SAFETY HEALTH AND HYGIENE PRACTICE

Course code 333/22/M04

Objectives of the course
• Demonstrate an understanding of regulations governing hygiene standards in the
Catering industries
• Describe and demonstrate an understanding of safety procedures when using various
equipment:
• Demonstrate hygiene practices and adhere to standards in the hospitality industry;
• Plan balanced meals to suit all nutritional requirements and age groups;
• Exercise hygiene handling of food during storage, preparation and serving;
• Apply correct methods of food storage;
• Apply correct and sustainable methods of waste disposal
Definition of terms used
Nutrition:
The science or study that deals with the intake of food by living organisms especially humans
and the process by which this food is utilized. It is a branch of science that deals with
nutrients and nutrition, particularly in humans.
Nutrients:
A substance that provides nourishment for growth or metabolism essential for the
maintenance of life and for growth.
Metabolism:
The chemical processes occurring within a living cell or organism that are necessary for the
maintenance of life. In metabolism some substances are broken down to yield energy for vital
processes while other substances, necessary for life, are synthesized.
Sanitation:
Encompasses the knowledge as well as the acceptance and effective application of sanitary
measures. These measures ensure maintenance of good health.
Health:
Refers to the state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the
absence of disease or infirmity. The art and branch of science that deals in preserving good
health is hygiene derived from Hygieia, the Goddess of Health.
Safety:
The state of being secure or the condition of being protected from, danger, risk, or injury.
Hygiene:
These are conditions or practices conducive for maintaining health and preventing disease,
especially through cleanliness, personal hygiene, personal cleanliness, purity, sterility,
disinfection, and sanitation, including cleanliness of the environment
Food safety:
Assurance that food will not cause harm to the consumer when it is prepared and / or eaten
according to its intended use
Diet:
The kinds of food that a person, animal, or community habitually eats
Special Diet:
A special course of food to which a person restricts themselves, either to lose weight or for
medical reason
Balanced Diet:
A diet that contains adequate amounts of all the necessary nutrients required for healthy,
growth and activity in correct proportions.
Malnutrition:
Poor nutrition because of an insufficient or over intake of a poorly diet or faulty digestion or
utilization of foods.
Under nutrition:
Taking insufficient/ less food than required by the body resulting in kwashiorkor.
Over nutrition:
Taking more food than the body requires resulting in overweight or obesity.
Food handler:
Any person who directly handles packaged or unpackaged food, equipment and utensils, or
food contact surfaces and is therefore expected to comply with food hygiene requirements.
Food poisoning
Is a sickness people get from something they ate or drank that contains harmful germs,
chemicals or toxins.
Food spoilage
Food spoilage is the process where a food product becomes unsuitable to ingest by the
consumer. Bacteria and various fungi are the cause of spoilage and can create serious
consequences for the consumers, but there are preventive measures that can be taken.
Cross-contamination
Refers to the transfer of harmful bacteria, viruses, or other microorganisms from one
substance or object to another, often resulting in foodborne illnesses. It's a major concern in
food preparation, handling, and storage.
Common ways where cross-contamination occurs:
Raw to Cooked Foods:
Using the same cutting board or knife for raw meat and vegetables without proper cleaning in
between.
Personal Hygiene:
Not washing hands thoroughly after handling raw foods or using the restroom before
touching other foods.
Surface Contact:
Placing cooked foods on surfaces that were in contact with raw foods.
Storage Practices:
Storing raw meat above ready-to-eat foods in the refrigerator, leading to drips and leaks.
To prevent cross-contamination, follow these steps:
 Use separate cutting boards and utensils for raw and cooked foods.
 Wash hands thoroughly and frequently with soap and water.
 Keep kitchen surfaces and equipment clean and sanitized.
 Store raw meats properly in sealed containers and below other foods in the fridge.
Personal hygiene
Bathing
Regular bathing at least once a day is essential otherwise germs can be transferred on to the
clothes and so on to food.
Hands
If Hands are not kept clean can be a great source of danger as they can so easily transfer
harmful bacteria on to the food. Before starting work, Jewellery makes hand washing less
effective and bacteria can get under them.
Rings and Jewellery
Should not be worn where food is handled. Particles of food may be caught under a ring and
germs could multiply there until they are transferred into the food.
Watches
Should not be worn because foodstuffs e.g. salads and cabbage which have to be plunged into
plenty of water may not be properly washed because a watch is worn. Jewellery must not be
worn since it may fall off into the food.
Fingernails
These should always be kept clean (no varnish) and short as dirt can easily lodge under the
nail and be dislodged when for example making pastry, so introducing bacteria into the food.
Nails should be cleaned with a nail brush.
Hair
Hair should be washed regularly and be kept covered where food is being handled. Hair
which is not cared for is likely to come out or shed dandruff which may fall of into the food.
Men’s hair should be kept short as it is easier to keep clean, it also looks neater. Women’s
hair should be kept covered as much as possible. The hair should never be scratched, combed
or touched in the kitchen, as germs could be transferred via the hands into the food.
Nose
The nose should not be touched when food is being handled. Ideally a paper handkerchiefs
should be used and then destroyed, the hands should be washed afterwards. The nose is an
area where there are vast numbers of bacteria, it is therefore very important that neither food,
people nor working surfaces are sneezed over, so spreading germs.
Mouth
There are many germs in the area of the mouth, therefore the mouth and lips should not be
touched by the hands or utensils which may come into contact with the food. No cooking
utensils should be used for tasting food nor fingers used for this purpose as germs may be
transferred into the food. A clean spoon should be used for tasting and washed afterwards.
Coughing over food or working areas should be avoided as germs spread over long distances.
Ears
The ear-holes should not be touched during food preparation as germs can be transferred.
Teeth
Sound teeth are essential to good health. They should be washed regularly and regular visits
to the dentist are of utmost importance so that teeth can be kept in good repair.
Feet
As food handlers are standing for long hours, care of the feet are important. They should be
washed regularly and the toe nails kept short and clean.
If suffering from an illness involving any of the following
Jaundice, fever, TB, Diarrhea, sore throat, skin rash, Vomiting, discharge from the ear and
other skin lesions (boils, cuts). These individuals should be assigned to another task
Wounds on hands and arms
Should be carefully bandaged with water proof materials, because wounds may infected with
pathogenic microorganisms.
The chef’s Uniform/Components of a chef’s uniform
Apron
To protect themselves from hot spillages and protects especially man whose delicate parts
can be scotched by heat and this may result in sterility over time
Chef’s Jacket
Which must be double breasted to protect the food handler’s chest from hot spillages
Chef’s trousers
That must be long enough to cover the legs and protect them from hot spillages and from
being pricked by sharp object
Chef’s hat
Must be made of cotton fabric to absorb sweat that falls from the head and prevent it from
falling onto food.
Necker tie
Must also be made of cotton fabric to absorb sweat and prevent it from falling onto food
Safety shoes
These must have very low heel for easy movement. The shoe must be made of rubber sole to
facilitate easy movement and grip on slippery floors.
Gloves
These must be made of cotton fabric and must be strong enough to protect the food handler
from hot pots and dishes.
Restaurant Clothing
The uniform
Must be comfortable to wear and should reflect good taste. Popular colours are black and
white.
Colours
Can also be chosen match the decor of the restaurant or to match the organisation`s colour
scheme.
Fabrics
Should be washable, drip dry and require minimum ironing. Restaurant staff often wear
different variations of the same uniform to distinguish their different positions. For instance
wine butler will wear a waistcoat and a table waitron an apron to indicate their position. The
food and beverage manager normally wears a formal outfit to set the tone of the restaurant. It
is important that for all a comfortable shoe is worn facilitate easy movement due to long
standing hours that may be experienced in the industry.
Points to be noted
• Uniforms, aprons, and garments should be clean at the beginning of each shift and
changed regularly when necessary.
 • Uniforms or aprons should not be worn outside the food-preparation area.
• Avoid using handkerchiefs for wiping or blowing noses; use disposable tissues.
• Wear disposable gloves.
• Avoid wearing jewelry while handling or preparing food.
• Do not wear damaged or deteriorating uniforms, aprons or garments.
• No pockets above the waist and no buttons on the garments
Prevention of infectious diseases
• High standards of hygiene minimize food spoilage and help to ensure that when food
is eaten it is wholesome and as free from pathogenic bacteria, harmful viruses and
moulds as possible. Many factors may affect the quality and wholesomeness of food.
Among them are
• The way in which it is grown, or in the case of animals, reared and fed.
• The design and cleanliness of farm buildings, slaughterhouses and factories in which
it is processed
• The premises equipment and conditions in which it is stored
• The care taken by food handlers to avoid contamination from other foods.
• The personal hygiene of food handlers
Food Hygiene
Food Hygiene is a scientific discipline describing handling, preparation, and storage of food
in ways that prevent food borne illness. This includes a number of routines that should be
followed to avoid potentially severe health hazards.
• It includes the selection of whole some food, proper storage and protection during
preparation, holding and service.
• Food can transmit disease from person to person as well as serve as a growth medium
for bacteria that can cause food poisoning.
• In developed countries there are intricate standards for food preparation, whereas in
lesser developed countries the main issue is simply the availability of adequate safe
water, which is usually a critical item. In theory food poisoning is 100% preventable.
• The food industry should apply the hygienic practices set out by its country`s food
regulations.
Food hygiene objectives
• Avoid the use of areas where the environment poses a threat to the safety of food.
• Controlling contaminants, pests and diseases of animals and plants in such a way as
not to pose a threat to food safety.
 • Adopting practices and measures to ensure food is produced under appropriately
hygienic conditions.
Why is food hygiene important
• Appropriate Food Hygiene practices may:
• Prevent food poisoning
• Reduce food spoilage
• Avoid prosecution
• Avoid loss of business
• Ensure safer working conditions
• Protect the reputation of the organisation
• Protect employment
• Fulfil the moral obligation to public
• Fulfil legal requirements of the Food Act
The five key principles of food hygiene, according to WHO
• Prevent contaminating food with pathogens spreading from people, pets, and pests.
• Separate raw and cooked foods to prevent contaminating the cooked foods.
• Cook foods for the appropriate length of time and at the appropriate temperature
• Store food at the proper temperature.
• Do use safe water and raw materials
These principles are the basics that guide food handlers to minimise food contamination in
Catering Establishments. The onus lies with the establishment to try and provide appropriate
working environment to achieve intended objectives. In catering establishments food can be
contaminated mainly due to primary or secondary sources. The information on how this
contamination takes place must made available to all workers in catering establishments to
minimise the incidence of recurrence.
General Food Safety Tips
• Always buy meat and fish from a reliable source with very high standards of hygiene
• Store frozen, fresh and chilled foods immediately after purchase.
• Do not let raw meat juices drip on other food.
• Be careful when re-heating leftovers especially if using a microwave oven. Food
should be piping hot all the way through.
• Store leftovers immediately and use within 48 hours maximum
• Always wash and dry your hands before starting to cook and after handling raw foods
The cost of poor food hygiene in the food industry
• Food poisoning outbreaks and sometimes death
• Food contamination and food complaints
• Pest infestations
• Waste food due to spoilage
• Closure of food premises by local authorities
• Fines and costs of legal action taken because of contravention in hygiene legislation.
• Civil action taken by food consumers
• Loss of production
• Reduced shelf life of food.
Healthcare Costs
Medical Treatment:
Individuals affected by foodborne illnesses often require medical attention, leading to costs
associated with hospitalization, medication, doctor visits, and diagnostic tests.
Emergency Response:
Public health agencies and emergency services may incur significant expenses in responding
to outbreaks, conducting investigations, and implementing control measures.
Economic Impact
Product Recalls:
When contaminated or unsafe food products are identified, manufacturers may have to recall
the products from the market. The costs associated with the retrieval, disposal, and
destruction of the affected products can be substantial.
Market Loss:
Companies may suffer financial losses due to the damage to their reputation and the decline
in consumer trust, leading to reduced sales and market share.
Legal and Regulatory Consequences
Fines and Legal Action:
Businesses that fail to meet food safety standards may face fines and legal action.
Closure of Premises:
In severe cases, businesses may be forced to close temporarily or permanently due to food
safety violations.
Reputation Damage
Customer Reviews:
Poor food hygiene can lead to negative reviews on platforms like TripAdvisor, Google, and
social media, which can deter potential customers.
Benefits of food hygiene
• Good hygiene can prevent food consumers from becoming infected with various food
borne diseases many of which can be fatal. Good food hygiene protects the health of
the consumer
• Correct food hygiene design ad practice can protect both businesses and individual
food handlers from possible prosecution by local Authority Environmental Health
Officers
• Satisfied customers, good reputation and increased business
• Increased shelf life of foods.
• Good working conditions and high staff moral and lower staff turnover.
• All these contribute to higher profits
Food poisoning
Is a sickness people get from something they ate or drank that contains harmful germs,
