lead to X3 for measurements)
- Vpp from centre-tap to other side of the secondary X2 to X3 (Move the channel-2 lead
to X2to X3for measurements)
6. To check the loading of a single-phasetransformer,connect an ammeter, voltmeter and a
wattmeter in the primary as well as in the secondary side of the transformer.
7. Apply a variable load on the secondary side and take the readingsof ammeter, voltmeter and
wattmeter connected on both the sides of the transformer at different loads.

1. The shape of the hysteresis loop is almost the same as studied in the theory.
2. When load is connected at the output, thecurrent changes in the secondary as per the load and
the input current in the primary changesproportionately. The wattmeter reading on both sides
i.e.on primary and secondary is the same (W2 = W1).

1. What is a transformer?
2. What are the major applications of transformers?
3. If the load on a transformer is increased to double, the current in the secondary increases to
double, what about the primary current?
4. What do you mean by no-load current?
Three-phase transformers: Star and Delta connections. Voltage and Current relationships (line-line
voltage, phase-to-neutral voltage, line and phase currents). Phase-shifts between the primary and
secondary side. Cumulative three-phase power in balanced three-phase circuits.

To verify the relation between line and phase values of voltages and currents when a 3-phase
transformer or three single- phase transformers are connected in different configurations.
Apparatus/Instruments/Components required:
1. Three single phase transformers (preferably each of l kVA, 230/115 V rating or one three
phase transformers of rating………..
2. Four voltmeters of range……..
3. Four ammeters of range……..
4. Balanced 3-phase load…….. (Say three heaters of same rating duly checked).
5. Three-phase ac supply.
6. Connecting leads etc.

Fig. P 4.1: Star-star connected transformer Fig. P 4.2: Star-delta connected transformer
 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Fig.P 4.3:Delta-deltaconnected transformer Fig. P 4.4: Delta-star connected transformer

Theory: In different configurations:

VL
When the windings are connected in star, Vph= and Iph = IL
3

N2 Vph2
When the windings are connected in delta Vph = VLandlph = NV
1 ph1

N 2 V ph 2
Transformation ratio K = N  V
1 ph1

1. Make the connections in various configurations as per circuits show in fig. P4.1, P4.2,
P4.3, and P4.4
2. Get the connections checked by the teacher in-charge.
3. Switch-ON the TPST switch.
4. Take the readings of all the voltmeters and ammeters connected on both the sides, then
record them in the observation table.
5. Find the relation between voltages and between currents on both the sides separately.
6. Repeat the experiment for each configuration.
 Voltmeter readings Ammeter readings Relation between
Configuration V1 = VL1 V2 = Vph1 A1 = IL1 A2 = Iph1 Voltage Current
V1 / V 2 A1 / A 2

Voltmeter readings Ammeter readings Relation between

Configuration V3 = Vph2 V4 = VL2 A3 = Iph2 A2 = IL2 Voltage Current
V4 / V 3 A4 / A 3

Results:
VL IL
1. It is observed that in star connections V  3 and I ph
1
ph

VL I
Whereas in delta connections  1 and L  3
V ph I ph

Power in 3-phase balanced circuit = 3 V ph I ph cos   3VL I L cos 

 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

1. In star connected system, what is the relation between line voltage and phase voltage?
2. In star connected system, what is the relation between line current and phase current?
3. In delta connected system, what is the relation between line voltage and phase voltage?
4. In delta connected system, what is the relation between line current and phase current?
5. In 3-phase system, what is the equation for power consumption?
 4 Electrical Machines

Rationale
Induction machines or induction motor are the backbone of any industry. Induction motors may be
single-phase or three phase. The single phase induction motors are usually built in small sizes (upto
3 H.P) and are employed with light loads to handle domestic appliances. three phase induction
motors are the most commonly used a.c. motors in the industry because they have simple and rugged
construction, low cost, high efficiency, reasonably good power factor, self starting torque and low
maintenance. Almost more than 90% of the mechanical power used in industry is provided by three
phase induction motors.
In this chapter, we shall deal with all the important aspects of a three phase induction motors as well
as the functioning of 1-phase induction motors, dc motors and synchronous generators.
Unit Outcomes
U4-O1: Unit-4 Learning Outcome-1
To know about the constructional features and working of a 3-phase induction motor.
U4-O2: Unit-4 Learning Outcome-2
To analyse the behaviour of a 3-phase induction motor with the help of torque-slip curve.
U4-O3: Unit-4 Learning Outcome-3
To analyse the effect of slip on the major losses of a 3-phase induction motor.
U4-O4: Unit-4 Learning Outcome-4
To analyse various starters employed to start a 3-phase induction motor.
U4-O5: Unit-4 Learning Outcome-5
To analyse the characteristics of various single-phase induction motors such as split phase motor,
shaded pole motor, universal motor separately excited dc motors etc. and their applications.

Unit Specific
l Working principle of a 3-phase induction motor and how to reverse its direction of rotation.
l To analyse the behaviour of a 3-phase induction motor with the help of torque-slip curve.

l• Major losses in a 3-phase induction motor and the effect of slip on them.

l• The necessity of a starter for 3-phase induction motor and their types.

l• Methods to control the speed of a 3-phase induction motor.

218 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

• Inherently, single-phase induction motors are not self-starting, how to make them self-
starting
• Working principle, characteristics and applications of shaded pole motor, universal motor
and separately excited dc motors.
• Constructional features of an ac generator/alternator

MAPPING THE UNIT OUTCOMES WITH THE COURSE OUTCOMES.

Unit II EXPECTED MAPPING WITH COURSE OUTCOMES
Outcomes (1-weak Correlation: 2-Medium correlation; 3-Strong Correlation)
CO-1 CO-2 CO-3
U4-O1 1 3 --
U4-O2 1 3 --
U4-O3 1 3 --
U4-O4 1 3 --
U4-O5 -- 3 --

Interesting facts
• Hans Christian Oersted was the first scientist who showed that electric current produces magnetic
effect. It was an accidental discovery. The direction of the magnetic lines of force depends on the
direction of the current that flows through the conductor.
• Similarity with gravity- Electricity works somewhatin a similar fashion as that of gravity. Gravity
attracts, whereaselectricity can attract or repel.

Video Resources
Videos Links for circuits

The Rotating How does a - phase induction

Magnetic Phase Induction motor working
Field RMF Motor work principle
- Technical
animation

Torque speed Single Phase What is Shaded

Characteristics Machines| Rotating Pole Induction
of three phase magnetic eld Motor -
induction Motor Synchronous Construction
Working |
Speed Animated
ELECTRICAL MACHINES 219

How do Universal DC Motor, How does an

Motors work How it works Alternator Work

4.1. CONSTRUCTIONAL FEATURES OF A 3-PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

A 3-phase induction motor consists of two main parts namely stator and rotor.
1. Stator : It is the stationary part of the motor. It has three main parts, namely. (i) Outer frame,
(ii) Stator core and (iii) Stator winding.
(i) Outer frame : It is the outer body of the motor. Its function is to support the stator core
and to protect the inner parts of the machine. For small machines the fame is casted but
for large machines it is fabricated.
To place the motor on the foundation, feet are provided in the outer frame as shown in
fig.4.1.
(ii) Stator core : The stator core is to carry the STATOR
alternating magnetic field which produces
CORE
hysteresis and eddy current losses, therefore,
core is built up of high grade silicon steel
TERMINAL
stamping. The stampings are assembled under BOX
hydraulic pressure and are keyed to the frame.
Each stamping is insulated from the other with
a thin varnish layer. The thickness to the WINDING

stamping usually varies from 0.3 to 0.5 mm.

Slots are punched on the inner periphery of the
stampings, as shown in fig. 4.2, to Fig. 4.1: Stator
accommodate stator winding.
(iii) Stator winding : The stator core carries a three
STATOR TOOTH SLOT
phase winding which is usually supplied from STAMPING
a three phase supply system. The six terminals
of the winding (two of each phase) are
connected in the terminal box of the machine.
The stator of the motor is wound for definite
number of poles, the exact number being
determined by the requirement of speed. It will
be seen that greater the number of poles, the
lower is the speed and vice-versa, since
1  120 f  Fig. 4.2: Stator stamping
Ns   N S   . The three- phase
P  P 
 winding may be connected in star or delta externally through a starter.
2. Rotor : It is the rotating part of the motor. There are two types of rotors, which are employed
in 3 phase induction motors.
(i) Squirrel cage rotor (ii) Phase wound rotor.
(i) Squirrel cage rotor : The motors employing this
type of rotor are known as Squirrel cage induction SHORT
CONDUCTORS
CIRCUITING
motors. Most of the induction motors are of this RING CORE
type because of simple and rugged construction of
rotor. A squirrel cage rotor consists of a laminated SHAFT
cylindrical core having semi-closed circular slots
at the outer periphery. Copper or aluminium bar
conductors are placed in these slots and short
circuited at each end by copper or aluminium rings,
called short circuiting rings, as shown in fig.4.3.
Thus, the rotor winding is permanently short
circuited and it is not possible to add any external
resistance in the rotor circuit.
The rotor slots are usually not parallel to the shaft but are skewed. Skewing of rotor has the following
advantages :
(a) It reduces humming thus ensuring quiet running of a motor,
(b) It results in a smoother torque curves for different positions of the rotor,
(c) It reduces the magnetic locking of the stator and rotor,
(d) It increases the rotor resistance due to the increased length of the rotor bar
conductors.
(ii) Phase wound rotor : Phase wound rotor is
also called slip ring rotor and the motors SLIP RINGS WOUND ROTOR
employing this type of rotor are known as SHAFT
phase wound or slipring induction motors. Slip
ring rotor consists of a laminated cylindrical
core having semi-closed slots at the outer
periphery and carries a 3-phase insulated
SLOTS
winding. The rotor is wound for the same Fig. 4
number of poles as that of stator. The three
finish terminals are connected together
forming star point and the three start terminals
are connected to three copper slipings fixed
on the shaft (see fig.4.4).
In this case, depending upon the requirement any external resistance can be added in the rotor circuit. In
this case also the rotor is skewed.
A mild steel shaft is passed through the centre of the rotor and is fixed to it with key. The purpose of
shaft is to transfer mechanical power.
Consider a stator on which three different windings represented by three concentric coils a1a2, b1b2
and c1c2 respectively are placed 120º electrically apart.
e 1 2 3
Let a 3-phase supply, as shown in fig. 4.5, is applied to the
stator. Three phase currents will flow through the three coils
and produce their own magnetic fields. The positive half cycle
of the alternating current is considered as inward flow of
O
current in the start terminals and negative half cycle is
considered as outward flow of current in the start terminals.
The direction of flow of current is opposite in the finish
terminals of the same coil. 
60°
Let at any instant t1, current in coilside a1 be inward and in
120°
b1 and c1 outward. Whereas, the current in the other sides of t1 t2 t3
the same coils is opposite i.e. in coil side a2 is outward and
b2 and c2 is inward. The resultant field and its direction (Fm)
is marked in fig. 4.6.
At instant t2 when  is 60º, current in coil sides a1 and b1 is inward and in c1 is outward. Whereas,
the current in the opposite sides is opposite. The resultant field and its direction is shown in fig. 4.7,
which is rotated through an angle  = 60º from its previous position.
At instant t3 when is  is 120º , current in coilside b1 is inward and in c1 and a1 is outward. The
resultant field and its direction is shown in fig. 4.8. Which is rotated through an angle  = 120º
electrical from its first position.
Thus, in one cycle, the resultant field completes one revolution. Hence, we conclude that when 3-
phase supply is given to a 3-phase wound stator, a resultant field is produced which revolves
at a constant speed, called synchronous speed (N s = 120ºf /P).

a1 a1
c2 + a1 +
b2 b2
b2
+ + c2 + c2+
b1 c1
+ +
b1 c1 c1 b1
a2 a2 + a2

In this case, we have seen that when supply from phase 1,2 and 3 is given to coil a1a2, b1b2 and c1c2,
respectively, an anticlockwise rotating field is produced. If the supply to coil a1a2 , b1b2 and c1c2 is
given from phase 1, 3 and 2 respectively, the direction of rotating field is reversed. Thus, to reverse the
direction of rotation of rotating field the connections of any two supply terminals are inter changed.
When 3-phase supply is given to the stator of a 3-phase wound induction motor, a revolving field is set
up in the stator. At any instant, the magnetic field set-up by the stator is shown in fig. 4.9 The direction
of the resultant field is marked by an arrow head Fm. Let this field is rotating in an anti-clockwise
direction at an angular speed of s radians per second i.e. synchronous speed.

Fr Fr
Te STATOR
Te
ROTOR
+ X
+
+ ++
+
+
+ s

The stationary rotor conductors cut the revolving field and due to electromagnetic induction an e.m.f. is
induced in the rotor conductors. As the rotor conductors are short circuited, current flows through
them in the direction as marked in the figure. Rotor current carrying conductors set up a resultant field
Fr. This field tries to come in line with the stator main field Fm. Due to this an electromagnetic torque Te
is developed in the anticlockwise direction. Thus, rotor starts rotating in same direction in which stator
field is revolving.
Alternately : Reproducing section X of fig. 4.9 (a) as shown in fig. 4.10, when the revolving stator
field see fig. 4.10 (a) cuts the stationary rotor conductors, an e.m.f. is induced in the conductors by
induction. As rotor conductors are short circuited, current flows through them, as marked in fig. 4.10,
(b) which sets up field around them. A resultant field is set up, as shown in fig. 4.10 (c) which exerts
force on the rotor conductors. Thus, the rotor starts rotating in the same direction in which stator field
is revolving.
STATOR STATOR
STATOR
s s

+ + + +
+ + + + +
F 
ROTOR
ROTOR

(a) Field due to (b) Field due to rotor conductors (c) Resultant field
stator winding
The rotor picks up speed and tries to attain the synchronous speed but fails to do so. It is because if the
rotor attains the synchronous speed then the relative speed between revolving stator field and rotor will
be zero, no e.m.f. will be induced in rotor conductors. No e.m.f. means no current, no rotor field Fr and
hence no torque is produced. Thus, an induction motors never runs at synchronous speed. It always
seems at a speed less than synchronous speed.
Since, the principle of operation of this motor depends upon electromagnetic induction, hence the
name induction motor.

In Art. 2 it has been seen that a revolving field is set up in the stator of a 3-phase induction motor when
3-phase supply is given to its winding and the direction of rotation depends upon the supply sequence.
In Art. 3, it has been see that rotor of a three phase induction motor rotates in the same direction as that
of the revolving field.
The direction of rotation of the revolving field or that of the rotor can be reversed if the sequence of
supply is reversed. The supply sequence can be reversed by interchanging the connections of any two
supply leads at the stator terminals.
Hence, the direction of rotation of a 3-phase induction motor can be reversed by interchanging the
connections of any two supply leads at the stator terminals.

The rotor of an induction motor always rotates at a speed less than synchronous speed. The difference
between the flux speed (Ns) and the rotor speed (N) is called slip. It is usually expressed as a percentage
of synchronous speed (Ns) and is represented by symbol S.
Mathematically,
Ns  N N N
% slip, % S=  100 or Fractional slip, S = s
Ns Ns
Rotor speed, N = Ns (l – S)
The difference between synchronous speed and rotor speed is called slip speed i.e.,
Slip speed = Ns – N
The value of slip at full load varies from about 6% small motors to about 2% for large motors.
Importance of slip : Slip plays an important role in the operation of an induction motor. We have
already seen that the difference between the rotor speed and synchronous speed of flux determine the
rate at which the flux is cut by rotor conductors and hence the magnitude of induced e.m.f. i.e. e2 Ns
–N
 Ns  N 
Rotor current, i2  e2 and torque, T  i2 or T = KNs  
 Ns 
 T = K (Ns – N)
or T = K1 S Hence TS
Thus, greater the slip greater will be the induced e.m.f. or rotor current and hence larger will be the
torque developed.
At no-load, induction motor requires small torque to meet with the mechanical, iron and other losses,
therefore, slip is small. When the motor is loaded, greater torque is required to drive the load, therefore,
the slip increases and rotor speed decreases slightly.
Thus, it is seen that ship in an induction motor adjusts itself to such a value so as to meet the
required driving torque under normal operation.

The frequency of rotor currents depends upon the relative speed between rotor and stator field. When
the rotor is stationary, the frequency of rotor currents is the same as that of the supply frequency. But
once the rotor starts rotating, the frequency of rotor currents depends upon slip speed (Ns – N). Let at
any speed N, the frequency of rotor currents be fr. Then
( N s  N )P ( N s  N ) N s P
fr =  .  S f
120 Ns 120
Example 4.1. : A 3-phase induction motor is wound for 6 poles and is supplied from a 50 Hz
system. Calculate : (i) Synchronous speed. (ii) Actual speed of the motor when running at 3% slip
(iii) Frequency of e.m.f. induced in rotor.
Solution :
120 f 120  50
Synchronous speed, Ns =  = 1000 r.p.m. (Ans.)
P 6
Actual speed of motor, N = Ns (1 – S) where, S = 0·03
N = 1000 (1 – 0·03) = 970 r.p.m. (Ans)
Frequency of rotor e.m.f., f r = Sf = 0.03 × 50 = 1.5 Hz (Ans)
Example 4.2. : A 5 HP, 230 V, 3-phase, 50 Hz, 4 pole squirrel cage induction motor operates at full
load slip of 4% when rated voltage and rated frequency are applied. Determine (i) full loud speed.
(ii) full load torque in Newton-metre . (iii) frequency of rotor current under this condition and (iv)
speed of rotation of the stator m.m.f.

120 f 120  50
Solution : Synchronous speed, Ns = = = 1500 r.p.m.
P 4
Full load speed, N = Ns (1 – S) = 1500 (1 – 0.04) = 1440 r.p.m. (Ans)
Output =  T = 5 × 735.5 W (where  = 2 N/ 60)

5  735·5  60
Or T = = 24.39 Nm (Ans)
2  1440

Rotor current frequency, fr = S f = 0.04 × 50 = 2 Hz (Ans)

Speed of rotation of stator m.m.f. = Ns = 1500 r.p.m. (Ans)
Example 4.3. : Power to an induction motor is supplied by an 8 pole, 3-phase, 750 r.p.m.
alternator. The full load speed of the motor is 1440 r.p.m. Find the percentage slip and
number of poles in the motor.
Solution : Speed of the alternator, N sa = 750 r.p.m.
No. of poles of the alternator, Pa = 8
Pa N sa 8  750
Generated or supply frequency, f=  = 50 Hz
120 120
Motor Speed, N = 1440 r.p.m.
120 f 120  50
No. of poles of motor, P=  = 4·16 = 4 (Ans)
N 1440
120 f 120  50
Synchronous speed, Ns =  = 1500 r.p.m.
P 4
Ns  N 1500  1440
Percentage slip, S=  100 =  100 = 4% (Ans)
Ns 1500
Example 4.4. : A 200 HP, 3-Phase, 400 V, 50 Hz induction motor has a speed of 1425 r.p.m at full
load. The machine has 4 poles. Calculate the slip. How many complete alternations will the rotor
e.m.f. make per minute.
Solution :
Here, f = 50 Hz, P = 6, N= 950 r.p.m.
120 f 120  50
Synchronous speed, Ns =  = 1500 r.p.m.
P 4

Ns  N 1500  1425
Slip, S= = = 0·05 or 5% (Ans)
Ns 1500

Frequency of rotor e.m.f. f r = Sf = 0.05 × 50 = 2.5 Hz or 2.5 c/s

Alternations of rotor e.m.f. per min = 2.5 × 60 = 150 c/ min (Ans)

1. A 3-phase induction motor is wound for 4 poles and is supplied from a 50 Hz system. Calculate
: (i) Synchronous speed. (ii) Actual speed of the motor when running at 4% slip (iii) Frequency
of e.m.f. induced in rotor. (Ans, 1500 r.p.m.; 1440 r.p.m.; 2 Hz)
2. A 10 HP, 230 V, 3-phase, 50 Hz, 6 pole squirrel cage induction motor operates at full load slip
of 4% when rated voltage and rated frequency are applied. Determine (i) full loud speed. (ii)
full load torque in Newton-metre . (iii) frequency of rotor current under this condition and (iv)
speed of rotation of the stator m.m.f. (Ans, 960 r.p.m. ; 73·16 Nm ; 2 Hz ; 1000 r.p.m.)
 3. Power to an induction motor is supplied by a 12 pole, 3-phase, 500 r.p.m. alternator. The full
load speed of the motor is 1440 r.p.m. Find the percentage slip and number of poles in the
motor. (Ans, 4; 4%)
4. A 500 HP, 3-Phase, 440 V, 50 Hz induction motor has a speed of 950 r.p.m at full load. The
machine has 6 poles. Calculate the slip. How many complete alternations will the rotor e.m.f.
make per minute. (Ans, 0·05 or 5%; 150 c/ min)

When three-phase currents are supplied to the stator winding of a poly phase induction
motor, a resultant field is set up which rotates at a constant speed called synchronous speed
(Ns = 120f/P).
This rotating field induces poly phase e.m.fs. in the rotor winding and if rotor winding is closed, poly
phase currents circulate in it. These currents set up a revolving field in the rotor which rotates at a speed
Nr = 120 fr /P with respect to rotor.
Now Nr = 120 × Sf/P = SNs
When rotor itself is rotating at a speed N r.p.m. in the space.
 Speed of rotor field in space = N + Nr =(1 – S) Ns + SNs = Ns – SNs + SNs = Ns
Thus, rotor magnetic field also rotates, in space, at the same speed and in the same direction as that of
stator field. Hence, the two fields are magnetically locked with each other and are stationary with
respect to each other.

The revolving magnetic field set up in the stator by poly phase currents is common to both stator and
rotor winding. This field induces e.m.fs. in both the windings. The stator induced e.m.f. per phase is
given by the relation;
E1 = 4.44 kw1 T1 f m ...(i)
Where k w1 = winding factor i.e. product or coil span factor kc and distribution factor kd.
T1 = No. of turns/phase of stator winding;
f = stator or supply frequency and
 m = maximum value of flux.
The rotor induced e.m.f/phase, E2 = 4.44 kw2 T2 fr m ...(ii)
Where fr is the rotor current frequency, and under stationary condition i.e., at the start fr = f. Therefore,
rotor induced e.m.f./phase at stand still or start, E2s = 4.44 kw2 T2 f m
Dividing eq. (ii) by (i), we get,
E2 s 4·44 kw2 T2 f m T2
=   K (i.e. transformation ratio)
E1 4·44 kw1 T1 f m T1
From eq. (ii), induced e.m.f. in the rotor under running condition,
 E2 = 4·44 kw2 T2 (Sf) m= SE2s
The induced e.m.f. in the rotor circuit is maximum at the start and varies according to the value of slip
under running condition. Since, the value of normal slip under loaded condition is nearly 5% therefore,
the rotor induced e.m.f. is nearly 5% of the maximum value.

Since the rotor winding is made of some conducting material (copper or aluminium), it has a definite
resistance (R=  l/a). Its value remains constant and is denoted by R2.

Whole of the flux produced by the rotor currents does not link with the stator winding. The part of rotor
flux which links the rotor conductors but not with the stator winding is called leakages flux and hence
develops leakage inductance (L2). The leakage flux and hence the inductance is very small if the rotor
conductors are placed at the outermost periphery of the rotor as shown in fig.4.11. Depending upon the
rotor current frequency, rotor reactance will be developed.
Rotor reactance, X2 = 2 fr L2 = 2 Sf L2 = S (2 f L2) LEAKAGE
FLUX
When the rotor is standstill i.e., at the start, when slip, S = 1 STATOR
The value of rotor reactance = X2s = 2 f L2 +
Thus, under normal running, rotor reactance, X2 = SX2s
ROTOR

The total opposition offered to the flow of rotor current by the rotor circuit is called the rotor impedance.
Rotor impedance, Z 2 = R2 +j X2 = R2 + j SX2s

Magnitude of rotor impedance, Z2 = ( R2 )2  ( SX 2 s )2

The rotor circuit diagram of an induction motor is shown in figure 4.12.

Under running condition;
Rotor induced e.m.f. = E2 = SE2s

Rotor impedance, Z2 = R22  X 22 = ( R2 )2  ( SX 2 s )2

R2 I2
E2
Rotor current, I2 =
Z2 X2=SX2S
E2 SE2 s E2=SE2S
= =
2 2
( R2 )  ( X 2 ) ( R2 )  ( SX 2 s )2
2

R2 R2
Rotor power factor, cos2 = 
Z2 ( R2 )  ( SX 2 s )2
2
The various parameters and electrical quantities are represented on the circuit diagram, as shown in fig.
4.13 The rotor current is given by the expression :
R2 2 X2S 2

R2
SX2S S
E2=SE2S E23

SE2 s
I2 =
( R2 )2  ( SX 2 s )2
The other expression for the rotor current is
E2 s
I2 = (dividing the numerator and denominator by S)
( R2 / S )2  ( X 2 s )2

This expression gives a convenient form of equivalent circuit as shown in fig. 4.14.
R2 1  S 
The resistance is a function of slip and can be splitted into two parts ; = R2 + R2   Where
S  S 
1 S 
R2   represents electrical load on the rotor..
 S 
R2 X2S E2S
O
2
ELECT. LOAD

E2S I2X2S

I2
(a) Equivalent circuit (b) Phasor diagram

Thus, the final simplified equivalent rotor circuit is shown in fig.4.15 (a). Where R2 is rotor resistance
1  S 
and X2s is standstill leakage reactance. The resistance R2  S  is fictitious resistance representing
 
load.
1  S 
The power consumed by this fictitious resistance i.e. I22 R2  S  is the electrical power which is
 
converted into mechanical power to pick the load. After subtracting the mechanical losses, we get
the output power available at the shaft.
1  S 
Thus, electrical power converted into mechanical power, = I22 R2  S  watt
 
From the simplified equivalent circuit the phasor diagram of rotor circuit is drawn as shown in fig.4.15
(b).
Rotor current 12 lags behind the rotor standstill induced e.m.f E2s by an angle .
1  S  1  S 
The voltage drop across R2 i.e. I2R2 and across R2   i.e. I2R2   are in phase with
 S   S 
current I2, whereas the voltage drop in X2s i.e. I2X2s leads the current I2 by 90º.
The vector sum of all the three drops is equal to E2s i.e.
E2s = I2 ( R2 / S ) 2  ( X 2 s ) 2
Power factor of rotor circuit,
R2 / S
cos =
( R2 / S )2  ( X 2 s )2

4.14. LOSSES IN AN INDUCTION MOTOR

The major losses in an induction motor are :
1. Stator losses : The losses which occur in the stator of an induction motor are called stator
losses.
(i) Stator copper losses – I12 R1 (per phase)
(ii) Stator iron losses- These are the hysteresis and eddy current losses.
2. Rotor losses : which occur in the rotor of an induction motor are called rotor losses.
(i) Rotor copper losses – l22 R2 (per phase)
(ii) Rotor iron losses- Since under normal running condition rotor frequency is very small,
therefore. These losses are so small that they are neglected.
3. Mechanical losses : The sum of windage and friction losses are called mechanical losses.

Electrical power input is given to the stator. There are stator copper and iron losses and the remaining
power i.e stator output is transferred to the rotor through magnetic flux called rotor input. In the
rotor there are rotor copper losses and the remaining power is converted into
MECH.POWER
STATOR = ROTOR DEVELOPED
OUTPUT INPUT IN ROTOR ROTOR
INPUT OUTPUT
POWER AT SHAFT
(ELECT.) (MECH.)
MECH.
ROTOR
STATOR STATOR LOSSES
COPPER LOSS
COPPER LOSS IRON LOSS

mechanical power called mechanical power developed in the rotor. Then there are mechanical losses
and the remaining power is available at the shaft called mechanical power output.
The power flow diagram is shown in fig. 4.16.
We have seen that the electrical power developed in the rotor is converted into mechanical power which
is given by the relation :
I S
Mech. power developed in the rotor = I22 R2   ...(i)
 S 
The rotor copper losses = I22 R2 ...(ii)
From power flow diagram :
Rotor input = Mech. power developed + rotor copper losses

I S  I 2 2 R2 
= I22 R2  2
 + I2 R2 =   ...(iii)
 S   S 

Rotor copper loss I 22 R2

From eq. (i) and (ii), we get, 
Mech. power developed 1  S 
I 22 R2  
 S 
 S 
 Rotor copper loss =   Mech. power developed
1– S 
Rotor copper loss I2 R
From. eq. (ii) and (iii), we get,  2 2
Rotor input I 22 R2 / S
 Rotor copper loss = S × Rotor input
Note : All the values are the phase values.

The ratio of rotor output (i.e., mechanical power developed in rotor neglecting mechanical losses) to the
rotor input is called the rotor efficiency.

I 22 R 2 F 1 – SI
Rotor efficiency =
Mech. Power developed
=
H SK = (1 – S)
Rotor input I 22 R / S
Example 4.5 : A 10 H.P., 4 pole, 25 Hz, 3-phase, wound rotor induction motor is taking 9100 watt
from the line. Core loss is 290 watt, stator copper loss is 568 watt, rotor copper loss in 445 watt,
friction and windage losses are 100 watt. Determine ; (a) power transferred across air gap ; (b)
mechanical power in watt developed by rotor ; (c) mechanical power output in watt ; (d) efficiency
; (e) slip.
Solution : Power input to motor or stator = 9100 watt
Power transferred across air gap = Stator input – Stator core loss – Stator copper loss
= 9100 – 290 – 568 = 8242 W (Ans)
 Mechanical power developed in rotor = rotor input – Rotor copper loss = 8242 – 445 = 7797
Rotor output = Mechanical power developed – Mechanical loss
= 7797 – 100 = 7697 W (Ans.)
Output 7697
Motor efficiency = input  100 =  100 = 8458 % (Ans)
9100
Rotor copper loss 445
Slip, S= Rotor input = = 05399 (Ans)
8242
Example 4.6 : A 4 pole, 3-phase, 50 Hz, 400 V induction motor has a delta connected stator and a
star connected rotor. Each phase of rotor winding has one-fourth the number of turns on each phase
of stator winding. The full load speed is 1455 r.p.m. The rotor resistance is 03 ohm, and rotor
standstill reactance is 1 ohm per phase. The stator and rotor windings are similar. Stator losses equal
100 W. Friction and windage losses are equal to 50 W. Calculate.
(i) blocked rotor voltage per phase (ii) rotor current per phase at full load
(iii) total rotor power input at full load (iv) rotor power loss at full load
(v) efficiency.
N2 1
Solution : Here, P = 4; f = 50 Hz ; V2 = 400 V ; N = ;
1 4
N = 1455 r.p.m ; R2 = 03 ; X2s = 1 ; Stator loss = 100 W ; Mech loss = 50 W
Stator induced e.m.f. per phase, E1 = VL = 400 V (delta connected)
E2 s N2 1
Now, = N =
E1 1 4
400
Blocked rotor voltage per phase, E2s = = 100 V (Ans)
4
120 f 120  50
Synchronous speed, Ns = = = 1500 r.p.m.
P 4
N N 1500 – 1455
Slip, S = s = = 0 × 03
Ns 1500
SE2 s 0  03  100
Rotor current, I2 = = = 9  95 A (Ans)
2
( R2 )  ( SX 2 s ) 2
(0  3) 2  (0  03  1) 2
Rotor copper loss = 3I22 R2 = 3 × (995)2 × 03 = 89 W (Ans)
Rotor copper loss 89
Power input to rotor = = = 2967 W (Ans)
Slip 0  03
Input to the motor = rotor input + stator losses = 2967 + 100 = 3067 W
Output at the shaft = rotor input – rotor copper loss – mech. loss = 2967 – 89 – 50 = 2828 W
output 2828
Efficiency =  100 =  100 = 92  2 % (Ans)
Input 3067
Example 4.7 : A 60 H.P., 6-pole, 3-phase induction motor delivers load output at 960 r.p.m. at 0·8
power factor when supplied with 400 V. 50 Hz supply. Losses due to windage and friction come to
3 H.P. and the stator losses are 2kW. Find out : (a) Total rotor copper loss ; (b) efficiency, and (c)
line current.
Solution : Rotor output = 60 H.P = 60 × 735·5 = 44130 W
Mechanical losses = 3 H.P. = 3 × 735·5 = 2206 W
Mechanical power developed = Rotor output + Mechanical losses = 44130 + 2206 = 44336 W
120 f 120 × 50
Synchronous speed, Ns =   1000 r.p.m.
P 6
N s  N 1000  960
Slip, S =   0 ∙ 04
Ns 1000

S 0 ∙ 04
Rotor copper loss = mech. power developed = × 46336  1931 W
1 S 1  0 ∙ 04
Stator losses = 2kW = 2000W
Input to stator or motor = Mech. power developed + Rotor Cu loss + Stator losses
= 46336 + 1931 = 2000 = 50267W
Output 44130
Efficiency,  =  × 100 = 87·79% (Ans.)
Input 50267

Input power 50267

Line current, I2 = = = 90·67 A (Ans.)
3 × Line voltage × p.f . 3 × 400 × 0 ∙ 8
Example 4.8 : A 4-pole, 50 Hz, 3-phase induction motor has an efficiency of 85% for useful output
power at the shaft of 17 kW. For this load the total stator losses are 900 W and the windage and
friction losses are 1100 W. Calculate the slip, torque developed by the rotor and torque available at
the rotor shaft.
Solution : No. of poles, P = 4 ; Supply frequency, f = 50 Hz
Motor efficiency,  = 85% = 0·85 ; Output power = 17 kW = 17000 W.
Stator losses = 900 W ; Mechanical losses = 1100 W
Output power 17000
Input power =   20000 W
 0 ∙ 85
Stator output or rotor input = Input power – Stator losses = 20000 – 900 = 19100 W
Mech. power developed = Output power + Mech. losses = 17000 + 1100 = 18100 W
Rotor Cu losses = Rotor input – Mech. power developed = 19100 – 18100 = 1000 W
Rotor Cu loss 1000
Slip, S =   0 ∙ 05235
Rotor input 19100

120 f 120 × 50
Synchronous speed, Ns =   1500 r.p.m.
P 4
Rotor speed, N = Ns (1 – S) = 1500 (1 – 0·05235) = 1421·47 r.p.m.
 2 N 2  × 1421 ∙ 47
Angular speed,  = = = 148·85 rad/sec.
60 60
Mech. power developed in the rotor = T
Mech . power developed 18100
 Torque developed, T = = = 121·6 Nm (Ans.)
 148 ∙ 85
Rotor output 17100
Torque at the shaft, Tm =  = 114·2 Nm (Ans.)
 148 ∙ 85
Example 4.9 : A 3-phase induction motor has an efficiency of 90% and runs at a speed of 480
r.p.m. The motor is supplied from 400 V mains and it takes a current of 75 A at 0·77 p.f. Calculate
the B.H.P. (metric) of the motor and pull on the belt when driving the line shaft through pulley of
0·75 m diameter.
Solution : Supply voltage, VL= 400 V ; Rotor speed, N = 480 r.p.m.
Motor efficiency,  = 90% = 0·9 ; Current drawn from mains, IL = 75 A
Motor p.f., cos  = 0·77 lag. Diameter of pulley, d = 0·75 m
0 ∙ 75
Radius of pulley, r =  0 ∙ 375 m
2
Input power = 3 VL IL cos  = 3 × 400 × 75 × 0·77 = 40010 W
Output power = Input power ×  = 40010 × 0·9 = 36009 W
Output power 36009
B.H.P. of the motor =  = 48·958 (Ans.)
735∙ 5 735 ∙ 5
2  N 2  × 480
Angular speed,  =   16 
60 60
Output power 36009
Torque at the shaft, Tm =  = 716·376 Nm
 16 
Now, torque, Tm = Pull on the belt × radius of pulley
Tm 716 ∙ 376 1910 ∙ 34
 Pull on the belt = =  1910 ∙ 34 N = = 194·73 kg (Ans.)
r 0 ∙ 375 9 ∙ 81

1. The power input to a 3-phase induction motor is 80 kW. The stator losses total 15 kW.
Find the total mechanical power developed if the motor is running with a slip of 4%.
(Ans. 75.36 kW)
2. A 50 H.P., 3-, 6-pole induction motor delivers full load output at 960 r.p.m. at 0·8 p.f. when
supplied with 400V, 50Hz supply. Losses due to windage and friction come out to be 2H.P. and
stator losses are 2 kW. Find out. (a) total rotor Cu loss ; (b) efficiency and (c) line current.
(Ans. 1594 W; 87.9%; 75.49A)
 3. A 400 V, 6 pole, 50 Hz, 3-phase induction motor develops 20 HP inclusive of mechanical losses
when running at 965 r.p.m., the power factor being 0 87 lagging. Calculate (i) the slip (ii)
rotor copper losses (iii) the total input if the stator losses are 1500 watt (iv) line current and (v)
the number of cycles made per minute by the rotor e.m.f.
(Ans. 3.5%; 833.5W; 16743.5W; 27.78A; 1.75 Hz)
4. A 4-pole, 3-phase, 50 Hz induction motor supplies a useful torque of 159 Newton-metre. Calculate
at 4% slip : (i) The rotor input ; (ii) Motor input ; (iii) Motor efficiency, if the friction and
windage losses total 500 watt and stator losses are 1000 watt.
(Ans. 25497 W; 26497 W ;90·49%)
5. A 440 V, 50 Hz, 6-pole, 3-phase induction motor draws an input power of 81 kW from the
mains. The rotor e.m.f. makes 120 complete cycle per minute. Its stator losses are 1 kW and
rotor current per phase is 65 ampere. Calculate :
(i) Rotor copper losses per phase ; (ii) Rotor resistance per phase ;
(iii) Torque developed. (Ans. 1067 W; 0.2525 ohm; 763.94 Nm)

We have already seen that the electrical power of 3-phase induction motor converted into mechanical
power is given by the relation ;

1 S 
P0 = 3I22R2   ...(i)
 S 
also, P0 = T ...(ii)
Where, = angular speed of the rotor in rad/sec. and
T = torque developed by an induction motor in Nm.
Equating eq. (i) and (ii), we get
I 2R 1 S
T = 3I22R2  1  S  = 3 2 2 .
 S  S 
3 I2 R
or T= . 2 2 [since = s (1 – S)]
2 S
where s = angular synchronous speed in rad/sec.
SE2 s
As I2 =
( R2 )2  ( SX 2 s )2
2
 
3  SE2s  . R2
 T=
2  2 2  S
 ( R2 )  ( SX 2 s ) 

3 SE22s R2 3 E22s R2 / S
or T= =
 s [( R2 ) 2  ( SX 2 s )2 ]  s [( R2 / S ) 2  ( X 2 s )2 ]
This is the expression for full load torque.
The full load torque developed in an induction motor is given by the relation :
3 SE22s R2
T =
 2 [( R2 )2  ( SX 2 s )2 ]
SR2 3 2
or T  (since E2 s is constant)
R22 S 2 2
X 2x s
The torque developed will be maximum at a particular value of slip. As, slip (S) is a variable quantity,
therefore, to obtain the condition for maximum torque, the above expression for torque is differentiated
with respect to S and equated to zero.
dT ( R22  S 2 X 22s ) R2  SR2 (0  2 SX 22s )
= =0
dS ( R22  S 2 X 22s ) 2

or (R22 + S2 X 2s
2 ) R = 2R S2 X 2
2 2 2s
or R22 = (SX2s)2 or R2 = SX2s
or S = R2/X2s is the slip at which torque is maximum.
To obtain the expression for maximum torque substitute the value of R2 = SX2s in the expression for
full load torque, we get,
3 SE22s ( SX 2 s ) 3E22s
Maximum torque, Tm=  =
2 2
s [( SX 2 s )  ( SX 2 s ) ] 2 X 2 s
Thus, the maximum torque is independent of rotor resistance but it is inversely proportional to rotor
reactance at standstill (i.e., X2s). Therefore, to achieve higher value of maximum torque, the leakage
reactance of the rotor should be kept minimum. This is achieved (i) by placing the rotor conductors very
near to the outer periphery of the rotor and (ii) by reducing the air gap between stator and rotor to
smallest possible value.

At start rotor is stationary and the value of slip is one i.e., S = 1.

Thus, to obtain the expression for starting torque, substitute the value of slip, S = 1 in the expression of
full load torque ;

3 E22s R2
 Starting torque, Ts =  2 2
s [( R2 )  ( X 2 s ) ]
Sometimes maximum torque is required at start. In that case, in the condition for maximum torque
substitute the value of S = 1.
R2 = SX2s = X2s (since S = 1 at start)
Thus, to obtain maximum torque at start, the value of rotor resistance must be equal to rotor leakage
reactance at standstill. Therefore, at start some external resistance is added in the rotor circuit. This is
only possible in case of slip ring induction motors. This is the reason, why slip ring induction motors are
applied where heavy loads are required to be picked up at start such as in lifts, crains, elevators etc.
Once the motor picks up the load the external resistance is gradually reduced to zero.
In case of squirrel cage induction motors, the rotor resistance is fixed and is kept quite low in comparison
to rotor reactance, otherwise the rotor copper losses would be high and the efficiency of the motor
would fall to low value. However to obtain higher starting torque in case of squirrel cage induction
motors another cage is embedded in the rotor and the motor is called a double cage induction motor.

The full load torque developed by an induction motor is given by the expression;
3 SE22s R2
T =  2 2
s [ R2  ( SX 2 s ) ]
To draw the torque-slip or torque-speed curve the following M
points are considered :

TORQUE (T)
(i) At synchronous speed (Ns) ; slip, S = 0 and
torque T = 0.
(ii) When rotor speed is very near to synchronous
speed i.e., when the slip is very low the value of
the term (SX2s)2 is very small in comparison to
R22 [i.e., (SX2s)2 < < R22)] and is neglected.
Therefore, torque is given by the expression ; 0 1.0
SLIP (S)
3 SE22s R2
T = = KS, or T S
s R22
Thus, at low values of slip, torque is approximately proportional to slip S and the torque-slip curve is a
straight line, as shown in fig. 4.17.
(iii) As the slip increases torque increases and attains its maximum value when S = R2/X2s.
This maximum value of torque is also known as break down or pull out torque.
(iv) With further increase in slip due to increase in load beyond the point of maximum torque
i.e. when slip is high, the value of term (SX2s)2 is very large in comparison to R22
[i.e., (SX2s)2 >> R22]. Therefore, R22 is neglected as compared to (SX2s)2 and the
torque is given by the expression.
3 SE22s R2 1 1
T= K
 s X 2 X 22s = S
or T µ
S
Thus, at higher value of slip (i.e., the slip beyond that corresponding to maximum torque), torque is
approximately inversely proportional to slip S and the torque-slip curve is a rectangular hyperbola, as
shown in fig.4.18.
Thus, with the increase of slip beyond the point of maximum torque, due to increase in load, torque
decrease. The result is that the motor could not pick-up the load and slows down and eventually stops.
This results in blocked rotor or short circuited motor.
The torque-speed curve of an induction motor is shown in B Tm
fig. 4.18. It is the same curve which is already drawn, the

TORQUE
only difference is that speed is taken on the abscissa instead X Y
of slip.
From the curve, it is clear that induction motor develops the
same torque at point X and Y. However at point X the motor
is unstable because with the increase in load speed decreases T
C
and the torque developed by the motor also decreases.
Therefore, the motor could not pick up the load and the result
is that the motor slows down and eventually stops. The A
O SPEED Ns
miniature circuit breakers will be tripped open if the circuit
has been so protected.
At point Y, the motor is stable because in this region with the
increase in load speed decreases but the torque developed by the motor increases. Thus the motor will
be in position to pick up the extra load effectively.
Thus, on the torque-speed curve region BC is the unstable region and region AB is the stable or
operating region of the induction motor as shown in fig.4.18.
Example 4.10 : A 3-phase induction motor has a 4-pole star-connected stator winding. The motor
runs at a line voltage of 400 V, 50 Hz supply. The rotor resistance and standstill reactance per phase
are 0.15 and 1.0 ohm respectively. The ratio of rotor to stator turns is 0.7. Calculate the total torque
at 4% slip.
Solution : Here, P = 4 ; f = 50 Hz ; R2 = 0·15 ; X2s = 1.0 ; S = 4%
Supply voltage (line value), VL = 400 V
VL 400
Stator induced voltage (phase value), E1 = = = 231 V
3 3
T2 E
Ratio of rotor to stator turns, = 0·7 = 2 s
T1 E1
Rotor induced e.m.f. at standstill, E2s = 0·7 E1 = 0·7 × 231 = 161·7 V
120 f 120  50
Synchronous speed, Ns= = = 1500 r.p.m.
P 4
2N s 2   1500
Synchronous angular speed, s= = = 50 rad/sec.
60 60

3 SE22s R2
Torque developed, T=
s [ R22  ( SX 2 s ) 2 ]

3 0  04  (161.7)2  0 15
=  = 730.78 Nm (Ans)
50 [(0 15)2  (0  04  1.0)2 ]
 Example 4.11 : A 6-pole, 50 Hz, 3-phase induction motor has a rotor resistance of 0·02 ohm per
phase and standstill reactance of 0·8 ohm per phase. Calculate the speed at which maximum torque
is developed.
Solution : Here, P = 6; f = 50 Hz ; R2 = 02 ; X2s = 08 
Condition for maximum torque is ; R2 = SX2s
R2 0.02
 Torque will be maximum at a slip, S = = = 0025
X 2s 0.8
120 f 120  50
Synchronous speed, Ns = = = 1000 r.p.m.
P 6
Speed at which the torque will be maximum, N = Ns (1 – S)
= 1000 (1 – 0025) = 975 r.p.m. (Ans)

1. A 3-phase induction motor has a 4-pole star-connected stator winding. The motor runs at a line
voltage of 200 V, 50 Hz supply. The rotor resistance and standstill reactance per phase are 0.1
and 0.9 ohm respectively. The ratio of rotor to stator turns is 0.67. Calculate the total torque at
4% slip. (Ans, 40.48 Nm)
2. A 4-pole, 50 Hz, 3-phase induction motor has a rotor resistance of 0·21 ohm per phase and
standstill reactance of 0·7 ohm per phase. Calculate the speed at which maximum torque is
developed (Ans, 1455 r.p.m.)

The current drawn by a motor from the mains, depends upon the rotor current. The rotor current under
running condition is given by the expression ;
SE2 s
I2 =
R22  ( SX 2 s )2
E2 s
At start slip S = 1, therefore, rotor current. I2s =
R2  X 22s
2

This current is very large as compared to its full load current. Thus, when a squirrel cage induction
motor is directly connected to the supply mains, it draws very large current (nearly 5 to 7 times of the
full load current) from the mains. This heavy current may not be dangerous for the motor because it
occurs for a short duration of time, but it causes the following affects :
(i) It produces large voltage drop in the distribution lines and thus affects the voltage regulation
of the supply system.
(ii) It adversely affects the other motors and loads connected to the same lines.
Hence it is not advisable to start large capacity induction motors by direct switching. Rather, such
motors should be started by means of some starting device known as starter.
The function of a starter is to limit the initial rush of current to a predetermined value. A starter also
has some protective devices to protect the induction motors against over loading.

The various starters which are employed to restrict the initial rush of current in squirrel cage induction
motors are given below :
1. Direct On Line (D.O.L.) Starter ; 2. Star/Delta Starter ; 3. Auto-transformer Starter.
1. Direct On Line (D.O.L.) Starter : It is a starter by which the motor is switched ON direct to
the supply mains by switching conductor. With normal industrial motors this operation results
in a heavy rush of current of the order of five to seven times of the normal full load current.
This high current rapidly decreases as the motor picks up speed but it is at a very low power
factor and thus tends to disturb the voltage of the supply in the distribution lines. For this
reason, the supply authorities limit the size of motor upto 5 H.P. which can be started by this
starter. An automatic D.O.L. Starter is shown in fig.4.19.
A direct on line starter essentially consists of a
contactor having four normally open (N.O.)
contacts and a contactor coil also known as no-
SUPPLY MAINS
volt coil or no volt release. There are two push
MAIN
buttons ON and OFF which are used to start SWITCH
and stop the motor. To protect motor against
overload, thermal or magnetic over-load coils are
NO VOLT
connected in each phase. COIL
To start the motor, the ON push button (green) STATOR
WINDING
is pressed which energies the no-volt coil by
connecting it across two phases. The no-volt coil OFF
pulls its plunger in such a direction that all the ON
ROTOR
normally open (NO) contacts are closed and
motor is connected across supply through three OVER LOAD
contacts. The fourth contact serves as a hold on RELAY
contact which keeps the no-volt coil circuit closed
even after the ON push button is released. To
stop the motor, OFF push button (red) is pressed
momentarily which de-energises the no volt coil
opening the main contacts.
When the motor is over loaded, the thermal overload relay contact, connected in the control circuit
opens thus disconnecting the No-volt relay from the supply. Overload protection is achieved by thermal
element overload relay.
2. Star-Delta Starter : This method is based upon the principle that is star connections, voltage
across each winding is phase voltage i.e., 1/ 3 times the line voltage, whereas the same winding
when connected in delta will have full line voltage across it. So at start, connections of
 SUPPLY MAINS
RUN
6 4 2

STATOR
MAIN WINDING ROTOR
SWITCH
RUN
()1 2 3 4 5 6 3
5 1
1 2 3 4 5 6 6 4 2

OVER LOAD 1 2 3 5 6
4 6 4 2
RELAY 5 3 1
START
( )
5 3 1
RELAY NV STOP
RELAY BUTTON START
CONTACTS

the motor are made in star fashion so that reduced voltage is applied across each winding. After the
motor attains speed the same windings through a change-over switch, as shown in fig. 4.20 are connected
in delta across the same supply. The starter is provided with overload and under voltage protection
devices also.
Since at start stator windings are connected in star connection, so voltage across each phase winding is
reduced to 1/ 3 of line voltage, therefore, starting current/phase becomes equal to
Isc/ 3 = Starting line current
Starting line current by direct switching with stator winding connected in delta = 3 Isc
Line current with star delta starter  sc / 3 1
 = =
Line current with direct switching 3I sc 3
Thus, it concludes that when a 3-phase motor is started by a star/delta starter, the current drawn by it
is limited to 1/3rd of the value that it would draw without starter.
3. Auto-transformer Starter : In
the previous method, the current can only SUPPLY MAINS
be reduced to 1/3 times the short circuit
current. Whereas, in this method, the
voltage applied across the motor and
hence current can be reduced to a very MAIN
SWITCH
low value at the time of start. At the
time of start, the motor is connected to RUN
supply through auto-transformer by a 6
ROTOR
pole double throw switch. When the
motor is accelerated to about full speed,
the operating handle is moved to run
position. By this, motor is directly
STATOR
connected to the line as shown in fig.
3-PHASE AUTO TRANSFORMER WINDING
4.21
Overload protection and under voltage protection is provided as explained in the first method.
Although this type of starter is expensive but is most suitable for both the star-connected and delta-
connected induction motors. It is most suitable for starting of large motor.
Large size motors draw huge amount of current from the mains if they are connected to mains without
starter. However, if they are connected to the mains through star/delta starter, the current is limited to 1/
3rd value which is still, so large that it would disturb the other loads connected to the same lines. Hence,
to limit the initial rush of current to low values auto-transformer starters are preferred. With the help of
auto-transformer starters, we can limit the starting current to any predetermined value as explained
below :
Let the motor be started by an auto transformer having transformation ratio K.
If Isc is the starting current when normal voltage is applied.
Applied voltage to stator at start = KV
Then motor input current Is = KIsc
Supply current = Primary current of Auto transformer
= K × Secondary current of Auto-transformer = KKIsc = K2Isc
If 20% (i.e. 1/5 th) voltage is applied to the motor through auto-transformer starter, the current
2
1
drawn from the mains is reduced to   i.e. 1/25th times.
5

To start a slip ring induction motor, a 3-phase rheostat is connected in series with the rotor circuit
through brushes as shown in fig. 4.22. This is called rotor rheostat starter. This is made of three
separate variable resistors joined together by means of a 3-phase armed handle which forms a star point.
By moving the handle equal resistance in each phase can be introduced.
At start, whole of the rheostat resistance is inserted in the rotor circuit and the rotor current is reduced
to
E2 s
I2s =
( R2  R)2  ( X 2 s ) 2
SUPPLY MAINS

MAIN
SWITCH BRUSH OFF
ON
2 3
ROTOR 1
4
STATOR 4
W DG. 1
W DG. 3
2 3
2

1 4

STARTER
Correspondingly it reduces the current drawn by the motor from the mains at start.
When the motor picks up speed the external resistance is reduced gradually and ultimately whole of the
resistance is taken out of circuit and slip rings are short-circuited.
By inserting external resistance in the rotor circuit, not only the starting current is reduced but at the
same time starting torque is increased due to improvement in power factor :
At starts :
R2
Power factor without starter, cos s =
( R2 ) 2  ( X 2 s ) 2
( R2  R )
Power factor with starter, cos s =
( R2  R) 2  ( X 2 s )2
Hence, cos s > > cos s

The speed of an induction motor is given by the relation

120 f
N = Ns (1 – S) or N = (1 – S)
P
Hence the speed of the motor depends upon three factors i.e., frequency, slip and number of poles
for which the motor is wound. Thus, the speed of an induction motor can be controlled by changing
or controlling any one of these three quantities.

The speed of an induction motor can be changed by

T Tm
changing its slip, and the slip can be changed (1) by Ns
changing the rotor circuit resistance (2) by changing the
SPEED (N)

supply voltage and (3) by injecting voltage in the rotor

circuit.
1. Speed control by changing the Rotor Circuit
Resistance
In the wound type motor the slip may be changed by
introducing resistance in the rotor circuit and hence speed
is changed.
Torque developed in an induction motor is given by the TORQUE (T)
expression :
3 E22s R2 / S
T=
s [( R2 / S )2  ( X 2 s ) 2

R2
The torque will remain constant if is constant. For a given torque, the slip at which a motor works
S
is proportional to the rotor resistance.
The torque-speed curve (dotted) of a slip ring induction rotor is shown in fig. 4.23. When an external
 R2
resistance is added in the rotor circuit, speed decreases for the same torque T, so that ratio remains
S
constant.
The disadvantages of this method of speed control are
(i) Poor efficiency : By the introduction of external resistance in the rotor circuit, there is
extra power loss (I22R) in the rotor circuit which reduces the overall efficiency of the
motor.
(ii) Poor speed regulation : When speed of the induction motor is controlled by adding some
external resistance in the rotor circuit, the change in speed is larger when load on the
machine changes from one value to the other. Hence the machine operates at a poor
regulation.

R2 > R1

R2
R1
TORQUE (T)

Ns
N4 N3 N2 N1
SPEED

For illustration, refer to fig 4.24. When the rotor resistance is R1 and the load on the machine changes
from half-load to full-load, the speed of the motor decreases from N1 to N2. However, when some
resistance is added in the rotor circuit so that its value becomes R2 (i.e., R2 > R1), then the speed
changes from N3 to N4 when load on the motor changes from half-load to full-load. It is very clear that
N3 – N4 is larger than N1 – N2. Hence the machine operates at a poor regulation.
2. Speed Control by Controlling the supply voltage : Slip or speed of a motor can also be
changed by controlling the voltage fed to the motor. We have already seen that the torque
developed by the motor is directly proportional to the square of the supply voltage. If the supply
voltage is decreased, the torque developed by the motor decreases rapidly (T  V2) and to pick-
up the load slip increases or speed decreases.
For illustration, look at fig.4.25. At rated voltage and given load, the speed of the motor is N1. If the
supply voltage is reduced (say to 90%), the speed of the motor decreases to N2 to pick-up the given
load.
This method is never used for the speed control of three-phase large induction motors because the
voltage control devices are very costly and bulky. However, this method is usually employed with
single-phase induction motors e.g. ceiling fans etc.
 V= RATED VALUE

TORQUE (T)
LOAD
TORQUE

V1 = 0.9 V

Ns
O SPEED (N) N2 N1

3. Speed Control by Injecting voltage in the rotor circuit : The speed of an induction motor
can also be controlled by injecting a voltage at slip frequency directly into the rotor circuit. This
method was first of all introduced by K.H. Schrage of Sweeden and the motor in which this
method is employed is called Schrage motor. If the injected e.m.f. has a component directly
opposite to the rotor induced e.m.f., the motor speed decreases. On the other hand, if the
injected e.m.f. has a component in phase with the rotor induced e.m.f. the motor speed increases
and may rises beyond the synchronous speed.
Now a days, schrage motors are not preferred because of their heavy cost and bulky construction but
these are still employed in large printing presses like newspaper printing.

The frequency of the power supply is constant, therefore, to control the speed of an induction motor by
this method, the induction motor is connected to the alternator operating independently. To control the
speed, the frequency of the alternator is changed. This is a costly affair.
Recent improvements in the capabilities of controlled rectifiers (SCR) and continued decreases in the
cost of their manufacturing, it has made it possible to control the speed of induction motor by controlling
the supply frequency fed to the motor. By this method 5 to 10% of rated speed of induction motors can
be controlled. However, if the speed is to be controlled beyond this value, the motor has to be designed
accordingly.

By means of suitable switch, the stator winding connections can be changed in such a manner that the
number of stator poles are changed. This changes the actual speed of motor since actual speed of the
motor is approximately inversely proportional to the number of poles.
By suitable connections one winding can give two different speeds.
Suppose there are four coils per phase. If these are connected in such a way that they carry current in
same direction then it will form eight poles altogether as shown in fig. 4.26 (a). Now if the connections
are such that the alternate coils carry current in opposite directions, we get four poles altogether as
shown in fig. 4.26(b).
If more than two speeds are required. Two separate winding are housed in same slots and if each is
arranged to give two speeds then two windings can give four different speeds.

N S N S N S N S

(a) For eight - poles

NZ. S NZ. N NZ. S NZ. N

(b) For four-poles

In squirrel cage motors, the rotor poles are adjusted automatically. However, in wound type motors,
care has to be taken to change the rotor poles accordingly.

A method of speed control of induction motor involving two or more motors is known as cascade
method of speed control. The two machines are mechanically coupled with each other, one of them
must be a slip ring induction motor. Mostly both slip ring motors are used having transformation ratio
equal to unity. In this case supply is connected to the stator of one of the induction motor and the
induced e.m.f. of the rotor from slip rings is fed to the stator or rotor of the second induction motor.
If P1 and P2 are the number of poles of the two machines and f is the supply frequency, then the set can
given the following different speeds :
(i) When machine I works alone :
120 f
The synchronous speed =
P1
(ii) When machine II works alone ;
120 f
The synchronous speed =
P2
(iii) When machine I and II are connected in cumulative cascade i.e., the torque of the two
motors are in same direction ;
 120 f
The synchronous speed of the set =
P1  P2
(iv) When machine I and II are connected in differential cascade i.e., the torque of the
motors are in opposite direction ;
120 f
The synchronous speed of the set = P – P
1 2

The applications of squirrel cage induction motors and slip-ring (phase wound) induction motors are
given below :
1. Squirrel cage induction motors : These motors are mechanically robust and are operated
almost at constant speed. These motors operate at high power factor and have high over load
capacity. However, these motors have low starting torque. (i.e., these motors can not pick-
up heavy loads) and draw heavy current at start. On the bases of these characteristics, these
motors are best suited for :
(i) Printing machinery (ii) Flour mills
(iii) Saw mills (iv) Shaft drives of small industries
(v) Pumps (vi) Prime-movers with small generators etc.
2. Slip-ring (or phase-wound) induction motors : These motors have all the important
characteristics (advantage) of squirrel cage induction motors and at the same time have the
ability to pick-up heavy loads at start drawing smaller current from the mains. Accordingly
these motors are best suited for ;
(i) Rolling mills (ii) Lifts and hoists
(iii) Big flour mills (iv) Large pumps
(iv) Line shafts of heavy industries (vi) Prime-moves with medium and large generators.

The field produced in a single-phase induction motor can be explained by double revolving field
theory which is given below :–
This theory is based on the “Ferraris Principle” that pulsating field produced in single phase motor
can be resolved into two components of half the magnitude and rotating in opposite direction at the
same synchronous speed.
 Y S

m/2

  m Cos 90° 180°

O
X'  X 270° 360°

m/2

Y' S

(a) Phasor representation at an instant (b) Wave diagram

Thus the alternating flux which passes across the air gap of single phase induction motor at stand still
consists of combination of two fields of same strength which are revolving with same speed, one in
clockwise direction and the other in anticlockwise direction. The strength of each one of these fields
will be equal to one half of the maximum field strength of the actual alternating field as shown in fig.
4.27 (a).
Let m be the pulsating field which has two components each of magnitude m/2. Both are rotating at
the same angular speed s rad/sec but in opposite direction as shown in fig. 4.27 (a). The resultant of
the two fields is m cos. This shows that resultant field varies according to cosine of the angle . The
wave shape of the resultant field is shown in fig.4.27 (b).
Thus an alternating field can be represented by the two fields each of half the magnitude rotating at
same angular speed of s radians/sec but in opposite direction.

The two revolving fields will produce torques in opposite directions. Let the two revolving fields be
field No. 1 and field No. 2 revolving in clockwise and anticlockwise direction produces torque in
clockwise direction, whereas, the anticlockwise field produces torque in anticlockwise direction. The
clockwise torque is plotted as positive and anticlockwise as negative. At stand still, slip for both fields
is one. Synchronous speed in clockwise direction
will give condition of zero slip for field 1 but it will TORQUE DEVELOPED
BY FIELD-1
give slip = 2 for field No. 2. Similarly synchronous
speed in a counter clockwise direction will give 2 1
condition of zero slip for field 2 but slip = 2 for field
RESULTANT
No. 1. The resultant torque developed in the rotor is TORQUE
shown by the curve passing through zero position
as shown in fig. 4.28. Now if we look at the resultant
S=0
torque we see that the starting torque (torque at slip S=2 S=1
= 1) is zero. And except at starting there is always
some magnitude of resultant torque, which shows if
this type of motor once started in any direction it 2' 1'
will develop torque in that direction and rotor will TORQUE DEVELOPED
BY FIELD-2
pick-up the required speed.
The above analysis shows that single phase induction motor with single winding develops no starting
torque but if the rotor is rotated in any direction by some auxiliary means in will develop torque in
the same direction in which it has been rotated to start. So the problem is to find out the auxiliary
means to give the starting torque to the motor.

Various methods (means) are employed to obtain the starting torque in single-phase induction motors.
Accordingly they are classified as ;
1. Split phase motors 2. Shaded pole motors
3. A.C. Series motors or Commutator motors.

The outer frame and stator core of a split-phase motor is similar to the outer frame and stator core of a
3-phase induction motor. The starting and running windings are placed in the stator slots. Both the
windings are put in parallel as shown in fig. 4.29(a). The purpose is to get two different currents
sufficiently displaced from each other so that a revolving field is produced. The main winding which is
highly inductive is connected across the line in the usual manner. The auxiliary or starting winding has
a greater resistances and lesser reactance as compared to main winding.
The current in the starting winding Is lags the supply voltage by lesser angle s whereas the current in
the main winding Im being highly inductive lags the supply voltage by greater angle m as shown in
figure 4.29(b). The two currents have a phase difference of ° electrical. Thus, a revolving
MAIN
I Im WINDING

Is
ROTOR
O V
m s
1-PHASE V  Is
SUPPLY

Im
I
CENTRIFUGAL SWITCH
(a) Circuit diagram (b) Phasor diagram

field is set-up in the stator and a starting torque is developed in the rotor. Consequently rotor starts
rotating and picks up the speed. A centrifugal switch which is normally closed is incorporated in
series with the starting winding. When the motor attains a speed about 75% of synchronous speed,
the centrifugal switch is opened automatically with the help of centrifugal force and puts the starting
winding out of circuit. It is important that the centrifugal switch should open otherwise the auxiliary
winding being made of thin wire will be over heated and may damage.
Performance and characteristics : A typical torque
speed characteristics are shown in fig. 4.30, the 400

% FULL LOAD TORQUE

CENTRIFUGAL
starting torque is about twice the full load torque. SWITCH OPENS
The current at start is about 6 to 8 times. The 300
speed falls with increase in load by only about 5%
to 7% otherwise it is a constant speed motor. STARTING
200 RUNNING
Speed is governed by the relation.
120 f 100 Tt
NS = r.p.m.
P Ns
Actual speed is less than synchronous speed NS.
For the same weight its rating is about 60% to that 0 20 40 60 80 100
%SPEED
of the poly phase induction motor. It has lower
p.f. and lesser efficiency. P.f. is about 0.6 and
efficiency is also about 60%.
Applications : As starting torque is not so high so this machine is not used where large starting
torque is required. It is used for smaller sizes about 0.25 h.p. It is used in washing machines, fans,
blowers, wood working tools, grinders and various other low starting torque applications.
Reversal of direction of rotation : The direction of rotation of a 1-phase (split phase) induction
motor can be reversed by reversing (interchanging) the connections of either starting winding or
running winding.

It is also a split phase motor. In this motor, a capacitor is connected in series with the starting
winding. This is an improved form of the above said split phase motor. In these motors, the angular
displacement between IS and Im can be made nearly 90º and high starting torques can be obtained
since starting torque is directly proportional to sine of angle . The capacitor in the starting winding
may be connected permanently or temporarily. Accordingly, capacitor motors may be
1. Capacitor start motors. 2. Capacitor run motors.
3. Capacitor start and capacitor run motors.
1. Capacitor start motors : In the capacitor start induction motor capacitor C is of large
value such that the motor will give high starting torque. Capacitor employed is of short time
duty rating.
MAIN
I Im WINDING Is
Is O
s
ROTOR V
 m
1-PHASE
V
SUPPLY C
S
I

CENTRIFUGAL SWITCH Im

(a) Circuit diagram (a) Phasor diagram

Capacitor is of electrolytic type. Electrolytic capacitor C is connected in series with the starting winding
along with centrifugal switch S as shown in fig.4.31 500
(a). When the motor attains the speed of about 75%

% FULL LOAD TORQUE

of synchronous speed starting winding is cut-off. 400
The construction of the motor and winding is similar STARTING
to usual split phase motor. It is used where high 300 CENTRIFUGAL
starting torque is required such as refrigerators. SWITCH OPENS
200 RUNNING
Performance and characteristics : Speed is
almost constant with in 5% slip. This type of motor
100 Tf
develops high starting torque about 4 to 5 times
the full load torque. It draw low starting current. A Ns
typical torque speed curve is shown in fig.4.32. 0 20 40 60 80 100
%SPEED
The direction of rotation can be changed by
interchanging the connection of either starting or
running winding.
2. Capacitor run motors (fan motors) : In these motors, a paper capacitor is permanently
connected in the starting winding, as shown in fig. 4.33 (a). In this case, electrolytic
capacitor can not be used since

this type of capacitor is designed only for short time rating and hence can not be permanently connected
in the winding. Both main as well as starting winding is of equal rating.
Performance and characteristics. Starting torque is lower about 50 to 100% of full load torque.
Power factor is improved may be about unity. Efficiency is improved to about 75%. A typical
characteristics have been shown in fig. 4.33 (b). It is usually used in fans, room coolers, portable tools
and other domestic and commercial electrical appliances.
3. Capacitor start and capacitor run motors : In this case, two capacitors are used one for
starting purpose and other for running purpose as shown in fig. 4.34 (a). The capacitor used
for starting purpose CS is of electrolytic type and is disconnected from the supply when the
motor attains 75% of synchronous speed with the help of centrifugal switch S. Whereas, the
other capacitor CR which remains in the circuit of starting winding during running condition is
a paper capacitor. This type of motor gives best running and starting operation. Starting capacitor
CS which is of higher value than the value of running capacitor CR.
 MAIN

% FULL LOAD TORQUE

I I m WINDING 400

Is G
ROTOR 300 RTIN
STA
1-PHASE
SUPPLY V 200

Cs RUNNING
100
CR
Ns
CENTRIFUGAL SWITCH 0 20 40 60 80 100
(a) Circuit diagram % SPEED
(b) T-S characteristics of capacitor
start capacitor run motor

Performance and characteristics : Such motors operate as two phase motors giving best
performance and noiseless operation. Starting torque is high, starting current is low and give better
efficiency and higher p.f. The only disadvantage is high cost. A typical torque speed curve is shown
in fig.4.34 (b).

Shaded pole motor is constructed with salient poles in stator. Each pole has its own exciting winding as
shown in fig.4.35.(a). A 1/3rd portion of each pole core is surrounded by a copper strip
UNSHAPED STATOR SHADED
PORTION PORTION
1-PHASE
SUPPLY

m
POLE SHADING
WINDING BAND

ROTOR ROTOR
POLE WINDING

(a) Stator of shaded pole motor (b) Salient pole construction

of shaded pole motor

forming a closed loop called the shading band as shown in fig.4.35 (a) and (b). Rotor is usually squirrel
cage type.
When a single phase supply is given to the stator (exciting) winding, it produces alternating flux. When
the flux is increasing in the pole, a portion of the flux attempts to pass through the shaded portion of the
pole. This flux induces voltage and hence current in the copper ring, and by Lenz’s law the direction of
current is such that it opposes the causes i.e. increase of flux in shaded portion. Hence in the beginning,
the greater portion of flux passes through unshaded side of each pole and resultant lies on unshaded side
of the pole. When the flux reaches its maximum value, its rate of change is zero, thereby the e.m.f. and
hence current in the shading coil becomes zero. Flux is uniformly distributed over the pole phase and the
resultant field lies at the centre of the pole. After that the main flux tends to decrease, the current induced
in he shading coil now tends to increase the flux on the shaded portion of the pole and resultant lies on
the shaded portion of the pole as shown in fig.4.36.

% FULL LOAD TORQUE

200

150

SHADING 100
R BAND R R
a b a b 50
a b
Ns
0 20
0 c0 c0 c 40 60 80 100
% SPEED

Hence, a revolving field is set up which rotates from unshaded portion of the pole to the shaded
portion of the pole as marked by the arrow head in fig. 4.36. Thus, by electromagnetic induction, a
starting torque develops in the rotor and the rotor starts rotating. After that its rotor picks up the
speed.
Performance and characteristics : A typical speed torque characteristics is shown in fig. 4.37.
Starting torque is very small about 50% of full load torque. Efficiency is low because of continuous
power loss in shading coil. These motors are used for small fans, electric clocks, gramophones etc.
Its direction of rotation depends upon the position of the shading coil, i.e., which portion of the pole is
wrapped with shading coil. The direction of rotation is from unshaded portion of the pole to the shaded
portion. Its direction of rotation cannot be reversed unless the position of the poles is reversed.