chemicals or toxins.
Symptoms
May include upset stomach, diarrhoea, vomiting, nausea and fever. The symptoms usually
start within hours or days of eating the food.
Cases
Are mild and don’t need medical attention. To prevent food poisoning, it is important to wash
your hands often and prepare and store food safely
Preventive measures of food poisoning in the kitchen
Check Expiration Dates
 While the dates printed on food packages are a measure of quality, and not necessarily
safety, it is wise to heed expiration dates on highly perishable items such as dairy,
meat, and poultry products.
 Do not buy any food with a “sell-by” date that has passed or use any food that smells
bad. If you don’t notice a foul smell until you are home and can open the package,
call the store to ask about returning it.
 Also, avoid any packaged food that has a broken seal or wrap, and do not buy food in
cans that have been dented or are bulging, as this may be an indication of bacterial
contamination, which can be deadly.
Wash Fresh Produce but Not Meat, Poultry, or Eggs
  Fresh produce can be a surprising source of foodborne illness. Fruits and veggies can
be contaminated by animals, their growing conditions, or the people they encounter
before they end up in your kitchen. Washing produce helps remove harmful bacteria
like E. coli from the surface of fruits and vegetables. Even if you won’t be eating the
skin or rind of a piece of produce, it’s important to wash it so bacteria on the surface
doesn’t get transferred to the flesh by your knife when you cut into it.
 To wash produce properly, it is recommended to start by first removing and
discarding any stems and parts that are bruised or damaged, then rinsing under
running water. Do not use soap, bleach, or any commercial produce washes. Firm
produce like melons or cucumbers can be scrubbed with a clean produce brush.
Washed fruits and veggies should be dried with a paper towel or clean cloth towel. Do
not wash meat, poultry, or eggs, as this can actually spread bacteria.
Separate Proteins and Produce
When you are food shopping, juices from raw meat, poultry, or seafood, which may harbour
bacteria, can drip onto produce, increasing your risk of food poisoning from bacteria such as
salmonella. It is encouraged to separate foods that can carry salmonella from those that don’t
to prevent the spread of illness-causing bacteria.
The recommended easy steps to stop cross-contamination:
 Put meat and fish in plastic bags before putting them into your shopping cart and
separate them from your fruits and vegetables.
 Have them bagged separately at the checkout, too, and then store these foods apart in
your refrigerator.
When preparing food,
 Cut up produce first or use a different cutting board and knife for raw meats and fish,
if possible.
 Don’t put cooked food back onto a plate that held raw food previously.
 Wash your hands, cutting boards, countertops, and utensils thoroughly with soap and
hot water after handling raw meat, poultry, or fish.
Know the Temperature ‘Danger Zone’ for Perishables and Prepared Foods
Pathogens start to grow in perishable items including meat, dairy, seafood, eggs, freshly
prepared foods, and anything else that has a label saying it should be refrigerated after
opening, such as mayonnaise at temperatures above 40 degrees F for cold foods, and under
140 degrees for hot foods.
“A perishable item is still safe to eat if it's been exposed to the temperature danger zone for
less than two hours,” says West Passerrello. But, she adds, time spent in the danger zone is
cumulative, so consider the amount of time perishable items spend in the grocery cart, at the
checkout, in the car trunk, and on the counter waiting to be put away.
The danger zone also applies to foods that are delivered to your home, such as groceries
ordered online or meal kit deliveries. Be aware of how food is insulated in its packaging, and
how long it’s sitting in a hot delivery truck or on your porch. If it feels warm to the touch, it’s
not worth the risk.
Make sure your refrigerator is set to 40 degrees F or cooler, and your freezer is set to 0
degrees F or cooler. And if you’re not certain about the safety of a food — if it just doesn’t
smell or look right, for instance — use the old rule: “When in doubt, throw it out.”
Another time the danger zone is important is during picnics and parties when food is sitting
out for extended periods. Even cooked foods can grow disease-causing pathogens if they sit
out too long, says West Passerrello. In general, food should not be left unrefrigerated for
more than two hours, or one hour if the air temperature is 90 degrees F or more.
Keep It Clean
Hand-washing before and during food preparation is crucial to prevent food poisoning caused
by bacteria such as salmonella and E. coli, according to FoodSafety.gov. Regular soap and
water is fine, but be thorough about getting the backs of your hands and under your nails.
You should spend at least 20 seconds washing, or the amount of time it takes to sing "Happy
Birthday" twice. Then make sure to use a clean towel to dry one that has been used to wipe
up spills may spread germs.
Be particularly careful about washing your hands after using the bathroom, changing a
diaper, or picking up after a pet. Pets can naturally carry bacteria that are safe for them, but
harmful for humans, according to the Michigan State University Extension Office. They
recommend keeping pets out of the kitchen, especially off countertops, and washing your
hands after snuggling or otherwise handling pets.
Wash cutting boards and countertops frequently, especially after they come in contact with
raw meat, poultry, or fish. The Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics recommends keeping
sponges clean and germ-free by microwaving them for one minute or running through a hot
cycle in the dishwasher, and washing dishcloths frequently in very hot water in the washing
machine. Make sure both are completely dry (use a drying cycle if possible).
Marinate and Thaw Meats in the Refrigerator
When marinating foods, be sure to do so in the fridge instead of on the counter, where
bacteria can multiply quickly, says West Passerrello. She recommends using a food-safe
container and discarding any leftover marinade. “Do not reuse a marinade from raw meat or
poultry,” she says, as it can easily be contaminated with pathogens.
Likewise, don’t defrost frozen meats by leaving them out on a counter at room temperature
overnight, says Bucknavage. “Thaw it in the refrigerator,” he says. Some cooks recommend
bringing meat like steaks up to room temperature before cooking them, and Bucknavage says
that’s okay, as long as you don’t leave it out longer than the two-hour danger-zone window
(less if the ambient temperature is above 90 degrees Fahrenheit).
Cook Foods Thoroughly
Heat kills germs. Use a meat thermometer to determine the temperature of food when
cooking. The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services runs a Food Safety Education
website where it is recommended that ground meats, including beef, veal, pork, and lamb
reach an internal temperature of 160 degrees F. Steaks of all kinds should be cooked to 145
degrees F. Poultry is done at 165 degrees F. For more on cooking foods to the right
temperature, check out FoodSafety.gov.
Minimize Restaurant Risks
When dining out, you can lower your risk of food poisoning by checking a restaurant’s
inspection score with your state or local department of health as recommended by the CDC.
You can also look for certificates of food safety training displayed in the restaurant, and look
to see if restaurant staff are handling food properly, and are not visibly sick. Make sure your
food is fully cooked (avoid rare hamburgers and other partially cooked dishes). And ask if the
restaurant uses pasteurized eggs, since raw eggs in dishes such as Caesar salad may contain
salmonella.
When taking home leftovers, make sure you get them into the refrigerator within two hours
after preparation to minimize the risk of food poisoning.
Don’t Forget Food Safety on the Road
Keep hot and cold food out of the danger zone when you’re traveling, too. When packing
food for a trip, be sure to use coolers, insulated bags, and ice packs to keep food cold and
avoid the chance of food poisoning, says the University of Nebraska-Lincoln’s Institute of
Agriculture and Natural Resources. When traveling by car in hot weather, store food in the
air-conditioned passenger compartment rather than in the hot trunk.
If you can’t wash your hands with soap and water, it is recommended cleaning them with a
wet wipe or hand sanitizer before eating. These simple steps will minimize your risk of food
poisoning and the spread of salmonella and other foodborne illnesses.
Kitchen Hygiene
It is concerned with the hygiene practices that prevent food poisoning. These are based on the
five basic principles specified by World Health Organisation (WHO) of food hygiene.
Good Kitchen Hygiene Tendencies
• When the kitchen is used there must be a team leader who takes responsibility for
ensuring that these guidelines are followed.
• On entering the kitchen, place bags etc so that no one can trip over them. If you are
serving hot beverages, be careful carrying teapot or boiling water around the kitchen.
• Wash hands thoroughly with soap after using the toilet, handling pets and before
handling food.
• Spillages must be mopped up immediately using the mop provided to avoid people
slipping.
• Keep your kitchen surfaces, fridge, utensils, pans and dishes spotlessly and clothes
clean.
• Change your tea towel and washing up cloths regularly. These are favourite breeding
grounds for bacteria.
• DISINFECT the work surfaces using the kitchen surface cleaner provided.
• Protect the kitchen and food items from insects, pests and pets
 • Before spraying insecticides, in the kitchen walls/cupboards, remove all the food
items. Spraying should be done during the night time. Wet mop the cupboards before
storing again.
• Do not store raw foods (vegetables, dals, cereals, masala i.e powdered spices) for long
periods. “First In first Out” (FIFO) practice should be followed by all and more so
in regions where humidity is high.
• Storage of items should be in airtight containers/utensils to protect them from dust,
insects, and moisture.
The Danger zone
The danger zone refers to the temperatures between 5 °C and 63 °C. This is the temperature
range in which harmful bacteria multiply the fastest. If perishable foods stay in the danger
zone too long, the food will spoil, meaning there will be no way to kill off the bacteria
present in order to make the food safe for consumption.
121º C
• Temperature that is needed to kill spores.
79º C
• For 2 minutes recommended temperature for reheated foods and the temperature
required to ensure thorough cooking of food.
63º C
• Minimum temperature at which cooked foods must be kept hot until serving.
37º C
• (Body temperature) temperature at which most bacteria can grow very quickly.
5º -63º C
• Temperature Danger Zone. 1º -4º C temperature range for a refrigerator.
-18º – 25ºC
• temperature range for a freezer.
Colour coded cutting boards
• Red - Raw meat
• Blue - Raw fish
• Yellow - Cooked meat
• Green - Salad & fruit products
• Brown - Vegetable products
• White - Bakery & dairy products
Hygienic ways of handling food in the kitchen
Personal Hygiene
Wash Hands Regularly:
Always wash your hands thoroughly with soap and water before and after handling food.
Use Clean Utensils and Equipment:
Ensure all kitchen utensils, cutting boards, and countertops are clean and sanitized.
Food Storage
Store Perishables Properly:
Keep perishable items like meat, dairy, and eggs refrigerated or frozen.
Use Airtight Containers:
Store dry goods in airtight containers to prevent contamination and pests.
Food Preparation
Separate Raw and Cooked Foods: Avoid cross-contamination by using separate cutting
boards and knives for raw meats and ready-to-eat foods.
Cook to Proper Temperatures:
Ensure food, especially meats, are cooked to safe internal temperatures to kill harmful
bacteria.
Clean Fruits and Vegetables:
Wash fruits and vegetables under running water before eating or cooking.
Kitchen Cleanliness
Regular Cleaning:
Keep your kitchen surfaces, sinks, and appliances clean and sanitized.
Dispose of Waste Properly:
Empty garbage bins regularly and keep them covered to prevent attracting pests.
Safe Practices
Don’t Cook When Sick:
Avoid preparing food if you are feeling unwell to prevent the spread of germs.
Use Clean Towels:
Regularly wash dishcloths and kitchen towels to keep them germ-free.
Points to observe on kitchen hygiene
Personal Hygiene
Wash Hands:
Always wash your hands with soap and water before handling food, after touching raw
ingredients, and after using the bathroom.
Wear Clean Clothing:
Use clean aprons and avoid wearing loose jewellery that might come into contact with food.
Cover Hair:
Use hair nets or caps to prevent hair from falling into food.
Food Handling
Separate Raw and Cooked Foods:
Use separate cutting boards and utensils for raw meats and cooked foods to prevent cross-
contamination.
Check Expiry Dates:
Always check the expiration dates on food items and use them before they expire.
Proper Cooking:
Ensure food is cooked to the right temperature to kill harmful bacteria.
Kitchen Cleanliness
Clean Surfaces:
Regularly clean countertops, cutting boards, and other surfaces with disinfectant.
Wash Utensils and Appliances:
Clean and sanitize utensils, appliances, and equipment after each use.
Garbage Disposal:
Dispose of food waste properly and keep garbage bins covered and clean.
Storage
Refrigeration:
Store perishable items in the refrigerator at the correct temperature (below 40°F or 4°C).
Label and Date:
Label and date leftovers and store them properly in airtight containers.
Avoid Overcrowding:
Do not overcrowd the refrigerator or pantry; allow air to circulate to keep food fresh.
Pest Control
Seal Entrances:
Ensure windows, doors, and vents are sealed to prevent pests from entering.
Store Food Properly:
Keep dry goods in airtight containers to deter pests.
Regular Inspections:
Regularly inspect for signs of pests and take immediate action if any are found.
Miscellaneous
Keep Floors Clean:
Regularly sweep and mop kitchen floors to avoid spills and debris accumulation.
Proper Ventilation:
Ensure the kitchen is well-ventilated to reduce moisture and prevent mould growth.
Educate Staff:
If you have a team, ensure everyone is trained in proper kitchen hygiene practices.
Ways in which food can be contaminated
Biological Contamination:
This occurs when harmful microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses, parasites, or fungi
contaminate food. Examples include Salmonella, E. coli, and Listeria.
Chemical Contamination:
This happens when food comes into contact with harmful chemicals. Sources can include
pesticides, cleaning agents, heavy metals like lead or mercury, and food additives that exceed
safe levels.
Physical Contamination:
This involves foreign objects finding their way into food. Common culprits include hair,
glass, metal fragments, or even pests like insects or rodents.
Cross-Contamination:
This occurs when harmful bacteria or allergens are transferred from one surface, food, or
equipment to another. For example, using the same cutting board for raw meat and vegetables
without proper cleaning can spread bacteria.
Allergenic Contamination:
This is specific to people with food allergies. Even trace amounts of allergens like peanuts,
tree nuts, dairy, or shellfish can cause severe reactions in susceptible individuals.
Precautions to be taken when preparing solid foods in a kitchen