When a 1-phase a.c. supply is given to a d.c. series motor, a unidirectional torque is developed in it. In
fact, during positive half cycle, same current flows in the series field winding and armature

SERIES FIELD
RSE WINDING E
IXa
Ia I
V
V 1-PHASE
E Ra A.C. SUPPLY IRa
IXs

COMPENSATING
WINDING
IRs I
winding which develops a torque in one direction (say clockwise). During the negative half cycle,
current flowing through series field winding is reversed and at the same time current flowing through
the armature also reverses, therefore, torque is developed in the same direction (i.e. clockwise direction).
Thus, a continuous rotation is obtained.
Mathematically we know
Torque in D.C. series motors, T se Ia where se is the series field winding flux and Ia is the armature
current.
Now when A.C. supply is given to series motor T se Ia for positive half cycle. For negative half cycle
T  (– se) (– Ia)  se Ia. Thus same torque is produced during positive and negative half cycle.
However, some modifications are necessary in a d.c. series motor for its satisfactory operation on a.c.
which are given below :
(1) The iron structure of field and yoke are laminated.
(2) The series field winding is so designed that it will produce relatively small m.m.f as compared to
d.c. This is done by reducing the number of turns. The smaller field m.m.f would result in
reduced air gap flux. Therefore, in order to develop the necessary torque the number of armature
conductors have to be increased proportionately.
(3) Increase in armature conductors would result in increased inductive reactance of the armature
so the net inductive reactance may not be reduced. In order to over come this difficulty
compensating winding is connected in series with armature as shown in fig.4.38. This completely
neutralises the inductive effect of the armature winding.
(4) The reluctance of the magnetic circuit is reduced to have high flux with reduced m.m.f. So
magnetic material used should be of high permeability and air gap should be small.
As shown in the vector diagram (fig. 4.39) large voltage drop occurs in resistance and reactance of the
armature and field winding. Voltage left for operation is only E.
Where E  V  ( I R S  I X S  I R a  I X a ) FOR D.C.
SERIES MOTOR
Where IR S  voltage drop in series winding resistance
SPEED

FOR A.C.
IX S  voltage drop in series winding reactance SERIES MOTOR

IR a  voltage drop in armature resistance

IX a  voltage drop in armature reactance.
Performance and characteristics : The speed-torque
characteristic for d.c. and a.c. series motors are shown in
fig.4.40. The torque varies as square of the current and the speed TORQUE

varies inversely proportional to the current approximately. The

efficiency will not be good as that of corresponding d.c. machine
because of greater eddy current loss and effects of p.f.
These motors have their wide applications where high speed (20000 r.p.m.) is required e.g. mixer
grinders, blowers, hair dryers etc.

A motor which can be operated on ac as well as on dc supply at the rated voltage is called universal
motor.
Basically, universal motor is an ac series motor. It is just an improved from of a dc series motor. The
core size of an universal motor is more than the core size of a dc series motor of the same rating.

The motor has two main parts namely.

1. Stator and 2. Rotor.
1. Stator. It is the stationary part of the motor. It consists of magnetic frame (or yoke), pole core
and pole shoe and field or exciting winding as shown in fig. 4.41.

YOKE POLE CORE &

POLE SHOE
+
COMMUTATOR ARMATURE
COMMUTATOR
ARMATURE
V
SUPPLY

SHAFT
–
ARMATURE WINDING

The magnetic frame, pole core and pole shoe are made of silicon steel stampings. The stampings are
insulated from each other by varnish layer. The hysteresis losses are very small in silicon steel and eddy
current losses are reduced due to stampings. The field winding made of enameled copper is wound
around the poles to produce the required flux..
2. Rotor. It is the rotating part of the motor. It consists of shaft, armature, armature winding and
commutator, as shown in fig.4.42.
Shaft is a part of rotor which transfers mechanical power or energy to the load. It is made-up of mild
steel. Armature is made-up of stampings of silicon steel material since it is to carry the magnetic field. It
is keyed to the shaft. Slots are cut at its outer periphery to accommodate armature winding. The ends of
armature winding are braced to the commutator segments. Commutator is made-up of wedge shaped
segments forming a ring. The wedges are insulated from each other by an insulating layer of micanite.
The commutator is also keyed to the shaft.
Carbon brushes are pressed over the commutator surface to deliver current to the machine.

When a current carrying conductor is placed in the magnetic field, a force is exerted on it and
torque develops. In other words, when the rotor field produced by the rotor current carrying conductors,
tries to come in line with the main field, torque develops and rotor rotates.
 N Fm 
T
SERIES FIELD S

Fr
Fr
ARMATURE T MNA


S N
Fm

Fig.4.43: Circuit diagram Fig.4.44: Torque developed Fig.4.45: Torque developed

during positive half cycle during negative half cycle

The armature winding and stator field winding both are connected in series, as shown in fig. 4.43.
When 1-phase, ac supply is given to the motor, current flows through the field winding and armature
winding. The field winding sets up BRUSH
END SPRING ARM
main stator field F m , and the HOUSING
armature winding sets up rotor field
Fr as shown in fig.4.44. Rotor field BRUSH

Fr tries to align itself with the main BRUSH HOLDER

field F m and an anticlockwise
torque in produced. COMMUTATOR

During negative half cycle, the ARMATURE

direction of flow of current in the

field winding as well as in the
armature winding is reversed, as
shown in fig.4.45. The two
BRUSH ASSEMBLY
windings set up their fields in the MAGNETIC
FRAME EYE BOLT
direction as shown in fig. 4.45,
again anticlockwise torque is
produced in the rotor. Thus, POLE CORE POLE SHOE
(Laminated)
unidirectional torque is produced in
the motor.
To obtain continuous torque,
commutator reverses the direction
FIELD COIL
of flow of current in the coil or
conductors which cross the BOLT TO
FIX POLES
magnetic neutral axis (MNA)
 3
Applications : In large sizes of HP, these are used in vacuum cleaners and industrial sewing
4
1
machines. In smaller sizes of HP or less, these are used in electric hand drills, mixers, can
4
openers, blenders, electric shavers, hair dryers etc.

A machine which converts mechanical power into d.c. electrical power is called a d.c. generator. The
same machine when used to convert d.c. electrical power into mechanical power is known as a d.c.
motor. From construction point of view there is no difference between a d.c. generator and motor.
The d.c. motors are very useful where wide range of speeds and good speed regulation is required
such as electric fraction.

The complete assembly of various parts in a scattered form of a d.c. machine is shown in fig.4.46. The
essential parts of a d.c. machine are described below :
1. Magnetic frame or Yoke :
The outer cylindrical frame to which main poles and inter poles are fixed and by means of
which the machine is fixed to the foundation is called the yoke. It serves two purposes :
(i) It provides mechanical protection to the inner parts of the machine.
(ii) It provides a low reluctance path for the magnetic flux.
The yoke is made of cast iron for smaller machines and for larger machines, it is made of cast steel or
fabricated rolled steel since these materials have better magnetic properties as compared to cast iron.
2. Pole core and pole shoes : The pole core and pole shoes are fixed to the magnetic frame or
yoke by bolts. They serve the following purposes :
(i) They support the field or exciting coils.
(ii) They spread out the magnetic flux over the armature periphery more uniformly.
(iii) Since pole shoes have larger X-section, the reluctance of magnetic path is reduced.
Usually, the pole core and pole shoes are made of thin cast steel or wrought iron laminations which are
riveted together under hydraulic pressure as shown in fig.4.47 (a).
3. Field or Exciting coils : Enamelled copper wire is used for the construction of field or exciting
coils. The coils are wound on the former [see fig 4.47(b)] and then placed around the pole core
as shown in fig 4.47(a). When direct current is passed through the field winding, it magnetises
the poles which produce the required flux. The field coils of all the poles are connected in series
in such a way that when current flows through them, the adjacent poles attain opposite polarity
as shown if fig. 4.48.
ARMATURE CORE
N

SLOTS
ARMATURE
STEMPINGS

S S

N MAGNETIC
FRAME
+ –

4. Armature core : It is cylindrical is shape and keyed to the rotating shaft. At the outer
periphery slots are cut, as shown in fig.4.49, which accommodate the armature winding.
The armature core serves the following purposes :
(i) It houses the conductors in the slots. (ii) It provides an easy path for magnetic flux.
Since armature is a rotating part of the machine, reversal of flux takes place in the core, hence
hysteresis losses are produced. To minimise these losses silicon steel material is used for its
construction. The rotating armature cuts across the magnetic field which induces an e.m.f in it.
This e.m.f. circulates eddy currents which results in eddy current loss in it. To reduce these losses,
armature core is laminated, in other words we can say that about 0.3 to 0.5 mm thick stampings are
used for its construction. Each lamination or stamping is insulated from the other by varnish layer
(see fig.4.49).
5. Armature winding : The insulated conductors housed in the armature slots are suitably
connected. This is known as armature winding. The armature winding is the heart of a d.c.
machine. It is a place where conversion of power takes place i.e. in case of generator, mechanical
power is converted into electrical power and in case of motor, electrical power is converted
into mechanical power. On the basis of connections, there are two types of armature windings
named (i) Lap winding and (ii) Wave winding.
 (i) Lap winding : In lap winding, the conductors are connected in such a way that number of
parallel paths are equal to the number of poles. Thus, if machine has P poles and Z armature
conductors, then there will be P parallel, paths, each path will have Z/P conductors in
series. In this case, the number of brushes is equal to the number parallel paths. Out of
which half the brushes are positive and the remaining (half) are negative.
(ii) Wave winding : In wave winding, the conductors are so connected that they are divided into
two parallel paths irrespective of the number of poles of the machine. Thus, if machine has
Z armature conductors, there will be only two parallel paths each having Z/2 conductors in
series. In this case, the number of brushes is equal to two i.e. number of parallel paths.
6. Commutator : It is the most important part of a d.c machine and serves the following purposes :-
(i) It connects the rotating
armature conductors to COPPER SEGMENT
MICA INSULATION RISER
the stationary external
circuit through brushes. END RING
ADJUSTING NUT
(ii) It converts the alternating SHAFT
METAL SLEEVE
current induced in the
armature conductors into
unidirectional current in
the external load circuit
in generator action,
whereas, it converts the
alternating torque into
unidirectional(continuous)
torque produced in the armature in motor action.
The commutator is of cylindrical shape and is made up of wedge-shaped hard drawn copper segments.
The segments are insulated from each other by a thin sheet of mica. The segments are held together by
means of two V-shaped rings that fit into the V-grooves cut into the segments. Each armature coil is
connected to the commutator segment through riser. The sectional view of the commutator assembly is
shown in fig. 4.50
7. Brushes : The brushes are pressed upon the commutator and form the connecting link between
the armature winding and the external circuit. They are usually made of high grade carbon
because carbon is conducting material and at the same time in powdered form provides imbricating
effect on the commutator surface. The brushes are held in particular position around the
commutator by brush holders and rocker.
8. Brush rocker : It holds the spindles of the brush holders. It is fitted on to the stationary frame
of the machine with nut and bolts. By adjusting its position, the position of the brushes over the
commulator can be adjusted to minimize the sparking at the brushes.
9. End housings : End housings are attached to the ends of the main frame and support bearings.
The front housing supports the bearing and the brush assemblies whereas the rear housing
usually supports the bearing only.
10. Bearings : The ball or roller bearings are fitted in the end housings. The function of the
bearings is to reduce friction between the rotating and stationary parts of the machine. Mostly
high carbon steel is used for the construction of bearings as it is very hard material.
 11. Shaft : The shaft is made of mild steel with a maximum breaking strength. The shaft is used to
transfer mechanical power from or to the machine. The rotating parts like armature core,
commutator, cooling fan etc. are keyed to the shaft.

The resistance between the armature terminals is called armature resistance. It is generally represented
by Ra The value of armature resistance is usually quite small (less than one ohm). Armature resistance
depends upon the following factors :
(i) Length, area of cross-section and material of armature winding.
(ii) Type of armature winding i.e lap or wave winding. This will show the manner in which the
conductors (i.e. their series-parallel combination) are connected.

The operation of a d.c motor is based on the principle that when a current carrying conductor is placed
in a magnetic field, a mechanical force is experienced by it. The direction of this force is determined by
Fleming’s Left Hand Rule and its magnitude is given by the relation:
F = Bil newton

(a) Field produced (b) Field produced (c) Resultant field

by main poles by rotor conductors and its effect

For simplicity, consider only one coil of the armature placed in the magnetic field produced by a bipolar
machine [see fig 4.51(a)]. When d.c. supply is connected to the coil, current flows through it
which sets up its own field as shown in fig 4.51 (b). By the interaction of the two fields (i.e. field
produced by the main poles and the coil), a resultant field is set up as shown in fig 4.51 (c). The
tendency of this is to come to its original position i.e. in straight line due to which force is exerted on the
two coil sides and torque develops which rotates the coil.
MNA
MNA


Fr
Fr +
 +
N S + S
+
N
Fm Fm
+ + +
++
+
+
Alternately, it can be said that the main poles produce a field Fm. Its direction is marked in fig 4.52.
When current is supplied to the coil (armature conductors), it produces its own field marked as Fr. This
field tries to come in line with the main field and an electromagnetic torque develops in clockwise
direction as marked in fig.4.52.
In actual machine, a large number of conductors are placed on the armature. All the conductors, placed
under the influence of one pole (say North pole) carry the current in one direction (outward). Whereas,
the other conductors placed under the influence of other pole i.e. south pole, carry the current in
opposite direction as shown in fig 4.53. A resultant rotor field is produced. Its direction is marked by the
arrow-head Fr. This rotor field Fr tries to come in line with the main field Fm and torque (Te) developes.
Thus, rotor rotates.
It can be seen that to obtain a continuous torque, the direction of flow of current in each conductor or
coil side must be reversed when it crosses the magnetic neutral axis (MNA). The is achieved with the
help of a commutator.

The function of a commutator in d.c. motor is to reverse the direction of flow of current in each
armature conductor when it crosses the M.N.A. to obtain continuous torque.

It has been seen that when current is supplied to the armature conductors placed in the main magnetic
field, torque develops and armature rotates, the armature conductors cut across the magnetic field and
an e.m.f. is induced in these conductors. The direction of this induced e.m.f. in the armature conductors
is determined by Fleming’s Right Hand Rule. It is marked in fig.4.54 (b).
MNA

Fr  Fr IL +
+ +
+i + Ia
e
+ +
N S N S
Eb Ra
Fm Fm V
+ + + + +
+
+ + + +
+ +
+ +

–
(a) Current supplied by source (b) EMF produced due to rotation (back emf)

It can be seen that the direction of this induced e.m.f. is opposite to the applied voltage. That is why this
induced e.m.f. is called back e.m.f. (Eb). The magnitude of this induced e.m.f. is given by the relation;
Eb = PZN/60A
A simple conventional circuit diagram of the machine working as motor is shown in fig.4.55. In this
case, the supply voltage is always greater than the induced or back e.m.f. (i.e V > Eb). Therefore,
current is always supplied to the motor from the mains and the relation among the various quantities
will be ; Eb = V – Ia Ra.
 The current flowing through the armature is given by the relation :
V  Eb
Ia  Ra
When mechanical load applied on the motor increases, its speed decreases which reduces the value of
Eb. As a result the value (V – Eb) increases which consequently increases Ia. Hence, motor draws
extra current from the mains.
Thus, the back emf regulates the input power as per the load.

On the basis of the connections of armature and their field winding, d.c. motors can be classified as ;
1. Separately excited d.c motors : The conventional diagram of a separately excited d.c. motor
is shown fig 4.56. Its voltage equation will be;
Eb = V – Ia Ra – 2b
2. Self excited d.c. motors : These motors can be further classified as ;
(i) Shunt motors : Their conventional diagram is shown in fig 4.57.
Important relations : Ish = V/Rsh ; Ia = IL – Ish

Eb = V – Ia Ra – 2b

If IL Ish IL +
+
Z
Ia Ia
SHUNT FIELD

A A
Rh
Eb Ra V Eb Ra V
+ Rf
B AA
– AA
ZZ
– –

(ii) Series motor : Its conventional diagram is shown in fig.4.58.

Important relations : IL = Ia = Ise ; Eb = V – Ia (Ra + Rse) – 2b
(iii) Compound motor : Its conventional diagram is shown in fig.4.59.
Eb = V – Ia (Ra + Rse) – 2b
In all the above voltage equations, the brush voltage drop vb is some times neglected since its value is
very small.
 Y YY + Ish IL +
IL YY
Ia Z
A Y Ia
Eb Ra A
V V
Eb Ra
AA Rsh
AA
ZZ
– –

The performance of a d.c. motor can be easily judge from its characteristic curves, known as motor
characteristics. The characteristics of a motor are those curves which show relation between the two
quantities. On the basis of these quantities, the following characteristics can be obtained :
1. Speed and Armature current i.e. N – I a Characteristics : It is the curve drawn between
speed N and armature current Ia. It is also known as speed characteristics.
2. Torque and Armature current i.e. T – Ia Characteristics : It is the curve drawn between
torque developed in the armature T and armature current Ia. It is also known as electrical
characteristic.
3. Speed and Torque i.e. N – T characteristics : It is the curve drawn between speed N and
torque developed in the armature T. It is also known as mechanical characteristics.
The following important relations must be kept in mind while discussing the motor characteristics:
E
Eb N  or N  b and T Ia


The conventional diagram of this motor is shown in fig 4.60. In these motors, the field current If = V/
Rf remains constant since the supply voltage V is constant. Hence, the flux in these motors is practically
constant.
1. N – Ia characteristics
E
We know that, N  b Since flux is constant ; N Eb or N V – Ia Ra

If the armature drop (Ia Ra) is negligible, the speed of the motor will remain constant for all values of
load as shown by the dotted line AB in fig 4.61. But strictly speaking, as the armature current increases
due to the increase of load, armature drop Ia Ra increases and speed of the motor decreases slightly as
shown by the straight line A C in fig 4.61 (neglecting armature reaction). Moreover, the characteristic
curve does not start from a point of zero armature current because a small current, no-load armature
current Ia0, is necessary to maintain rotation of the motor at no load.
 If IL +
A B
Ia N C
A
Rh
Eb Ra V
+ Rf
B AA
– E
OP LIN
Ia Ra DR
– O Iao Ia

Since there is no appreciable change in the speed of a separately excited dc motor from no load to full
load that is why it is considered to be a constant speed motor. This motor is best suited where almost
constant speed is required and the load may be thrown off totally and suddenly.
2. T – la Characteristics
We know that, T  la
Since flux is constant (independent to the voltage supplied to the armature), T  la
Hence, the electrical characteristic (i.e. T – Ia) is a straight line passing through the origin as shown
in fig. 4.62. It is clear from the characteristic curve that a large armature current is required at the
start if machine is on heavy load. Hence, these motors are not started with heavy loads.

T N

O la O T

3. N – T Characteristics
The N – T characteristic is derived from the first two characteristics. When load torque increases,
armature current Ia increases but speed decreases slightly. Thus with the increase in load or torque, the
speed decreases slightly as shown in fig 4.63.

The most common and accurate speed control method of separately excited d.c. motors is Ward-
Leonard system as explained below :
Ward-Leonard System : This system is used to supply variable voltage to the motor. As shown in fig.
4.63, a d.c. generator G is mechanically coupled with a prime mover PM which rotates the generator at
constant speed. The field winding of the d.c. generator is connected to a constant voltage d.c. supply
line through a field regulator and reversing switch. The d.c. motor M is fed from the generator G and its
field winding is connected directly to a constant d.c. supply line.
 +
D.C. SUPPLY LINE
–
FIELD
REGULATOR
REVERSING
SWITCH
MOTOR
FIELD
WINDING
PRIME MOVER + +
P.M. G V M

– –

The voltage of the generator fed to the motor, can be varied from zero to its maximum value by
means of its field regulator.
By reversing the direction of the field current by means of the reversing switch, the polarity of the
generated voltage can be reversed and hence the direction of rotation of motor M. Hence, by this
method, the speed and direction of rotation both can be controlled very accurately.
The capital investment in this system is very high as two extra machines (a generator and a prime
mover) are required. This system of speed control is best suited where almost unlimited speed
control in either direction of rotation is required e.g. in steel rolling mills, paper industry, elevators,
cranes, diesel-electric propulsion of ships etc.

The speed regulation of a d.c. motor is defined as the change in speed from full load to no load
and is expressed as a percentage of the full load speed.

N.L.speed – F.L.speed N0  N
 % Speed regulation = ×100 =  100
F.L.speed N

A synchronous machine is an a.c. machine whose satisfactory operation depends upon the maintenance
of the following relationship :

120 f PN S
NS = or f =
P 120
Where NS is the synchronous sped in r.p.m. ; f is the supply frequency and P is the number of poles
of the machine.
When connected to an electric power system, a synchronous machine always maintains this
relationship. If a synchronous machine working as a motor fails to maintain this average speed (NS),
the machine will not develop sufficient torque to maintain its rotation and will stop. Then the motor
is said to be pulled out of step.
In case, the synchronous machine is operating as a generator, it has to run at a fixed speed called
synchronous speed to generate power at a particular frequency since all the electrical equipment and
machines are designed to operate at this frequency. In India the value of power frequency is 50 Hz.

A synchronous machine is just an electro-mechanical transducer which converts mechanical energy

into electrical energy or vice-versa. The fundamental phenomenon which make these conversions possible
are :
(i) the law of electro-magnetic induction and (ii) law of interaction.
(ii) Law of electromagnetic induction : This relates to the production of e.m.f., i.e. e.m.f. is
induced in a conductor whenever it cuts across the magnetic field (see fig. 4.65). This is
called Faraday’s first law of electromagnetic induction.

 M T

e i
N + S N S
i

M F

(iii) Law of interaction : This law relates to the phenomenon of production of force. or torque i.e.
whenever a current carrying conductor is placed in the magnetic field, by the interaction of
the magnetic fields produced by the current carrying conductor and the main field, force is
exerted on the conductor and torque is developed (see fig.4.66).

When a conductor or coil cuts across the magnetic field an e.m.f. is induced in it by the phenomenon
called electromagnetic induction. This can be achieved either by rotating a coil in the stationary
magnetic field or by keeping the coil stationary and rotating the magnetic field. (The magnetic field
can be rotated by placing the field winding on the rotating part of the machine).
 a1 + a1
+ N + N 
S
 a2
+
a2 N S  +
a1  a +
1
N
+ S + S
a2 a2

(a) Coil rotating in (b) Coil rotating in (c) Magnetic field rotating (d) Magnetic field rotating
magnetic field at t1 magnetic field at t2 in a Coil at t1 in a Coil at t2

0 t1 t2 360°


(e) Sinusoidal wave

For illustration see fig. 4.67 (a) and (b), two positions of a coil rotating in a stationary magnetic
field is shown. Whereas, in fig. 4.67 (c) and (d), two positions of a rotating electro-magnet in a
coil placed on stationary armature is shown. At first instant, the e.m.f. induced in the coil is zero
since flux cut by the coil is zero. However, at second instant, the e.m.f. induced in the coil is
maximum (say positive). The two instants t1 and t2 are marked on the wave diagram shown in
fig. 4.67 (e). In one revolution the induced e.m.f. completes one cycle and its wave shape is
shown in fig. 4.67 (e).

In fig. 4.68, a machine is shown having P number of poles on the rotor revolving at a speed at Ns r.p.m.
When a conductor passes through a pair of poles one cycle of e.m.f. is induced in it.
P CYCLE
 No. of cycle made per revolution =
2
Ns
No. of revolutions made per second =
60 +

 No. of cycles made per second N S


= No. of cycles/revolution × No. of revolutions/s ROTOR

S N
P Ns PNs
f = ×  cycles/s or Hz
2 60 120
Only in small synchronous machines the field system is placed on stator and armature winding on
rotor, but in larger machines, the field winding is placed on the rotor and armature winding is placed
on the stator, as shown in fig.4.69. The rotating field and stationary armature system is preferred
over stationary field and rotating armature system.
The important parts of a synchronous machine are given below :
1. Stator 2. Rotor 3. Miscellaneous
1. Stator : The outer stationary part of the machine is called stator, it has the following
important parts :
(i) Stator frame : It is the outer body of the machine made of cast iron and it protects the
inner parts of the machine. It can be also made of any other strong material since it is not
to carry the magnetic field. Cast iron is used only because of its high mechanical strength.

Air duct for

coolng
Laminated
stator core
N Outer
frame
S

Laminated
S

pole shoe

Field winding
N
N

S
Path of mean
magnetic flux

(ii) Stator Core : The stator core is made of silicon steel material. It is made from number of
stamping which are insulated from each other. Its function is to provided an easy path for
the magnetic lines of force and accommodate the stator winding.
(iii) Stator Winding : Slots are cut on the inner periphery of the stator core in which 3-phase
or 1-phase winding is placed. Enameled copper is used as winding material.
2. Rotor : The rotating part of the machine is called rotor. From construction point of view,
there are two types of rotors named as
(i) Salient pole type rotor ; (ii) Non-salient pole type rotor.
 (b) Pole with a
Salient damping winding
Poles

Slip
Ring

(a) Salient pole type rotor

(c) Field winding

(i) Salient pole type rotor : In this case, projected poles are provided on the rotor. Salient
pole type construction is suited for medium and low speeds and are usually employed at
hydro-electric and diesel power plants as synchronous generators. Since the speed of these
machines (generators) is quite low, to obtain the required frequency, the machines have
large number of poles as shown in fig 4.69 and 4.60 To accommodate such a large number
of poles, these machines have larger diameter and small length. For a speed of 200 r.p.m.
(alternators coupled with water turbines) the diameter of the machines is as large as 14
metre and length is only 1 metre. The salient pole type rotor has the following important
parts
(a) Spider : Spider is made of cast iron to provide an easy path for the magnetic flux.
It is keyed to the shaft and at the outer surface, pole core and pole-shoe are keyed
to it (see fig. 4.70).
(b) Pole core and pole shoe : It is made of laminated sheet material [see fig 4.70 (b)].
Pole core provides least reluctance path for the magnetic field and pole shoe distributes
the field over the whole periphery uniformly to produce sinusoidal wave form of the
generated e.m.f.
(c) Field winding or Exciting winding : Field winding is wound on the former [see fig.
4.70 (c)] and then placed around the pole core. D.C. supply is given to it through slip
rings. When direct current flows through the field winding, it produces the required
magnetic field.
(d) Damper winding : At the outer most periphery, holes are provided in which copper
bars are inserted and short-circuited at both the sides by rings forming damper
winding.
 (ii) Non-salient pole type rotor : In this case, there are no projected poles but the poles are
formed by the current flowing through the rotor (exciting) winding. Non-salient pole type
construction is suited for the high speeds. The steam turbines rotate at a high speed (3000
r.p.m.). When these turbines are used as prime-mover for this machine working as a
generator, a small number of poles are required for given frequency. Hence, these machines
have smaller diameter and larger length. Non salient pole type rotors have the following
parts :
Rotor
Outer frame
Stator core
Stator slots Slip rings

Rotor
slots
Pole

Field winding

(a) Rotor core : Rotor core is made of silicon steel stampings. It is keyed to the shaft.
At the outer periphery slots are cut in which exciting coils are placed. It provides
an easy path to the magnetic flux.
(b) Rotor winding or Exciting winding : It is placed in rotor slots and current is passed
through the winding in such a way that poles are formed according to the requirement
(see fig.4.72).
3. Miscellaneous Part : The following are few important miscellaneous parts ;
(a) Brushes : Brushes are made of carbon and these just slip over the slip rings. D.C.
supply is given to the brushes. From brushes current flows to the slip rings and then
to the exciting winding.
(b) Bearings : Bearings are provided between the shaft and outer stationary body to reduce
the friction. The material used for their construction is high carbon steel.
(c) Shaft : Shaft is made of mild steel. Mechanical power is taken or given to the
machine through shaft.

Following are the important advantages of rotating field system over stationary field system :
 (i) The armature winding is more complex than the field winding. Therefore, it is easy to place
armature winding on stationary structure.
(ii) In the modern alternators (synchronous generators), high voltage is generated, therefore,
heavy insulation is provided and it is easy to insulate the high voltage winding when it is placed
on stationary structure.
(iii) The size of the armature conductors is much more to carry heavy current, therefore, high
centrifugal stresses are developed. Thus, it is preferred to place them on stationary structure.
(iv) The size of slip rings depends upon the magnitude of flow of current, therefore, it is easy to
deliver small current for excitation, through slip rings of smaller size when rotating field
system is used.
(v) It is easier to build and properly balance high speed rotors when they carry the lighter field
system.
(vi) The weight of rotor is small when field system is provided on rotor and as such friction losses
are produced.
(vii) Better cooling system can be provided when the armature is kept stationary.

Only small a.c. machines employed in household applications are single-phase machines. The large a.c.
machines are usually three-phase machines. The major application of sychronous machines is as a
generator employed at the generating stations.
At all the generating stations, three-phase synchronous generators are invariably employed because of
the following reasons :
(i) For the same size of frame and material, three-phase machines have nearly 1.5 times and
output to that of single-phase machines.
(ii) Power can be transmitted and distributed more economically when it is in the form of three-
phase than when it is in the form of single-phase. Therefore, 3-phase synchronous generators
are employed for generation of electrical power.
(iii) In the industries, for power conversion, three-phase induction motors are employed invariably
since they are robust, more efficient, self starting, operate at high power factor and very
cheap in cost. Three-phase power is required for their operation, therefore, it is preferred
to generate (3-phase synchronous generators), transmit and distribute electrical power
adopting 3-phase system.

Let P = No. of poles ;  = Flux per pole in webers ;

N = Speed in r.p.m. ; f = frequency in Hz ;
Z ph = No. of conductors connected in series per phase
T ph = No. of turns connected in series per phase
*Kc = Coil span factor ; **Kd = Distribution factor
Flux cut by each conductor during one revolution = P  weber
 60
Time take to complete one revolution = second
N
P P N
Average e.m.f. induced per conductor = 
60 / N 60
Average e.m.f. induced per phase,

P N
× Z ph 
P N FG T 
Z ph IJ
=
60 60
× 2 Tph
H ph
2 K
PN
= 4 ×  × Tph × = 4  f Tph
120
R.M.S. values of e.m.f. induced per phase,
E ph = Average value × form factor
E ph = 4  f Tph × 1·11 = 4·44  f Tph volt
Taking into consideration the coil span factor (KC) and distribution factor (Kd) of the winding.
Actual e.m.f. induced per phase
E ph = 4·44 Kc Kd  f Tph volt
Example 4.12 : A three-phase 50 Hz, synchronous generator runs at 250 r.p.m. Find the number of
poles of the machine ? What type of prime-mover would you expect for this machine ?
Solution : Frequency, f = 50 Hz
120 f 120  50
Speed, Ns = 250 r.p.m.; Then P =  = 24 (Ans.)
Ns 250
Since the speed of the synchronous generator is very low the prime-mover would be a water
turbine (hydraulic-turbine). For such a large number of poles the machine would be a salient-pole
type.
* Coil span factor (Kc)
The ratio of induced e.m.f. in a coil when the winding is short pitched to the induced e.m.f. in the same coil when it is
full pitched is called a coil span factor or pitch factor or chorded factor. It is generally denoted by Kc and its value is always
less than unity.
2 e cos  / 2
 Coil span factor, Kc =  cos  / 2 where  is the angle through which the coil is short pitched.
2e
** Distribution factor (Kd)
The ratio of induced e.m.f. in the coil group when the winding is distributed in number of slots to the induced e.m.f.
in the coil group when the winding is concentrated in one slot is called a distribution factor or breadth factor. It is generally
denoted by Kd and its value is always less than unity.
m
sin
2
 Distrubution factor, Kd =  where, m = No. of slots per pole per phase and
m sin
2
a = 180°/No. of slots per pole i.e. slot pitch.
Example 4.13. Calculate the no-load terminal voltage of a 3-phase, 6-pole, star connected alternator
running at 1000 r.p.m. having following data : sinusoidally distributed flux per pole = 60 m Wb ;
Total No. of armature slots = 60 ; No. of conductors per slot = 10 ; Distribution factor ; Kd = 0·96.
Assume full pitch windings.
Solution : For full pitch winding ; Coil span factor, Kc = 1
Distribution factor is given, therefore, it is not to be calculated.
60  10
No. of turns/phase, T ph =  100
23

PNS 6  1000
Supply frequency, f =   50 Hz
120 120
E.M.F. induced per phase, Eph = 4·44 Kc Kd f  Tph
= 4·44 × 1 × 0·96 × 50 × 60 × 10–3 × 100 = 1278.7V
Since the alternator is star connected ;
No load terminal voltage, EL = 3 EPh  3  1278.7 = 2215 V (Ans.)
Example 4.14 : Calculate the no-load terminal voltage of a 3-phase, 12-pole, star connected
alternator running at 500 r.p.m. having following data :
Sinusoidally distributed flux per pole = 55 m Wb
Total No. of armature slots = 72
Number of conductors/slot = 8
Distribution factor = 0·96
Assume full pitch windings.
Solution : No. of poles, P = 12 ; Speed, Ns = 500 rpm
–3
Flux,  = 55 × 10 Wb ; No. of slots = 72
No. of conductors/slot = 8 ; Distribution factor, Kd = 0·96
For full pitch winding,
Coil span factor, Kc = 1
Distribution factor is given, therefore, it is not to be calculated
72  8
No. of turns/phase, Tph =  96
23

PN S 12  500
Supply frequency, f =   50 Hz
120 120
E.M.F. induced per phase, E ph = 4·44 K c Kd f  Tph
= 4·44 × 1 × 0·96 × 50 × 55 × 10–3 × 96 = 1125.3 V
Since the alternator is star connected ;
No load terminal voltage, EL = 3 E ph = 3  1125.3 = 1949 V (Ans.)
ELECTRICAL MACHINES 273

1. A three-phase 50 Hz, synchronous generator runs at 187·5 r.p.m. Find the number of poles of
the machine ? What type of prime-mover would you expect for this machine ? (Ans, 32)
2. Calculate the no-load terminal voltage of a 3-phase, 4-pole, star connected alternator running
at 1500 r.p.m. having following data : sinusoidally distributed flux per pole = 66 m Wb ; Total
No. of armature slots = 72 ; No. of conductors per slot = 10 ; Distribution factor ; Kd = 0·96.
Assume full pitch windings. (Ans,2924V)
3. Calculate the no-load terminal voltage of a 3-phase, 8-pole, star connected alternator running
at 750 r.p.m. having following data :
Sinusoidally distributed flux per pole = 55 m Wb
Total No. of armature slots = 72
Number of conductors/slot = 10
Distribution factor = 0·96
Assume full pitch windings. (Ans, 2436·3 V)

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1. Three-phase induction motor : A machine that converts 3-phase a.c. electric, power into
mech. power by using an electromagnetic induction phenomenon is called a 3-phase induction
motor.
2. Types of induction motors : According to the construction of rotor there are two types of
induction motors namely squirrel cage I.M. and phase-wound I.M.
 3. Production of revolving field : When a 3-phase supply is given to a 3-phase wound stator of
an induction motor, a resultant field of magnitude 1·5 m is step-up which revolves in space
at a constant speed called synchronous speed Ns (Ns = 120f/P).
4. Working principle : At start, stationary rotor conductors cut across the revolving magnetic
field and an e.m.f. is induced in them by the electromagnetic induction phenomenon. Current
flows through the rotor conductors as they are short circuited and produce rotor field. By the
interaction of rotor and stator magnetic field, torque develops and rotor starts rotating in the
same direction as that of the revolving field.
5. Reversal of direction of rotation : The direction of rotation of 3-phase induction motor can be
reversed by interchanging the connections of any two supply leads at the stator terminals.
6. Slip : The rotor of a 3-phase motor never obtains synchronous speed because at that speed
there would be no relative speed between rotor conductors and stator revolving field and
induction phenomenon is not possible. Its speed is always less than synchronous speed.
The difference between synchronous speed and rotor speed is called slip. It is generally
denoted as a fraction of synchronous speed. S = (Ns – N)/Ns.
7. Frequency of rotor currents : fr = Sf
8. Rotor e.m.f. : At stand still, E2s = 4 44 kw2 T2f or E2s = KE1
Under running conditions E2 = SE2s
9. Rotor resistance : R2
10. Rotor reactance : At stand-still – X2s ; At running conditions, X2 = SX2s

11. Rotor current : I2 = E2/Z2 where E2 = SE2s and Z2 = R22  ( SX 2 s ) 2

12. Rotor p.f. : cos 2 = R2/Z2 = R2/ R22  ( SX 2 s ) 2

13. Power flow : Input elect. power to stator–stator cu. loss–stator iron loss = stator output or
rotor input.
Rotor input–rotor cu. loss = mech. power developed in rotor.
Mech. power developed in rotor – mech. loss = output mech. power at the shaft.
14. Relation between rotor Cu loss and slip : Rotor cu. loss = S × Rotor input.

3 SE22s R2 3 E22s R2 / S
15. Torque developed : T = = s [( Rs / S )2  ( X 2 s ) 2 ]
s [( R22 )  ( SX 2 s ) 2 ]

16. Condition for max. torque : R2 = SX2s or S = R2/X2s

3E22s 1
17. Max. Torque : Tm = and Tm 
2s X 2 s X2s
18. Starter : A device used to limit the inrush flow of current at start is know as starter. It contains
no volt coil and over-load coil for motor protection.
19. Direct On Line (DOL) Starter : This starter does not limit the inrush flow of starting current
but it contains No-volt and Over-load relays to protect the motors. It is used with the motors
of smaller size (less than 3HP).
20. Star-delta Starter : It connects
1
the stator winding first in star and then in delta thus reduced
the starting current to 3 rd value. It is employed with most of the 3-phase squirrel cage
induction motors.
21. Auto-transformer Starter : It provides lower voltages to the stator winding at the start and has
the ability to reduce the starting current to any predetermined value. It is used to start 3-phase
squirrel cage induction motors of very large sizes.
22. Starting of slip-ring induction motors : In slip-ring induction motors, the starting current is
limited by adding resistance in the rotor circuit at the start.
23. Speed control of Induction Motors : The speed of a 3-phase induction motor can be changed
(i) by changing the slip, (ii) by changing the supply frequency and (iii) by changing the
number of poles of an induction motor.
24. Single-phase I.M. : A machine that converts 1-phase a.c. elect. power into mech. power by
using an electromagnetic induction phenomenon is called a 1-phase induction motor.
25. Torque development in a 1-phase I.M. : When 1-phase supply is given to the stator of a 1-
phase I.M., two fields of magnitude m/2 are produced which rotate in opposite direction at
synchronous speed. An equal and opposite torque is developed by the two fields and the
resultant torque is zero at start. Thus, 1-phase I.M. is not a self starting motor. However, if
the rotor is rotated in either direction by some external means, torque develops and rotor
picks-up the speed in that direction.
26. Split phase motor : To obtain starting torque in 1-phase induction motors, the single winding
is splitted into two parts having different resistance and inductance. They carry currents at
different angles which produce a resultant field revolving in space at synchronous speed, this
develops starting torque in the motor.
27. Capacitor motors : These may be (i) Capacitor start motors, (ii) Capacitor run motor and
(iii) Capacitor start and capacitor run motors.
28. Shaded pole motors : These motors have projected poles with 1/3 pole part rapped with a
copper strip. This portion of the pole is called shaded part of the pole. Because of this, a
revolving field is set-up in the stator and torque is developed.
29. AC series motors: These motors have the ability to develop high starting torque and can
rotate at high speeds. The torque varies as square of the current and the speed varies inversely
proportional to the current approximately.
30. Universal motors: A motor which can be operated on ac as well as on dc supply at the rated
voltage is called universal motor.
31. D.C. motor : A machine that converts d.c. electrical power into mechanical power is known
as d.c. motor. Its working depends upon the basic principle that when a current carrying
conductor is placed in the magnetic field, a force is exerted on it and torque develops.
32. Constructional features of a dc machine: The essential parts of a d.c. machine are:
Magnetic frame or Yoke, Pole core and pole shoes, Field or Exciting coils, Armature core,
Armature winding, Commutator, Brushes, Brush rocker, End housings etc.
33. Functions of commutator : Commutator reverses the direction of flow of current in the
armature conductors when they cross the M.N.A. to obtain continuous torque.
34. Back e.m.f. : When d.c. supply is given to motor armature rotates. The armature conductors
cut across the main magnetic field and an e.m.f. is induced in them in opposite direction to
that of supply voltage called back e.m.f. (Eb).
Eb = PZN  /60 A ; Eb  or N  Eb/ ; Eb < V and Eb = V – la Ra
35. Types of d.c. motors and important relations :
Separately excited : la = lL ; Eb = V – la Ra – 2vb
Shunt motors : lsh = V/Rsh; la = lL – lsh ; Eb = V – la Ra – 2vb
Series motors : lse = la = lL ; Eb = V – la (Ra + Rse) – 2 vb
Compound motors : Cumulative r = sh + se ; differential r = sh – se
36. Speed control of d.c. motors : The speeds of dc motors can be controlled very acurately by
employing field control and armature control methods.
NL speed  FL speed
37. Speed regulation =
FL speed
38. Synchronous machines : A machines that rotates only at synchronous speed NS is called a
synchronous machine. Its satisfactory operation depends upon the relation.
120 f
NS =
P
39. Alternator : An a.c. machine that converts mechanical power or energy into a.c. electrical
power or energy at a desired frequency (50 Hz in India) is called an alternator. It is also called
as synchronous generator or simply a.c. generator.
Its basic principle of operation is electro-magnetic induction.
40. Construction of Synchronous Machines : Usually machines of large size have stationary
armature and rotating field system because of economy and simple designing.
As per rotor construction, there are two types of synchronous machines namely,
(i) Salient pole type (ii) Non-salient pole type.
41. Applications : (i) Salient pole type machines (alternators) are operated at low speeds and are
coupled with water turbines at hydro-electric power plants. These machines have large number
of poles, larger diameter and smaller length. (ii) Non-salient pole type machines (alternators)
are operated at high speeds and are coupled with steam turbines at thermal power plants.
These machines have small number of poles, smaller diameter and larger length.
42. Three-phase synchronous machines : Larger a.c. machines are always 3-phase wound machines
because of their high efficiency and economy.
43. E.M.F. education
Eph = 4·44 Kc Kd  f Tph
 1. Can the outer frame of an Inductor motor be made of plastic, state why ?
2. Can the outer frame of a dc machine be made of plastic, state why ?
3. The rotor of an inductor motor is skewed, why ?
4. Can we reverse the direction of rotation of a 3-phase induction motor by just interchanging
the connections of any two terminals at the input, if so state why ?
5. In a squirrel cage rotor, no insulation is provided between the rotor conductors and slots,
why ?
6. An induction motor is also called asynchronous motor, why ?
7. Can an induction motor run at synchronous speed, state why ?
8. When 3-phase supply is given to the stator of a 3-phase wound induction motor, a revolving
field is set-up. When the same supply is given to a 3-phase transformer no revolving field is
set up, state why ?
9. The rotor conductors are placed at the outermost periphery of the rotor, Why ?
10. The air gap between stator and rotor of an inductor motor is kept as small as possible, why ?
11. The direct on line starter does not limit the starting current of an induction motor still it is
called a starter not a switch, why ?
12. For very large 3-phase induction motors auto transformer starters are preferred over star
delta starters, why ?
13. Large induction motors are not started direct on line, why ? (PSB/HSB Dec. 1996)
14. In lifts which type of 3-phase induction motor is employed, state why ?
15. An induction motor always draws power at lagging power factor, why ?
16. When load on an induction motor increases, its speed decreases, why ?
17. In case of 1-phase capacitor run motor if capacitor is damaged the motor does not start.
However if it is rotated in either direction it picks up speed in that direction, why?
18. The direction of rotation of a shaded pole motor cannot be reversed, why?
19. The direction of rotation of a split-phase single-phase induction motor can be reversed, how?
20. Why universal motor is employed in mixer-grinder?
21. What are the functions of armature core ?
22. What is the function of field system ?
23. What are the main functions of yoke ?
24. What are the main functions of pole shoes ?
25. What are the advantages of carbon brushes ?
26. Why is armature of dc machines is made up of silicon steel ?
27. What is a dc Motor ?
28. What is the working principle of a dc Motor ?
29. What is Back EMF ?
30. What are the different types of dc Motors ?
31. What factors determine the number of poles of a synchronous generator ?
32. Why are the alternators rated in kVA ?

1. If the e.m.f. in the stator of an 8 pole induction motor has a frequency of 50 Hz and that in rotor
15 Hz find the speed at which motor is running and its slip. (Ans. 727.5 r.p.m., 0.03)
2. An 8-pole alternator runs at 750 r.p.m. and supplies power to a 6-pole induction motor which
has full load slip of 3%. Find the full load speed of the induction motor and the frequency of its
rotor e.m.f. (Ans. 970 r.p.m., 15 Hz)
3. It is desired to obtain a speed of approximately 700 r.p.m. with a 3-phase induction motor.
Determine number of poles for (i) 60 Hz motor ; (ii) 25 Hz motor. If the rated load slip of each
motor is 5%, determine rated speed for each motor. (Ans. 10 ; 684 r.p.m., 4 ; 712 5 r.p.m.)
4. Determine the number of poles, the slip and the frequency of rotor currents at rated load for a
3-phase, 3 7 kW induction motor rated at :
(i) 220 V, 50 Hz, 1440 r.p.m. (ii) 120 V, 400 Hz, 3800 r.p.m.
(Ans. 4, 4%, 2 Hz 12, 5%, 20 Hz)
5. A balanced 3-phase, 50 Hz voltage is applied to a 3-phase 6-pole induction motor. When the
motor delivers rated output the slip is found to be 004. Determine :
(i) The speed of the revolving field relative to the stator structure.
(ii) The frequency of the rotor currents.
(iii) The speed of the rotor m.m.f. relative to the rotor structure.
(iv) The speed of the rotor m.m.f. relative to the stator structure.
(v) The speed of the rotor m.m.f. relative to the stator field distribution.
(vi) Are the conditions right for the development of the net unidirectional torque ?
(Ans. 1000 r.p.m. ; 2 Hz ; 40 r.p.m. ; 1000 r.p.m. ; zero ; yes)
6. A 6-pole, 3-phase, 50 Hz induction motor has a star connected rotor. The rotor has resistance
and standstill reactance of 0 25 ohm and 2 5 ohm per phase respectively. The induced e.m.f.
between sliprings at start is 100 V. If the full load speed is 960 r.p.m. Calculate (i) the slip, (ii)
rotor induced e.m.f. per phase (iii) the rotor current and power factor at standstill and (iv) the
rotor current and power factor at rated load.
(Ans. 4% ; 57 735 V ; 22 98 A, 0 0995 lagging ; 8 577 A, 0 9285 lagging)
7. A 3-phase induction motor having a star-connected rotor has an induced e.m.f. of 80 V between
sliprings at standstill on open circuit. The rotor has a resistance and reactance of 0 5 ohm and
2 ohm per phase respectively. Calculate the current per phase and p.f. when (i) sliprings are
short circuited (ii) sliprings are connected to a star connected rheostat of 4 ohm per phase.
(Ans. 95 22 A, 0 2425 lagging ; 9 38 A, 0 9138 lagging)
 8. The power supplied to a 3-phase induction motor is 40 kW and the corresponding stator losses
are 15 kW. Calculate :
(a) The total mechanical power developed and the rotor I 2R losses when the slip is 0 04.
(b) The output power of the motor if the friction and windage losses are 0 8 kW.
(c) The efficiency of the motor. Neglect the rotor iron losses.
(Ans. 36 96 kW ; 1 54 kW ; 36 16 kW ; 90 4%)
9. The shaft output of a 3-phase induction motor is 75 kW. The friction and windage losses are
1000 watts. The stator core losses are 4000 W and the stator copper losses are 2500 W. If the
slip is 3 5% what is the efficiency of the motor ? (Ans. 87 97%)
10. A 400 V, 6-pole, 50 Hz, 3-phase induction motor develops 20 H.P. inclusive of mechanical
losses when running at 995 r.p.m., the power factor being 0 87. Calculate :
(i) Slip (ii) The rotor copper losses (iii) The line current. The stator copper loss is 1500 W.
(Ans. 0 005 ; 73 92 W ; 27 A)
11. A 50 H.P., 6-pole, 3-phase induction motor delivers full load output at 955 r.p.m. and with 0 86
p.f. when connected to 500 V, 50 Hz mains. Friction and windage losses total 2 HP. and stator
losses are 1 5 K.W. Determine for this load : (i) total rotor Cu losses ; (ii) the efficiency ; and
(iii) the line current. (Ans. 1 802 kW; 88 51% ; 55 78 A)
12. A 6-pole, 3-phase induction motor runs at a speed of 960 r.p.m. and the shaft torque is 135 7
Nm. Calculate the rotor copper loss if the friction and windage losses amount of 150 watt. The
frequency of supply is 50 Hz. (Ans. 574 67 W)
13. An induction motor has an efficiency of 85% when loaded at 50 H.P. At this load stator copper
loss and rotor copper loss each equal iron loss. Mechanical losses are one third of the no load
loss. Calculate rotor copper loss, rotor input and slip.
Output
(Hints : Input =  ; losses = Input – Output ; If rotor copper loss = K. Then total
1
losses = K + K + K + K) (Ans. 1946·9 W, 39370·88 W, 0·04945)
3
14. A 3-phase, 50 Hz, synchronous generator runs at 166·67 r.p.m. What is the number of poles ?
What of prime-over would you except for this machine ? (Ans. 36, Hydraulic turbine)
15. The stator core of a 4-pole, 3-phase alternator has 36 slots. It carries a short pitch 3-phase
winding with coil span equal to 8 slots. Determine the distribution and coil pitch factor.
(Ans. 0·9598 ; 0·9848)
16. A 3-phase, 12-pole alternator has a star connected winding with 108 slots and 10 conductors
per slot. The coils are full pitched. The flux per pole is 0·05 Wb sinusoidally distributed and
speed is 600 rpm. Calculate the line voltage on open circuit. Assume distribution factor equal to
0·96. (Ans. 3986·7 V)
 1. Stator core of an induction motor is made of
(A) laminated cast iron (B) mild steel
(C) silicon steel stampings (D) soft wood.
2. The stator winding of an induction motor can be designed for
(A) any number of pole (B) any even number of poles
(C) any odd number of poles (D) only for four poles.
3. The rotor of squirrel cage induction motor is skewed because
(A) it reduces humming thus ensures quite running of the motor.
(B) it results in a smoother torque curves for different positions of the rotor.
(C) it avoids the magnetic looking of the stator and rotor.
(D) all of these.
4. Slip rings of phase-wound induction motor are made of :
(A) wood (B) cast iron (C) steel (D) cooper
5. There is no electrical connection between stator and rotor, still power is transferred from
stator to rotor through
(A) magnetic flux (B) air (C) water (D) magnet.
6. In a large induction motor usually the value of full load slip is
(A) 04% (B) 20% (C) 3 to 5% (D) 6 to 15%
7. At start, the slip of the induction motor is
(A) zero (B) 05 (C) one (D) infinite.
8. Under running conduction, the rotor reactance is directly proportional to
(A) induced e.m.f. (B) rotor current (C) slip (D) supply voltage.
9. At start the rotor power factor is
(A) very high (B) very low (C) unity (D) zero.
10. The rotor copper losses of an induction motor are directly proportional to
(A) input to the motor (B) output of the motor
(C) rotor resistance (D) slip.
11. The condition for maximum torque is
(A) R2 = SZ2s (B) X2s = SR2 (C) R2 = X2s (D) R2 = SX2s
12. The function of a starter is
(A) to start the motor (B) to start and stop the motor
(C) to limit the starting current (D) to limit the applied voltage
13. Stator core of a single-phase, split winding induction motor is made of
(A) laminated cast iron (B) mild steel
(C) silicon steel stampings (D) soft wood.
14. In a single phase induction motor at start, the two revolving fields produce
(A) unequal torques in the rotor conductors
(B) no torque in the rotor conductors
(C) equal and opposite torque in the rotor conductors
(D) equal torques in same direction in the rotor conductors
15. During running condition if the starting winding of a split phase induction motor is disconnected.
(A) the motor will stop (B) the motor winding will burn
(C) the main winding will be damaged (D) the motor will continue to rotate
16. The starting torque of a capacitor start motor is
(A) more than a capacitor run motor (B) less than a capacitor run motor
(C) less than a shaded pole motor (D) less than a split-phase induction motor.
17. The direction of rotation of a split-phase induction motor can be reversed by
(A) reversing the connections of the supply terminals
(B) reversing the connections of the main winding only
(C) reversing the connections of the starting winding only
(D) either (b) or (c).
18. Which motor is best suited for domestic refrigerator ?
(A) 3-phase induction motor (B) DC motor
(C) Capacitor start motor (D) Shaded pole motor.
19. Which motor is best suited for domestic mixer-grinder?
(A) 3-phase induction motor (B) Universal motor
(C) Capacitor start motor (D) Shaded pole motor.
20. The yoke of a d.c. machine is made of
(A) copper (B) carbon (C) cast iron (D) sillicon steel
21. The armature core of a d.c. machine is made of
(A) copper (B) carbon (C) cast iron (D) silicon steel
22. The segments of the commutator of a d.c. machine are made of
(A) brass (B) copper (C) carbon (D) silicon steel
23. The segments of the commutator of a d.c. machine are insulated from each other by
(A) rubber (B) porcelain (C) mica (D) varnish
24. The brushes of a d.c. machine are made of
(A) iron (B) brass (C) mica (D) carbon
25. The speed of the d.c. motor can be varied
(A) by varying field current only, (B) by varying armature resistance only,
(C) stray losses are equal to copper losses.
26. The frequency of voltage generated in large alternators in India is
(A) in Megacycles (B) in kilocycles (C) 60 Hz (D) 50 Hz
27. The rotors preferred for alternators coupled to hydraulic turbines are
(A) salient pole type (B) cylindrical rotor type
(C) solid rotor type (D) any of above.
28. Salient pole type alternators are generally employed with
(A) High speed prime movers
(B) Low and medium speed prime movers
(C) Hydrogen cooled prime movers
(D) Low voltages alternators.
29. RMS value of voltage generated per phase in an alternator is given by
(A) Eph = 4·44 Kc Kd N  f (B) Eph = 4·44 Kc Kd N 
(C) Eph = 4·44 Kc Kd N  f 2 (D) Eph = 1·11 Kc Kd N  f
30. The rating of alternators is usually expressed in
(A) full load current (B) Horse power (C) kVA (D) kW

1. Explain the construction of 3-phase squirrel cage induction motor.

2. Discuss how a rotating field is produced in a 3-phase induction motor. How does the
rotating field help in the production of torque.
3. Derive the relationship between the frequency of rotor currents and supply frequency in
case of a 3-phase induction motor.
4. If one of the phase of a 3-phase induction motor is blown off while running without load,
what will happen to its rotation.
5. Can induction motor (3-phase) run at synchronous speed ? Explain your answer.
6. Explain the terms slip, slip frequency, wound rotor, cage rotor.
7. How can the direction of rotation of 3-phase induction motor be reversed ?
8. Explain the principle of working of a three-phase induction motor and give the expression
of percentage slip.
9. How much torque does an induction motor develop at synchronous speed ? Explain your
answer.
10. List the different types of losses in an induction motor.
11. What are the various losses in an induction motor? On what factors do they depend ?
12. Derive an expression for the rotor copper loss in terms of slip and input to the rotor.
13. Obtain an expression for torque under running condition, for a 3-phase induction motor
and then deduce the condition for maximum torque.
14. Derive the condition for maximum torque and also the expression for the maximum torque
of a 3-phase induction motor.
15. Derive the simplified equation for torque for an induction motor.
16. Draw and explain the slip-torque characteristics of a 3-phase slip ring induction motor.
Mark on it starting and maximum torque.
17. Why is starter necessary for starting 3-phase induction motors. Name various method of
starting 3-phase squirrel cage induction motors and explain any one method in detail.
18. Name the various starters employed for the starting of 3-phase squirrel cage induction
motor. Explain star-delta starter in detail.
19. Give various methods of starting large three-phase induction motors. Explain auto transformer
starter in detail.
20. How many terminals do you expect to find on the terminal box of 3-phase squirrel cage
induction motor to be used for starting by star-delta starter.
21. Explain how 3-phase wound type induction motor is started.
22. Explain how the speed of slip ring induction motor can be changed by changing the rotor
circuit resistance. What are the limitations and disadvantages of this method ?
23. Name the different methods of speed control of a poly-phase squirrel cage type induction
motor. Explain in brief the principle of pole changing method of speed control.
24. Explain that basically a single-phase induction motor is not a self-starting motor.
25. How will you make a single-phase induction motor self-starting ?
26. Show that a single-phase sinusoidal field can be replaced by two fields rotating around the
air gap in opposite directions. Sketch a torque-slip curve due to each of these two fields.
How can the fact that the single-phase induction motor has no starting torque be explained
by these curves ? How do they explain the fact of the motor accelerating in the direction
in which it is started ?
State the manner in which the starting torque of a single-phase motor may be obtained by
splitting the phase.
27. Explain the construction and working of a single-phase capacitor start induction motor.
28. Why is a capacitor employed with a ceiling fan ?
29. A ceiling fan when switched on to a single-phase a.c. supply does not start rotating. What
may be the reasons ?
30. Explain the construction (with sketch) and working of a capacitor-start capacitor-run
single-phase induction motor. What are its advantages and practical applications ?
31. How can you change the direction of rotation of a single-phase induction motor ?
32. Describe the working and construction of a single-phase shaded pole motor.
33. Describe the working of an ac series motor.
34. Describe the working and construction of a universal motor.
35. Name the various parts of a d.c. machine and give the function of each part.
36. Explain the principle of operation of a d.c. motor.
37. Explain with suitable diagram the working of a d.c. motor.
38. Explain the function of commutator in a d.c. motor.
39. What is back e.m.f.? Explain.
 40. Mention the various types of d.c. motors and their uses.
41. With the help of speed-armature current characteristics, show that a separately excited dc
motor runs at almost constant speed irrespective of the load.
42. Sketch the speed-torque curve of a separately excited dc motor and discuss its nature.
43. Sketch the speed-load and torque-load characteristics of a separately excited dc motor.
44. Write a general expression for the speed of a d.c. motor in terms of supply voltage and
flux per pole.
45. Describe Ward-Leonard method of speed control of a separately excited dc motor.
46. Deduce the relation between number of poles frequency and speed of an alternator.
47. Name the various part of a synchronous machine. Give the function and material used for
each of them.
48. Give the constructional details of cylindrical rotor alternator.
49. Explain the difference between salient pole and cylindrical pole type of rotor used in
alternators. Mention their applications.
50. Explain why the stator core of an alternator is laminated.
51. List the advantages of making field system rotating and armature stationary in case of an
alternator.
52. Derive an expression for induced e.m.f. for an alternator.

ATTAINMENT & GAP ANALYSIS

Attainment of the Programme Outcomes will be compiled in the table below to make a Gap Analysis
and work out remedial measures:
Course Attainment of the Programme Outcomes
Outcome (1- Weak Correlation; 2- Medium correlation; 3- Strong Correlation)
PO-1 PO-2 PO-3 PO-4 PO-5 PO-6 PO-7 PO-8 PO-9 PO-10 PO-11 PO-12
CO-1
CO-2
CO-3

1. (C) 2. (B) 3. (C) 4. (D) 5. (A)

6. (C) 7. (C) 8. (C) 9. (B) 10. (D)
11. (D) 12. (C) 13. (C) 14. (C) 15. (D)
16. (A) 17. (D) 18. (C) 19. (B) 20. (C)
21. (D) 22. (B) 23. (C) 24. (D) 25. (D)
26. (D) 27. (A) 28. (B) 29. (A) 30. (C)
Experiment:Demonstration of cut-out sections of machines: dc machine (commutator-brush
arrangement), induction machine (squirJrel cage rotor), synchronous machine (field winging-slip ring
arrangement) and single-phase induction machine.

1. To make the students familiar with the constructional features of various electrical machines
generally employed in electrical system.
Apparatus/Instruments/Components required
Cutaway sections/disassembled parts of various machines such as
1. DC Machine (commutator-brush arrangement)
2. Induction machine (squirrel cage rotor)
3. Synchronous machine (field winging-slip ring arrangement)
4. Single-phase induction machine.

Different parts of a dc machine are mentioned below:

Function and Material used for each part
1. Magnetic frame or Yoke: The outer cylindrical frame to which main poles and inter poles are
fixed is called the yoke.
It provides a low reluctance path for the magnetic flux and protection the inner parts of the
machine. The yoke is made of cast iron for smaller machines but in case of larger machines,
it is made of cast steel or fabricated rolled steel.
2. Pole core and pole shoes :The pole core and pole shoes are fixed to the magnetic frame or yoke
by bolts. They support the field or exciting coils and spread out the magnetic flux over the
armature periphery more uniformly.
Usually, the pole core and pole shoes are made of thin cast steel laminations or stampings.
3. Field or Exciting coils: The coils are wound on the former and then placed around the pole
core.Enamelled copper wire is used for the construction of field or exciting coils. When direct
current is passed through the field winding, it magnetises the poles which produce the required
flux.
4. Armature core: It is cylindrical is shape and keyed to the rotating shaft. At the outer periphery
slots are cut which accommodate the armature winding.
It houses the conductors in the slots. It provides an easy path for magnetic flux.
5. Armature winding: The insulated conductors housed in the armature slots are suitably connected.
This is known as armature winding.
It is a place where conversion of power takes place i.e. in case of generator, mechanical power
is converted into electrical power and in case of motor, electrical power is converted into
mechanical power. On the basis of connections, armature windings are named as Lap winding
and Wave winding.
 Drive Shaft Stator
Armature

Brushes Commutator

Fig. 3.1(a) Disassembled Parts of DC MachinesFig. 3.1(b) Commutator and Brushes

COPPER SEGMENT
MICA INSULATION RISER
END RING
SHAFT ADJUSTING NUT
METAL SLEEVE

Fig. 3.1(c) Assembled view of a DC Machines 3.1(d) Half sectional view of a commutator

BRUSH
END SPRING ARM
HOUSING

BRUSH
BRUSH HOLDER

COMMUTATOR
ARMATURE

MAGNETIC BRUSH ASSEMBLY

FRAME EYE BOLT

POLE CORE POLE SHOE

(Laminated)

FIELD COIL

BOLT TO
FIX POLES

Fig. 3.1(d) Parts of a dc machine (pencil sketch)

6. Commutator: It is the most important part of a d.c machine and serves the following purposes:
It connects the rotating armature conductors to the stationary external circuit through brushes.It
converts the alternating current induced in the armature conductors into unidirectional current
in the external load circuit in generator action., whereas it converts the alternating torque into
unidirectional (continuous) torque produced in the armature in motor action.
The commutator is of cylindrical shape and is made up of wedge-shaped hard drawn copper
segments. The segments are insulated from each other by a thin sheet of mica. Armature coil
is connected to the commutator segment through riser.
7. Brushes: The brushes are pressed upon the commutator and form the connecting link between
the armature winding and the external circuit. They are usually made of high-grade carbon
because carbon is conducting material and at the same time in powdered form provides
imbricating effect on the commutator surface. The brushes are held in particular position
around the commutator by brush holders and rocker.
9. End housings: End housings are attached to the ends of the main frame and support bearings.
The front housing supports the bearing and the brush assemblies whereas the rear housing
usually supports the bearing only.
10. Bearings: The ball or roller bearings are fitted in the end housings. The function of the bearings
is to reduce friction between the rotating and stationary parts of the machine. Mostly high
carbon steel is used for the construction of bearings as it is very hard material.
11. Shaft: The shaft is made of mild steel with a maximum breaking strength. The shaft is used to
transfer mechanical power from or to the machine.

A 3-phase induction motor consists of two main parts namely stator and rotor.
1. Stator: It is the stationary part of the motor. It contains
(i) Outer frame, (ii) Stator core and (iii) Stator winding.
(i) Outer frame: It is the outer body of the motor. Its function is to support the stator core
and to protect the inner parts of the machine. It is made of some mechanically strong
material such as cast iron, fabricated steel or synthetic plastic.
(ii) stator core: The stator core is to carry the alternating magnetic field which produces
hysteresis and eddy current losses; therefore, core is built up of high-grade silicon steel
stamping. Slots are punched on the inner periphery of the stampingsto accommodate
stator winding.
(iii) Stator winding:The stator core carries a three phase winding which is usually supplied
from a three phase supply system. The six terminals of the winding (two of each phase)
are connected in the terminal box of the machine. The stator of the motor is wound for
definite number of poles, the exact number being determined by the requirement of speed.
It will be seen that greater the number of poles, the lower is the speed and vice-versa,
since. The three- phase winding may be connected in star or delta externally through a
starter.
2. Rotor: It is the rotating part of the motor. There are two types of rotors, which are
employed in 3-phase induction motors.
 (i) Squirrel cage rotor (ii) Phase wound rotor.
End bracket
(Bearing Housing)

End Cover
Cooling 1-phase
Fan Stator winding
Squirrel cage Stator
rotor Cooling Fan
Bearing

Bearing Bearing
Stator Stampigs Shaft
Frame (Yoke)
Refer

End bracket
(Bearing Housing)

Fig. 3.2(a) Disassembled Parts of a 3-phase Induction Motor Fig. 3.2(b) Sectional view of a 3-phase Induction Motor

(i) Squirrel cage rotor:The motors employing this type of rotor are known as Squirrel cage
induction motors. Most of the induction motors are of this type because of simple and
rugged construction of rotor. A squirrel cage rotor consists of a laminated cylindrical
core having semi-closed circular slots at the outer periphery. Copper or aluminium bar
conductors are placed in these slots and short circuited at each end by copper or aluminium
rings, called short circuiting rings.

SHORT
CONDUCTORS SLIP RINGS WOUND ROTOR
CIRCUITING
RING CORE
SHAFT
SHAFT

SLOTS

Fig. 3.2(c) Squirrel cage rotor 3.2(d) Phase-wound/Slip-ring rotor

(ii) Phase wound rotor: Phase wound rotor is also called slip ring rotor and the motors
employing this type of rotor are known as phase wound or slipring induction motors. Slip
ring rotor consists of a laminated cylindrical core having semi-closed slots at the outer
periphery and carries a 3-phase insulated winding. The rotor winding is star connected
and the three remaining terminals are connected to three copper slip ringskeyed the shaft.
Shaft: A mild steel shaft is passed through the centre of the rotor and is fixed to it with
key. The purpose of shaft is to transfer mechanical power.

Only in small synchronous machines the field system is placed on stator and armature winding on
rotor, but in larger machines, the field winding is placed on the rotor and armature winding is placed on
the stator.
The important parts of a synchronous machine are:
(i) Stator (ii) Rotor (iii) Some Miscellaneous parts
 Laminated steel
stator core Seals
Armature winding

End turns

Bearings Coupling

Solid steel
rotor

Field windings

Stator case

Slip rings
Fig. 3.3:Sectional view of a 1-phase Synchronous Motor
The construction details of a smallsynchronous machine are the same as that of a dc machine except
that in this case, in place of a commutator,sliprings are employed because in these machines ac is not
to be converted into dc. Armature winding design is also different.

A 1-phase induction motor consists of two main parts namely stator and rotor.
1. Stator: It is the stationary part of the motor. It contains
(i) Outer frame, (ii) Stator core and (iii) Stator winding.
End Cover
Cooling 1-phase
Fan Stator winding
Squirrel cage
rotor
Bearing

Stator Stampigs Shaft

Fig. 3.4(a): Disassembled Parts of a 1-phase Induction Motor

(i)` Outer frame: It is the outer body of the motor. Its function is to support the stator core
and to protect the inner parts of the machine. It is made of some mechanically strong
material such as cast iron, fabricated steel or synthetic plastic.
 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

(ii) stator core: The stator core is to carry the alternating magnetic field which produces
hysteresis and eddy current losses; therefore, core is built up of high-grade silicon steel
stamping. Slots are punched on the inner periphery of the stampings to accommodate
stator winding.
(iii) Stator winding:The stator core carries a single-phase windingsplitted into two parts; one
is called running winding and the other one is called starting winding to make the motor
self-starting. The motor is operated from single phase supply system
2. Rotor: It is the rotating part of the motor. A squirrel cage rotor is employed in these
motors.

1. What are the functions of armature core?

2. What is the function of exciting coils in dc machines?
3. What is the main functions of yoke in dc machines?
4. What are the main functions of pole shoes?
5. What is the function of carbon brushes?
6. Why is armature of dc machines is made up of silicon steel stampings?
7. What is the function of commutator in dc machines?
8. Can the outer frame of an Inductor motor be made of plastic? Justify.
9. Can the outer frame of a dc machine be made of plastic? Justify.
10. Why the stator core of an induction motor is laminated?
11. What is the function of sliprings in synchronous machines?
12. In synchronous machines, why sliprings are used in place of commutator?
13. In single-phase induction motors, why the single-phase winding is splitted into two parts?
14. Why stator core of a single-phase induction motors is made of silicon steel stampings?
Torque Speed Characteristic of separately excited dc motor.