Cleanliness:
Always wash your hands with soap and water before handling food. Make sure all utensils,
cutting boards, and surfaces are clean and sanitized.

Separate: Use separate cutting boards and utensils for raw meats and ready-to-eat foods to
prevent cross-contamination.

Cook Thoroughly:

Ensure that meats are cooked to the appropriate internal temperature to kill harmful bacteria.
Use a food thermometer to check.

Store Properly:

Refrigerate perishable items promptly and keep the refrigerator at the proper temperature
(below 40°F or 4°C).

Handle with Care:

Be cautious with knives and other sharp objects. Always cut away from your body and keep
fingers clear of the blade.

Avoid Cross-Contamination:

Never place cooked food on a plate that previously held raw meat, poultry, or seafood.

Personal Hygiene:

If you’re feeling unwell or have any cuts or wounds, avoid handling food to prevent
spreading illness.

Check Expiry Dates:

Always check the expiry dates of ingredients and avoid using items that are past their best-
before dates.

Use Appropriate Tools:

Use the right tools for the job, and make sure they are in good condition. For example, use a
meat thermometer for checking meat doneness.

HACCP

Definition and Meanings

Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points (HACCP) is a globally recognized food safety
management system that identifies and controls potential hazards during food production.
This system addresses biological, chemical, and physical risks from the initial stages of raw
material production and procurement up to the distribution and consumption of the finished
product. By analyzing where these hazards may arise, HACCP establishes measures to
minimize these risks, ensuring food products’ safe production and delivery.
To enhance its effectiveness, HACCP operates in tandem with essential prerequisite
programs like pest control, hygiene, sanitation, traceability, and recall mechanisms. The
ultimate aim of HACCP is to prevent or substantially reduce the occurrence of food safety
hazards rooted in applying scientific principles to food processing and production. This
ensures that food products are not only compliant with regulatory standards but are also safe
for consumers.

Importance Of HACCP

Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points (HACCP) plays a pivotal role in ensuring food safety
worldwide, and its importance can be distilled into the following points:

Consumer Safety:

At its core, HACCP is designed to protect consumers from foodborne illnesses and
contaminants, ensuring their food is safe.

Prevention Over Correction:

Instead of relying on end-product testing, HACCP emphasizes preventing hazards at specific

points in the production process. This proactive approach reduces the chance of unsafe food
reaching consumers.

Systematic Approach:

By identifying potential hazards and implementing critical control points, HACCP offers a
structured method for addressing food safety, ensuring no step is overlooked.

Economic Benefits:

Recalls, legal actions, and medical treatments resulting from foodborne illnesses can be
costly. Businesses can avoid these expenses and potential reputational damage by reducing
the risk of contamination.

Compliance and Trade:

Many international markets require HACCP certification as a condition for trade.

Implementing HACCP can open up global market opportunities for food producers.

Streamlined Processes:

HACCP can lead to more efficient production processes. Businesses can reduce waste and
improve productivity by understanding and monitoring critical control points.

Foundation for Other Standards:

HACCP often serves as a foundation for other food safety standards and certifications,
making it easier for businesses to achieve additional certifications if they already have
HACCP.
Boosts Consumer Confidence:

Knowledge that a business adheres to HACCP standards can enhance consumer trust in the
brand and its products.

Continuous Improvement:

The regular reviews and updates that the HACCP system mandates ensure that food safety
management processes are always current and evolving as technologies and risks change.

Holistic View of Safety:

HACCP considers a wide range of hazards, from biological to chemical and physical,
ensuring a comprehensive approach to food safety.

Safety

Kitchens must be designed so that they can easily be managed. The management must have
easy access to the areas under their control and have good visibility in the areas which have
to be supervised. Large operations should work on separate work floors for reasons of
efficiency and hygiene.

Non-Slip Flooring

Choose flooring materials that are slip-resistant to prevent accidents.

Fire Safety

Install fire extinguishers and ensure proper ventilation to reduce fire hazards.

Product flows

This section must be subdivided into high risk and contaminated sections. High risk food is
that which during the process is likely to be contaminated. Contaminated food is that whish is
contaminated on arrival before processing, unprepared vegetables raw meat.

Work flow

Food preparation rooms should be planned to allow a workflow whereby food is processed
through the premises from the point of delivery to the point of sale.

Work Triangle:

Ensure an efficient flow between the sink, stove, and refrigerator. This minimizes movement
and increases convenience.

Zones:

Designate specific areas for preparation, cooking, cleaning, and storage.

Preparation Areas:

Ensure ample counter space for food preparation. Consider incorporating an island or
breakfast bar for additional workspace.

The building (construction details)

Floors should withstand a considerable amount of wear and tear. They must be capable of
being cleaned easily, smooth but nit slippery even without cracks or open joints or
impervious. They must be cleaned with hot soapy water at up to 80 C. Staff must be trained
to clean the floors immediately after spillage. Floors need to be resistant to grease and salts
and should slope sufficiently to drain into grease trap. The angle between the wall and floor
should be covered. Timber floors are not suitable because they are absorbent, they wear
quickly and the joints can harbour moisture and dirty. The type of floor be dependent on its
use.

Walls

Walls should be strong, smooth, impervious, washable and light in colour. The joint between
wall and floor should be rounded for ease of cleaning. Tiling is the best wall surface because
it is easily cleaned and requires no further maintenance. Internal walls should be solid, as
cavities or spaces provide harbourage for pests, localized protection of wall against damage
may be needed.

Flooring

The kitchen flooring is one part that shouldn’t be taken for granted. This is because improper
flooring can compromise the safety of the entire household. As a rule of thumb, go for lighter
and safer types of flooring materials. Light materials can create a light, airy space for your
kitchen. They will also allow you to see spills and potential hazards on the floor. After all,
when it comes to cooking, safety is a top priority.

Ceilings

Ceilings should be free from cracks and flaking. They should not be able to harbour dirt.
They should be smooth, durable light coloured covered at the wall joints and easy to clean. A
ceiling in the kitchen is necessary to prevent dust from the roof or floor structure above.

Doors and Windows

Doors and windows should fit correctly and be clean. The glass should be clean inside and
out so as to admit maximum light. Windows provide natural light and ventilation. In food
premises require natural lighting of a minimum of 12% at the total floor area of the food
preparation premises. An area of 5% of the floor area of the food area should have windows
that open for ventilation purposes. Windows may be fitted with fly screens, but this normally
cuts down the amount of light and ventilation significantly. Windows should be situated in a
position that will reduce glare and solar heat gain. Window ledges situated behind equipment
are not easily accessible foe cleaning. Window seals should be higher than equipment and
should be constructed in such a way to prevent their use as shelves.
Ventilation

Adequate ventilation must be provided so that fumes from stoves are taken out of the kitchen
and the stale air in the stores, larder, still room etc is extracted. This will require the
installation of canopies and extractor fans which should be fitted with accessible filters and
grease drip trays. This avoids cooking smells to linger in the kitchen and become stale and is
deleterious to standards of quality and cleaning.

Range Hood

Install a range hood to remove cooking odours, smoke, and grease from the air.

Windows

Incorporate windows for natural ventilation and light.

Lighting

Good lighting is necessary so that people working in the kitchen do not strain their eyes and
cleaning can be done properly. Natural lighting is preferable to artificial lighting.

Task Lighting

Install adequate lighting over work areas such as countertops, the sink, and the stove.

Ambient Lighting

Use overhead lighting to illuminate the entire kitchen.

Accent Lighting

Consider under-cabinet lighting for added functionality and ambiance.

Storage

After the layout, kitchen storage plays a crucial part. As there are many kitchenware involved
and food items to store, you want to utilise and make ample space. For instance, you may
want to consider overhead cabinets, more drawers, or enough shelves for your kitchen. When
it comes to storage, your goal is to reduce the clutter in your kitchen. You also want to foster
a safe environment that’s ideal for food preparation and cooking.

Cabinets and Drawers:

Optimize storage with a mix of deep drawers, pull-out shelves, and overhead cabinets.

Pantry

Consider a pantry for storing non-perishable goods.

Water systems
A properly designed kitchen is a basic to maintain high standards of cleanliness. Drains
gullies, trap and overflows must be kept clean and free flowing. Day to day maintenance and
removal of food debris and blockages reported immediately. Adequate supplies of hot and
cold water must be available for keeping the kitchen clean, cleaning the equipment and for
staff use. Sinks and hand basins should be kept clean and free flowing. Water supplies to food
premises must be direct from mains supply. Constant and adequate supplies of portable water
are essential.

Toilets

Toilets should have hand washing and drying facilities and suitable provisions that are in
direct contact with any rooms in which food is prepared or stored

Hand washing facilities

Hand washing facilities separated from the food preparation sinks must also be available in
the kitchen with suitable means of drying the hands, for example hot air dryer, or dry clean
towel. These sinks should be fashioned with hot and cold water taps and an adequate supply
of disinfectant hand cleaner, nail brush and paper towels.

Appliances

Quality and Efficiency

Choose energy-efficient appliances that suit your cooking habits and preferences.

Placement

Ensure that appliances are easily accessible and strategically placed within the kitchen layout.

Materials and Finishes

Durability

Select durable and easy-to-clean materials for countertops, flooring, and cabinetry.

Style

Choose materials and finishes that complement your overall design aesthetic.

Plumbing and Electrical

Plumbing

Plan for the placement of sinks, dishwashers, and water filtration systems.

Electrical Outlets

Ensure there are enough outlets for appliances and that they are conveniently located.
Personalization

Unique Touches

Add personal touches through decorative elements, such as backsplash designs, cabinet
hardware, and colour schemes.

Gas

Most gas used today is natural gas. It comes from underground sources in the seas. Natural
gas is non-toxic and odorless. When it is brought ashore a smell is added to it. This gives it
the characteristic smell so it can be easily detected. Gas passes into houses and other
establishments through a gas meter which at present records the amount used in cubic feet

There are two methods by which gas is burned:

1. By ignition at the burner head, when the oxygen needed for combustion is obtained
from the surrounding atmosphere,
2. By ignition at the burner head when part of the air is mixed with gas before hand, this
is known as primary air and trapped in a vent in the burner itself.

Gas Safety

What to do if you smell gas

 Open the doors and windows to get rid of the gas

 Check to see if the gas has been left on, or if a pilot light has gone out. Is so turn the
appliance off.
 If this is not the case turn the gas supply off at thee meter and phone the emergency
service immediately

Do not attempt the following

 Do not turn any electrical switches on or off. You can use the phone to call the
emergency services
 Do not smoke
 Do not use matches or naked flames.

Advantages

Convenient, labour saving

Free from smoke and dirt
Easily controlled with immediate full heat and the flames are visible
Special utensils are not required
No fuel storage required

Disadvantages

Some heat is lost into the kitchen

Regular cleaning is necessary for efficiency
Electricity

If a coil of wire is joined at both ends to another length of wire and a magnet is passed rapidly
backwards and forwards through the coil a current of electricity is produced. In the electricity
generating stations the magnets may be moved by turbines driven either by steam pressure or
by water power and harnessed to drive generators.
Electricity cannot be seen heard tasted or smelt. Installed correctly it is a very safe source of
energy, but misused can kill or cause serious injury.
There are two kinds of electric current:

Direct current

Alternating current

The one most used is the A.C. it is then carried by cables through and transformers to local
substations. The consumer takes his supply of electricity from the substation. Electricity must
have a complete circuit from the source of supply through the load. Some substances are
conductors of electricity some are insulators.
All substances allow electricity to pass through them. Those which allow electricity to flow
freely are known as conductors’ e.g. metal, carbon, tap water, damp earth. Those which do
not allow electricity to freely are known as insulators e.g. glass, porcelain, wood, rubber,
leather, plastic, stone. A substance’s ability to be a good insulator depends on many things,
such as its working temperature the dampness of the surrounding area and its age. So when
equipment is designed an insulator is chosen so that it does not deteriorate after prolonged
use under the conditions in which it is used. The human body also conducts electricity

Electrical terms

Watts
Measure power-that is the rate at which any electrical appliance is using electric current for a
given pressure (voltage)

Voltage
Measure pressure flow

Amperes

Measures the rate of flow of current and can be obtained by dividing the watts and the volts

Ohms

Measure the resistance of the wires to the passage of the electricity and is comparable with
friction offered by a water pipe t water flowing through it

Advantages

Clean to use and maintain

Easily controlled and labor saving
A good working atmosphere for working staff as no oxygen is required to burn electricity
Little heat is lost
No fuel storage is required

Disadvantages

Time is taken to heat up

Initial cost of equipment and maintenance costs
Special utensils are required

Coal

This is a black substance. Traditionally coal was the most often used fuel for grilling and it
was considered the best because of the flavor it gave to the meat being grilled.

Advantages

High Heat Output

Coal burns at a higher temperature than many other fuels, providing a strong and consistent
heat source which is ideal for certain cooking methods, such as grilling.

Availability

In some regions, coal is more readily available and less expensive than other fuel sources,
making it a practical choice for those areas.

Long Burning Time

A significant advantage of coal is its long burning duration, reducing the need for frequent
refueling.

Disadvantages

Health Risks

Burning coal releases harmful pollutants, including carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, and
particulate matter. These can have serious health impacts, especially in poorly ventilated
areas.

Environmental Impact

Coal is a fossil fuel, and its extraction and combustion contribute significantly to
environmental pollution, greenhouse gas emissions, and climate change.

Food Contamination

The smoke and residues from coal can sometimes impart undesirable flavors to food, and
there is a risk of contamination from toxic substances if coal isn't handled properly.

Regulations
In some places, there are strict regulations or outright bans on the use of coal for cooking due
to health and environmental concerns.

Fire

Fires in hotel and catering establishments are fairly common and can result in injury or loss
of life to employees and customers.

Sources of fire

Fires can be caused by various sources e.g. bomb explosions, fuel, oil, electrical faults

Fire prevention

The basic knowledge for prevention of fire is really important and necessary

Components necessary for a fire to start:

 Fuel- something to burn
 Air- oxygen to sustain combustion
 Heat- gas, electricity.

If one of the three components is not present then the fire does not happen or it is
extinguished.
Methods of extinguishing a fire

To extinguish a fire the three principal methods are:

Starving
 Removing the fuel
Smothering
 Removing the air
Cooling
 Removing the heat

The fire Triangle

It is composed of the following:

Heat
 Is needed for the fire to burn
Fuel
 Is that which burns
Oxygen
 Is present in air, so if air is excluded from the heat and the fuel the fire goes out.

NB. Should the clothes of someone working in the kitchen catch alight the action to be taken
is quickly to wrap the fire blanket around the person and place them on the floor. In so doing
the flames have been cut off from the source of air. In the event of a fire the door and
windows should be closed to restrict the amount of air getting to the fire.

Types of fire extinguishers

All fire extinguishers should be manufactured in accordance to the British Standard
Specifications; they should be colored with a code to indicate the type and with operating
instructions on them.
 Red (water)
 Cream (foam)
 Black (Carbon dioxide)
 Blue (dry powder)
 Green- Halon (vaporizing liquid)
NB Fire Blankets (canvas in texture e.g. one used to make tents must also conform to British
standards specifications.

Use of portable fire extinguishers

Water (red) fire extinguishers

 Water is used for fire in solid combustible materials such as wood plastic and paper.
 Water has better cooling properties than other agents; therefore it is especially suitable
for fires that may re-ignite if they are not cooled sufficiently
 Most water extinguishers contain carbon dioxide gas which expels the water.

Disadvantages
 Because water is a good conductor of electricity it must never be used in live
electrical equipment
 Not to be used on fat fires because it might cause ignited fat to spread

Foam (cream) extinguishers

 It puts out fire by forming a blanket over the fire and smothering it
 It is particularly good for putting out fat fires because the foam stays in position and
so stops the fire re-igniting.
 Foams can also be used on fires on solid materials

Disadvantages
 Foam is a conductor of electricity and must not be used on live electrical equipment.

Carbon Dioxide (Black) extinguishers

 Used in fires of inflammable liquid and has the advantage that it does not conduct
electricity.

Disadvantages
 Carbon dioxide has limited cooling properties and hot fat may re-ignite

Halon (green)
 The halon known is known as BCF (Bromochlorodifluoromethane)
 This is a gas which does not conduct electricity
Disadvantages
 If used in an enclosed situation halon gives off a black cloud which can irritate the
users throat and it should not be inhaled

Other Extinguishers

Fire hoses
Fire hoses are used for similar fires to those classified under water fire extinguishers. It is
necessary to be familiar with the instructions displayed by the fire hose before using it

Water Sprinkler Systems

A water system consists of an array of sprinkler heads at ceiling level connected to ma mains
water supply. In the event of a fire the nearest sprinkler head above the fire operates when the
temperature at the ceiling level rises above a preset level, such as 68°C and sprays an area of
12 to 20m2. Additional heads operate later if necessary to control the fire.

Possible causes of fire in an industrial kitchen

Grease Build-up

One of the most common causes of fires in commercial kitchens is grease build-up. Grease
can accumulate on kitchen surfaces, in hoods, and in exhaust ducts. When exposed to high
heat or open flames, it can ignite quickly and spread rapidly.

Prevention Tips:

 Regularly clean all kitchen surfaces, including cooking equipment, hoods, and
exhaust ducts.
 Use appropriate degreasers and ensure that staff is trained on proper cleaning
procedures.
 Schedule professional cleaning services for deep cleaning of hoods and ducts.

Faulty Equipment

Faulty or poorly maintained kitchen equipment, such as ovens, fryers, and grills, can spark
fires. Electrical malfunctions or overheating due to lack of maintenance are common culprits.

Prevention Tips:

 Conduct regular inspections and maintenance of all kitchen equipment.

 Replace any faulty or worn-out parts immediately.
 Ensure that all equipment is turned off when not in use, especially during closing.

Improper Storage of Flammable Materials

Many commercial kitchens store flammable materials, such as cooking oils, cleaning
chemicals, and paper products, in close proximity to heat sources. This can lead to accidental
fires.

Prevention Tips:

 Store flammable materials in designated areas, away from heat sources and open
flames.
 Keep storage areas well-organized and clearly labelled to avoid accidental exposure to
fire hazards.
 Train staff on proper storage practices and the importance of keeping flammable items
away from cooking areas.
Open Flames and Hot Surfaces

Open flames from gas stoves and hot surfaces like griddles and fryers are essential for
cooking but also pose significant fire risks if not managed carefully.

Prevention Tips:

 Never leave open flames or hot surfaces unattended, even for a short time.
 Use flame-resistant materials for kitchen tools and equipment.
 Ensure that fire extinguishers are readily accessible and that staff knows how to use
them.

Clutter and Obstructions

Clutter in the kitchen, such as boxes, cleaning supplies, or personal items, can obstruct
evacuation routes and contribute to the spread of a fire.

Prevention Tips:

 Keep walkways and exits clear of obstructions at all times.

 Implement a clean-as-you-go policy to minimize clutter in the kitchen.
 Regularly inspect the kitchen for potential obstructions and remove them
immediately.

Lack of Proper Fire Suppression Systems

A well-maintained fire suppression system is critical in commercial kitchens, yet some

establishments either lack these systems or fail to maintain them properly.

Prevention Tips:

 Install a fire suppression system specifically designed for commercial kitchens.

 Regularly inspect and maintain the system to ensure it’s functioning properly.
 Train staff on how to activate the system in case of an emergency.

Fire safety in commercial kitchens should be a top priority for every restaurant owner and
manager. By identifying and addressing common fire hazards—such as grease build-up,
faulty equipment, and improper storage—you can significantly reduce the risk of a fire.
Regular maintenance, proper training, and vigilance are key to ensuring a safe cooking
environment.

Hygienic rules to be observed when one is working in the kitchen

1) Wash your hands before cooking

To prevent bacteria from spreading from the table or jumping over to your food, you should
wash your hands before cooking. And if you want to work with other foods after preparing
sensitive foods like meat or raw eggs, you should wash your hands again. This will help you
prevent the transmission of things like salmonella.
2) Always rinse kitchen utensils thoroughly

When cooking, always use different cooking spoons or other utensils for raw ingredients and
ingredients you're going to cook. This will prevent bacteria and flavours from unintentionally
spreading to other dishes.

3) Pay attention to cleanliness and tidiness

Tidying up is the order of the day after cooking, roasting, and baking. This not only creates a
pleasant atmosphere, it also makes it more difficult for food moths and other pests to move
in.

4) Clean dishes and cutlery at high temperatures

To ensure that all items are free of bacteria, rinse at a minimum of 60 degrees Celsius (140
degrees Fahrenheit).

5) Store raw and cooked food separately

Designate one shelf in the refrigerator for cooked food, and another for raw food. This will
prevent bacteria like salmonella from passing from raw ingredients to cooked ones.