To make the students familiar withseparately excited dc motor and to explore itsTorque-Speed
characteristics.
Apparatus/Instruments/Components required
1. A Separately excited dc motor, 2. DC supply (230/250 V),
3. An excitor or battery, 4. A rheostat to control field current,
5. Two dc voltmeters of range ________, 6. Two dc ammeters of range _________ .
If IL +

On the basis of the connections of armature and their field winding, Ia

dc motors can be classified as separately excited dc motors and self A
Rh
excited dc motors. Eb Ra V
+ Rf
1. Separatelyexcited dc motors: The conventional diagram B AA
–
of a separately excited d.c. motor is shown in fig 6.1. Its
voltage equation will be; Eb = V – Ia Ra – 2vb –
Fig. 6.1: Separately Excited DCMotor
Fig. 36

The performance of a d.c. motor can be easily judged from its characteristic curves, known as motor
characteristics. The characteristics of a motor are those curves which show relation between the two
quantities. On the basis of these quantities, the following characteristics can be obtained:
1. Speed and Armature current i.e. N – IaCharacteristics:It is the curve drawn between speed N
and armature current Ia. It is also known as speed characteristics.
2. Torque and Armature current i.e. T – IaCharacteristics:It is the curve drawn between torque
developed in the armature T and armature current Ia. It is also known as electrical characteristic.
3. Speed and Torque i.e. N – T characteristics:It is the curve drawn between speed N and torque
developed in the armature T. It is also known as mechanical characteristics.
The following important relations must be kept in mind while discussing the motor characteristics:
Eb
Eb N  or N  and T  I a

A B
N C

The conventional diagram of this motor is shown in V

fig P6.1. In these motors, the field current If = V/
Rfremains constant since the supply voltage V is E
OP LIN
Ia Ra DR
constant. Hence, the flux in d.c. shunt motors is
O Iao Ia
practicallyconstant.
Fig. 41 Fig.Characteristics
Fig. 6.2: N–Ia 42
 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Eb
We know that N

Since flux is constant: N  Eb or N V – I a Ra
If the armature drop (Ia Ra) is negligible, the speed of the motor will remain constant for all values of
load as shown by the dotted line AB in fig P6.2. But strictly speaking, as the armature current increases
due to the increase of load, armature drop Ia Ra increases, and speed of the motor decreases slightly as
shown by the straight line A C in fig P6.2 (neglecting armature reaction). Moreover, the characteristic
curve does not start from a point of zero armature current because a small current, no-load armature
current Ia0, is necessary to maintain rotation of the motor at no load.Characteristics. Since there is no
appreciable change in the speed of a dc shunt motor from no load to full load that is why it is considered
to be a constant speed motor.

We know that T  I a
Since flux is constant, T  I a
Hence, the electrical characteristic (i.e. T – Ia) is a straight line passing through the origin as shown in
fig. P6.3. It is clear from the characteristic curve that a large armature current is required at the start
if machine is on heavy load. Thus, these motors should never be started on load.

T N

O la O T

Fig. 4.62 Fig. 4.63

Fig. P 6.3: T–IaCharacteristics Fig. P 6.4: N–TCharacteristics

The N – T characteristic is derived from the first two characteristics. When load torque increases,
armature current Ia increases but speed decreases slightly. Thus, with the increase in load or torque,
the speed decreases slightly as shown in fig 6.4.
However, when N – T characteristics are to be drawn practically, the mechanical load on the machine
is increased in steps and the load or armature current la is measured with the help of an ammeter
connected in the armature circuit and the corresponding speed is measured with the help of a tachometer.

Ia
+ – If – +
A A

A
+ + Dc supply
Eb R a V V
–
Battery AA – 230 V
DPST
Load Switch

Fig. P6.5: Circuit to determine N–TCharacteristics

 1. Connect the apparatus as per the circuit shown in fig.P6.5.
2. Get you connections checked by the teacher in-charge.
3. Switch-ON the supply through DPST switch.
4. Adjust the value of field current If by adjusting the value circuit resistance.
5. Don’t apply any load on the machine and measure the armature current I0, it shows the load
on the machine due to losses in the machine. Also measure the corresponding speed of the
motor N0 by.
6. Apply mechanical load on the motor, measure armature current Ia1 , and find the corresponding
speed N1 of the motor.
7. Increase the load on the machine in steps and take the corresponding readings and tabulate
them.
Note: While performing the practical, the voltage across the armature and the field current has to
be kept constant.

S.No. Field Current If in Voltage across Armature Current Iain Motor Speed N in
ampere Armature V in volt ampere rpm
1. I V Ia0 N0

1. The shape of the curve is almost the same as shown in fig. 6.4.
2. The curve reveals that the speed of this motor remains almost constant when load is applied
on it.
3, It is called a constant speed motor.

1. In a separately excited motor, do we need separate supply sources to supply power to field
circuit and armature or both can be supplied from the same source, justify your answer?
2. Why is a separately excited motor called a constant speed motor?
 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Synchronous speed of two and four-pole, three-phase induction motors. Direction reversal by change
of phase-sequence of connections. Torque-Slip Characteristic of an induction motor. Generator operation
of an induction machine driven at super-synchronous speed.

1. To make the students familiar withthesynchronous speed of the revolving magnetic field in a
3-phase induction motors.
2. How to reverse the direction of rotation of a 3-phase induction motors.
3. Significance of Torque-Slip Characteristic of a 3-phase induction motor.
4. When and how an induction motor works as an induction generator.
Apparatus/Instruments/Components required
1. Three-phase ac supply.
2. Three-phase induction motor.
3. One starter (Star-delta starter)
4. Reversing Switch (change over switch)
5. Tachometer (mechanical or digital) for measuring speed.
6. Tools as mentioned in the beginning (i.e.Plier, screw driver, test pin etc.)
7. Connecting leads etc.

Production Of Revolving Field

Consider a stator on which three different windings represented by three concentric coils a1a2, b1b2 and
c1c2 respectively are placed 120º electrically apart. A1 When a 3-phase supply, as shown in fig. P7.1,
is applied to the stator. Three phase currents will flow through the three coils and produce their own
magnetic fields.
Three instant t1, t2and t3 are marked.Accordingly, the direction and position of the resultant field Fm is
shown in fig. P7.2. This reveals that in one cycle, the resultant field completes one revolution.

e 1 2 3

60° 

120°
t1 t2 t3
Fig. P7.1: Wave diagram of 3-phase supply
 + +
+ + + +

+ +
+

Fig. P7.2: Direction and position of the resultant revolving field

Hence, we conclude that when 3-phase supply is given to a 3-phase wound stator of an induction
motor, a resultant field is produced which revolves at a constant speed in the direction of the phase
sequence,The speed at which this field revolves is called synchronous speed and isgiven by the relation,
120  f
Ns=
P
In this case, the supply from phases 1,2 and 3 is given to coil a1a2, b1b2 and c1c2, respectively, an
anticlockwise rotating field is produced. If the supply to coil a1a2, b1b2 and c1c2 is given from phase
1, 3 and 2 respectively, the direction of rotating field is reversed.
Thus, to reverse the direction of rotation of rotating field the connections of any two supply terminals
are inter changed.
Synchronous speed of two and four-pole, three-phase induction motors
For 2-pole, 3-phase induction motor, the synchronous speed will be.
120  f 120  50
NS =   3000 rpm
P 2
For 4-pole, 3-phase induction motor, the synchronous speed will be.
120  f 120  50
NS =   1500 rpm
P 4
Direction reversal by change of phase-sequence of connections
It has been seen that a revolving field is set up in the stator of a 3-phase induction motor when 3-phase
supply is given to its winding and the direction of rotation depends upon the supply sequence.
The direction of rotation of the revolving field or that of the rotor can be reversed if the sequence of
supply is reversed. The supply sequence can be reversed by interchanging the connections of any two
supply leads at the stator terminals.
Hence, the direction of rotation of a 3-phase induction motor can be reversed by interchanging the
connections of any two supply leads at the stator terminals.
Torque-Slip Characteristic of an induction motor
The full load torque developed by an induction motor is given by the expression,
3 SE22s R2
T =
 s [ R22  ( SX 2 s )2 ]
 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

To draw the torque-slip or torque-speed curve the following points are considered :
(i) At synchronous speed (Ns); slip, S = 0 and torque T = 0.
(ii) When rotor speed is very near to synchronous speed i.e., when the slip is very low the value
of the term (SX2s)2 is very small in comparison to R22 [i.e., (SX2s)2<<R22)] and is neglected.
Therefore, torque is given by the expression.
3 SE22s R2 M

 s R22

TORQUE (T)
Thus, at low values of slip, torque is approximately
proportional to slip S and the torque-slip curve is a straight
line, as shown in fig. 7.2.
(iii) As the slip increases torque increases and attains
its maximum value when S = R 2 /X 2s . This 0 1.0
maximum value of torque is also known as break SLIP (S)

down or pull-out torque. Fig. P7.3: Direction and position of the resultant
revolving field

(iv) With further increase in slip due to increase in load beyond the point of maximum torque i.e.
when slip is high, the value of term (SX2s)2 is very large in comparison to R22
[i.e., (SX2s)2>>R22]. Therefore, R22 is neglected as compared to (SX2s)2 and the torque is
given by the expression.

2 SE2 S 2 R2 3 SE2S 2 R2 1 1
T  or T  or T  K '
s S X 2 S
2 2 2
 S X 2S 2 s 2 S X 2 S
2 2 S S
Thus, at higher value of slip (i.e., the slip beyond that corresponding to maximum torque), torque is
approximately inversely proportional to slip S and the torque-slip curve is a rectangular hyperbola, as
shown in fig. P7.3.
Generator operation of an induction machine driven at super-synchronous speed
We that when 3-phase supply is given to a 3-phase wound stator of an induction machine, torque
develops, and rotor picks up speed. In this case, machine works as a motor and the rotor speed is less
than the synchronous speed of the revolving field.
However, if the rotor of a 3-phase induction machine is coupled to a prime mover which is capable to
drive it at a speed higher than the synchronous speed then it will be observed that energy is fed back to
the mains by the machine instead of drawing it. Under this condition the machine is said to be working
as a generator. As the machine works on the induction phenomenon and no excitation is given to the
machine, the machine is called as an induction generator.
The following points are worth noting regarding this machine.
1. The machine is connected to the mains and operated as a motor first and then can be
operated as a generator by rotating the rotor at a speed more than synchronous speed with
the help of a prime mover.
 2. Machine can never be operated as a generated independently because no excitation is provided
to any part of the machine. Moreover, induction phenomenon is only possible in this case if
machine is operated first as a motor i.e. machine is connected to the mains, not working
independently.
3. When the speed of the rotor is made more than the synchronous speed of the stator revolving
field with the help of prime-mover, the mechanical energy supplied by the prime-mover is
converted into electrical energy. Hence, the machine works as a generator.
4. The operating range of the machine as a generator is limited to a slip corresponding to the
value of maximum torque.
Let us examine how to reverse the direction of rotation of a 3-phase induction motors.

TPIC
SWITCH
STAR-DELTA
STARTER SQUIRREL CAGE
FUSES STAR INDUCTION MOTOR

3-PHASE R
Y
SUPPLY B
DELTA

Fig.P7.4: Three-phase Induction Motorconnected to supply through star-delta starter and TPIC Switch

TPIC
SWITCH
STAR-DELTA
STARTER SQUIRREL CAGE
FUSES STAR INDUCTION MOTOR

3-PHASE R
Y
SUPPLY B
DELTA

Fig.P7.5: Three-phase Induction Motor,rotation is reversed by interchanging terminals R and Y

TPIC
SWITCH
REVERSIBLE
SWITCH STAR-DELTA
STARTER SQUIRREL CAGE
FUSES STAR INDUCTION MOTOR

3-PHASE P
Y
SUPPLY B
DELTA

Fig. P7.6: Three-phase Induction Motor, rotation is reversed by interchanging terminals R and Y with the help of
reversible switch
 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

1. Make the connections to the motor through TPIC switch and a star-delta starter as shown in
fig. 7.4.
2. Get the connections checked by the teacher in-charge.
3. Start the motor by throwing the handle first in star and then in delta position.
4. Observe the direction of rotation of the motor.
5. Stop the motor by pushing stop button at the starter and switch off the TPIC switch.
6. To reverse the direction of rotation of the motor interchange the leads of motor at any two
terminals of the TPIC switch as shown in fig. P7.5.
Or
To reverse the direction of rotation of the motor, interchange the leads of motor at any two
terminals in the reversible switch as shown in fig. 7.6.
7. Switch-ON the TPIC switch and start the motor again. Observe the direction of rotation of
the motor.
8. If a motor is wound for 2-poles its speed at no load is slightly less than 3000 rpm since
induction motor can run only at a speed less than synchronous speed whereas 4-pole induction
motor can rotate at a speed slightly less than 1500 rpm. The rotating speed can be measured
by tachometer.

Direction of rotation of motor in first case – clockwise/counter-clockwise.

Direction of rotation of motor after interchanging the connections – clockwise/counter-clockwise.

The direction of rotation of the motor is reversed when connections at any two terminals are interchanged.

1.An induction motor is asynchronous motor.

1. What will be the synchronous speed of a 6-pole induction motor?

2. If the connection at RB terminals are interchanged will the direction of rotation of
induction motor reverses, justify?
3. While working,If the speed of 3-phase induction motor is increased more than the
synchronous speed by some means, what will you expect?
 5 Power Converters

Rationale
In electrical systems (power engineering), power conversion is considered as conversion of electric
energy from one form to another, such as conversion from AC to DC, DC to AC, DC to DC or
AC to AC. Sometimes, it may be just changing the voltage or frequency or combination of these.
A power converter is an electrical or electro-mechanical device for converting electrical energy. It
can be simply a transformer to change the voltage level of AC power, but on the other hand, it
may include far more complex systems. The term, power converter, can also be used for a class
of electrical machinery that is used to convert one frequency of alternating current into another
frequency as mentioned earlier.
Power conversion systems may be classified in different ways depending upon applications.
One way of classifying power conversion systems is according to whether the input and output are
alternating current (AC) or direct current (DC).
DC to DC power conversion: DC-to-DC converters come under this category. These are usually
employed to change the dc voltage level. A voltage regulator and linear regulator convert DC to DC
DC to AC power conversion: A power inverter is used to convert DC to AC.
AC to DC power conversion: The devices which are used to convert AC to DC are rectifier, mains
power supply unit (PSU) and switched-mode power supply.
AC to AC power conversion: The devices which are used to convert AC to AC are transformer/
autotransformer, voltage converter, voltage regulator, cycloconverter and variable-frequency transformer
There are also some devices and methods to convert power for single and three-phase operation.
As we know that standard power voltage and frequency varies from country to country and sometimes
within a country even. In America it is usually 120 volt, 60 Hz, but in Europe, Asia, Africa and
many other parts of the world, it is usually 230 volt, 50 Hz. Moreover in aircrafts, usually power
at 400 Hz is used, so 50 Hz/60 Hz to 400 Hz frequency conversion is needed for use in the ground
power unit used to power the airplane while it is on the ground. Conversely, internal 400 Hz internal
power may be converted to 50 Hz or 60 Hz for convenience power outlets available to passengers
during flight.
It is also true that for some electronic gadgets AC adapters (a type of power supply) are used to
convert mains-voltage AC to low-voltage DC suitable for consumption by microchips. Similarly,
voltage converters (also known as “travel converters”) are used when travelling between countries
that use ~120 V versus ~240 V AC mains power. There are also consumer “adapters” which merely
form an electrical connection between two differently shaped AC power plugs and sockets, these are
changing neither voltage nor frequency.
In this chapter, we shall go through some of the important converters.

U5-O1: Unit-5 Learning Outcome-1

To understand the working of power converter.
U5-O2: Unit-5 Learning Outcome-2
To analyse working and applications of a buck converter
U5-O3: Unit-5 Learning Outcome-3
To analyse working and applications of a boost converter
U5-O4: Unit-5 Learning Outcome-4
To analyse working and applications of a buck-boost converter
Meaning of modulation and analysis of various modulators.

 Working of power convertersand simple linear voltage regulator.

 To analyse the working of buck converters.
 To analyse the working of boost converters.
 To analyse the working of buck-boost converters.
 Working of voltage source inverter.
 Necessity of modulation.
 Working of various types of modulators.

Unit II EXPECTED MAPPING WITH COURSE OUTCOMES

Outcomes (1-weak Correlation: 2-Medium correlation; 3-Strong Correlation)
CO-1 CO-2 CO-3
U5-O1 1 3 --
U5-O2 1 3 --
U5-O3 1 3 --
U5-O4 1 3 --
U5-O5 1 3 --

 The world’s biggest light bulb is located in Edison, New Jersey. It’s 14 feet tall, weighs eight tons,
and sits on top of the Thomas Edison Memorial Tower.\
POWER CONVERTERS 301

• Electricity is present in our bodies – our nerve cells use it to pass signals to our muscles.
• Iceland is the country that uses the most electricity annually. Their consumption is about 23% more
than the U.S.

Video Resources
Videos Links for circuit

Basic Linear Buck Converter How does Buck How does Boost What is
Regulator Operation and Converter work | and Buck - Boost Modulation Why
Operation Voltage Equation- DC-DC Converter work | Modulation is
Lecture Converter - DC-DC Required Types
Converter - of Modulation
Explained.

5.1. DC-DC POWER CONVERTERS

DC-DC power converters are employed in a variety of applications such as power supplies for personal
computers, laptop, office equipment, spacecraft power systems, telecommunications equipment, dc
motor drives etc. The input to a dc-dc converter is an unregulated dc voltage and it produces a
regulated output voltage of different magnitude.

Classification of Converters
The dc-dc converters may be classified as:
Buck Converter: These are step down converters, their output voltage is less than the dc input voltage.
Boost converter: These are step up converters, their output voltage is more than the dc input voltage.
Buck-Boost converter: Their output voltage can be either
higher or lower than the dc input voltage. Resistor
dissipates
5.2. SIMPLE LINEAR VOLTAGE power

REGULATOR
DC voltage can be reduced or stepped down on the load side
Zener diode
by using a simple linear voltage regulator, as shown in Fig. dissipates Load
5.1. The most basic form of step down transition is to use a power
resistor as a potential divider or voltage dropper. In some cases
a zener diode may also be used to stabilise the voltage. The Fig. 5.1: Linear voltage regulator
issue with this form of voltage dropper or step down converter is that it is very wasteful in terms of
power. Any voltage dropped across the resistor will be dissipated as heat, and any current flowing
through the zener diode will also dissipate heat. Both of these elements result on the loss of valuable
energy.
Moreover, in such cases, when voltage is decreased current is not increased. Whereas, in case of buck-
converters, when voltage is stepped down, current is stepped up (i.e.Pin = Pout).

Buck converter is a DC-to-DC power converter which steps down voltage and steps up the current
simultaneously such that input power supply remains the same as that of the output (load).

The block diagram (conventional circuit) and pictorial view of a buck converter is shown in Fig. 5.2 and
5.3 respectively. It essentially consists of;
 At least two semiconductor devices: a diode and a transistor, however, in modern buck converters
usually diode is replaced with a second transistor and transistor is replaced with MOSFET or
IGBT.
 At least one energy storage element: a capacitor, inductor or the two in combination.
 Extra capacitors (or sometimes a combination of capacitors and inductors): these are used
to filter ripples. These components are normally added to output (load-side) and input (supply-
side); not shown here for simplicity.
Switch Inductor

Supply Load

Diad

The two circuit configurations of a buck converter i.e. On-state, when the switch is closed, and Off-
state, when the switch is open are shown in Fig. 5.4 and 5.5 respectively. The arrows indicate the
direction of flow of conventional current.
On -State L Off -State S L

D C Load D C Load
For ideal operation, it is assumed that
 All the components are perfect specifically, the switch and the diode have zero voltage drop when
on and zero current flow when off, and the inductor has zero series resistance
 The input and output voltages do not change over the course of a cycle. It implies that the output
capacitance is being infinite.
The functioning of buck converter is best understood in terms of the relation between current and
voltage of the inductor.

When the switch is open (off-state), as shown in Fig. 5.2, the current in the circuit is zero.

 When at first instant the switch is closed (on-state), as shown in Fig. 5.4, the current will begin
to increase, and the inductor will produce an opposing voltage across its terminals in response to
the changing current. This voltage drop counteracts the voltage of the source and therefore
reduces the net voltage across the load. As the rate of change of current decreases, the voltage
across the inductor also decreases, this increases the voltage across the load. During this time,
the inductor stores energy in the form of a magnetic field.
 If the switch is opened while the current is still changing, then there will always be a voltage
drop across the inductor, so the net voltage at the load will always be less than the input
voltage i.e. source voltage.

 When the switch is opened again (off-state), as shown in Fig. 5.5, the current will start decreasing.
The decreasing current will produce a voltage drop across the inductor which will be opposite to
the drop at on-state and hence, the inductor becomes a Current Source. The stored energy in the
inductor’s magnetic field is released which supports the current flow through the load. This off-
state current is added to the current flowing during on-state, hence, the total current becomes
greater than the average input current (being zero during off-state).
 Thus, during off-state, there is reduction in voltage but this reduction is compensated by the
increase in average current. Ideally it preserves the power provided to the load. It all happens only
because during off-state, the inductor is discharging its stored energy into the rest of the circuit.
If the switch is closed again before the inductor is fully discharged then the voltage at the load will
always be greater than the input voltage.
The buck converters may work in continuous mode or discontinuous mode.

A buck converter is said to be operated in continuous mode if the current through the inductor (IL)
never falls to zero during the commutation cycle. To describe the operating principle of buck converter
in this mode, consider the plots as shown in Fig. 5.6.
 TOn TOff

Switch state

0 On Off On t

Vi
VD
VO
Voltage

Vo
0 t

–Vo VL
Imax
Current

Iav IL
Imin
t

0 D.T T

 When the switch is closed, as shown in Fig. 5.4, the voltage across the inductor is VL = Vi – Vo.
The current through the inductor rises linearly (in approximation, so long as the voltage drop is
almost constant). At this instant, the diode is reverse-biased by the voltage source V, hence, no
current flows through it;
 When the switch is opened, as shown in Fig. 5.5, the diode is forward biased. The voltage across
the inductor is VL = – Vo (drop in diode is neglected). Current IL decreases.
The energy stored in magnetic field of inductor L is E  1 L I L2
2
Since IL increases in L during on-time, the energy stored in it also increases and then decreases
during the off-state. It shows that L is used to transfer energy from the input to the output of the
converter.

 The rate of change of IL can be determined from: VL  L dI L

dt
 During the on-state, the value of VL will be equal to Vi – VO and during the off-state it will be – VO.
Therefore, the increase in current during the on-state is given by the relation:

 I Lon  
ton VL
dt 
Vi  Vo  t  DT
on, ton
0 L L
Where D is called the Duty Cycle (a scalar quantity) which lies between 0 and 1.
 On the other hand, during off-state the current decreases. It is given by the relation:
T  ton  toff VL V
 I Loff   dt  o toff , toff  (1  D)T
ton L L
  Assuming that the converter operates in the steady state condition, the energy stored in each
component at the end of a commutation cycle T is equal to that at the beginning of the cycle. It
shows that the magnitude of current IL remains the same at t = 0 and at t = T (see figure 5.6).
From the above equations we get:
Vi  Vo V
 I Lon  I L off  0 or ton  o toff  0
L L
 As per the above equations, the quantities can be represented graphically, as shown in Fig. 5.6.
Here  Lon and  Loff are represented by different rectangles (gray and dark gray). Under
steady-state conditions, the area of rectangle for the quantity (Vi – VO) ton must be equal to
the area of rectangle for the quantity – VO toff.
From the Fig. 5.6, it is clear that ton = DT and toff = (1 – D) T
Vo
This yields; (Vi – VO ) DT – VO (1 – D) T = 0 or VO – D Vi = 0  D  V
i
 The above equation reveals that the output voltage of the converter varies linearly with the duty
cycle for a given input voltage. As the duty cycle D is equal to the ratio between ton and the period
T , it cannot be more than 1. Therefore, Vo  Vi This is why this converter is referred to as step-
down converter.
For example, if 12 V dc is required to be stepped down to 3 V dc (i.e. the output voltage is one quarter
of the input voltage) then we need a converter having a duty cycle of 25%.

A buck converter is said to be operated in discontinuous mode if the current through the inductor (IL)
falls to zero for some duration of the commutation cycle. A buck converter is operated in this mode only
when the amount of energy required by the load is too small. The only difference in the principle
described above is that the inductor is completely discharged at the end of the commutation cycle as
shown in figure 5.7. However, it affects on some of the previous equations.
Ton .T
Switch state

on Off on t
0

Vi
VD
Vo Vo
Voltage

0 t

–Vo VL

Imax IL
Current

0 D.T T
  In these converters, in every commutation cycle, the current falls to zero. This results in the
discharging of the output capacitor which causes more switching losses. To minimize these
losses a different control technique known as pulse-frequency modulation is adopted.
 Still it is considered that the converter operates in steady state. Therefore, the energy in the
inductor is considered to be the same at the beginning as well as at the end of the cycle (here in
discontinuous mode, it is zero). This means that the average value of the inductor voltage (VL) is
zero; i.e. the area of the light and dark rectangles in Fig. 5.7 are the same.
This yields; (Vi  Vo ) DT  Vo T  0
Vi  Vo
So the value of is,  D
Vo
 The output current delivered to the load (Io) is constant since we have considered that the output
capacitor is large enough to maintain a constant voltage across its terminals during a commutation
cycle. It implies that the current flowing through the capacitor has a zero average value.
Therefore, we have : I L'  I o where IL’ is the average value of the inductor current
 It can be seen in Fig 5.7 that the inductor current waveform has a triangular shape. Therefore, the
average value of IL can be sorted out geometrically as follow:

1 1 1 I
I ' L   I L max DT  I L max T   L max
D    I
o
2 2 T 2
 In the beginning, the inductor current is zero and rises during ton up to ILmax.
Therefore, ILmax will be equal to:
Vi  Vo
I L max  DT
L
 Substituting the value of ILmax in the previous equation, we get,
(Vi  Vo ) DT ( D   )
Io 
2L
 After substituting the value of in the above expression , it yields as :
 V  Vo  1
(Vi  Vo ) DT  D  i D Vo  Vi
 Vo  2 LI o
or 1
Io  D 2
V T
2L i

Conclusion: From the above expression, it is clear that the output voltage of a buck converter operating
in discontinuous mode is
 much more complicated than its counterpart of the continuous mode
 the output voltage is now a function not only of the input voltage (Vi) and the duty cycle D, but it
also depends upon the inductor value (L), the commutation period (T) and the output current (Io).
Thus, continuous mode is always preferred over discontinuous mode.
Buck converters are remarkably efficient (often higher than 90%). These are very useful for converting
a computer’s main (bulk) supply voltage (often 12V) down to lower voltages needed by USB, DRAM
and the CPU (1.8V or less).

Boost converter is a DC-to-DC power converter which steps up voltage and steps down the current
simultaneously such that input power supply remains the same as that of the output (load).

The block diagram (conventional circuit) and pictorial view of a boost converter is shown in Fig. 5.8
and 5.9 respectively. It essentially consists of;

L D

Supply Load
S

 At least two semiconductors – a diode and a transistor, however, in modern buck converters
usually diode is replaced with a second transistor and transistor is replaced with MOSFET or
IGBT.
 At least one energy storage element – a capacitor, inductor or the two in combination.
 Extra capacitors (or sometimes a combination of capacitors and inductors) – these are
used to filter ripples. These components are normally added to output (load-side) and input
(supply-side); not shown here for simplicity.

The basic principle of a boost converter is the tendency of an inductor to oppose the changes in current
by creating and destroying a magnetic field. In this converter, the output voltage is always higher than
the input voltage. A schematic of a boost power stage is shown in Fig. 5.10.
IL ID

L D

Vi S Vs C R Vo

Is
The two circuit configurations of a boost converter i.e. On-state, when the switch is closed, and Off-
state, when the switch is open are shown in Fig. 5.11 and 5.12 respectively. The arrows indicate the
direction of flow of conventional current.
L D L D

S C Load S C Load

For ideal operation, it is assumed that

 All the components are perfect specifically, the switch and the diode have zero voltage drop when
on and zero current flow when off, and the inductor has zero series resistance
 The input and output voltages do not change over the course of a cycle. It implies that the output
capacitance is being infinite.
To understand its functioning proceed as follows:

 When the switch is closed (On-state), current flows through the inductor in clockwise direction,
a magnetic field is developed and some energy is stored in it and the inductor attain a polarity.

 When the switch is opened (Off-state), current will reduce since the impedance is higher. The
magnetic field previously created will collapse to maintain the current towards the load. Thus, the
emf of the two sources will be in series causing a higher voltage to charge the capacitor through
the diode D.

 If the switch is operating fast enough, the inductor will not discharge fully in between charging
stages, and the load will always see a voltage greater than that of the input source alone when the
switch is opened. Moreover, when the switch is in open position, the capacitor which is in parallel
with the load is charged to this combined voltage.
 Again when the switch is closed, the right hand side is shorted out from the left hand side, in this
stage the capacitor is able to provide the necessary voltage and energy to the load. During this
time, the blocking diode prevents the capacitor from discharging through the switch. Obviously,
the switch must be opened again fast enough to prevent the capacitor from discharging too
much.
It concludes that a Boost converter works under 2 distinct states:
  in the On-state (when the switch is closed), this results in an increase in the inductor current;
 in the Off-state (when the switch is open), in this case the only path offered to inductor current
is through the flyback diode D, the capacitor C and the load R. This results in transferring of
energy accumulated during the On-state into the capacitor.
The boost converters may work in continuous mode or discontinuous mode.

 A boost converter is said to be operated in continuous mode if the current through the inductor
(IL) never falls to zero during the commutation cycle. To describe the operating principle of boost
converter in this mode, consider the plots as shown in Fig. 5.13.
T T
Switch state

on on t
0

VO VO
VS
Vi
Voltage

0 t

0
VL
IL
ID
Current

IS t
0 T

 When the switch is closed (on-state), as shown in Fig. 5.11, the voltage which appears across the
inductor is Vi . This causes a change in current (IL) flowing through the inductor during a time
period (t), it is given by the formula:
I L Vi
 where L is the inductance of the inductor
t L
At the end of the On-state, the current in the inductor increases to IL, it changes as per the relation:
1 DT DT
 I Lon  
L 0
Vi dt 
L
Vi where D is the duty cycle.

Duty cycle D represents the fraction of the commutation period T during which the switch is kept
On. Therefore, D ranges between 0 (when S is off or never on) and 1 (when S is always on).
 When the switch is opened (off-state), as shown in Fig. 5.12, the inductor current flows through
the load. As it is Assumed that there is zero voltage drop in the diode, and a capacitor is large
enough for its voltage to remain constant, the evolution of IL is:

dI L
Vi  Vo  L
dt
 Hence, the variation of IL during the Off-period will be:

I Lon  
T Vi  Vo  dt  Vi  Vo  1  D  T
DT L L
Since the converter operates in steady-state conditions, the amount of energy stored in the
inductor is given by:
1
E  L I L2
2
For proper functioning, the inductor current has to be the same at the start and at the end of the
commutation cycle. It means the overall change in the current (that is the sum of the changes) is zero:
Therefore,  I Lon   I Loff  0
Substituting the value of Lon and Loff the above expression yields to:

Vi DT (Vi  Vo ) (1  D)T Vo 1
I Lon  I Loff   0 or 
L L Vi 1  D
The above equation reveals that the output voltage is always higher than the input voltage (as the duty
cycle varies from 0 to 1). Theoretically it may increases to infinity as D approaches 1.
That is why this converter is considered as a step-up converter.
Duty cycle can be determined by rearranging the above equation i.e.
Vi
D 1
Vo

A boost converter is said to be operated in discontinuous mode if the inductor is completely discharged
before the end of a whole commutation cycle. This commonly occurs under light loads. In this case, the
current through the inductor falls to zero during part of the period (see waveforms in figure 5.14).
Although the difference is slight but it has a strong effect on the output voltage equation. The voltage
gain can be calculated as follows:
Ton .T
Switch stata

0 on Off on t

Vo Vo
VS
Vi
Voltage

0 t

Vi -Vo VL

Imax
Current

IL
t
0 D.T T
As at the beginning of the cycle, the inductor current is zero, its maximum value ILmax (at t = DT) is
V DT
I Lmax  i
L
(Vi  Vo )  T
During the off-period, IL falls to zero after  I Lmax  0
L
Vi D
Solving the above two equations, we can determine the value of  i.e  
Vo  Vi
The load current Io is equal to the diode current (ID). It can be visualised in Fig. 5.14. The diode current
is equal to the inductor current during the off-state. Therefore, the output current can be written as:
I Lmax
Io  I D  
2
Substituting the value of ILmax and  the expressions yields to:
Vi DT Vi D Vi 2 D 2T
Io  , 
2 L Vo  Vi 2 L (Vo  Vi )

Vo V D 2T
Thus, the output voltage gain:  1 i
Vi 2 LI o
This expression of the output voltage gain in comparison to the output voltage gain for continuous
mode is much more complicated. Moreover, in discontinuous operation, the output voltage gain not only
depends on the duty cycle (D), but it also depends upon the inductor value (L), the input voltage (Vi),
the commutation period (T) and the output current (Io).

Boost converters are remarkably efficient (often higher than 90%). Battery power systems often stack
cells in series to achieve higher voltage. However, sufficient stacking of cells is not possible in many
high voltage applications due to lack of space. Boost converters can increase the voltage and reduce the
number of cells. Two battery-powered applications that use boost converters are used in hybrid electric
vehicles (HEV) and lighting systems.
Boost converter are used to step-up from 2.4 V provided by two AA rechargeable cells to 9 V for TI
calculator. Boost converters also power devices at smaller scale applications, such as portable lighting
systems. A white LED typically requires 3.3 V to emit light, and a boost converter can step up the
voltage from a single 1.5 V alkaline cell to power the lamp.

Buck–boost converter is a type of DC-to-DC power converter that has the ability to step-down or step-
up the output voltage (magnitude) and steps-up or step-down the current simultaneously such that input
power supply remains the same as that of the output (load).
Two different topologies (network technologies) are employed for buck–boost converter. Both of them
can produce a range of output voltages, ranging from much larger (in absolute magnitude) than the input
voltage, down to almost zero.
The block diagram (conventional circuit) and pictorial view of a buck-boost converter is shown in
Fig. 5.15 and 5.16 respectively.

S D
Supply L Load

VD
Is ID

S
D

Vi L VL C R Vo

IL

A detailed schematic diagram of a buck-boost converter is shown in Fig. 5.17. It essentially

consists of;
 At least two semiconductors : a diode and a transistor, however, in modern buck converters
usually diode is replaced with a second transistor and transistor is replaced with MOSFET or
IGBT.
 At least one energy storage element : a capacitor, inductor or the two in combination.
 Extra capacitors (or sometimes a combination of capacitors and inductors) : these are used
to filter ripples. These components are normally added to output (load-side) and input (supply-
side); not shown here for simplicity.

The inverting topology or network technology

In this topology, the output voltage is of the opposite polarity than the input. This is a switched-
mode power supply. It is a similar network technology which is used in boost converter and the buck
converter. The output voltage is adjustable based on the duty cycle of the switching transistor.
The drawback in this network technology is that the switch of the converter is not grounded; this
complicates the driving circuitry. However, this drawback is of no consequence if the power supply is
isolated from the load circuit.

The basic principle of the inverting buck–boost converter is fairly simple (see figure 2):
 On -State D Off -State D
S S

L C R L C R Load

(a)When switch is ON (On-State) (b) When switch is OFF (Off-State)

 When the switch is in the On-state, the input voltage source is directly connected to the inductor
(L). This results in accumulation of energy in L in the form of magnetic field. In this stage, the
energy is supplies to the load by the capacitor.
 When the switch is in the Off-state, the inductor is connected to the load and capacitor.
Therefore, energy is supplied by the inductor L to load R and capacitor C.
In comparison to the buck and boost converters, the characteristics of the inverting buck–
boost converter are mainly:
 polarity of the output voltage is opposite to that of the input, the output voltage can vary continuously
from 0 to  (for an ideal converter). The output voltage ranges for a buck and a boost converter
are respectively Vi to 0 and Vi to  .