6) Note the cooling chain for frozen foods

Just a little defrosting can be enough to spoil frozen fish, so make sure that the cold
chain isn’t interrupted between purchase and storage in the freezer.

7) Always pay attention to the shelf life of food products

If the sell-by date for flour has expired, you don’t have to worry; it’s still edible. But for
animal products, you should always take a look at the best-before date.

8) Keep pets out of the kitchen as much as possible

Hygiene rules should also apply to dogs and cats in the kitchen. They are carriers of diseases,
which is why they shouldn’t get too close to food and dishes – and animal hair in food isn’t
too appetizing, either.

Safety rules to be observed when one is working in the kitchen

1. Never Leave Cooking Food Unattended

It is tempting to cook food on the stove while attending to other tasks. However, leaving
cooking food unattended, even for a moment, can lead to disastrous consequences. Fires can
start and rapidly spread in the kitchen if cooking oil overheats or flammable materials come
into contact with the stove or oven. Moreover, unattended cooking can result in overcooked
or burned food, leading to smoke and potential fire hazards. Hence, always turn off the stove
or oven if you need to leave the kitchen for any reason.

2. Wiping Up Spills Right Away and Keeping The Counters And Floors Clean
Keeping your kitchen clean is more than just maintaining hygiene—it’s about safety, too.
Spills can happen at any time in the kitchen, leading to slippery surfaces. Wet or greasy floors
and countertops can cause people to slip and fall, potentially leading to serious injuries.
Therefore, cleaning up spills promptly and maintaining clean kitchen surfaces can reduce the
risk of accidents.

3. Keep Kitchen Knives Out of Reach of Children

Kitchen knives are essential tools for cooking, but they can be extremely dangerous,
especially for children. Even with the best intentions, kids might be tempted to play with or
misuse these sharp objects, risking cuts or more serious injuries. Therefore, knives should be
stored safely in a knife block or drawer with a safety latch. Consider using magnetic strips
installed high on the wall, where only adults can reach them.

4. Keep A Fire Extinguisher in The Kitchen in Case of A Kitchen Fire

Despite our best efforts, kitchen fires can still occur. A fire can quickly escalate, causing
extensive damage and risking lives. A fire extinguisher is a vital safety tool in any kitchen,
allowing you to control or extinguish small fires before they become larger. Check the fire
extinguisher periodically to ensure it’s in good working order, and learn how to use it
properly.

5. Follow the Manufacturer’s Instructions When Using Kitchen Appliances

Kitchen appliances are designed to make our lives easier, but misuse can result in accidents
or damage to the appliance. Reading and following the manufacturer’s instructions ensure the
appliances are used correctly and safely. This includes understanding safety features, proper
cleaning methods, and appropriate settings for different types of food.

6. Never Use The Stove Or Oven To Heat Your Kitchen

Although it might seem like a quick solution during cold weather, using your stove or oven as
a heat source can be risky. This misuse can lead to carbon monoxide poisoning or a house
fire. Instead, use proper heating devices, such as space heaters or central heating, to warm
your home.

7. Be Aware Of What You Are Wearing While Cooking. Loose Clothing Can Catch Fire
Easily

Loose or flammable clothing can pose a safety hazard in the kitchen. Loose sleeves or flaps
can easily contact hot surfaces or open flames, causing clothes to catch fire. Always wear
well-fitted clothing while cooking, and avoid synthetic materials that melt easily.

8. Keep Your Hair Pulled Back While Cooking

Like loose clothing, loose hair can pose a safety risk in the kitchen. Hair can catch fire if it
comes into contact with open flames or become a sanitary issue if it falls into the food.
Therefore, if you have long hair, tie it back securely while cooking.

9. Do Not Cook If You Are Tired Or Have Been Drinking Alcohol

Impaired judgment or slower reaction times due to fatigue or alcohol consumption can lead to
accidents in the kitchen. You may be more likely to forget a pot on the stove, mishandle a
knife, or ignore safety precautions. Eating something that doesn’t require cooking or waiting
until you’re more alert is better.

10. Keep The First-aid Kit In The Kitchen In Case Of Accidents

Even with all the precautions in place, accidents can still happen. A first-aid kit in the kitchen
allows you to respond quickly to minor injuries. The kit should include bandages, antiseptic
wipes, burn cream, tweezers, and a digital thermometer. Having a list of emergency numbers
in or near the kit is also a good idea.

Remember, it’s better to prevent accidents than deal with the aftermath. By following these
kitchen safety rules, you can enjoy cooking while ensuring your and your family’s safety.

Additional Kitchen Safety Rules

In addition to the previously mentioned kitchen safety rules, here are a few more tips that can
help enhance safety in your kitchen:

1. Store Heavy Items Properly:

Store heavy pots, pans, and other items at waist level. Storing these items too high can
lead to accidents when trying to reach them.

2. Use Safety Devices:

Use safety devices such as oven mitts when handling hot items and splatter screens
when cooking food that might splatter, such as frying oil.

3. Turn Pot Handles Inward:

When cooking on the stove, always turn the pot handles inward to prevent them from
being knocked over.

4. Avoid Overloading Electrical Outlets:

Don’t overload electrical outlets with too many appliances. This could lead to
electrical fires.

5. Secure Loose Rugs:

Use non-slip mats under rugs to prevent slipping.

6. Proper Ventilation:

Make sure your kitchen is well-ventilated to prevent the accumulation of harmful

smoke or gases.

7. Regular Maintenance:
 Inspect and maintain appliances to ensure they function correctly and safely.

8. Child and Pet Safety:

If you have children or pets, consider installing safety gates to keep them out of the
kitchen while cooking.

9. Mindful of Sharp Objects:

Carefully dispose of broken glass or sharp can lids. Consider investing in a can opener
that leaves smooth edges to reduce the risk of injury.

10. Avoid Cross Contamination:

Use separate cutting boards for raw and cooked foods to prevent cross-contamination.

First aid

This is the immediate treatment on the spot given to a person who has been injured or is ill
before the arrival of a qualified practitioner.

Aims

The key aims of first aid can be summarized in three key points:

Preserve life

The overriding aim of all medical care, including first aid, is to save lives

Prevent further harm

Also sometimes called prevent the condition from worsening, or danger of further
injury, this covers both external factors, such as moving a patient away from any cause of
harm, and applying first aid techniques to prevent worsening of the condition, such as
applying pressure to stop a bleed becoming dangerous.

Promote recovery

first aid also involves trying to start the recovery process from the illness or injury, and in
some cases might involve completing a treatment, such as in the case of applying a plaster to
a small wound

First aid training also involves the prevention of initial injury and responder safety, and the
treatment phase

First Aid Equipment/Components of a First Aid Box

A first aid box should contain

 A card giving general first aid guidance

  20 individually wrapped sterile adhesive, water proof dressings of various sizes
 Cotton wool
 2 triangular bandages
 2 sterile eye pads with attachment
 4 medium sized unmedicated dressings
 2 large sized unmedicated dressings
 2 extra large sized unmedicated dressings
 Tweezers
 Scissors
 Report book to record all injuries

All establishments should have first aid equipment and employees qualified in first aid.

First aid Procedures

Electric shock

 Switch off the power supply. Do not touch the patient until this is done.
 If this is not possible push the patient away from the appliance with a wooden handle
or stick, free the person by using a dry insulating a dry insulating material such as
cloth, wood or rubber, taking care not to use the bare hands otherwise the electric
shock may be transmitted.
 If breathing has stopped give artificial respiration and send for a doctor.

Cuts

 All cuts should be covered immediately with a waterproof dressing after the skin
round the cut has been washed.
 When there is considerable bleeding it should be stopped as soon as possible
 Bleeding may be controlled by direct pressure by bandaging firmly on the cut.
 It may be possible to stop bleeding from a cut artery by pressing the artery with a
thumb against the underlying bone, such pressure may be applied while a dressing or
bandage is being prepared for application but not for more than 15 minutes

Fainting

Fainting may occur after a long period of standing in a hot, badly ventilated kitchen. The
signs of an impending faint are whiteness, giddiness sweating. A faint should be treated by
raising the legs slightly above the level of the head and when the person recovers
consciousness, putting the person in the fresh air for a while and making sure the person has
not incurred an injury in fainting.

Choking

 A series of sharp blows between the shoulder blades may dislodge the obstruction.
Try to get the person to bent over so that the head is lower than the chest.
 If this does not work try to hook out the obstruction with a finger
 Small children should be turned upside down and hit in the back
 As a last resort the Heimlich maneuver. Stand or kneel behind the person with one
arm around their abdomen Hold your fist with your other hand. Pull both hands
 towards you quickly thrusting your elbows inwards and upward to compress the
patient’s abdomen. The aim is to push out and dislodge the obstruction NB This may
be injurious to a young child and should only be used for older children and adults

Heavy bleeding

 Lie patient down and raise injured part to reduce blood flow
 Press a clean pad onto wound and maintain pressure for 10 minutes until clot forms
 Remove loose dirt but do not probe wound.
 Apply a clean dressing firmly to the wound. If anything is lodged in put a dressing
around it.

Nose bleeds

 Sit the person down with the head forward. Loosen clothing around the neck and
chest
 Ask them to breathe through the mouth and to pinch the sift part of the nose
 After 10 minutes release the pressure, warn the person not to blow the nose after
several hours
 If the bleeding has not stopped continue for a further 10 minutes
 If the bleeding has not stopped then, or recurs in 30 minutes obtain medical assistance

Burns and scalds

 Place the injured part gently under slowly running water or immerse in cool water,
keeping it there for at least 10 minutes or until the pain ceases in order to kill the pain
and reduce risk of blistering.
 Do not remove clothing that has been burnt. Remove clothing that has been immersed
in corrosive material. Remove Jewellery if possible as the area may swell. Cover the
area with a clean cloth to reduce the risk of an infection. Lie patient down and keep
them warm.
 Badly burned patients may be given sips of water. Protect blisters do no burst them
 If clothing catches fire throw patient to the floor and smother flames with a rug or
blanket.
 Do not use adhesive dressings apply lotions or ointments or break blisters.

Fractures or broken bones

There are three types:

Open fractures

Bone is protruding through skin

Closed fractures

No open wound may be internal damage to the organs

Dislocation
One or more bones pulled out of joint.

Attending to fractures and broken bones

 Do not move the patient make them comfortable. Cover open wounds bandage it for
support
 If possible raise the injured part to prevent swelling and pain, loosen clothing, cover
patient with blanket do not give patient anything to eat and drink.

First aid procedures of dealing with a burnt person

First-degree burns

These are superficial burns affecting the skin's outer layer. They usually cause redness and
pain but no blisters.

Second-degree burns

These burns reach the second layer of the skin, causing redness, pain, swelling, and blisters.

Third-degree burns

The most severe type, these burns affect all layers of the skin and underlying tissues. They
may appear white, black, or charred.

First Aid for Minor Burns

When a minor burn (first-degree or small second-degree) occurs in the kitchen, follow these
steps:

Cool the Burn

Immediately cool the burn under cool (not cold) running water for at least 10 minutes. This
step helps alleviate pain and stop the burning process.

Cover the Burn

After cooling, cover the burn with a sterile non-stick dressing like plastic wrap or a clean
cloth. Avoid using adhesive bandages directly on the burn.

Relieve Pain

Over-the-counter pain relievers can help manage discomfort.

First Aid for Major Burns

For severe burns (large second-degree or any third-degree), the approach is different:

Call 911
Major burns require immediate medical attention. While waiting for paramedics, begin first
aid.

Protect the Area

Do not immerse severe burns in water. Cover them with a clean, non-stick cloth to protect the
area.

Monitor Vital Signs

Monitor the person for signs of shock, including fainting, pale complexion, or breathing
difficulties.

Never attempt to self-treat a major burn. The skills of paramedics are vital in these situations.

Preventing Burns in the Kitchen

Prevention is always the best strategy. Here are some tips to prevent burns:

 Always use oven mitts or pot holders when handling hot pots, pans, or baking trays.
 Turn pot handles toward the back of the stove to prevent accidental spills.
 Keep flammable objects away from heat sources.
 Wear long-sleeved shirts and long pants to protect your skin from splatters.

Growth of microorganism in Food

Bacteria are minute, single celled organisms which can only be seen under a microscope.
They are everywhere in our surroundings, and as most bacteria cannot move around by
themselves they are transferred to something by coming into direct contact with it. Some
bacteria are spore forming and these can withstand high temperatures for long periods of time
and these later grow and multiply once the conditions are favorable. Some bacteria produce
exotoxins (toxins outside their cells). These toxins mix with the food and symptoms of food
poisoning follow within a few hours. Other bacteria cause food poisoning by virtue of large
numbers of bacteria in food entering the digestive system these normally produce endotoxins.
Once these live bacteria die in the gut the endotoxins are released in the gut and this result in
food poisoning.

Conditions conducive for bacterial growth

Temperature

Food poisoning bacteria grow rapidly at body temperature 37°C. They grow between
temperatures of 10°C and 63°C. This is similar to a badly ventilated kitchen and for this
reason foods should not be kept in the kitchen but kept in the refrigerator or larder. Luke
warm water is an ideal heat for bacteria to grow in. Washing up must not take place in warm
water as the bacteria are not killed and the conditions are ideal for their growth and there
cooking utensils may become contaminated. Hot water must be used for washing up. Boiling
water will kill bacteria in a few seconds, but to destroy toxins boiling for half an hour is
necessary. To kill the most heat resistant spores, 4to 5 hours of boiling is required. Bacteria
are not killed by cold temperatures but the rate of bacterial multiplication is reduced
considerably.

Microorganisms can be classified into three groups on basis on their temperature

requirements.

Psychrophiles-Cold loving organisms

 Can grow well at temperatures below 20°C. optimum growth 10-20°C e.g.
pseudomonas species

Mesophiles-organisms liking moderate temperatures

 Have an optimum growth of between 20-40°C e.g Escherichia coli

Thermophiles-organisms liking higher temperatures

 can grow at temperature above 45°C e.g Clostridium botulinum.

Moisture

Bacteria require moisture for growth. They cannot multiply on dry food. Ideal foods for their
growth due to their high moisture content are meats custard, creams sauces etc.

Time

Under ideal conditions one bacterium divides into two every 20 minutes. In 6 to 7 hours
millions of bacteria will have been produced. Small numbers of bacteria may have little
effect, but in a comparatively short time sufficient numbers can be produced to cause food
poisoning. Particular care therefore is required with foods stored overnight especially if
adequate refrigerated space is not available.

In 3 hours one bacteria can become 1 000 000.

Bacterial Growth Curve

Lag phase

The bacteria are growing at a very slow rate because they are trying to adapt to a new
environment

Log phase

The microorganisms are growing at a very rapid rate since the are sufficient nutrients to
support growth

Stationary phase
The media has reached the maximum carrying capacity

Decline phase

There is depletion in the number of microorganisms due to:

 Accumulation of toxic substances

 Decline of nutrients
 Alteration of pH due to different by-products
 Competition for oxygen
 Maximum size attained
pH

Most microorganisms grow best under neutral conditions (neutrophiles) and their growth is
usually inhibited by acids. Some bacteria will tolerate very low pH e.g Lactobacilli which
causes souring in milk with the production of lactic acid and Acetobacter which converts
ethyl alcohol to acetic acid. These are known as acidophiles. The basophiles are the
microorganisms which grow best under alkali conditions.

Oxygen

The amount of oxygen available affects the growth of microorganisms. Moulds are aerobic
i.e. they require oxygen, while yeasts are either aerobic or anaerobic depending on the
conditions.

Bacteria are classified into four groups according to their oxygen requirements.

Obligate aerobes

Can only grow best if there is plentiful supply of oxygen

Facultative aerobes

Grow best if there is plenty of oxygen available but can grow anaerobically.

Obligate anaerobes

Can grow if there is no oxygen present

Facultative anaerobes

Grow best if there is no oxygen present but can also grow aerobically

FOOD POISONING AND ITS PREVENTION

Definition ‘Those conditions caused by the ingestion of contaminated food or drink in which
the main symptoms are usually diarrhoea and vomiting, singularly or together, often
accompanied by nausea (`feeling sick') and stomach pains.’ The definition of food poisoning
includes, in addition, some food-borne and water-borne infections that may have different
symptoms. Food poisoning is weakening and extremely unpleasant, even to healthy people.
However, infants, pregnant women, elderly people and those having weakened immunity to
kill pathogens are more affected.

Food poisoning can occur at the following food handling stages:

  Production
 Packaging
 Storage
 Delivery
 Preparation
 Presentation

Symptoms of food poisoning

 Abdominal pains
 Vomiting
 Diarrhea

Main reasons for Food Poisoning

 Food is prepared too far in advance and stored at a warm temperature (in the danger
zone 5 º– 63º C) Food is cooled too slowly before being refrigerated
 Food is not reheated to a high enough temperature to kill the bacteria in it i.e. above
63º C
 Food is undercooked i.e. core temperature remains below 63º C
 Raw poultry is not thawed completely before being cooked Hot food is kept warm at a
temperature of less that 63º C Contaminated canned food Raw food consumed
 Use of left-over’s inappropriately prepared
 Too greater quantities prepared Food handlers pass on infections when handling the
food
 Cooked food is contaminated by raw food
 Keep food Clean, Cool and Covered

Types of food poisoning

Chemical food poisoning

(i) Enzyme activity

(ii) Chemical contamination

Chemical changes may occur due to be due to Enzyme activity that results from ripening of
fruits leading to over ripening and spoilage

 It is caused by the presence of toxic chemicals in food e.g. agricultural chemicals

which are used in crop production and carelessness in the home or industrial
establishments
 Metallic poisons may arise from faulty cans, but this is rare
 Poisoning may also be caused by accumulation of certain chemicals in the body e.g.
mercury and cadmium which are usually found in fish taken from waters polluted by
industrial waste and lead poisoning has arisen as a result of drinking water that has
passed through led pipes.
 Food poisoning may be caused by chemicals accidentally added to foods during
preparation and cooking.

Biological food poisoning

 (i) Bacterial food poisoning
(ii) Viral food poisoning

Micro-organism activity

Water

If you use water that has not come from a mains tap it could contain harmful bacteria.

Cross contamination due to mixing of cooked and uncooked food resulting in transfer of
micro-organism that will spoil food

 Caused by eating plants containing occurring substances which are harmful e.g
mushrooms of the Amanita variety. These contain a toxin called amanitin which
deactivate metabolic enzymes and this leads to fatal results.
 Green potatoes contain a substance called solanine which causes stomach cramps, or
even lead to death if eaten in large quantities.
 Oxalic acid found in rhubarb and spinach can also be dangerous if taken large
quantities. Oxalates also interfere with calcium absorption.
 Some fish and shell fish are poisonous, some of then at certain times of the year
 Datura stramonium, this is a weed and commonly grows in maize and sorghum fields.
When the weed accidentally gets into sorghum during harvesting it can cause
poisoning. Sorghum is used for beer brewing.

Spinach

 when spinach is cooked and then cooled and then reheated, this converts the nitrites
present in to nitrates, in babies nitrates can be absorbed by hemoglobin in the blood
thus preventing the hemoglobin from absorbing oxygen. This condition is known as
methemoglobinemia of blue baby syndrome

Viral Food Poisoning

 Certain viruses that cause vomiting and diarrhea can be transmitted by water and
food. Viruses require living tissue for growth and therefore will not multiply in food.
The food is only a means of transport into the human body. They are destroyed by
temperatures reached by food during cooking.

Fungal food poisoning

Some fungi produce mycotoxins which are poisonous to both plants and animals. Aspergillus
flavus found in groundnuts and other cereals produce and aflatoxin which affects poultry,
cattle, pigs, sheep as well as humans.

Bacterial food poisoning

The bacteria most frequently responsible for food poisoning are organisms of the Salmonella
group, Staphylococcus aureus, Clostridium perfringens, Clostridium botulinum, listeria
monocytogens, campylobacter jejuni, Escherichia coli and bacillus cereus.
Physical damage

This could be glass, small pieces of machinery, jewellery, plasters etc. Contact - with work-
surfaces and equipment

Reasons for the increase in food poisoning cases:

 Increase in the number of meals eaten away from home i.e. in canteens restaurants, so
if food in a catering establishment is contaminated with food poisoning bacteria large
numbers of people may be affected.
 Catering establishments now produce more varied menus and this often involves
keeping dishes warm until they are required.
 There has been an increase in the number of establishments selling take way foods.
 There is some evidence that intensive farming methods results in more food being
contaminated with food poisoning bacteria e.g. there has been an incidence of
salmonella in frozen chickens in recent years.

There are two main ways of biological food poisoning

Infective food poisoning

Which is caused by eating food containing a large number of living bacteria. After being
eaten the bacteria establish themselves in the elementary canal and when they die they release
an endotoxin e.g Salmonella poisoning

Toxic food poisoning

This is the type of food poisoning caused by eating food containing an exotoxin. The toxin is
released into the food while the bacteria are growing and multiplying in the food. The
bacteria themselves may be dead when the food is eaten e.g. staphylococcal poisoning.

Table 1. Bacterial Food Poisoning

Bacteria responsible Source and foods commonly Illness

affected
Infective food poisoning Incubation Duration
period
Salmonella, especially Raw or inadequately cooked 6-72hrs but 1-8 days
salmonella typhimurium, meat, milk, eggs, poultry, usually 12-
Salmonella enteritidis carried by pets and rodents 30hrs
Listeria monocytogens Precooked chilled cooked
foods. Untreated dairy products
Escherichia coli Excreta, polluted water, raw or 10-72hrs but 1-5 days
inadequately cooked meat and usually 12 -
poultry 24hrs
Campylobacter jejuni Raw and inadequately cooked 3-5 days 2-3 days
meat, raw ad inadequately
heated milk
Toxic food poisoning
Staphylococcus aureus Human nose mouth, skin, boils 2-6hrs 6-48hrshrs
 and cuts. Raw milk and
cheeses
Bacillus cereus Rice, corn flour, vegetables, 1-6hrs 24hrs
dairy products
Clostridium perfringens Animal and human excreta, 8-22hrs 12-48hrs
soil, dust, poultry, stews,
gravies
Clostridium botulinum Soil, meat, fish and vegetables 6hrs-8days Death in 7 days
inadequately canned foods or slow recovery