The output voltage is typically of the same polarity of the input, and can be lower or higher than the
input. Such a non-inverting buck-boost converter may use a single inductor which is used for both the
buck inductor mode and the boost inductor mode. In this topology switches are used instead of diodes,
that is why it is also called a “four-switch buck-boost converter”.

In a 4-switch topology, the buck and boost converters are combined. It can operate in either the buck or
the boost mode. In both the modes, at a time only one switch controls the duty cycle, another is for
commutation and must be operated inversely to the former one, and the remaining two switches are in
a fixed position.
S1 L1 S4 S1 L1 D4
1 2 1 2 1 2
2 2 2 2
1 S2 S3 1 S3
R D2 R
2 2
1 1 1 1

(a) Basic 4-switch buck-boost circuit (b) S2 and S4 operated as diodes

S1 L1 L1 D4
1 2
2
S3
1 D2 R 1 R
2 2 1

(c)Buck mode: S3 open, D4 conducting (d) Boost mode: S1 closed, D2 blocking

A 2-switch buck-boost converter can be built with two diodes also as shown in Fig. 5.19. However, to
upgrade the converters, diodes can be replaced with FET or MOSFET. It doesn’t cost much extra but
improves the efficiency and reduce the voltage drops.

The buck-boost converters can also be operated in continuous as well as discontinuous mode similar to
buck converters and boost converters. When the current through the inductor (IL) never falls to zero
during the commutation cycle, it is called a continuous mode but if it falls to for some duration then it is
called as discontinuous mode.
Applications of Buck boost converter
 It is used in the self regulating power supplies.  It has consumer electronics.
 It is used in the Battery power systems.  Adaptive control applications.
 Power amplifier applications.
Advantages of Buck Boost Converter
 It gives higher output voltage.  Low operating duct cycle.
 Low voltage on MOSFETs

The period or duration in which a signal or system remains active is called duty cycle.
Duty cycle is commonly expressed as a percentage or a ratio. A period is the time duration that a signal
takes to complete an on-and-off cycle.
As a formula, a duty cycle (%) may be expressed as:
PW
D  100%
T
Similarly, a duty cycle (ratio) may be expressed as:
PW
D
T
where D is the duty cycle, PW is the pulse width (pulse active time), and T is the total period of the
signal.
For a converter, D = Vout / Vin
Accordingly, a 60% duty cycle means the signal is on 60% of the time but off 40% of the time.
Note: The “on time” for a 60% duty cycle could be a fraction of a second, a day, or even a
week, depending on the length of the period.
Duty cycle is used to describe the percent time of an active signal in an electrical device (power converter etc.).

A circuit that operates from a stiff dc source and develops an ac output is usually known as voltage
source inverter.
If the input dc is a voltage source, the inverter is called a voltage source inverter (VSI). One can similarly
think of a current source inverter (CSI), where the input to the circuit is a current source. The VSI
circuit has direct control over ‘output (ac) voltage’ whereas the CSI directly controls ‘output (ac)
current’. Shape of voltage waveforms output by an ideal VSI should be independent of load connected
at the output.
The simplest dc voltage source for a VSI may be a battery bank, which may consist of several cells in
series-parallel combination. Solar photovoltaic cells can be another dc voltage source. An ac voltage
supply, after rectification into dc will also qualify as a dc voltage source. A voltage source is called stiff,
if the source voltage magnitude does not depend on load connected to it.
Voltage source inverters (VSI) are used in uninterruptible power supply (UPS) units, adjustable speed
drives (ASD) for ac motors, electronic frequency changer circuits etc.
Most of us are more familiar with commercially available inverter units used in our houses and offices
as stand-by units to power some essential ac loads in case the power supply gets interrupted. In such
inverter units, battery supply is used as the input dc voltage source and the inverter circuit converts the
dc into ac voltage of desired power frequency (50Hz). The achievable magnitude of ac voltage is limited
by the magnitude of input (dc bus) voltage. In ordinary household inverters the battery voltage may be
just 12 volt and the inverter circuit may be capable of supplying ac voltage of around 10 volts (rms)
only. In such cases the inverter output voltage is stepped up using a transformer to meet the load
requirement of, say, 230 volt.

For conversion of dc into ac, two schematic circuits, using transistor-switches, are shown in Figs.
5.20(a) and 5.21(a). In both the circuits, the transistors work in common emitter configuration and are
interconnected in push-pull manner. In order to have a single control signal for the transistor switches,
one transistor is of npn type and the other of pnp type and their emitters and bases are shorted as shown
in the figures. A symmetrical bipolar dc supply is required for both the circuits. Collector of npn transistor
is connected to positive dc supply (+E), whereas, the collector of pnp transistor is connected to negative
dc supply of same magnitude (-E). A resistive load is connected between the emitter shorting point and
the power supply ground.

When the transistors work in active (amplifier) mode

The circuit for the transistors working in active (amplifier) mode is shown in Fig. 5.20(a). When applied
base signal is positive, the pnp transistor is reverse biased and the npn transistor conducts the load
current. Similarly for negative base voltage the pnp transistor conducts while npn transistor remains
reverse biased. A suitable resistor connected in series with the base signal will limit the base current and
keeps it sinusoidal provided the applied (sinusoidal) base signal magnitude is much higher than the base
to emitter conduction-voltage drop. Assuming constant gain of the transistor over its working range, the
load current can be seen to follow the applied base signal. Fig. 5.20(b) shows a typical load voltage and
base signal waveforms. The other transistor will also be dissipating identical power during its conduction.
 +E

Load voltage, base signal

& switch power -loss
NPN 0.5
S Load(R)
* 0
0 0 4 6 8
-0.5 angle in radians
PNP
-1

-E

(a) Circuit diagram (b) Wave diagram

When the transistors work in switched-mode

The circuit for the transistors working in switched-mode is shown in Fig. 5.21(a). The conducting
switch remains fully on having negligible on-state voltage drop and the non-conducting switch remains
fully off allowing no leakage current through it. The load voltage waveform output by switched-mode
circuit of Fig. 5.21(b) is rectangular with magnitude +E when the npn transistor is on and –E when pnp
transistor is
+E
1
fundamental component
load voltage and its

0.5
NPN
S Load(R)
* 0
0 2 4 6 8

-0.5
PNP
-1
Angle in radians
-E

Fig. 5.21: Transistors working in switch mode

on. Such waveform is shown in Fig. 5.21(b). The on and off durations of the two transistors are
controlled so that (i) the resulting rectangular waveform has no dc component (ii) has a fundamental
(sinusoidal) component of desired frequency and magnitude and (iii) the frequencies of unwanted
harmonic voltages are much higher than that of the fundamental component so that those can be
filtered. The fundamental sine wave is also shown in Fig. 5.21 (b). This waveform is identical to the
sinusoidal output voltage waveform of the system voltage.

Both amplifier mode and switched mode circuits are capable of producing ac voltages of controllable
magnitude and frequency. However, the amplifier circuit is not acceptable in power-electronic applications
due to high switching power loss. The switched mode circuit is acceptable although it generates significant
amount of unwanted harmonic voltages along with the desired fundamental frequency voltage. These
high frequency voltage harmonics can easily be blocked by using small size filters. Thus, a desired
quality of load voltage can be obtained.

A typical power-circuit topologies of a single-phase voltage source inverter is shown in Fig. 5.22. For
medium output power applications, only one dc source and the preferred devices are:
(i) n-channel IGBTs (Q1, Q2, Q3 etc.- act as fast and controllable switches)
(ii) a large dc link capacitor (Cdc)
(iii) fast recovery diodes (D1, D2, D3 etc.)

Idc

Q1 D1 Q3 D3

Edc + Cdc
_ A Load B

Q2 D2 Q4 D4

The current supplied by the dc bus to the inverter switches is referred as dc link current and has
been shown as ‘idc’ in Fig. 5.22. The magnitude of dc link current often changes in as the inverter
switches (Q1, Q2, Q3 and Q4) are turned on and off. The inverter switches work in fully-on or
fully-off mode to achieve reduced losses in the switches. The step change in instantaneous dc link
current occurs even if the ac load at the inverter output is drawing steady power. However, average
magnitude of the dc link current remains positive if net power-flow is from dc bus to ac load. The
net power-flow direction reverses if the ac load connected to the inverter is regenerating. Under
regeneration, the mean magnitude of dc link current is negative.
For an ideal input (dc) supply, with no series impedance, the dc link capacitor does not have any
role. However a practical voltage supply may have considerable amount of output impedance. The
supply line impedance, if not bypassed by a sufficiently large dc link capacitor, may cause considerable
voltage spike at the dc bus during inverter operation. This may result in deterioration of output
voltage quality, it may also cause malfunction of the inverter switches as the bus voltage appears
across the non-conducting switches of the inverter. Moreover, in the absence of dc link capacitor,
the series inductance of the supply line will prevent quick build up or fall of current through it and
the circuit behaves differently from the ideal VSI where the dc voltage supply is supposed to allow
rise and fall in current as per the demand of the inverter circuit.
Therefore, dc link capacitor should be applied to remove the ripples. These should be put very close to
the switches so that it provides a low impedance path to the high frequency component of the switching
currents. The capacitor itself must be of good quality with very low equivalent series resistor and
inductor.
When switches are to be connected in bridge fashion, using n-channel IGBTs, the gate (base) signals to
the VSI switches need to be isolated.
While framing the circuit, the leads that interconnect switches and diodes to the dc bus must be of
minimum length to avoid insertion of significant amount of stray inductances in the circuit. The overall
layout of the power circuit has a significant effect over the performance of the inverter circuit.
A diode in anti-parallel with each controlled switch, like IGBT, is used in VSI to allow a non-unity power
factor load at the output.
Essentially, it is a full bridge circuit as shown in Fig. 5.22. The circuit has two legs of switches, each leg
consisting of an upper switch and a lower switch. Junction point of the upper and lower switches is the
output point of that particular leg. Voltage between output point of legs and the mid-potential of the dc
bus is called as ‘pole voltage’ referred to the mid potential of the dc bus. One may think of pole voltage
referred to negative bus or referred to positive bus too but unless otherwise mentioned pole voltages are
assumed to be referred to the mid-potential of the dc bus. The two pole voltages of the single-phase
bridge inverter generally have same magnitude and frequency but their phases are 180º apart. Thus the
load connected between these two pole outputs (between points ‘A’ and ‘B’) will have a voltage equal to
twice the magnitude of the individual pole voltage.

A typical power-circuit topologies of a three-phase voltage source inverter is shown in Fig. 5.23. For
medium output power applications, only one dc source and the preferred devices are:
(i) n-channel IGBTs (Q1, Q2, Q3, Q4, Q5, Q6 - act as fast and controllable switches)
(ii) a large dc link capacitor (Cdc)
(iii) fast recovery diodes (D1, D2, D3, D4, D5, D6)

Idc

D1 D3 D5
Q1 Q3 Q5

Edc
+ Cdc
_ A B C

Q2 D2 Q4 D4 Q6 D6
The working of 3-phase inverter bridge, shown in Fig. 5.23, is similar as that of 1-phase inverter. The
only difference is that the pole voltages of the 3-phase inverter bridge are 120º phase apart across the
terminals A, B and C.

The process of varying some characteristic (e.g. amplitude, frequency or phase) of a carrier wave by the
*modulating signal is called modulation.
The audio (message) signals or waves have small power and cannot be transmitted to long distances.
Therefore, these waves or signals are ‘added’ to the high frequency (carrier) waves because these have
sufficient power to travel through long distances.
The carrier wave is usually represented by the expression ;
vc = Vc sin (c t + )
The three variables in this equation are amplitude Vc ; frequency fc (as c = 2pfc) and phase angle .
Therefore, the audio waves are added to the carrier waves in such a way that some characteristic
(amplitude frequency or phase) of carrier varies in accordance with the signal. This process by which
the carrier is modified in accordance with the signal is called **modulation.

Modulation is extremely necessary in radio/TV communication, processing weak signals in instrumentation

and in other electronic systems to
(i) increases the operating range, (ii) transmit the signal without wireand (iii) reduces the size of
transmitting antenna.

As discussed earlier, modulation is a process of varying some characteristic i.e. amplitude, frequency or
phase of the carrier wave in accordance with the message signal. Accordingly, the modulation is of three
types, namely ;
(i) amplitude modulation (ii) frequency modulation (iii) phase modulation.
We shall confine our attention on the first two types of modulations i.e. amplitude modulation and
frequency modulation. It is because in India, amplitude modulation is employed in radio broadcasting
system, whereas, frequency modulation is employed for sound signals and amplitude is employed for
picture (video) signals in TV transmission.

The process by which the amplitude of a carrier wave is varied in accordance with the modulating
signal is called amplitude modulation.
Principle of amplitude modulation is represented in Fig. 5.24 The three waves shown in Fig. 5.24
are (a) modulating signal, (b) carrier wave and (c) the resultant of amplitude modulated wave. It may
be noted that when a signal of frequency fs is modulated with carrier wave of frequency fc, a

* The modulating signal may be audio or vedio signal.

** In fact, the name modulation has come from modification.
resultant wave (modulated wave) is produced. It retains the frequency of carrier wave i.e. fc, but
its amplitude varies in accordance with the signal. The amplitude of the resultant wave varies in both
the halves (positive and negative) simultaneously. It is because when the signal in increasing in the
positive sense, the amplitude of the carrier wave also increases. On the other hand when the signal
is changing in the negative sense, the amplitude of the carriers decreases. This modulation (mixing
of two waves) is done with the help of an electron circuit using solid state devices or valves. The
circuit is known as modulator.
The important points to be noted are ;
(i) Amplitude of the modulated wave varies in accordance with message signal.
(ii) Frequency of the modulated wave is the same (fc) as that of the carrier frequency.
(iii) While doing modulation, the amplitude of carrier varies on both the halves simultaneously
in accordance with the signal.

We have seen that in amplitude modulation, the amplitude of the carrier increases during positive half
cycle of the signal, whereas it decreases during the negative half-cycle of the signal (See Fig. 5.24). The
extent to which the amplitude of carrier wave is changed by the signal is described by the factor called
modulation factor. It may be defined as under :
The ratio of change in amplitude of carrier wave due to modulation to the original amplitude of the
normal carrier wave is called modulation factor. It is generally represented by letter ‘m’.
Change in amplitude of carrier
Modulation factor, m =
amplitude of normal carrier
The above relation clearly shows that the modulation factor depends upon the amplitude of both the
waves ; carrier and signal.
Significance of modulation factor : In amplitude modulation, the amplitude of the carrier wave
varies as per the modulating signal wave. The degree of modulation factor shows the strength of
message signal i.e. the greater the degree of modulation (m), the stronger and clear will be the
message signal and vice-versa. Hence, for m = 1 or 100%, the message signal being transmitted will
be the strongest. However, when the carrier is over modulated (i.e. m > 1 or 100%), the AM wave
will be clipped off and a huge distortion will occur during reception. Therefore, degree of modulation
should never exceed 100%.

Let the carrier voltage wave be represented by the equation ;

vc = Vc sin (ct + )
For simplicity, consider phase angle  to be zero, then
vc = Vc sin ct ...(i)
where, vc = Instantaneous value of carrier
Vc = amplitude of carrier
c = 2fc = angular velocity at carrier frequency fc.
 Let this carrier is modulated with the modulating signal represented by the equation ;
v s = Vs *cos st ...(ii)
where, v s = instantaneous value of signal
Vs = amplitude of signal
s = 2 fs = angular velocity at signal frequency fs
If m is the modulation factor, then
Vs
m =V or Vs = mVc ...(iii)
c
Substituting the value of Vs in eqn. (ii), we get,
v s = mVc cos st ...(iv)
In amplitude modulation, the amplitude of the carrier wave (Vc) varies in accordance with the signal
as shown in Fig. 5.24. Hence, the amplitude of the resultant modulated wave varies at signal frequency.
Therefore, the amplitude of AM wave is given as ;
= Vc + mVc cos st
= Vc (1 + m cos st) ...(v)
s c  RESULTANT AM WAVE

CARRIER
MESSAGE SIGNAL

t t t
0 0 0

(a) Message Signal (b) Carrier (c) Resultant AM Wave

Thus, the instantaneous value of the resultant modulated wave will be ;

v = Amplitude × sin ct
= Vc (1 + m cos st) sin ct
= Vc sin ct + mVc sin ct cos st
mVc
= Vc sin ct + (2 sin ct cos st)
2
mV c
= Vc sin ct + [sin ct – st) + sin (ct + st)]
2
mVc mVc
= Vc sin ct + sin (c – s)t + sin (c + s)t ..(vi)
2 2
The following points may be noted from the expression (vi) of modulated voltage wave ;

* To make the calculation work simple, the signal is represented by consine of the angle. This only shows that the
reckoning point is taken at positive maximum position.
c (   s ) (   s )
** Here, fc = ; ( fc  f s )  c and ( f c  f s )  c
2 2 2
 (i) The AM waves is just a summation of the following three waves varying sinusoidally
(a) First having magnitude Vc and frequency **fc
(b) Second having magnitude mVc/2 and frequency (fc – fs)
(c) Third having magnitude mVc/2 and frequency (fc + fs).
(ii) The AM wave contains the fundamental frequency of carrier fc and produces two more
frequencies (fc – fs) and (fc + fs) known as side-band frequencies. Where, (fc – fs) is called
lower sideband frequency and (fc + fs) is called the upper sideband frequency.

Amplitude modulation suffers from the following shortcomings :

1. Poor efficiency : In amplitude modulation, sidebands contain the signal, therefore, the power
existing in the sidebands is only the useful power. The sideband power is only one-third (33·3%)
of the total power of AM wave. Therefore, it is said that the amplitude modulation transmits
signal at poor efficiency.
2. Noisy reception : In an AM wave, the amplitude variation in carrier contains the signal.
Unfortunately, all the natural and man made noises consists of electrical disturbances. Moreover,
radio receiver is such a device that it cannot distinguish between the amplitude variations that
present due to desired signal or noise. Hence the reception is noisy. For instant, if we start a
scooter or motor-cycle near the radio receiver, a noise. Hence the reception is noisy.
3. Smaller operating range : Owing to the poor efficiency of amplitude modulation, the
transmitters employing this method have smaller range i.e. message (signal) cannot be transmitted
to longer distances.
4. Poor audio quality : Because of more interference of the electrical amplitude disturbances, the
audio quality obtained is poor when the signal a transmitter by amplitude modulation.

The process by which the frequency of a carrier wave is varied in accordance with the modulating signal
is called frequency modulation.
Principle of frequency modulation is represented in Fig. 5.25. The three waves shown in the figure are
(a) signal, (b) carrier and (c) the resultant frequency modulated wave. It may be noted that when a
signal of frequency fs is modulated with carrier wave of frequency fc, a resultant modulated wave is
produced.
s c 
CARRIER
SIGNAL
W

t t t
0 S T U V 0 0
Y

R W S Y T X U Z V
(a) Message Signal (b) Carrier (c) Resultant FM Wave

* In eqn. vc = Vc sin (ct + ), if phase angle  is neglected for simplicity, then vc = Vc sin ct.
It retains the amplitude of the carrier wave (i.e. Vc) but its frequency varies in accordance with the
instantaneous magnitude of the signal. Thus, when the signal voltage is zero, frequency of the carrier
wave is not modulated and remains the same (see position RSTU and V in Fig. 2.25-c). However,
when the magnitude of signal is reaching its positive peak value, the frequency of carrier wave (after
modulation) also increases as represented by closely spaced cycles (see position W and X in Fig.
5.25-c). Whereas, during negative peak value, the frequency of carrier decreases as represented by
widely spaced cycles (see position Y and Z in Fig. 5.25-c).
Mathematically ;
In the carrier voltage is given by the equation ;
*vc = Vc sin ct
and the modulating wave or signal is given by the equation ;
v s = Vs cos st
Thus, the instantaneous value of FM voltage is given as;
where Vc = amplitude of carrier wave
c = 2 fc = angular velocity at carrier frequency fc
s = 2 fs = angular velocity at signal frequency fs
 = maximum frequency deviation
= k Vs fc where k is proportionality constant and Vs is amplitude of signal wave
Modulation index for FM, mf is defined as :
max. frequency deviation 
mf = modulating signal frequency  f ...(iv)
s
Hence, v = Vc sin (ct + mf sf) ...(v)
The following points are worth noting :
(i) The amplitude of the modulated wave is the same as that of the carrier wave.
(ii) The frequency of the modulated wave varies in accordance with the message signal.

(i) High transmission efficiency : Transmission efficiency of FM is very high as compared

to AM. It is because in AM the transmitted power is governed by the modulation depth
whereas in FM it is independent of modulation depth as the amplitude of FM wave is
constant. Moreover, all the transmitted power in FM is useful, whereas in AM most of
it is used in transmitting carrier which does not indicate any modulation change.

* VHF means Very High Frequency and

UHF means Ulta High Frequency
MF means Medium Frequency
HF means High Frequency
** Standard frequenices are allocated worldwide by the International Radio Consultative Committee (CCIR) of the
I.T.U.
 (ii) Noiseless reception : FM receivers can be fitted with amplitude limiters to remove the
amplitude variations caused by noise, therefore, FM receivers provide noiseless reception.
Moreover, FM broadcasts operate in the upper *VHF and UHF frequency range at which
there happens to be less noise than in the MF and HF rangers occupied by AM broadcasts.
(iii) Better audio quality : There is less adjacent-channel interference in FM than in AM. It is
because **Standard frequency allocations provide a guard band between commercial FM
stations.

FM transmissions also suffer from some of the drawbacks, otherwise there would have been no AM
transmission left. These drawbacks are listed below :
(i) Wider channel is needed : A much wider channel is required by FM, upto 10 times as large
as that needed by AM. This is one of the major disadvantage.
(ii) Equipment used is more complex and costly : FM transmitting and receiving equipment
particularly modulators and demodulators are more complex and costly.
(iii) Smaller area of reception : In this case reception is limited to line of sight, therefore, area
of reception for FM is much smaller than for AM. This property may be considered as
an advantages for co-channel allocation otherwise it is true that it reduces the area of
reception.

The process by which the phase angle of a carrier wave is varied in accordance with the modulating
signal is called phase modulation.
In phase modulation, the phase deviation is proportional to the amplitude of the modulating signal (Vs)
but in independent of its frequency (fs). In this case, the phasor of the modulated wave leads the
reference position during positive half-cycle of the modulating signal and lags the reference position
during the negative half-cycle of the modulating signal. The angular displacement of the phasor of
the modulated wave (fs) is restricted within the limits by the modulating signal.
Mathematically
If carrier voltage is given by the equation :
vc = Vc sin (ct + ) ...(i)
and the modulating signal wave is given by the equation ;
v s = Vs cos st ...(ii)
In phase modulation, the phase in eqn. (i) is varied in accordance with the instantaneous amplitude
of the modulating voltage. The expression for the PM wave will be
v = Vc sin (ct + s sin st) ...(iii)
where s is the maximum value of phase change introduced by this particular modulating signal
and is proportional to the maximum amplitude of this modulation. For the sake of uniformly, the
above equation may be rewritten as ;
v = Vc sin (ct + mp sin st) ...(iv)
where mp = s = modulation index for phase modulation
POWER CONVERTERS 325

How To Make
WOW
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12v To 220v Electric Science
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1. Power converter: A power converter is an electrical or electro-mechanical or electronic

device that converts electrical energy to mechanical, mechanical energy electrical, DC to
AC, AC to DC, DC to DC of different voltage level, AC to AC of different voltage level
or different frequency.
2. Simple linear voltage regulator: It is just a potential-divider.
3. Buck converter: It is a DC-to-DC power converter which steps down voltage and steps
up the current simultaneously such that input power supply remains the same as that of
the output (load).
4. Applications of buck converters: These are very useful for converting a computer's main
(bulk) supply voltage (often 12V) down to lower voltages needed by USB, RAM and the
CPU (1.8V or less).
5. Boost converter: It is a DC-to-DC power converter which steps up voltage and steps
down the current simultaneously such that input power supply remains the same as that
of the output (load).
6. Applications of boost converters: Two battery-powered applications that use boost converters
are used in hybrid electric vehicles (HEV) and lighting systems.
7. Buck–boost converter: It is a type of DC-to-DC power converter that has the ability to
step-down or step-up the output voltage (magnitude) and steps-up or step-down the
current simultaneously such that input power supply remains the same as that of the
output (load).
8. Duty cycle: The period or duration in which a signal or system remains active is called
duty cycle.
9. Voltage source inverter: A circuit that operates from a stiff dc source and develops an ac
output is usually known as voltage source inverter.
10. Modulation: The process by which the characteristics of one waveform (carrier) is
modified in accordance with the variations in another wave (modulating signal wave) is
called modulation.
11. Equation for carrier wave: The carrier wave is given by the equation :
vc = Vc sin (ct + )
This wave has three variable characteristics i.e. amplitude Vc, frequency fc (c = 2fc)
and phase angle .
12. Necessity of modulation:
(i) to increase operating range (ii) to permit transmission without wire
(iii) to reduce the size of transmitting antenna.
13. Amplitude modulation: When the amplitude of a carrier wave is varied in accordance
with the modulating signal the process is called amplitude modulation.
14. Modulation factor: The ratio of change in amplitude of carrier wave due to modulation
to the original of the normal carrier wave is called modulation factor.
V
m= s
Vc
15. Limitations of amplitude modulation: (i) poor efficiency (ii) noisy reception (iii)
smaller operating range (iv) poor audio quality.
16. Frequency modulation: The process by which the frequency of a carrier wave is
varied in accordance with the modulating signal is called frequency modulation.
17. Advantages to FM: (i) High transmission efficiency (ii) Noiseless reception (iii) Better
audio quality.
Disadvantages of FM: (i) Wider channel is needed (ii) Equipment used is more complex
and costly (iv) Smaller area of reception.
18. Phase modulation: The process by which the phase angle of a carrier wave is varied
in accordance with the modulating signal is called phase modulation.

1. What is a power converter?

2. How does a power converter work?
3. What is the difference between an inverter and a converter?
4. How do you convert DC to AC?
5. What is the difference between a rectifier and an inverter?
6. How does a potential divider used to get reduced voltage?
7. Why buck converter is preferred over potential divider?
8. How does a buck converter work?
9. How current can be increased in a circuit?
10. How does boost converter work?
11. What is the use of a boost converter?
12. What is a buck boost converter?
13. How does a buck boost converter work?
14. How does a DC to AC inverter work?
15. What is the duty ratio?
16. What does 60% duty cycle mean?
17. What is a 100% duty cycle?
18. How does a voltage source inverter convert dc into ac?
19. Name the major components used in a VSI, draw its circuit.
20. What is difference between a 1-phase and 3-phase VSI?
21. What is the difference between a UPS and an inverter?
22. What is a sinusoidal modulator?
23. What are the different types of modulation?
24. What is meant by Over-modulation?
25. What is meant by under-modulation?
26. Where amplitude modulation is used?
27. What do you mean by amplitude modulation?
28. Why FM is better than AM?
29. How amplitude modulation is work?
30. What is amplitude modulation index?
31. What is FM signal?

1. A diode in anti-parallel with the controlled switch, like IGBT, is used in VSI to:
(A) prevent reversal of dc link current.
(B) allow a non-unity power factor load at the output.
(C) protect the circuit against accidental reversal of dc bus polarity.
(D) none of the above.
2. A large capacitor, put across dc bus of a voltage source inverter, is intended to:
(A) to protect against switch failure.
(B) to minimize high frequency current ripple through the ideal dc source.
(C) to maintain a constant dc link current.
(D) allow a low impedance path to the high frequency component of dc link current.
3. Gate (base) signals to the VSI switches, using n-channel IGBTs, need to be isolated to allow:
(A) protection of switches against short at the inverter output terminals.
(B) lower losses in the gate drive circuit.
 (C) switches to be connected in bridge fashion.
(D) a dc link voltage higher than the switch voltage rating.
4. The inverter switches work in fully-on or fully-off mode to achieve:
(A) reduced losses in the switches.
(B) minimum distortion in the output voltage waveform.
(C) easier gate control circuit for the switching devices.
(D) satisfactory operation for non-resistive load at the output.
5. AM is a process by which
(A) the frequency of the carrier is varied in accordance with the signal.
(B) the amplitude of the carrier is varied in accordance with the signal.
(C) the phase of the carrier is varied in accordance with the signal.
(D) the frequency and amplitude both are varied in accordance with the signal.

1. What do you mean by power converter? How will you classify them?
2. Explain the working of a buck converter with the help of a circuit diagram.
3. Draw the input and output wave-shapes of a buck converter working in continuous mode.
4. How will you differentiate between continuous and discontinuous mode of operation of
buck converter?
5. Explain the working of a boost converter with the help of a circuit diagram.
6. Draw the input and output wave-shapes of a boost converter working in discontinuous
mode.
7. How will you differentiate between continuous and discontinuous mode of operation of
boost converter?
8. Mention the characteristics and important applications of buck converter and boost con-
verter.
9. Explain the working of a buck-boost converter with the help of a circuit diagram.
10. What is the significance of duty cycle?
11. How dc is converted into ac with the help of a voltage source inverter (VSI)?
12. Why switch mode VSI is preferred over amplifier mode VSI?
13. Explain the working of a single-phase VSI with the help of a circuit diagram.
14. What is modulation ? State the need of modulation in communication system.
or
What do you mean by modulation ? Why is essential ?
15. Define AM and FM. Use sketches to explain these definitions. Where are these employed ?
16. What do you understand by modulation factor ? What is its significance ?
 17. In what respect FM differ from that of AM ? Discuss relative merits and demerits of the
two methods of modulation.
18. Define amplitude modulation and derive an expression for a sinusoidal carrier voltage,
amplitude modulated by another sinusoidal voltage?
ATTAINMENT & GAP ANALYSIS
Attainment of the Programme Outcomes will be compiled in the table below to make a Gap Analysis
and work out remedial measures:
Course Attainment of the Programme Outcomes
Outcome (1- Weak Correlation; 2- Medium correlation; 3- Strong Correlation)
PO-1 PO-2 PO-3 PO-4 PO-5 PO-6 PO-7 PO-8 PO-9 PO-10 PO-11 PO-12
CO-1
CO-2
CO-3

Multi-Choice questions :
1. (B) 2. (D) 3. (C) 4. (A) 5. (B)
330 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Experiment No. 8
Synchronous Machine operating as a generator - stand-alone operation with a load. Control of voltage
through field excitation.
This experiment can be divided into two parts:
(i) To plot relationship between no load terminal voltage and excitation current in a synchronous
generator at constant speed.
(ii) Determination of relationship between the voltage and load current of an alternator keeping
excitation and speed constant.
Objective:
1. To show that the generated voltage in an alternator is proportional to excitation (field current)
before saturation.
2. To show that the terminal voltage of an alternator falls with the increase in load (when the load
is resistive or inductive).
Apparatus/Instruments/Components required:
(i) Synchronous machine coupled with a dc motor of rating ............
(ii) Field regulating resistance R1 for dc motor to control speed.
(iii) Ammeter dc of rating ............ (max. field current rating)
(iv) Voltmeter ac of rating ............ (max. line voltage rating)
(v) Tachometer.
(vi) A.C. ammeter of range equal to full load current of alternator.
(vii) 3-phase load.
Circuit diagram:
DC SUPPLY +

L Z A A
R2
V

R1 N
R
SYN.
M Y
GEN.
B

Fig. P8.1: Circuit diagram to observe the effect of field excitation on no load terminal voltage

DC SUPPLY +

L Z A A1
R2

LOAD
R1
A2
SYNC.
M
GEN. V

Fig. P8.2: Circuit diagram to observe the effect of load on terminal voltage
POWER CONVERTERS 331

Theory:
The magnitude of induced e.m.f. per phase in an alternator is
E = 4·44 Kc Kd fφT (where E is the terminal voltage per phase)
E αφ f
When speed or frequency is kept constant
Eαφ or EαI f (before saturation)
Where φ is the flux per pole and f is the frequency which in turn depends upon the speed of the
alternator. The value of flux φ depends upon the field current and number of turns of field winding.
Since the number of turns of field winding are fixed, therefore, the flux varies directly proportional to
field current (If). The above conditions are true only upto the stage of saturation of magnetic circuit of
the machine after which flux does not increase with the increase in field current. If the speed of
alternator is kept constant, its e.m.f.varies directly in proportional to flux. The relation between the
field current and the induced e.m.f. (phase value) when plotted on a graph paper gives the magnetisation
characteristics or no-load characteristics of an alternator. Similar magnetisation characteristics can be
drawn at different rotor speeds as shown in fig. 8.3.
T ERMIN AL VOLTAGE (% )

T ER MINAL VOLTAGE (%)

100
RATED SEED

75

50

25
HALF-RATED SPEED

FULL LOAD
0 25 50 75 100 25 50 75 100
FILED CURRENT (% ) LOAD CURRENT (% )

Fig. P8.3: Curve betweenIfand V Fig. P8.4: Curve between ILand V

The terminal voltage of an alternator drops with the increase in load (except for capacitive load
which rarely occur on the system). In other words, it can be said that when full load is removed
from the alternator, its terminal voltage increases as shown in fig. P8.4.
Procedure:
To perform no-load test/experiment, follow the steps given below:
1. Make the connections as per circuit diagram shown in fig.P8.1.
2. Get the connections checked by the teacher in-charge.
3. Start the dc motor coupled to alternator and adjust its speed to rated value keeping the field
circuit of the alternator open.
4. Measure the value of the induced emf which will be very small (almost zero).
5. Now switch ON the field excitation of alternator and increase the field current If in steps.
Note the values of field current If (ammeter reading A) at each step and the corresponding
value of induced emf E (voltmeter reading V connected between one phase and neutral).
Tabulate these readings.
6. Reduce the speed of the motor to one half of the rated value (check it with tachometer).
7. Reduce the excitation to zero and increase the field current If in steps. Note at each step
the value of induced emf and tabulate the readings.
332 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Procedure:
To perform load test/experiment, follow the steps given below:
1. Make the connections as per the circuit diagram shown in fig. P8.2.
2. Get the connections checked by the teacher in charge.
3. Start the d.c.motor and adjust its speed to the rated speed of alternator.
4. Switch on the excitation to alternator and adjust its value till rated terminal voltage is
obtained.
5. Keeping the excitation constant, connect the load and increase it in steps, it will be observed
that the voltage is decreasing but do not record any reading at this stage.
6. Increase the load to full load value and adjust the field current so that rated terminal voltages
is obtainedat rated speed.
7. Keeping the excitation fixed at this value, go on decreasing the load (i.e. load current). Note
the value of load current (IL) and terminal voltage (V) at each step, keeping the speed
constant.
8. Switch OFF the load completely and record the terminal voltage at rated speed.
9. Draw the graph between load current (IL) and terminal voltage (V).
Observation table: To draw curve between If and V
S.No. Speed N1 Field Current Terminal Speed N2 Field Current Terminal
If voltage V If
1.
2.
3.
Observation table: To draw curve between IL and V
S.No. Field Current If (A1) Speed N Load current IL (A2) Terminal Voltage V

1.
2.
3.

Results:
1. The probable shape of curve is shown in fig. P8.3.
2. Plot a curve between If and V, the probable curves are shown in fig. P8.4.
 6 Electrical Installations

Rationale
The rapid industrial growth is mainly due to utilisation of electrical energy in various fields. To-day, the
dependence on electrical energy is so much that it has become a part and parcel of our daily life.
Electricity is a good servant but a bad master if not handled properly. Therefore, while working with
electrical installation and handling electrical equipment, one should always take care of his own as well
as of other’s safety. A little carelessness may result in an accident which may be fatal. Therefore certain
safety measures must be observed before dealing with electricity.
To provide safety to the operators and equipment various safety devices have been developed In this
chapter, we shall discuss various common safety devices, earthing etc.

Unit Outcomes
U6-O1: Unit-6 Learning Outcome-1
To understand themeaning and functions of switchgear.
U6-O2: Unit-6 Learning Outcome-2
To differentiate between LV, MV and HV switchgear
U6-O3: Unit-6 Learning Outcome-3
To analyse the working ofLV switchgear devices such as Switch Fuse Unit (SFU), MCB, ELCB/RCCB,
and MCCB.
U6-O4: Unit-6 Learning Outcome-4
To analyse various types of wiring installations and insulated wires/cables used in these installations.
U6-O5: Unit-6 Learning Outcome-5
Earthing and its purpose.
U6-O6: Unit-6 Learning Outcome-6
Construction, working and applications of a lead-acid battery.

Unit Specific
l Switchgear and its function.
l LV, MV and HV switchgears andmajor devices or equipment employed in LV switchgear.
334 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
• Protection provided by LV switchgear devices such as Switch Fuse Unit (SFU), MCB,
ELCB/RCCB, MCCB etc.
• Different types of cables used in wiring installations.
• Different types of wiring systems used in domestic, commercial and industrial installations.
• Selection of size of wires based on equipment to be used in the installation.
• Earthing and its importance.
• Constructional features and working of a lead-acid battery.
• Calculation of energy consumption charges and billing.

MAPPING THE UNIT OUTCOMES WITH THE COURSE OUTCOMES

Unit II EXPECTED MAPPING WITH COURSE OUTCOMES

Outcomes (1-weak Correlation: 2-Medium correlation; 3-Strong Correlation)
CO-1 CO-2 CO-3
U6-O1 1 -- 3
U6-O2 1 -- 3
U6-O3 1 -- 3
U6-O4 1 -- 3
U6-O5 1 -- 3
U6-O5 1 -- 3

Interesting facts
• The world’s biggest light bulb is in Edison, New Jersey. It is 14 feet tall, weighs eight tons, and sits
on top of the Thomas Edison Memorial Tower.
• Electricity is present in our bodies – our nerve cells use it to pass signals to our muscles.
• Iceland is the country that uses the most electricity annually. Their consumption is about 23%
more than the U.S.

Video Resources
Videos Links for circuit

LV Switchgear
equipment
ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS 335

Cables used in Types of wiring

wiring installations
installations

Purpose of
Earthing Types of
Earthing

Calculation
Constructional
of energy
features and
consumption
working of a lead-
charges and
acid battery
billing

6.1. SWITCHGEAR
In an electric power system, the combination of electrical switches, fuses or circuit breakers used to
control, protect and isolate electrical equipment is called switchgear.
Switchgear is employed to improve the reliability of the electric supply.
Broadly, a switchgear has two types of components:
• Power conducting components, such as switches, circuit breakers, fuses, and lightning arrestors,
that conduct or interrupt the flow of electrical power
• Controlling components, such as control panels, current transformers, potential transformers,
protective relays, and associated circuitry, that monitor, control, and protect the power conducting
components
Thus, the basic functions of switchgear is protection. It interrupts the short-circuit and overload fault
 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

currents while maintain the service to unaffected circuits. Switchgear also provides isolation of circuits
from power supplies In power system, the electrical switchgears are categorized as HV, MV & LV
switchgears.
HV Switchgears: The switchgear system that deals with voltage above 33 kV, is referred as high
voltage switch gears. High voltage circuit breaker, is the main component of HV switchgear,
MV Switchgears: The switchgear system which is to handle voltages between 3 kV to 33 kV is
categorized as medium voltage switchgear or MV switchgear. These switchgears are of many types.
LV Switchgears: Generally electrical switchgear rated upto 1 kV is termed as low voltage switchgear.
The term LV Switchgear includes low voltage circuit breakers, switches, off load electrical isolators,
HRC fuses, earth leakage circuit breaker, miniature circuit breakers (MCB) and molded case circuit
breakers (MCCB) etc i.e. all the accessories required to protect the LV system.

Rating AC-23 AC-22 AC-23 Suggested AC-23 Mechanical

Thermal Lsolating Fuse Fuse Fuse Motor Endurance
Switch Switch Switch Type Switch (Operating
rating rating rating rating Cycles)
63A 80A 80A 63A H TS 28 KW 10,000
100A 125A 125A 100A H TSD 45 KW 10,000
160A 200A 200A 160A H TSF 80KW 8,000
200A 250A 250A 200A H TSF 90 KW 8,000
320A 400A 320A 320A H TSK 150 KW 5,000
400A 500A 460A 400A H TSMF 185 KW 5,000
500A 630A 630A 500A H TTM 225 KW 5,000
800A 800A 750A 630A H TLM 300 KW 3,000

In LV switchgear system, electrical appliances are protected against short circuit and over load conditions
by electrical fuses or electrical circuit breaker. However, the human operator is not adequately protected
against the faults occurs inside the appliances. The problem can be overcome by using earth leakage
circuit breaker. This operates on low leakage current. The earth leakage circuit breaker can detect
leakage current as low as 100 mA and is capable of disconnecting the appliance in less than 100 m sec.
Let us deal with the most popular switchgear devices such as Switch fuse Unit (SFU), MCB, ELCB,
MCCB.

A short piece of metal wire, inserted in series with the circuit, which melts when more than rated value
of current flows through it and breaks the circuit is called a fuse.
A fuse is connected in series (see Fig. 6.1) with
ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS

the circuit to be protected and carries the load

SWITCH
current without overheating itself under normal
conditions. However, when abnormal condition FUSE
occurs, an excessive current (more or equal to
LOAD
the predetermined value for which the fuse is
designed) flows through it. This raises the
NEUTRAL
temperature of the fuse wire to the extent that LINK
it melts and opens the circuit. This protects the
machines or apparatus from damage which can
be caused by the excessive current. Fig. 6.1: Circuit with fuse

1400
1300
1200
200 A FUSE
1100
CURRENT IN AMPERES

1000
100 A FUSE
900
60 A FUSE
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100

01 02 03 05 07 01 02 03 05 07 1 2 3 4
TIME IN SECOND

Fig. 6.2: Time-current characteristics of various fuses

Time-Current Characteristics : The time required to blow out a fuse depends upon the magnitude of
excessive current. Larger the current, smaller is the time taken by the fuse to blow out. Hence a fuse has
inverse time current characteristic as shown in Fig.6.2 which is desirable for a protective device.
Advantages
(i) The cost of this protective device is very low.
(ii) It requires no maintenance.
(iii) It interrupts heavy current without noise or smoke.
(iv) The smaller size of fuse element imposes a current limiting effect under short circuit.
(v) The minimum time of operation can be predetermined by selecting proper material of the
fuse wire.
(vi) The inverse time-current characteristic makes it suitable for overcurrent protection.
Disadvantages
(i) Considerable time is lost in re-wiring or replacing fuses after every operation.
(ii) On short-circuit, determination between fuses in series can only be obtained if there is
considerable difference in the relative sizes of the fuse concerned.
 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Switch Fuse: Switch fuse Unit comprises of various porcelain rewireable fuses or HRC fuse fittings
complete with their conducting parts. The switch is fitted with sturdy side operating handle with quick-
break type mechanism, as shown in fig.6.3.
Contacts are made of electrolytic copper silver-plated. The fixed contacts are provided with removable
shield. Switch Fuse units are provided with rewireable fuse or HRC Fuse Links. All these parts are
assembled in an enclosure.
The Enclosure is made of sheet steel duly phosphatised and powder-coated. They are provided with
conduit knock-outs. Door inter-clock is provided to prevent opening when the switch is in ‘ON’ condition.

(a) Two-pole SFU (b) 3-pole SFU

Fig. 6.3: Switch fuse Unit (SFU)

Miniature Circuit Breaker (MCB) is a device which ensures definite protection of wiring system and
sophisticated equipment against over current and short circuit faults. The outer view and the internal
details of a miniature circuit breaker are shown in Fig. 6.4 and 6.5 respectively.

Construction of an MCB can be explained by considering the following main parts:

(i) Outer body or housing : The outer body or housing of an MCB is moulded from a special
grade glass fibre reinforced polyster with the help of an injection moulding machine. The
outer body and other polyster components of MCB are fire retardant, anti-tracking and non-
hygroscopic. These polyster parts and housing have the ability to withstand high temperature
and mechanical impacts.
(ii) Contacts : The contacts of an MCB are made of pure silver. This provides definite advantages
such as long contact life, low contact resistance, ensures quick arc removal and low heat
generation.
ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS

(iii) Operating mechanism : All the components of the operating mechanism are made of special
plastic that they are self lubricating which eliminates wear and tear, rust and corrosion. These
components are very light in weight and have low inertia thereby ensure snap make the break
ability. The reliability and ruggedness of the operating mechanism is thus maintained.

Fig. 6.4: Outer view of an MCB Fig.6.5: Internal structure of MCB

(iv) Arc extinguishing Chamber : The arc produced during breaking of circuit is extinguished
abruptly by providing a special arc chute chamber.
(v) Fixing arrangement : The MCB mounting clip gets easily snapped on to the Din-bar and can
be removed easily by a simple operation with a screw driver. This saves the time which
would have been required for fixing it with screws.
(vi) Mechanical interlocking of Multiple MCBs : The levers of all the (3 or 4) multiple MCBs are
connected internally. This ensures simultaneous tripping of all poles even if the fault develops
in any one of the phases.

MCB may operate under two different conditions :

(i) Moderate Overload Condition : Detection of moderate overload conditions is achieved by the
use of a thermo-metal which deflects in response to the current passing through it. The
thermo-metal moves against the trip lever releasing the trip mechanism.
(ii) Short circuit conditions : When the current flowing through the MCB reaches a pre-determined
level (as per its setting or rating), it pushes the solenoid plunger which releases the trip
mechanism and simultaneously separates the contacts.
Under short circuit conditions, the current limiting action is achieved by the use of a high speed,
direct acting electro- magnetic mechanism.
 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

This mechanism forcibly separates the contacts and simultaneously releases the trip mechanism. A
high arc voltage drop is rapidly introduced which limits the fault current to a duration of few
milliseconds and achieves almost instantaneous interruption (the facts are shown graphically in
Fig.6.6).

\Fig. 6.6: Operating characteristies of an MCB

When the contacts are separated, the current still rises due to arc. This arc is extinguished quickly in the
arc chute chamber and does not allow the current to reach theoretical maximum value. The total breaking
time is reduced to less than 5 millisecond.

Since MCBs are available with different current ratings of 0.5, 1.6, 2, 2.5, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7.5, 10, 16, 20, 25,
32, 35, 40 and 63 ampere and voltage ratings of 240/415 volt ac and upto 220V dc. Moreover, they have
very small breaking time (5 millisecond), therefore, these are generally employed to protect the important
and sophisticated appliances used commercially and for domestic purposes such as computers, air
conditioners, compressors, refrigerators and many others.

In the industrial, commercial and domestic building some times (usually in rainy season) leakage to earth
occurs. This leakage may cause electric shock or fire. Hence, the leakage to earth is very dangerous and
needs protection.
ELCB is a device which provides protection against earth leakage faults.

The enclosures of the ELCB is moulded from high quality insulating material. The materials are fire
retardant, anti- tracking, non-hygroscopic, impact resistant and can withstand high temperatures.
The body contains spring loaded mounting arrangement on din-channel which ensures snap fitting
of ELCB into position. However, these also have the facility to screw-on directly to any surface with
ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS

the help of two screws. A 2-pole ELCB is used for 1-phase supply and a 4-pole ELCB is used for
3-phase, 4 wire supply. A 4-pole ELCB is shown in Fig.6.7.
Internal wiring diagram of a 2-pole ELCB is shown in Fig.6.8. As shown in Fig.6.8 an ELCB
contains a core balanced transformer (ferrite ring on which one or two turns of phase and neutral
wire ; and a few turns of operating coil of relay are wound), and a relay. A test button is placed
between phase and neutral in series with a limiting resistor. The terminal designation and connection
diagram for a 2-pole and 4-pole ELCB are shown in Fig. 6.9 and Fig. 6.10 respectively.

Fig. 6.7: 4-pole ELCB Fig. 6.8: Internal wiring diagram of a 2-pole ELCB

Fig. 6.9: Circuit for 2-pole ELCB Fig.6.10: Circuit for 4-pole ELCB
 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Under normal conditions, the magnitude of currents flowing through the phase wire and neutral are the
same and core of the core balanced transformer does not carry any flux (i.e. two windings neutralise
the flux). Thus, no e.m.f. is induced in the operating coil of the relay wound on the same core. However,
when the earth fault (earth leakage) occurs, the current in the phase wire becomes more than the neutral
wire. This unbalancing sets up flux in the core of the core balanced transformer which in turn induces
an e.m.f. in the operating coil of the relay. Hence, relay is energised and the plunger of the ELCB goes
to the off position or disconnects the load from the supply.
Thus, ELCB protects the system against leakage.

A test knob is provided for periodic checking of the mechanism and function of ELCB.

Molded case circuit breakers are the electrical protection device that is commonly used when load
current exceed the capabilities of miniature circuit breakers. They are also used where the current rating
are required to be adjusted by adjusting trip settings, which are not available in plug-in circuit breakers
and MCBs.

100 AMP MCCB Moulded 100 AMP MCCB 4 pole

Case Circuit Breakers Electrical Circuit Breakers

Fig.6.11: Moulded case circuit breakers

A molded case circuit breaker (MCCB) is a type of electrical protection device that can be used for a
wide range of voltages, and frequencies of both 50 Hz and 60 Hz. The main distinctions between
molded-case and miniature circuit breaker are that the MCCB can have current ratings of up to 2500 A,
and its trip settings are normally adjustable. Moreover MCCBs are much larger in size than MCBs. It has
the following three major functions:
 Protection against overload  Protection against electrical faults
 Switching a circuit on and off
ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS

The wide range of current ratings available from molded-case circuit breakers allows them to be used
in a wide variety of applications. MCCBs are available with current ratings that range from low values
such as 15 A, to industrial ratings such as 2500 A. Their outer view is shown in fig 6.11.

At its core, the protection mechanism employed by MCCBs is based on the same physical principles
used by all types of thermal-magnetic circuit breakers.
Overload protection: It is accomplished by means of a thermal mechanism. MCCBs have a bimetallic
contact what expands and contracts in response to changes in temperature. Under normal operating
conditions, the contact allows electric current through the MCCB. However, as soon as the current
exceeds the adjusted trip value, the contact will start to heat and expand until the circuit is interrupted.
Fault protection: On the other hand, fault protection is accomplished with electromagnetic induction,
and the response is instant. Fault currents should be interrupted immediately, no matter if their duration
is short or long. Whenever a fault occurs, the extremely high current induces a magnetic field in a
solenoid coil located inside the breaker, this magnetic induction trips a contact and current is interrupted.
Manual operation: As with all types of circuit breakers, the MCCB includes a disconnection switch
which is used to trip the breaker manually.

Before considering the various types of wiring systems suitable for any installation, it is required to
know about the various types of cables (insulated conductors) which are used for internal wiring
systems.
A solid or stranded conductor covered with insulation is known as a cable.
The cable may be a single core or multi-core depending upon the number of conductors. Various types
of insulating materials are employed for covering the conductors.
Accordingly, the cables (wiring conductors) may be classified as :
(i) Vulcanised Indian Rubber (V.I.R.) cables.
(ii) Poly-vinyl Chloride (P.V.C.) cables.
(iii) Tough Rubber sheathed (T.R.S) or Cab Tire Sheathed (C.T.S.) cables.
(iv) Lead sheathed cables.
(v) Weather proof cables.

The main types of wirings usually employed in residential buildings, commercial buildings and industries
are :
1. Cleat Wiring ; 2. Casing and Capping Wiring ; 3. C.T.S. or T.R.S. Wiring ;
4. Metal Sheathed Wiring ; 5. Conduit Wiring.
 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

1. Cleat Wiring : In this system of wiring, usually V.I.R. or P.V.C. conductors are employed.
The conductors are supported in porcelain cleats which are placed at least 6 mm above the
walls. The porcelain cleats are made of two parts, the lower one is known as base being having
two or three grooves for the accommodation of conductors and the upper one is known as cap
as shown in Fig. 6.12. The conductors CAP
are run in the grooves, cap is placed
over the base and the whole assembly
in fixed on to the wall with the help of
wooden screws and gutties (wooden
or P.V.C. plugs) already cemented in
the wall. The screw not only fixes the
cleats on the wall but also tightens the BASE
grip of the wires between the two
Fig. 6.12: Porcelain cleats
halves of the cleat.

(i) It is cheapest system to wiring.

(ii) A little skill is required to lay the wiring.
(iii) This wiring can be installed very quickly.
(iv) It is the most suitable system for temporary wiring.
(v) The wiring can be dismantled very quickly and whole of the material is recovered.
(vi) Inspection, alteration and additions can be made easily.

(i) It gives a rubbish look.

(ii) It is rarely employed for permanent job.
(iii) At the time of white washing or distempering the lime falls over the wires which may damage
insulation.
(iv) Oil and smoke are also injurious to V.I.R.
(v) Mechanical injuries may damage the conductor since there is no protecting cover.
2. Casing and Capping Wiring : In this system
WOODEN
of wiring, generally V.I.R. wires are employed. CAPPING CASING
The casing is just a base that consists of VIR
rectangular P.V.C. or wooden block of seasoned WIRES

teak wood and has usually two grooves to

accommodate wires. The casing is fixed on the
wall with the help of wooden screws and gutties
already cemented in the wall. The casing is
usually placed 3 mm apart from the wall by Fig. 6.13: Casing – capping
means of porcelain discs in order to protect the
casing from dampness.
ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS

Then the wiresof opposite polarity are laid in different grooves. After placing the wires in the
grooves of casing at the top is covered by means of a rectangular strip of seasoned wood of the
same width as the casing known as capping with the help of wooden screws. The assembled view
of casing capping with the V.I.R. wires placed in the grooves is shown in Fig. 6.13.

(i) It gives better appearance than cleat wiring.

(ii) Its cost is quite low as compared to other systems of wiring except cleat wiring
(iii) It is easy to install and repaid.
(iv) Conductors are strongly insulated.
(v) Capping provides protection against mechanical injury.

(i) It is not suitable in damp situations.

(ii) There is a risk of fire.
(iii) To make the job good looking highly skilled labour is required.
3. C.T.S. or T.R.S. Wiring : In this system of wiring, generally C.T.S. (Cab Tire Sheathed) or
T.R.S. (Tough Rubber Sheathed) conductors are employed. The conductors are run on well
seasoned, perfectly straight and well varni shed teak wood batten of thickness 13 mm. The
width of the batten is chosen depending upon the number of wires to be run on it. While doing
this type of wiring, the batten is fixed on to the wall by means of wooden screws and gutties
already cemented in the wall. The wires are held on the batten with the help of clips already
fixed on the batten with the help of nails as shown in Fig.6.14.
BATTEN LINK CLIPS

ROUND BLOCK NAILS

T R S WIRES

Fig. 6.14: CTS Wiring

(i) It is easy to install and repair.

(ii) It gives nice appearance.
(iii) The conductors have strong insulation, therefore, it has longer life.
(iv) It is fire-proof up to some extent.
(v) Chemicals do not affect the conductors insulation.
 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

(i) The conductors are open and liable to mechanical injury, therefore, this type of wiring
cannot be used in workshops.
(ii) Its use in places open to sun and rain in restricted.
4. Metal Sheathed Wiring : This system of wiring is similar to C.T.S. or T.R.S. wiring. Only
difference is that in this case V.I.R. conductors covered with lead alloy sheath (metal
sheathed cable) are used. The metal sheathed cables are run on the wooden batten. The
batten is fixed on the wall by means of screws and gutties already cemented into the wall.
The cables are held on the batten with the help of link clips.

(i) The conductors are protected against mechanical injury.

(ii) It can suitably employed under damp situations.
(iii) It gives batter appearance.
(iv) It has longer life.
(v) Conductors are protected against chemicals.
(vi) It can be installed in open space.

(i) The metal sheathed cables are costlier than C.T.S. or T.R.S. wires.
(ii) In case of leakage, there is every risk of shock.
(iii) Skilled labour and proper supervision is required.
5. Conduit Wiring : In this system of wiring, V.I.R. or T.R.S. conductors are run in metallic
or P.V.C. tubes called conduits. This system of wiring provides best mechanical protection,
safety against fire and shock. Therefore, it is considered to be the most suitable system of
wiring for workshops and commercial buildings.
The conduits can either be supported over the wall by means of saddles or can be buried under
plaster. Accordingly there are two types of conduit wirings namely ;
(i) Surface conduit wiring, (ii) Concealed conduit wiring.
In surface conduit wiring, the conduit is run over the wall supported by means of saddles as shown
in Fig.6.15 Whereas, in concealed conduit wiring, the conduit is embedded in the walls and ceiling
by placing it in the pre made cavity in them. After placing the conduit, the insulated conductors
(or cables) are drawn into them by means of G.I. wire known as pilot wire. Number of inspection
boxes (conduit boxes) are provided along the run of conduit to facilitate the drawing of wires.
ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS

WOODEN
JUNCTION BOX
BLOCKS

T R S WIRES

CONDUIT

CONDUIT SADDLE

Fig. 6.15: Conduit wiring

(i) Conduit provides protection against mechanical injury and fire.

(ii) Conduit provides protection against chemicals.
(iii) Conductors are safely secured from moisture.
(iv) This wiring has far better look.
(v) It has a longer life.

(i) It is costly system of wiring

(ii) It requires more time for erection.
(iii) It requires highly skilled labour.

To calculate the rating of the main switch and MCBS / fuses to be used on the distribution board for a
building and also for finalizing the size of the cable for service connection and internal wiring, it is
necessary to assess the load of the building in ampere. For this purpose, following guidelines may be
adopted after deciding the number and type of outlets installed in the building.
Incandescent light point (Bulb Point) 60 watt
Fluorescent tube 2 feet long (0.6 m) 20 watt
4 feet long (1.2 m) 40 watt
Ceiling fans 60 watt
Socket outlets (5A) 100 watt
15 ampere socket outlet (Power Socket) 1000 watt
Exhaust fan 100 watt
CFL/LED lamp 40 watt
Selection of cable or insulated wires used in wiring installations.
To find out the correct size of wire to be used at an installation, it is necessary to find out the load in
ampere to be carried by the cables.
 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

The following tables help us for selection of correct size of insulated wire based upon current and
voltage drop of the conductors. Table shows only the copper wires used in the internal wiring system
upto a current carrying capacity of 28 ampere, although, larger size wires are also available:
Table . Current Rating of Copper Conductor Single Core Cables
(VIR, PVC or Polythene insulated including tough rubber sheathed, PVC or lead sheathed cables)
Size of conductors Two cables d.c. or single Three or four cable balanced
phase a.c. three phase a.c
Nominal No. and dia Current Rating Approximate Approximate
Current Rating
area mm2 of wire (mm) (A) length of run for length of run for
(A)
one volt drop one volt drop
(metre) (metre)
1.0 1/1.12 5 2.9 3 2.8
1.5 3/0.737 10 3 10 3.7
2.5 3/1.06 15 3.4 13 4.3
4.0 7/0.737 20 3.7 15 4.8
6.0 7/1.06 28 4.0 25 5.2
Aluminium core cable or insulated wires can also be used as per the current rating and size given in the
following table. But aluminium core cable are avoided in the internal wiring of the buildings since they
have poor mechanical strength. However, these are commonly used in service connections.
Table . Current Rating of Aluminium Conductor Single Core Cables
(VIR, PVC or Polythene insulated including tough rubber sheathed, PVC or lead sheathed cables)
Size of conductor Two cables d.c. or single Three or four cables Four cables d.c. or
phase a.c. balanced three phase single phase a.c.
Nominal No. and dia. Current Approx run Current Approx run Current Approx run
area mm 2 of wire (mm) Rating (A) for one volt Rating (A) for one volt Rating (A) for volt
drop (m) drop (m) drop (m)
1.5 1/1.40 10 2.3 9 2.9 9 2.5
2.5 1/1.80 15 2.5 12 3.6 11 3.4
4 1/2.24 20 2.9 17 3.9 15 4.1
6 1/2.80 27 3.4 24 4.3 21 4.3
10 1/3.55 34 4.3 31 5.4 27 5.4
16 7/1.70 43 5.4 38 7.0 35 6.8
25 7/2.24 59 6.8 54 8.5 48 8.5
35 7/2.50 69 7.2 62 9.8 55 9.0
50 7/3.00 91 7.9 82 10.1 69 10.0
50 19/1.80 91 7.9 82 10.1 69 10.0
70 19/2.24 134 8.0 131 9.5 – –
95 19/2.50 153 8.8 152 10.0 – –
ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS

Underground cables are usually classified according to the voltage for which these are manufactured.
Hence these are classified as :
(i) Low tension (L T) cables—for operating voltages upto 1000V
(ii) High tension (H T) cables—for operating voltages upto 11 kV
(iii) Super tension (S T) cables—for operating voltages from 22 kV to 33 kV
(iv) Extra high tension (EHT) cables—for operating voltages from 33 kV to 66 kV
(v) Extra super voltage cables—for operating voltages from 66 kV to 132 kV and above.

These cables are employed for system voltages upto 1000 volt. Generally these cables are used for
distribution of electric power at 400 V. The cables are of two types viz single-core and multi-core
cables. Due to economic reasons 4-core cable is mostly employed for distribution of electric power at
low voltages.
The low voltage cables do not have special attention for their construction since in these cables the
electrostatic stresses are small. Moreover, their
thermal conductivity is quite sufficient to
dissipate heat. Fig.6.16 represents the
construction of a four-core cable. The
conductors are insulated with rubber or
polyvinyl chloride. Around all the four
conductors a layer of fibrous compounded
material is provided.
Above this layer a lead sheath is provided to
restrict the moisture to enter the core of the
cable. The lead sheath is covered with a
compounded fibrous material. In this case,
wire armoured cover may or may not be
provided, however if it is provided, it is
covered with a layer of serving. Fig.6.16: Cross-section of a four core LT cable

The process of connecting metallic bodies of all the electrical apparatus and equipment to the huge mass
of earth by a wire of negligible resistance is called earthing.
When a body is earthed, it is basically connected to the huge mass of earth by a wire having negligible
resistance. Thus, the body attains zero potential i.e., potential of earth. This ensures that whenever a live
conductor comes in contact with the outer body, the charge is released to the earth immediately.

The basic purpose of earthing is to protect the human body (operator) from electric shock.
 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

To illustrate the purpose of earthing consider an electrical circuit shown in Fig. 6.17 where an electrical
appliance of resistance R is connected to the supply through a fuse and a switch. When an operator
touches the metallic body of the apparatus [see Fig.6.17(a)] having perfect insulation, the equivalent
circuit is shown in Fig. 6.17 (b). Where two parallel paths are formed. Since the insulation resistance R
i is very high as compared to appliance resistance R, whole of the current flows through appliance
resistance and no current flows through human body (operator’s body) resistance.
When earth fault occurs, the live (phase) wire directly comes in contact with the outer body and the
insulation resistance reduces to zero as shown in Fig. 6.17 (c). Now the body resistance is just in parallel
with the appliance resistance. A heavy current flows through the human body and operator gets a severe
shock.
However, if the metallic body or outer frame of the appliance is properly earthed then under earth fault
condition, the circuit will be as shown in Fig.6.17 (d). Where earth resistance Re is just in parallel with
the appliance resistance R and body resistance Rb. Since earth resistance is very small as compared to
body resistance, almost whole of the fault current flows through the earth resistance and no current
flows through the human body. Thus, the operator is protected from electric shock. Moreover, the

FUSE (F) APPLIANCE

P FRAME P F S
SWITCH (S) SWITCH (S)
Ri

1-PHASE
A.C. SUPPLY V

Rb

N N
(a) (b)

P F S P F S

Rb
V R Rb V R
Re

N (c) N (d)

Fig.6.17: Earthing protects the operator

fault current is much more than the full load current of the circuit which melts the fuse. Hence, the
appliance is disconnected automatically from the supply mains.

According to Rule 61 of Indian Electricity Rules 1956, it is obligatory to earth the following points and
apparatus used in the power system, where the voltage is more than 125 V :—
ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS

(i) All the metal frames of motors, generators, transformers and controlling equipment.
(ii) The steel tower and steel tubular or rail poles carrying over head conductors.
(iii) The metal frames of portable electrical equipment such as heaters, table fans, electric iron,
refrigerator, air conditioners, vacuum cleaners etc.
(iv) Other metal parts such as conduits, switch gear casings etc.
(v) Earth terminal of all the 3-pin outlet sockets.
(vi) In case of concentric cables, external conductor i.e. armouring of such cables.
(vii) Stay wires of overhead lines if stay insulator is not provided.
In case of insulation failure, the primary object of connecting all the above points and apparatus to earth
is to release the charge accumulated on them immediately to earth so that the person coming in contact
may not experience electric stock. The other object is that a heavy current when flows through the
circuit that operates the protective devices (i.e. fuse or miniature circuit breaker) which opens the
circuit.
Generally, the following values of earth resistance must be achieved while earthing :
Equipment to be earthed Max. value of resistance under
worst conditions
(i) Large power stations 0.5 ohm
(ii) Major sub-station 1.0 ohm
(iii) Small sub-stations 2.0 ohm
(iv) Factories sub-stations 1.0 ohm
(v) Lattice steel towers 3.0 ohm
(vi) Industrial machines and equipment 0.5 ohm
The earth resistance depends upon the moisture contents in the soil and varies from month to month.
Therefore, earth resistance must be checked periodically by earth tester and maximum permissible value
be obtained by pouring water into the funnel.

A proper system has to be adopted while earthing. In fact, all the heavy power equipment should be
earthed by two separate distinct earth wires following the different routes. The two earth connections
are applied to improve the reliability. If one of the earth wires breaks or fails to carry the fault current,
the other carries that current and provides the required protection. Moreover, in factories and substations
where more than one equipment is to be earthed, parallel connections should invariably be used. In no
case series connections are done, as even a single bad contact or break in the earthing-lead will disconnect
all the succeeding equipment from the earth.
Thus, for proper earthing of heavy power equipment, double earthing system has to be adopted.
Moreover, the number of apparatus must be connected in parallel to the earth.
 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

As already discussed, earthing means to connect metallic bodies of the apparatus with the general mass
of earth by a wire of negligible resistance. There are various methods of achieving this connection,
some of them are given below :
1. Strip Earthing : This system of earthing employs the use of 5 SWG copper wire or strip of
cross-section not less than 25 mm × 1.6 mm. The strips or wires are buried in horizontal
trenches. This type of earthing is used where the earth bed has a rocky soil and excavation
work is difficult.
2. Earthing through water mains : In this type of earthing, a stranded copper lead is used which
is rounded on the pipe with the help of a steel binding wire and a properly designed earthing clip.
The copper lead is soldered to make it solid. Before making connection to the water main, it
should be ensured that G.I. pipe is used throughout.
3. Rod Earthing : it is the cheapest method of earthing and is employed in sandy areas. In this
method, a copper rod is hammered directly into the ground and no excavation work is required.
The earthing lead is joined to this rod with the help of nuts and bolts.

Fig. 6.18: Pipe earthing Fig. 6.19: Plate earthing

ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS

4. Pipe Earthing : Taking into consideration the factors such as initial cost, inspection, resistance
measurement etc., G.I. pipe earthing is best form of ground connection. Iron is the cheapest
material and remains serviceable even if put in salty mass of earth. The pipe used as earth
electrode is galvanised and perforated. Its diameter is 38.1 mm and length is 2 metre. The
length may be increased to 2.75 metre in case of dry soil. The diameter of pipe has very little
effect on the resistance of the earth connection. To facilitate the driving in of the pipe into
ground, it is provided with the tapered casting at the lower end. Another pipe of 19.05 mm
diameter and of length 2.45 metre is connected at the top of the above said pipe. The connection
between these pipes is made through a reducing socket, as shown in Fig. 6.18.
The earthing lead should be soldered and connected to the pipe. Alternate layers of charcoal and salt are
provided around the G.I. pipe to keep the surroundings moist enough. The salt is poured at the bottom
and thereafter alternate layers of charcoal and salt are arranged.
5. Plate Earthing : In this type of earthing, a copper or G.I. plate of dimensions not less than 60
cm × 60 cm × 3.18 mm or 60 cm × 60 cm × 6.35 mm is used as earth electrode instead of G.I.
pipe. The plate is buried into ground in such a way that its face is vertical and the top is not less
than 3 metres below the ground level. The G.I. wire is used for G.I. plate and copper wire for
copper plate earthing. The size of wire is selected according to the installation and fault current.
The earthing lead is suitably protected placing it under-ground in a pipe, as shown in Fig.6.19.
Alternate layers of charcoal and salt are used around the plate. The layers of charcoal shall be placed
immediately over the plate and thereafter successive layers of salt and charcoal are laid to keep the
surroundings sufficiently moist.
Note : Pipe earthing and plate earthing are considered to be the best as they have resonably low
value of earth resistance.

For providing better safety it is advisable to provide two separate earth wires, from two separate
earth electrodes, connected to same metallic body of the equipment at two different points. This is
known as double earthing. Double earthing is essential, as per Indian Electricity Rule, for metallic bodies
of large rating equipment such as transformer, motors etc. working at 400 V and above.

1. Surety of safety, because if at any time one earthing is ineffective, then another will provide
earth path to fault current.
2. As the two earth wires are in parallel so the effective resistance from equipment to earth
electrode is reduced.
 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

A series, parallel or series-parallel grouping of cells is called a battery.

Generally, a cell can deliver a small
current at low voltage. For a circuit, if higher
voltage is required – a battery containing
number of cells connected in series is
applied; if higher current in required a battery
containing number of cells connected in
parallel is applied ; if larger current at higher
voltage is required a battery containing
number of cells in series further connected
in parallel is applied.
Usually, a number of cells connected
in series placed in a single container is
called a battery.

Fig. 6.20 shows the cut-away view of 6V

commercial lead-acid battery. The following
Fig. 6.20 : Lead-acid battery
are the important parts of the battery.
1. Container : It is the outer body of the battery. It is made of a hard rubber or plastic material
and is sealed at the top to prevent spilling of the electrolyte. A large space is left at the bottom of
the container so that the sediments that drop from the plates are collected here and may not
short circuit the positive and negative plates.
2. Plates : Generally, alloy of lead-antimony sheets covered with lead-peroxide and spongy lead
forming positive and negative plates respectively are used as electrodes. To increase the capacity
of the battery, we use a large number of plates in each cell instead of only two plates. The
number of positive and negative plates (i.e. 11,13, 15 or 17) of each cell are alternatively placed
and sandwitched with an insulator called separator as shown in fig. 6.21. One group of positive
and negative plates forms a cell which develops an e.m.f. of 2.0 volt. A separate compartment
is provided for each cell in the container of the battery.