SALMONELLA
 Food poisoning caused by the salmonella group of bacteria is called salmonellosis.
 Salmonella group causes food poisoning by invasion of the body. They reach food
directly or indirectly from animal sources
 There are many different strains of salmonella, some of which their names originate
from the places where they were first observed.
 Salmonella typhimurium, salmonella enteritidis, salmonella Newport, salmonella
Dublin and salmonella east borne.
 The bacteria can survive outside the body for long periods and on warm moist food.
Food must be grossly infected with a large number of live bacteria before illness
occurs.
Mode of transmission
 Excreta at the time of slaughter, human excreta
 From water (sewage)
 In the kitchen may be transferred from raw to cooked foods by hands
 Surfaces and utensils
 Illness is most likely to occur when the organisms are ingested in large numbers when
they are allowed to keep multiplying in food
 They can also be found in eggs
Symptoms
 Headache
 Fever
 General pain of the limbs
 Diarrhea
 Vomiting
Cases can be fatal especially in infants, elderly and sick people. The duration of the illness is
1-7 days
Reservoir
Is domestic and wild animals including poultry, rodents and domestic cats, dogs as well as
men
Prevention
 Multiplication of salmonella can be prevented by keeping food below 5°C and
cooking food thoroughly.
 The foods most infected are poultry, eggs, custard cakes, trifles and artificial cream.
 Avoid raw eggs and do not use dirty or crushed eggs
 Education of food handlers and home makers regarding hand washing, refrigeration
cleaning and protection of food against contamination
 Recognition, control and prevention of salmonella outbreak among domestic animals
 Adequate cooking and heat treatment followed by measures to avoid recontamination
and animal feed
 Protect food from contamination with rat and mouse faeces and from contact with
house flies
 Periodic meat and poultry inspection by trained personnel with supervision of
abattoirs, as well as federal inspection
LISTERIA MONOCYTOGEN
This organism may cause the disease listeriosis.
Listeria bacteria can multiply at temperatures below those found in many domestic
refrigerators and commercial chilled food cabinets. They may stay dormant for several days
at these temperatures and then multiply rapidly. Some pre-cooked chilled foods have been
found to be dangerously contaminated by the organism. Cook chill food should not be stored
for more than five days at 40°C and they should be eaten within 12 hrs if the temperature has
reached 5°C. listeria bacteria are also fairly heat resistant and may sometimes be present in
pasteurized milk.
Listeria bacteria produce a toxic enzyme which may cause a serious illness if it enters the
blood stream.
Listeriosis is especially dangerous to pregnant women and it may lead to abortion or the
premature birth of a baby itself infected with the disease.
Other vulnerable classes of people are the very young and elderly and those whose immune
system has been compromised by the illness.
ESCHERICHIA COLI
This organism is a common and normally harmless inhabitant of our intestines. There are
many strains, however there are some strains that may cause illness called Entero
hemorrhagic.
Symptoms
Stomach cramps, acute blood diarrhea lasting 4-10 days.
Incubation period
Is between 12-72 hours and the symptoms may be similar to those of other typical food
poisoning or they may be dysentery like with prolonged diarrhea and on the stools
Preventative measures
 Sanitary supervision of processing, preparation and serving of food stuffs especially
those to be eaten raw
 Provision of safe water supplies
CAMPYLOBACTER JEJUNI
Causes a disease called campylobacter enteritis. Campylobacter can survive and multiply in
the intestines and so it possible to become ill after eating food which not heavily
contaminated. Campylobacter can be present in a large number of foods, particularly poultry,
unpasteurized milk and untreated water.
Symptoms
Fever abdominal pain, watery or blood diarrhea.
STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREAS
These are facultative aerobes and therefore are able to survive without oxygen. They are not
spore forming bacteria. Staphylococcal poisoning is an intoxication not an infection. The skin
and nose normally harbor Staphylococcus due to purulent discharges and cooked foods such
as meats, poultry intended to be eaten cold and custards, trifles and creams are readily
contaminated by hands. The toxin is formed by the organism growing in the food before it is
eaten and not after it has entered thus the incubation period can be as short as 2 hours but is
usually between 4-6 hours there is rapid onset of symptoms.
Symptoms
Nausea, vomiting, stomach cramps, diarrhea – sometimes followed by collapse.
Mode of Transmission
S. aureus is spread by food handlers during the cooking and preparation of food. Handling
food rather than using the appropriate utensils is perhaps the most common means of spread,
particularly if the food handler is infected with sores on his hands. Staphylococci are easily
killed by heat, but the exotoxin they release into food is more heat resistant and can withstand
up to 30 minutes boiling point. In order to reduce the risk of staphylococcal poisoning food
handlers should take the following precautions.
Prevention
  A high standard of personal hygiene must be maintained.
 Foods should be handled as little as possible. Tongs should be used for cooked meats.
 Foods likely to cause food poisoning should be kept in a refrigerator e.g. sliced
chopped meat, salads, custards
 Temporary exclusion from food handling of any person suffering from pyogenic,
skin, eye and respiratory infections
 Education of food handlers in sanitation, proper refrigeration, hand washing and the
dangers of working with skin, eye or respiratory infections
CLOSTRIDIUM PERFRINGENS
Illness caused:
Perfringens
It is an anaerobic spore forming bacillus. The illness caused by this bacterium is due to the
eating of food containing a large number of living bacteria which subsequently release a toxin
in the alimentary canal. The symptoms are nausea, abdominal pains and diarrhea. The
majority of C. perfringens outbreaks are caused by reheated meat and poultry and by dishes
such as mince and stews. The anaerobic conditions required for the multiplication of the
bacterium are found in foods cooked in bulk. The bacteria are able to survive most cooking
processes by forming spores, though the heat resistance varies depending on the particular
strain of C. Perfringens. Some strains can survive for hours but others can survive for a few
minutes. Spores that survive germinate and start to multiply if the food is kept warm after or
if the food is cooled slowly.
Prevention
Since C. perfringens forms heat resistant spores it cannot be assumed that the bacteria are
killed during cooking. In order to reduce the risk of C. perfringens poisoning, food handlers
should take the following precautions
 Joints of meat weighing more than 2.7kg should be cut into smaller pieces before
cooking
 Cooked meat and poultry should be cooled rapidly and stored in the refrigerator it
may be necessary to divide large volumes of meat in to smaller portions during
storage.
 Serve meat dishes hot as soon as they are cooked or cool rapidly.
 Do not partially cook meat and poultry and reheat the next day
 Educate food handlers regarding the large-scale cooking of meat dishes
Clostridium Botulinum
Resistance
C. botulinum is not able to grow below ph. 4.5 so botulism is not caused by acid foods such
as fruits. The spores of some strains can resist boiling. Botulism reaches in height in 1to 8
days and death often occurs as a result of paralysis of respiratory centre; the fatality rate is
about 70%. Life may be saved if the botulism antitoxin is given in the early stages of the
illness.
Sources.
C. botulinum is found in the soil, particularly in marine muds and on the beds of fresh water
lakes. It is found on some fish and some vegetables. Since the organism is a strict anaerobe, it
is only able to grow and multiply in an oxygen free environment, such as is found in canned,
bottled and packed foods. It also has been found in the centre of large sausages and cheeses.
Food spoilage or contamination
Food spoilage occurs mainly as a result of chemical reactions involved in the process of
ageing and decaying, through the action no microorganisms or through a combination of
both.
Vibrio parahaemolyticus
This organism has been isolated from fish shellfish and other seafoods. A period of
inadequate refrigeration is generally required to allow for proliferation of bacteria to levels
infectious to men
Disease caused:
Vibrio parahaemolyticus, gastroenteritis
Incubation period:
16-48hrs
Symptoms:
Profuse watery diarrhea free from blood or mucus, abdominal pain, vomiting fever,
headaches cramps
Foods commonly associated with outbreak:
Shellfish and seafoods
Preventive measures
 Cooked sea foods must reach a temperature adequate to kill organisms.
V.Parahaemolyitcus may survive cooking 80°C for 15 minutes
 Prevent contamination between raw and cooked foods
Bacillus Cereus
A gastrointestinal disorder, characterized by sudden onset of diarrhea, nausea and vomiting.
It usually lasts 24 hours and is very fatal. The incubation period varies from 1-6 hours.
B.Cereus is an anaerobic spore former whose spores are resistant to heat. It is found in the
soil and spores are often found in cereals and other foods. Some spores may survive cooking
and germinate into bacilli which under warm conditions (produce spores) grow and produce
toxins Outbreaks are normally associated with rice, vegetables and meat dishes
Preventive measures
 Foods which may have been contaminated with B.Cereus such as grain and
vegetables should be cooked and refrigerated quickly
 Leftover food should be refrigerated and preheating should be performed rapidly to
avoid contamination
Shigella sonei
It causes a disease called shigellosis
Incubation period:
1-7 days
Symptoms:
Fever abdominal pain, vomiting, watery diarrhea
Foods associated with outbreak:
Egg salads, puddings and Hawaiian paste
Yersinia enterocolitica
Causes a disease called yersiniosis
Incubation period:
16-48 hours
Symptoms:
Abdominal pains diarrhea and fever.
Food poisoning prevention
1. high standard of personal hygiene
2. Attention to physical fitness
3. Maintaining good clean working conditions
4. Maintaining equipment in good repair and clean condition
5. Adequate provision of cleaning facilities and cleaning equipment
6. Correct storage of food stuffs at the right temperature
7. Correct reheating of food
8. Quick cooling of food prior to storage
9. protection of food from vermin and insects
10. Hygienic washing up procedure
11. Food handlers knowing how food poisoning is caused
 12. Food handlers not only knowing but carrying out procedures to prevent food
poisoning
Hygienic handling of food
Hygienic handling and storage of food is of prime importance if food poisoning is to be
prevented.
Handling of food
Direct handling of food should be avoided whenever possible; food should be handled with
utensils and should be washed regularly to avoid cross-contamination. Food particularly meat
and poultry should be cooked thoroughly to ensure that all pathogenic bacteria and their
toxins are destroyed. Special care should be taken with large joints of meat cooked in the
oven. Ideally these joints should not exceed 2.5kg. the cooking time should be long enough to
ensure that the entire joint reaches the temperature required for the destruction of bacteria and
their spores. If food is kept hot before serving, the temperature should be above 63°Cto
ensure that bacteria do not multiply within the food. Cold dishes should not be stored at room
temperature but should be held at below 10°Cuntil they are served. A well-ventilated larder is
a suitable place for storing cold dishes. The larder should be designed so that any windows
face north, thereby excluding light. If hot food is to be re-used later it should be cooked
quickly before placing it in the refrigerator. Hot food should not be placed directly in the
refrigerator since heat will pass to other food stored there and cause an increase in the
multiplication of bacteria. When the food is re-heated it should be reheated quickly and
thoroughly to ensure that any bacteria or toxins which may be present are destroyed.
Storage of food
Whenever possible food, other than canned, preserved or dried food should be stored in a
refrigerator, since refrigeration is the most practical method of controlling bacterial growth.
Most refrigerators operate at a temperature between 1-5°C and can be used for the short-term
storage of various foods. Most pathogenic bacteria are only able to multiply at a slow rate at
temperatures below 10°C therefore food stored in the refrigerator is reasonably safe. Many
spoilage microorganisms can grow fairly well at a temperature of about 5°C and spoilage can
occur even within the refrigerator.
High protein foods with high moisture content such as meat fish milk and eggs should be
stored at the coldest part of the refrigerator that is just below the cooling unit.
Other foods such as fruits and vegetables are best stored at a slightly higher temperature and
these should be placed at the bottom of the refrigerator. Care must be taken to ensure that
frozen foods particularly chickens and joints of meat are thawed correctly prior to cooking.
They must not be thawed in water or in a warm room since this will encourage bacterial
growth.
Cross contamination between cooked and uncooked foods
Raw and uncooked foods should be kept separate. The same working surfaces and equipment
should note used for both raw and ready to eat foods. Surfaces and equipment used for raw
foods should be thoroughly afterwards.
Food borne diseases
Cholera, typhoid and paratyphoid are diseases caused by harmful bacteria carried in food and
water. Scarlet fever, tuberculosis and dysentery may be caused by drinking milk which has
not been pasteurized.
To prevent diseases being spread by food and water the following measures should be
taken
1. Water supplies must be purified
2. Milk and milk products must be pasteurized
3. Carriers should be excluded food preparation rooms
FOOD SPOILAGE:
Spoiled foods are those which look, smell and taste different from how the consumer
expected them to be.
STORAGE PRACTICES THAT CONTRIBUTE TO FOOD SPOILAGE
1. Improper storage temperature and humidity levels.
2. Incorrect or excessive storage times.
3. Unsuitable storage areas.
4. Poor stock rotation practices.
5. Excessive or careless handling.
6. Inadequate sanitation of storage areas.
7. Rodent, insect or bird damage.
Bacteria High risk foods are usually moist and high in protein and include: Cooked poultry
Cooked meats Dairy produce (milk, cream, etc.) Soups, sauces and stocks Shellfish, seafood
Cooked rice Raw eggs in food such as mayonnaise or mousse.
Chemical Spoilage
 Almost all of the food is produced by living organisms whether they are animals or plants
and these are made up organic compounds.
 These organic compounds are involved in a variety of complex and carefully controlled
chemical reactions which depend on enzymes.
 When the plant is harvested or when an animal is killed, the enzymes will still be active
and will continue catalyzing reactions which will affect the quality of the food.
Fruit:
 When it is picked growth stops, but it will be alive and ripening. Once ripe the fruit will
deteriorate quickly due to enzymes and microorganisms
Vegetables:
 Remain alive after harvesting and they are prone to deterioration due to enzymes and
microorganisms as well
Meat:
 If meat is kept for too long at room temperature it becomes soggy and unwholesome,
partly owing to the break-down of tits protein by proteolytic enzymes. Putrefaction will
eventually set in with production of slime and foul odours caused by Pseudomonas bacilli
the meat will be offensive and inedible
In addition to spoilage caused by protein breakdown, meat may also suffer through oxidation
of fats which are always present. Unsaturated fats are most likely to become rancid through
oxidation and therefore poultry, pork, lamb and veal cannot be kept as long as because they
have a high proportion of unsaturated fats. Oxidized fats are one of the main causes of off
flavors in cooked meats.
Microbial Food Spoilage
Microorganisms are extremely small living things; they can be seen by using an electron
microscope.
 Microorganisms need water and nutrients before they can multiply. They cannot
multiply on clean dry surfaces.
 Aerobes need oxygen for respiration, anaerobes don’t need oxygen for respiration
 Moist food kept in a warm place is most likely to be attacked my microbes which will
feed on it and grow on its surface, Microbes don’t multiply in low temperatures and
they are killed in high temperatures.
 Some microbes produce toxins which are harmful to human beings and if food is
contaminated it often results in food poisoning
 Food that has been attacked by microorganisms may look offensive or have a peculiar
smell. In many instances it’s not possible to tell by looking at the food. In fact the
food may still look wholesome but heavily infected.
 The presence of microbes is not always harmful
 The microbes responsible for food spoilage are moulds bacteria and yeasts.
Moulds
 Moulds are a form of fungi. They are multi-cellular organisms
 They grow as fine threads or filaments which extend in length and eventually form a
complex branched network.
 Moulds also produce spores and can be carried considerable distances by air currents
and in this infect food.
 Most moulds require oxygen for development and this is why they are found on the
surfaces of the food. Meat, cheese and sweet food are especially likely to be attacked
by moulds
  Moulds grow best at ph 4-6 and temperature 30°C, as the temperatures decrease so
does the rate of growth.
 It is difficult to kill moulds and their spores by heat treatment. To ensure complete
destruction of all moulds of their spores. Sterilization under pressure is necessary (i.e.
above 100°C) OR the food may be heated to 70 -80°Cfor 2 or more days so that any
spores germinating between the heat treatments will be destroyed.
 Poisonous mycotoxins are produced and these can be harmful if present
Bacteria
 Bacteria are single cellular microorganisms. They are either spherical (cocci, rod
shaped (bacilli) or spiral (spirilla)
 Bacteria are widely distributed, they are found in soil, air and humans as well as
animal bodies. Uncooked food will certainly be contaminated with bacteria
Bacteria reproduce by binary fission i.e. the parent organism splits to form new ones. In
favorable conditions this fission may occur every 20 minutes and in 12hour a single
bacterium can provide a colony of 10 bacteria.