Fig. 6.21: Battery plates and separator

ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS

3. Separator : To reduce the internal resistance of the cell and to save the space, the plates are
placed very close to each other. To prevent the plates touching each other if they wrap or
buckle, they are separated by a rubber sheet (non-conducting material) having large number of
small holes called separator [see fig. 6.21].
4. Electrolyte : Dilute sulphuric-acid (H2SO4) is used as an electrolyte in lead-acid batteries.
Sulphuric-acid is added to water in such a proportion that with a fully charged battery, its
specific gravity is about 1.28 to 1.29.
5. Battery cover : Each cell compartment is covered usually with a molded hard rubber and the
joints between covers and container are sealed with an acid-resistance material. In each cell
cover openings are provided — two for positive and negative terminals, and third for a vent.
The whole container is fitted with a leak proof cover.
6. Vent caps : The vent-cap has a vent hole to allow free exit of the gases formed in the cell
during charging. The vent caps can be easily removed for adding water. The vent cap is also
removed to insert the nozzle of hydrometer for checking the specific gravity of electrolyte to
check the battery charge condition.
7. Inter-cell connector : The cells, placed in the same container are connected in series with a
lead alloy link called inter-cell connector.
8. Cell terminals : Each cell has two terminals which are generally made of lead as it does not
corrode due to the electrolyte. The positive terminal of the battery is marked with a red colour
or by a large positive (+) sign.

The quantity of electricity which a battery can delivery during single discharge until its terminal voltage
falls to 1·8V/cell is called the capacity of a battery.
The capacity of a battery or cell is commercially expressed in ampere-hour and is generally denoted by
A-H.
Capacity of a battery or cell = Id Td ampere-hour
where, I d = discharging current in ampere
Td = discharging time of battery or cell in hour.

The efficiency of a battery (or cell) can be defined in the following two ways :
(i) Quantity or A-H efficiency : The ratio of output ampere-hour during discharging to the
input ampere-hour during charging of the battery is called quantity or ampere-efficiency
of the battery.
Id Td
Mathematically, AH =
Ic Tc
where, I d = discharging current in ampere : Td = discharging time in hour.
Ic = charging current in ampere, Tc = charging time in hour.
 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

(ii) Energy or W-H efficiency : The ratio of output watt-hour during discharging to the input
watt-hour during charging of the battery is called energy or watt-hour efficiency of the
battery.
Id Td Vd
Mathematically, WH =
Ic Tc Vc
where, V d = Average terminal voltage during discharging,
Vc = Average terminal voltage during charging

The time (in hrs) for which a battery can deliver the desired current is called battery back-
up of the bank.
Example 6.1. : An alkaline cell is discharged at a steady current of 4 A for 12 hour, the average
terminal voltage being 1·2 V to restore it to its original state of voltage, a steady current of 3 A for
20 hour is required, the average terminal voltage being 1·44 V. Calculate the ampere-hour and
watt-hour efficiencies in this particular case.
Solution :
Id Td
Ampere-hour efficiency, AH = × 100
Ic Tc
where, Id = 4A ; Td = 12 hour ; Ic = 3A ; Tc = 20 hour ;
4 × 12
AH = × 100 = 80% (Ans.)
3 × 20

I T V
Watt-hour efficiency, WH = d d d × 100 where, Vd = 1·2 V ; Vc = 1·44 V ;
Ic Tc Vc

4 × 12 × 1 ∙ 2
WH = × 100 = 66·67 % (Ans.)
3 × 20 × 1 ∙ 44
Example 6.2. : A discharged battery is put on charge at 5A for 4 hour at a mean charging voltage
of 13.5 V. It is then discharged in 6 hour at a constant terminal voltage of 12 V through a resistance
of R ohm. Calculate the value of R for an ampere-hour efficiency of 85%.
Id Td
Solution : Ampere-hour efficiency, AH = × 100
Ic Tc
where, AH = 85% ; Td = 6 hour ; Ic = 5 A ; Tc = 3.5 hour.

Id × 6 Vd 12
 85 = × 100 or Id = 2·48 A and R = 
5 × 3∙5 Id 2 ∙ 48 = 4·84 ohm (Ans.)
ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS

The charge condition of a battery is usually checked by checking

the specific gravity of the electrolyte (H2SO4). For a fully
charged battery, the specific gravity of H2SO4 is 1.28 to 1.29.
However, when the specific gravity falls below 1.15, the battery
is fully discharged. In fact, to increase the life of battery, it
should be recharged when the specific gravity of the electrolyte HYDROMETER
is found to be less than 1.18. The values of specific gravity for FLOAT
different condition of charge are given below :
Specific gravity Condition
1.280 to 1.290 100% charged
1.230 to 1.250 75% charged
1.190 to 1.200 50% charged
1.150 to 1.160 25% charged
below 1.130 fully discharged
To check the specific gravity of H2SO4, an instrument called
hydrometer is used (see fig. 6.22) which works on Archmedeies
principle. In common use, the decimal point is omitted from the
value of specific gravity i.e. 1.280 specific gravity is spoken as
1280 and so on. Fig. 6.22: Checking of
electrolyte
However, the state of a battery can also be checked by checking.
(i) Voltage : When the terminal voltage of the battery on load is 2.1 to 2.5 V per cell, the
battery is said to be fully charged. Whereas, when the voltage of battery falls to below 1.8
V per cell, the battery is considered to be fully discharged and it is immediately put on
charging.
(ii) Colour of plates : When a lead-acid cell or battery is fully charged, its anode is PbO2 which
is chocolate brown in colour and cathode is of Pb
which is grey in colour. However, when the battery is fully discharged, both the plates attain PbSO4
as active material which is whitish in colour.

(i) The e.m.f. of a fully charged lead-acid cell is 2.2 V which decreases to 2.0 V rapidly.
However, the average e.m.f. of the cell is 2.0 V which decreases to 1.8 V when fully
discharged.
(ii) The internal resistance of this cell is quite low.
 The A-H efficiency of this cell is nearly 80% whereas, the W-H efficiency is 60%.
 The specific gravity of electrolyte is 1280 to 1290 but to1150 when the battery is fully
discharged.
 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Whenever, terminal voltage of a battery falls below 1.8V per cell, it is put under recharging. The following
points must be kept in mind while charging a battery :
(i) Only a d.c. voltage source is applied for recharging.

The average life of a lead-acid battery is two to four years depending upon its manufacturing qualities
and technique. However, to obtain longer life and efficient service, the following points must be kept in
view :
1. The battery should not be allowed to use when the e.m.f. of the battery falls to 1·8 V per cell.
Otherwise, the lead sulphate of the plates partly changes to non-active lead sulphate and reduces
the life of the battery.
2. The specific gravity to the electrolyte should not be allowed to falls below 1.15.
3. The battery should never be left standing in a discharged condition, otherwise sulphation will
occur and the battery cells are permanently damaged.
4. When not in use, the battery must be fully charged and stored in a cool and dry place.
5. Great care should be taken that the acid used as electrolyte should not contain any substantial
impurity. It should be colourless when viewed through a 12 cm column.
6. The electrodes must remain completely immersed in the electrolyte, preferably the level of
electrolyte should always be about 10 mm above the electrodes.
7. Whenever the level of the electrolyte decreases due to evaporation or gassing, distilled water
should be added so as to keep the same concentration of electrolyte.
8. The battery should be charged and discharged at low rate so that its temperature may not rise
above 45 °C. The high temperature may buckle the plates and damage the separators and the
battery may be totally damaged.
9. The battery terminals should never be short circuited.
10. While charging the polarity must be checked carefully.
11. The room where the batteries are charged should be well ventilated as the atmosphere near the
batteries would be charged with corresponding acid fumes.
12. The flames must be kept away form the vent of the battery, otherwise hydrogen and oxyzen
produced with in the battery cells may get fire.
13. The battery terminals should always be kept clean and periodically greased with vaseline to
prevent corrosion.

Lead-acid batteries have innumerable commercial applications. Some of the important application are
given below :
1. Used in automobiles for starting and lighting.
2. For lighting on steam and diesel railway trains.
ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS

3. Used at generating stations and sub-stations for operation of protective devices and for emergency
lighting.
4. Used at telephone exchanges.
5. Used for emergency lighting at important places such as hospitals, theaters, banks etc.
6. Used for lighting purposes in remote rural areas.

It is also known as Edison-cell as it was developed by an American scientist Thomson A Edison in 1909.

It contains two plates i.e. a positive plate (anode) and a negative plate (cathode). The active material
of anode is Ni(OH)4 and of cathode is iron (Fe) when fully charged. The two plates are immersed in the
electrolyte, a solution of potassium hydroxide (KOH). A small quantity of lithium hydrate (LiOH) is also
added to the electrolyte which increases the capacity and life of the cell. The specific gravity of the
electrolyte is 1.2. In this case, the container is made of nickel-plated iron to which negative plates are
connected. This cell is quit compact as small quantity of electrolyte is used.

(i) The e.m.f. of a fully charged cell is 1.4 V which decreases to 1.3 V rapidly. However, the
average e.m.f. of the cell is 1.2 V which decreases to 1.0 V when fully discharged.
(ii) The internal resistance of this cell is quite high nearly 5 times to that of a lead-acid cell.
(iii) The A-H efficiency of this cell is nearly 80% whereas, the W-H efficiency is 60%.

It has the following advantages in comparison to that of a lead-acid cell.

(i) Longer life – about 5 year
(ii) Its electrolyte (KOH) is not harmful if spilled away.
(iii) The specific gravity of its electrolyte does not change when discharged, therefore, it can be
left in a fully discharged condition for a considerable period of time without damage.
(iv) Lower weight – nearly half to that of lead-acid cell.
(v) It can be discharged and recharged at higher rate for longer period without damage.
(vi) It can withstand higher temperature.
(vii) It is more rugged and can withstand more mechanical and electrical stresses.

(i) Higher cost-nearly double. (ii) Higher cost-nearly double.

(iii) As the e.m.f. developed per cell is less (only 1.2V), more number of cells are required for a
particular voltage.
 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

(iv) Higher internal resistance-nearly 5 times. Therefore, it can not provide large current and is
unsuitable for automobile starting.
(v) Lower efficiency.

Electrical energy is supplied to a consumer by the supplier. To charge the electrical energy consumed by
a consumer, an energy meter is installed to its quantity. The reading of the energy meter is taken every
month. The difference between the fresh reading and the previous reading tell about the consumption of
electrical energy in that month. This quantity of energy is multiplied by the rate (or tariff) fixed by the
supplier to prepare an electricity bill. However, some other charges such as meter rent, GST, other taxes
applicable etc. are also added in the bill.
Example 6.3. : A building has (i) 12 light points of 60 watt each burning 4 hour a day, (ii) a fan
point of 75 watt each running 10 hour a day, (iii) a plug point for a 750 watt heater is used one hour
a day. (iv) one radio 80 watt used 6 hour a day and (v) a 1/2 H.P. pump of 80% efficiency running
2 hour a day. Calculate the total connected load in kilowatt, maximum possible current, the daily
consumption of energy and monthly bill. The supply is given at 230 volt and energy costs Rs. 5.15
per unit. The rent for a meter is Rs. 50 per month. Assume the month of 30 days.
Solution :
Load Points Connected Load Energy Consumed/Day
(i) 12 lights of 60W each 12 × 60 = 720 W 720 × 4
= 2·88 kWh
4 hr/day 1000
(ii) 4 fan points of 75W 4 × 75 = 300 W 300 × 10
= 3·00 kWh
each – 10 hr/day 1000

(iii) 1 plug point of 750W 1 × 750 = 750W 750 × 1

 0 ∙ 75 kWh
heater – 1 hr/day 100
(iv) 1 ratio of 80W – 6 hr/ 1 × 80 = 80 W 80 × 6
 0 ∙ 48 kWh
day 1000
(v) 1/2 H.P. Pump 80% eff. 1 735 ∙ 5 460 × 2
× × 100  460 W  0 ∙ 92 kWh
– 2 hr/day 2 80 1000
Total 2310 W 8·03 kWh
Therefore connected load, P = 2310 W = 2·31 kW (Ans.)
Maximum possible current, I = P/V = 2310/230 = 10·043 A (Ans.)
Energy consumption/day = 8·03 kWh (Ans.)
Energy consumption/month = 8·03 × 30 = 240·9 kWh (Ans.)
Rate of energy/month = Rs. 5.15
Energy cost/month = 5·15 × 240·9 = Rs. 1240·60
Meter rent/month = Rs. 50·00
Therefore monthly bill = 50 + 1240·60 = Rs. 1290·60 (Ans.)
ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS 361

1. An alkaline cell is discharged at a steady current of 4 A for 12 hour, the average terminal
voltage being 1·2 V to restore it to its original state of voltage, a steady current of 3 A for 20
hour is required, the average terminal voltage being 1·44 V. Calculate the ampere-hour and
watt-hour efficiencies in this particular case. (Ans,80%; 66.67%)
2. A discharged battery is put on charge at 5A for 4 hour at a mean charging voltage of 13.5 V. It
is then discharged in 6 hour at a constant terminal voltage of 12 V through a resistance of R
ohm. Calculate the value of R for an ampere-hour efficiency of 85%. (Ans, 4.84 ohm)
3. A building has (i) 12 light points of 60 watt each burning 4 hour a day, (ii) a fan point of 75
watt each running 10 hour a day, (iii) a plug point for a 750 watt heater is used one hour a day.
(iv) one radio 80 watt used 6 hour a day and (v) a 1/2 H.P. pump of 80% efficiency running 2
hour a day. Calculate the total connected load in kilowatt, maximum possible current, the daily
consumption of energy and monthly bill. The supply is given at 230 volt and energy costs Rs.
5.15 per unit. The rent for a meter is Rs. 50 per month. Assume the month of 30 days.
(Ans, 2·31 kW; 10.043 A; 240.9 kWh; 1290.60)

Project-1 Project-2 Project-3 Project-4

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1. Switchgear: In an electric power system, the combination of electrical switches, fuses or

circuit breakers used to control, protect and isolate electrical equipment is called switchgear.
2. Power conducting components: All the switches, circuit breakers, fuses, and lightning arrestors,
that conduct or interrupt the flow of electrical power come under this category.
3. Controlling components: All the control panels, current transformers, potential transformers,
protective relays, and associated circuitry, that monitor, control, and protect the power
conducting components come under this category.
 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

4. HV, MV & LV switchgears: In power system, the electrical switchgears are categorized as
HV, MV & LV switchgears.
5. HV Switchgears: High voltage circuit breaker, is the main component of HV switchgear,
6. MV Switchgears: The switchgear system which is to handle voltages between 3 kV to 33 kV
is categorized as medium voltage switchgear or MV switchgear. These switchgears are of
many types.
7. LV Switchgears: Generally electrical switchgear rated upto 1 kV is termed as low voltage
switchgear. The term LV Switchgear includes low voltage circuit breakers, switches, off
load electrical isolators, HRC fuses, earth leakage circuit breaker, miniature circuit breakers
(MCB) and molded case circuit breakers (MCCB) etc i.e. all the accessories required to
protect the LV system.
8. Switch Fuse Unit (SFU): It comprises of a porcelain or HRC fuse and switch. The switch is
operated manually with the help of a handle.
9. Miniature Circuit Breaker (MCB): It is a device which ensures definite protection of wiring
system and sophisticated equipment against over current and short circuit faults.
10. ELCB or RCCB: Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker or Residue Current Circuit Breaker is a
device which provides protection against earth leakage faults.
11. Molded case circuit breakers: Molded case circuit breaker is the electrical protection device
that is commonly used when load current exceed the capabilities of miniature circuit breakers.
12. Wires and Cables: A solid or stranded conductor covered with insulation is known as a
insulated wire or cable.
13. Low Tension (LT) Cables: These cables are employed for system voltages upto 1000 volt.
Generally, these cables are used for distribution of electric power at 400 V. The cables are of
two types viz single-core and multi-core cables.
14. Earthing : The process of connecting metallic bodies of all the electrical apparatus and
equipment to the huge mass of earth by a wire of negligible resistance is called earthing.
15. Purpose of earthing : The basic purpose of earthing is to protect the human body (operator)
from electric shock.
16. Equipment earthing : According to Indian Electricity Rules, it is obligatory to earth the metal-
lic bodies of all the electrical equipment/apparatus/appliance which is operated at 125 V or
more than this.
17. System earthing : All the electrical equipment/apparatus/appliance operated at 125 V or more
must be properly earthed atleast at two places called double earthing.
18. Methods of earthing : The following method may be employed for earthing (i) strip earthing
(ii) Earthing through water mains (iii) Rod earthing (iv) Pipe earthing (v) Plate earthing. Pipe
earthing is considered the best method.
19. Battery : A number of cells connected in series, placed in single container is called a battery.
20. Capacity of battery : The quantity of electricity (in Ah) which a battery can deliver in single
discharge is called its capacity.
ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS

21. Efficiency of a cell or battery :

Id Td I T V
AH = ; WH = d d d
Ic Tc I c Tc Vc
22. Charge indications of a lead-acid cell or battery :
(i) Specific gravity of electrolyte : 1.280 to 1.290 – 100% charged
(ii) Voltage : more than 2V – fully charged ; below 1·8 V – fully discharged.
(iii) Colour of plates : anode – chocolate brown and cathode – grey fully charged ; both
whitish – fully discharged.
23. Nickle – Iron alkaline cell : Anode – Ni(OH)4 ; Cathode – Fe ; Electrolyte – KOH
Electrical characteristics : (i) E.M.F. of a fully charged cell is 1·4 V which decreases rapidly
to 1·3 V. Average e.m.f. of the cell is 1·2 V which decreases to 1·0 V when fully discharged.
(ii) High internal resistance – 5 times to lead-acid cell.
(iii) AH – 80% (App) ; WH – 60% (App.)
24. Calculations for energy consumption: The quantity of electrical energy consumed by the
consumer in a specified period is multiplied by the rate (or tariff) fixed by the supplier to
prepare an electricity bill.

1. What do you mean by switchgear?

2. What are the important elements of LT switchgear?
3. What is the function of SFU?
4. Why MCB is preferred over SFU?
5. What is the major function of ELCB?
6. How will you differentiate between MCCB and MCB?
7. What is CTS and VIR wire ?
8. Name the various types of wiring systems commonly used in residential and commercial
buildings.
9. What do you mean by earthing ?
10. How earth resistance can be kept low in dry summer season ?
11. What do you mean by double earthing ?
12. Which type of earthing will you prefer pipe earthing or plate earthing ? Give reasons.
13. How the outer metallic bodies of electrical appliances are connected to earth?
14. What is the function of container of a lead-acid battery.
15. Why large number of holes are provided in the separator.
16. Mention five important applications of a lead-acid battery.
 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

17. While checking the conditions of battery it is seen that the float dips at different levels at
different specific gravity of electrolyte, why ?
18. What are the charge indications of a lead-acid battery ?
19. What do you mean by capacity of a battery ? What are its units ?
20. Define ampere-hour efficiency of a battery.
21. What do you mean by capacity of a batter, what are the factors on which it depends ?
22. How do we care a lead-acid battery ? Write five major points.
23. What are the applications of lead-acid batteries ?
24. Name the important components of a Nickel-iron alkaline cell.
25. What are the electrical characteristics of a nickel-iron cell ?
26. How will ypu calculate the charges of electrical energy used by a consumer?
27. Mention the charge indications of a lead-acid battery.

1. An alkaline cell is discharged at a steady current of 5 A for 12 hour, the average terminal voltage
being 1·2 V to restore it to its original state of voltage, a steady current of 4 A for 20 hour is
required, the average terminal voltage being 1·44 V. Calculate the ampere-hour and watt-hour
efficiencies in this particular case. (Ans. 75%, 62.5%)
2. A discharged battery is put on charge at 6A for 4 hour at a mean charging voltage of 13.5 V. It
is then discharged in 6 hour at a constant terminal voltage of 12 V through a resistance of R
ohm. Calculate the value of R for an ampere-hour efficiency of 85%. (Ans. 3.53 )
3. Calculate the ampere-hour and watt-hour efficiencies of a secondary cell having 20 hour charge
rate of 10 A and delivery rate of 5A for 36 hour with mean terminal voltage of 1.96 V. The terminal
voltage during charging has a mean value of 2.35 V. (Ans. 90% ; 75.06%)
4. A building has (i) 20 light points of 60 watt each lighting 5 hour a day, (ii) 10 fan point of 70
watt each running 18 hour a day, (iii) a plug point with a 750 watt heater is used two hour a day.
(iv) two TVs each of 80 watt used 6 hour a day and (v) a 1/2 H.P. pump motor having 80%
efficiency running 2 hour a day. Calculate the total connected load in kilowatt, maximum possible
current, the daily consumption of energy and monthly bill. The supply is given at 230 volt and
energy costs Rs. 6.00 per unit. The rent for a meter is Rs. 80 per month. Assume the month of
30 days. (Ans. 3.285 kW, 14.28 A, 22.01 kWh, Rs. 3961.80)

1. In motor wiring installations, double earting is required.

(A) Single (B) double (C) tripple (D) all of these
ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS

2. The material used for fuse element is

(A) copper (B) Aluminium (C) Tin-lead alloy (D) any of a, b or c
3. The material used for fuse must have
(A) low melting point and low specific resistance
(B) low melting point and high specific resistance.
(C) high melting point and low specific resistance
(D) low melting point with any specific resistance.
4. Fuse is always connected
(A) in series with the circuit to be protected
(B) in parallel with the circuit to be protected
(C) either (a) or (b)
(D) none of these
5. Fuse is always connected in
(A) neutral (B) earth (C) phase (D) any (a), (b) or (c).
6. The basic purpose of earthing is that
(A) it avoids faults
(B) it allows the current to flow in the circuit
(C) it protects the operator from electric shock
(D) it stops current to flow in the circuit.
7. For proper earthing, according to I.E. Rules, of heavy power equipment :
(A) single earthing is sufficient
(B) double earthing system has to be adopted
(C) half earthing is sufficient
(D) any one of above.
8. Earth resistance should be very low
(A) very low (B) 10 ohm (C) 100 ohm (D) very high
9. The capacity of a cell depends upon
(A) nature of plates material and electrolyte
(B) size of plates and quantity of electrolyte
(C) both a and b
(D) none of above
10. A 12 V lead-acid battery used in a car contains
(A) 10 cells connected is series (B) 10 cells connected in parallel
(C) 6 cells connected is parallel (D) 6 cells connected in series.
 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

11. To check the specific gravity of an electrolyte, the name of the instrument used is

(A) hydrometer (B) lactometer (C) barometer (D) voltameter

12. The electrolyte used in a Nickel-iron battery is
(A) H2SO4 (B) K(OH)2 (C) NaCl (D) none of above
13. When lead-acid battery is fully charged.
(A) The colour of positive plates will be chocolate brown
(B) The colour of negative plates will be whitish
(C) the specific gravity of electrolyte will be 1.15.
(D) All above
14. When a nickle-iron cell is fully charged
(A) the active material of positive and negative plates will be Ni (OH)4 and Fe respectively.
(B) the p.d. across the terminal of the cell be 1.4 V
(C) The specific gravity of the electrolyte (KOH) will be 1.2.
(D) All above.

1. What do you mean by electrical switchgear? How will you categorise it?
2. What do you mean by LV switchgear? What are the various a SFU.
3. Explain the construction and working of an MCB.
4. How an MCB is different to fuse?
5. What do you mean by MCCB? How it is different to MCB?
6. Explain the construction and working of an ELCB.
7. How does a fuse protect and maintain the life of an electrical equipment ?
8. Classify the cables (or wires) use in domestic installations
9. Explain with the help of a neat sketch the construction of 4-core LV cable.
10. What is earthing. What is its purpose ?
11. Explain system earthing and equipment earthing.
12. What are the various methods of earthing ? Explain pipe earthing.
13. What do understand by double earthing ?
ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS

14. Explain the construction and working of a lead-acid storage battery.

15. How hydrometer is used to determine the charged condition of a lead acid cell ? Explain.
16. Write a note on care and maintenance of a lead-acid battery.
17. Explain the important characteristics of a Lead-acid battery and NIckle-iron battery.
18. State the precautions to be observed in the use of a lead-acid cell.
19. Explain the constructional feature of a typical nickel-iron alkaline cell.
20. Give atleast five important application of a lead-acid battery.
21. How will you calculate the electricity bill of a consumer?

ATTAINMENT & GAP ANALYSIS

Attainment of the Programme Outcomes will be compiled in the table below to make a Gap Analysis
and work out remedial measures:
Course Attainment of the Programme Outcomes
Outcome (1- Weak Correlation; 2- Medium correlation; 3- Strong Correlation)
PO-1 PO-2 PO-3 PO-4 PO-5 PO-6 PO-7 PO-8 PO-9 PO-10 PO-11 PO-12
CO-1
CO-2
CO-3
CO-4
CO-5

1. (B) 2. (D) 3. (A) 4. (A) 5. (C)

6. (C) 7. (B) 8. (A) 9. (B) 10. (D)
11. (A) 12. (D) 13. (A) 14. (D)
 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Demonstration of (a) dc-dc converters (b) dc-ac converters – PWM waveform (c) the use of dc-ac
converter for speed control of an induction motor and (d) Components of LT switchgear.

1. To show that the generated voltage in an alternator is proportional to excitation (field current)
before saturation.
2. To show that the terminal voltage of an alternator falls with the increase in load (when the load
is resistive or inductive) i.e. determination of regulation of alternator by direct loading method.

DC-DC power converters are employed in a variety of applications

such as power supplies for personal computers, laptop, office
equipment, spacecraft power systems, telecommunications
equipment, dc motor drives etc. The input to a dc-dc converter is an
unregulated dc voltage and it produces a regulated output voltage of
Fig. P9.1: Pictorial view of buck converter
different magnitude. Classification of Converters
Classification of Converters
The dc-dc converters may be classified as:
Buck Converter: These are step down converters, their output voltage is less than the dc input
voltage.
Boost converter: These are step up converters, their output voltage is more than the dc input voltage.
Buck-Boost converter: Their output voltage can be either higher or lower than the dc input voltage.
Buck Converters
WorkingWorking
The two circuit configurations of a buck converter i.e. On-state, when the switch is closed, and Off-
state, when the switch is open are shown in Fig. P9.2 and P9.3 respectively. The arrows indicate the
direction of flow of conventional current.

On -State L Off -State S L

D C Load D C Load

Fig. P9.2: On-state Fig. P9.3: Off-state

The functioning of buck converter is best understood in terms of the relation between current and
voltage of the inductor.BUCK CONVERTERS
ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS

On-state
 When at first instant the switch is closed (on-state), as shown in Fig. P9.2, the current will
begin to increase, and the inductor will produce an opposing voltage across its terminals in
response to the changing current. This voltage drop counteracts the voltage of the source and
therefore reduces the net voltage across the load.
 If the switch is opened while the current is still changing, then there will always be a voltage
drop across the inductor, so the net voltage at the load will always be less than the input voltage
i.e. source voltage.
Off-state
 When the switch is opened again (off-state), as shown in Fig. P9.3, the current will start
decreasing. The decreasing current will produce a voltage drop across the inductor which will
be opposite to the drop at on-state and hence, the inductor becomes a Current Source. The
stored energy in the inductor’s magnetic field is released which supports the current flow
through the load. This off-state current is added to the current flowing during on-state, hence,
the total current becomes greater than the average input current (being zero during off-state).
 Thus, during off-state, there is reduction in voltage, but this reduction is compensated by the
increase in average current. Ideally, it preserves the power provided to the load. It all happens
only because during off-state, the inductor is discharging its stored energy into the rest of the
circuit.
Hence, a reduced voltage is obtained across the load, thus a buck converter decreases the dc voltage at
the output.

Boost converter is a DC-to-DC power converter which steps up voltage and steps down the current
simultaneously such that input power supply remains the same as that of the output (load). Boost
converter is a DC-to-DC power converter which steps up voltage and steps down the current
simultaneously such that input power supply remains the same as that of the output (load).

The block diagram (conventional circuit) and pictorial view of a boost converter is shown in Fig. P9.4
and P9.5 respectively. It essentially consists of;

L D

Supply Load
S

Fig. P9-4: Boost converter circuit diagram. Fig. P9-5: Pictorial view of boost converter
 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

 At least two semiconductors – a diode and a transistor, however, in modern buck converters
usually diode is replaced with a transistor and transistor is replaced with aMOSFET or IGBT.
 At least one energy storage element – a capacitor, inductor or the two in combination.
 Extra capacitors (or sometimes a combination of capacitors and inductors) – these are used to
filter ripples. These components are normally added to output (load-side) and input (supply-
side); not shown here for simplicity.

The basic principle of a boost converter is the tendency of an inductor to oppose the changes in current
by creating and destroying a magnetic field. In this converter, the output voltage is always higher than
the input voltage. A schematic of a boost power stage is shown in Fig. P9.6.
IL ID

L D
Vi S Vs C R Vo

Is

Fig.P9-6: Boost converter schematic

On-state
 When the switch is closed (On-state), current flows through the inductor in clockwise direction,
a magnetic field is developed, and some energy is stored in it and the inductor attain a polarity.
L D L D

S C Load S C Load

Fig. P9-7: On-state Fig. P9-8: Off-state

Off-state
 When the switch is opened (Off-state), current will reduce since the impedance is higher. The
magnetic field previously created will collapse to maintain the current towards the load. Thus,
the emf of the two sources will be in series causing a higher voltage to charge the capacitor
through the diode D.
Hence, a higher voltage and reduced current is obtained across the load, thus a boost converter increases
the dc voltage but decreases current at the output.

To demonstrate a dc-dc converters:

1. Make the connections as per the converter available in the lab.
2. Get the connections checked by the teacher in-charge.
3. Measure the input and output dc voltage and observe wave shape at the input and output on
CRO.
ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS

Principle: Pulse Width Modulation

Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) is a digital technology that is employed to change the amount of
power delivered to a device.A pulse width modulator generates analogue signals by using a digital
source. A PWM signal is basically a square wave which is switched between on and off state. The duty
cycle and frequency of a PWM signal determine its behaviour.

1.5
–V –B
1.0

0.5
B (T), V (V)

–0.5

–1.0

–1.5
0 5 10 15 (ms) 20

Fig. P9-9: Wave shape of a Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)

An example of PWM in an idealized inductor driven by a voltage source modulated as a series of
pulses, resulting in a current in the inductor like a sine wave. The rectangular voltage pulses nonetheless
result in a more and more smooth current waveform, as the switching frequency increases. Note that
the current waveform is the integral of the voltage waveform.

Single-phase voltage source inverterSingle-phase voltage source inverter

A typical power-circuit topologies of a single-phase voltage source inverter is shown in Fig. P9.10. For
medium output power applications, only one dc source and the preferred devices are:
(i) n-channel IGBTs (Q1, Q2, Q3 etc.- act as fast and controllable switches)
(ii) a large dc link capacitor (Cdc)
(iii) fast recovery diodes (D1, D2, D3 etc.)
 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Idc Idc

Q1 D1 Q3 D3 D1 D3 D5
Q1 Q3 Q5

Edc Cdc E dc
+ + C dc
_ A Load B _ A B C

Q2 D2 Q4 D4 Q2 D2 Q4 D4 Q6 D6

Fig. P9.10: Topology of a single-phase VSI Fig. P9.11: Topology of a three-phase VSI

A typical power-circuit topologies of a three-phase voltage source inverter is shown in Fig. P9.11.
For medium output power applications, only one dc source and the preferred devices are:
(i) n-channel IGBTs (Q1, Q2, Q3, Q4, Q5, Q6 - act as fast and controllable switches)
(ii) a large dc link capacitor (Cdc)
(iii) fast recovery diodes (D1, D2, D3, D4, D5, D6)

1. A dc-ac converter is just an inverter which converts dc into ac, used at our domestic
installations, offices etc. The same inverter can be used for experiment ormake the
connections as per circuit shown in fig. 9.10 and 9.11.
2. Get the connections checked by the teacher in-charge.
3. Measure the input dc voltage and output ac voltage, observe wave shapes at the input and
output on CRO.

Some of the important components of LT switchgear are mentioned below:

1. Switch Fuse Unit (SFU)
Switch Fuse: Switch fuse Unit comprises of various porcelain rewireable fuses or HRC fuse fittings
complete with their conducting parts. The switch is fitted with sturdy side operating handle with
quick-break type mechanism, as shown in fig.P9.12. It is used to connect or disconnect the main
supply to the load.
ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS

(a) Two-pole SFU (b) 3-pole SFU

Fig. P9.12: Switch Fuse Unit (SFU)

2. Miniature Circuit Breaker (MCB)
Miniature Circuit Breaker (MCB) is a device which ensures definite protection of wiring system and
sophisticated equipment against over current and short circuit faults. The outer view and the internal
details of a miniature circuit breaker are shown in Fig. P9.13 and P9.14 respectively.

ARC
EXTINCTION
CHAMBER

MAGNETIC
STRIKER

OPERATING
MECHANISM

CONTACT
SYSTEM

THERMAL
ELEMENT

Fig. P9.13: Outer view of an MCB Fig.P9.14: Internal structure of MCB

3.Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (ELCB)
In the industrial, commercial and domestic building sometimes (usually in rainy season) leakage to
earth occurs. This leakage may cause electric shock or fire. Hence, the leakage to earth is very dangerous
and needs protection.
ELCBis a device which provides protection against earth leakage faults.
A 2-pole ELCB is used for 1-phase supply and a 4-pole ELCB is used for 3-phase, 4 wire supply. A 4-
pole ELCB is shown in Fig.P9.15.
 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Internal wiring diagram of a 2-pole ELCB is shown in Fig.P9.16.

Fig. P9.15: 4-pole ELCB Fig. P9.16: Internal wiring diagram of a 2-pole ELCB

4. Moulded Case Circuit Breaker (MCCB)

Moulded case circuit breakers are the electrical protection device that is commonly used when load
current exceed the capabilities of miniature circuit breakers. They are also used where the current
rating are required to be adjusted by adjusting trip settings, which are not available in plug-in circuit
breakers and MCBs.

100 AMP MCCB Moulded 100 AMP MCCB 4 pole

Case Circuit Breakers Electrical Circuit Breakers

Fig.P9.17: Moulded case circuit breakers

Two such Moulded case circuit breakers are shown in fig. P9.17.
ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS

5. Some Common Accessories and Tools

Fig.P9.18: Common Electrical Accessories

Fig.P9.19: Some Common Electrical Tools

Apparatus/Instruments/Components required :
As mentioned above or as per the availability in the Lab.

As discussed above.

To demonstrate variouscomponents of LT switchgearproceed as follows:

1. Show all the components of LT switchgear as shown in fig. P9.12 to fig. P9.19.
2. Discuss the function of each component.

1. What do understand by buck converter and boost converter?

2. How is dc converted to ac?
3. What is the function of SFU?
4. How will you say that MCB is a combination of a fuse and switch?
5. What is the function of ELCB?