Vegetables and fruit

 These have dry, relatively non- porous skins and their cell juices are mildly acidic.
They are thus more likely to suffer from the growth of moulds and yeasts than from
an attack from bacteria. Yeasts and moulds are always present in the air but intact
fruit and vegetables are not at risk. However if they are overripe and damaged so that
cell fluids leak into the surface, mould yeast growth is highly likely. If other
conditions are favorable the food will deteriorate quickly.
  Fruits and vegetables will remain in good condition for the maximum possible time if
they are kept clean, kept cool and handled with care.
Meat Spoilage
 Caused by bacteria and moulds.
 The surface is usually contaminated by bacteria from the hide and intestines when the
animal is slaughtered and when the carcass is cut up. Poultry is particularly prone to
bacterial contamination and the skin and interior surface usually harbor a large
number of bacteria
 When microbes grow on the surface of the meat, they break down the protein
molecules and grow to form a bacterial slime, carbon dioxide, hydrogen and ammonia
are formed and the surface of the meat becomes grayish brown in colour owing to the
conversion of myoglobin to metmyoglobin. As putrefaction continues hydrogen
sulphide, mercaptans and amines all of which are foul smelling are formed and
collectively demonstrate the inedible taste of meat.
Food contamination
Food contamination occurs when food is not cooked properly or contaminants, such as
bacteria or toxic pesticides, get onto food. Food contamination can happen at several different
locations where food is bought and consumed grocery stores, restaurants, delis and homes.
Definition of Food Contamination
Food contamination occurs when food is not cooked properly or contaminants, such as
bacteria or toxic pesticides, get onto food. Food contamination can happen at several different
locations where food is bought and consumed grocery stores, restaurants, delis and homes.
Environmental Contaminants
 These are chemicals that are present where the food is grown and processed. They can
include contaminants from the air, water, and soil. Some examples are arsenic,
mercury and nitrates.
Pesticides
 There are many pesticides used that are a danger to human health. Additionally, even
though many pesticides are banned due to food safety regulations, some are still used
illegally on food crops. These have been discovered during investigations by
organizations such as Green Peace and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
These banned pesticides include formaldehyde, and Lindane and Aldicarb.
Human Contamination
 Food contamination also occurs when human hair, skin, nails, or other materials are
found in food. Food quality regulations require workers to cover their hair, but human
material can still make its way into food. Hair is not digestible and should not be
ingested.
Contaminants During Processing
  During heating and processing, some types of food can become contaminated. These
contaminants that aren't present in raw material can become present during the
cooking process. Some of these contaminants include histamine, amines, and
nitrosamines.
Pathogenic Contaminants
 These food contaminants include bacteria like salmonella and E.coli. Besides the
bacteria causing infections, other toxins can cause illnesses. Some of these toxins
include Bacillus cereus and Kojic acid.
Food preservation
 Microorganisms are present in the air, dust, soil, sewage and on the hands and other
parts of the body. They are also widely distributed on the food. Therefore, food
preservation is essential. This can be achieved by killing microbes and storing food
where further infection is impossible or by creating an environment which slows
down or stops their growth.
Refrigeration and freezing
 Microorganisms do not multiply nearly as rapidly at low temperatures as at normal
temperatures. This is taken advantage of in the domestic refrigerator. The temperature
of the refrigerator is normally 4-5°C, which is sufficient to chill the food and reduce
the activity of microorganisms but insufficient to give along life. This is because
microorganisms are not killed and can still grow and reproduce but at a much slower
rate. Moreover, enzyme action continues although at a slower rate, leading to
chemical changes in food and loss in quality.
 Examples of food s that can be chilled are meat, vegetables, fruits and eggs.
 When meat is chilled the temperature is reduced to about 1°C and it remains in good
condition for up to a month.
 Although chilling to about 5°Cenables food to be stored for short periods, it must be
frozen and stored at a lower temperature if long term storage is required.
Microorganisms are the main storage agents and they become inactive at about -10°C
while enzymes which cause chemical spoilage and consequent loss of quality are
largely inactivated below -18°C but a temperature of -29°C is employed commercially
to ensure high quality and a long storage life
 Most fresh foods contain at least 60% water, some of which is bound water- is tightly
attached to constituent cells. The rest is available water or freezable water being
mobile. On average plant cells contain 6% bound water and animals’ cells 12%
 The rate at which water is frozen is important. Good quality is if freezing is quick
Thawing
When frozen foods are thawed there is often loss of liquid known as drip which causes losses
of soluble nutrients in food. The extent at which drip occurs depends on the rate at which
freezing is carried out, the duration and temperature of storage and the cellular nature of the
food. Plant material is most liable to drip because plant cells have larger vacuoles containing
more available water.
Chemical Preservatives
Chemicals have been used in the preservation of foods for many centuries, NaCl, sodium and
potassium nitrate, sugars, vinegar, alcohol, wood smoke, and various spices have come to be
regarded as traditional preservatives.
The preservative action of concentrated sugar solutions.
 Sugar acts as a preservative when it is present in food in high concentration because it
makes water unavailable to microorganisms. The sugar present in sweets and jams
acts in this way and helps spoilage through mould growth.
 Condensed sweetened milk, which contains large amounts of sugar is another
example of this principle, it can be kept for several weeks after opening the can
without growth of microorganisms occurring. Microorganisms cannot tolerate high
concentrations of alcohol and this is why fortified wines such as sherry keep better
than unfortified wines.
 Similarly, vinegar discourages the growth of many microorganisms and it performs
this function in pickled food.
Preservation by salting and smoking
Curing is the method of preservation by salting and drying.
Lighter cures are used in bacon.
 Curing changes, the colour of uncooked meat as a result of partial conversion of the
protein myoglobin, to the redder nitroso myoglobin by nitrites present in the curing
liquor.
 In the wet curing process, a concentrated salt solution, or brine is used. Sodium nitrate
is traditionally added to the brine and some of it is reduced to sodium nitrite during
the curing process. It is actually nitrite which acts as a preservative and sometimes
sodium nitrite is often used in the place of sodium nitrate.
 Although nitrite ions (NO2-), are the main antimicrobial agents in cured meats the
other salts present also help because they dissolve in the meat fluids to form a
concentrated solution in which microbes cannot flourish.
 The dissolved salts ‘capture’ some of the water molecules so making them
unavailable to microorganisms. The apparent water content (as far as the
microorganisms are concerned) is lower than the actual water content. The amount
available is expressed as the water activity (aw) of a sample of food. Water itself has a
water activity of 1.00 and a saturated solution has an aw value of 0.75.
Water content and water activity of some foodstuffs.
Foodstuff Water Content (%) Typical aw value
Uncooked meat 55-60 0.98
 Cheese 35-40 0.97
Bread 38-40 0.95
Jam 33-35 0.95
Cured meat 30-35 0.83
Honey 20-23 0.75
Dried food 18-20 0.76
Flour 14-16 0.75

Bacteria flourish best on food with high aw value, provided the other conditions are
favorable. Many bacteria will not grow below an aw value of 0.95 and an aw value of 0.91 is
the lowest water activity level tolerable by normal bacteria. Yeast and moulds can tolerate
much lower aw values than bacteria. The minimum aw value tolerable by normal yeasts and
moulds are 0.88 and 0.80 respectively.
Smoking
 Smoking is another ancient technique of preservation. Smoking is carried out by
hanging meat/fish (usually heavily salted) above smouldering wood chips in smoke
houses.
 Smoked food has an outer layer consisting of condensed tars, phenols and aldehydes
which have a powerful antimicrobial effect as well as a characteristic taste. The
preservative effect is more or less limited to the surface of the food but spoilage of the
interior is delayed because the outer layer acts as a bactericidal skin.
 Smoke contains many organic compounds. Polycyclic hydrocarbons are carcinogenic.
Dehydration
 Microorganism require water to survive, preservation by dehydration makes use of
this facts. The water content is reduced to below a certain critical value.
 Drying is usually accomplished by passing air of carefully regulated Temperature and
humidity over or through the food in tray driers, tunnel type driers or rotating drum
driers. Heated vacuum driers are also used|: the temperature necessary for dehydration
under reduced pressure is much lower than that which would be required at ordinary
pressures.
 In vacuum drying the atmosphere above the food contains a much lower concentration
of oxygen than the normal methods of drying and this reduces the extent to which
oxidative changes occur,
 Fruits and vegetables can also be dried in the sun
 A modern development of vacuum drying is freeze drying in which food is dried
under a high vacuum. Freeze drying is particularly attractive for drying heat sensitive
 food. Dehydration occurs without discoloration and sensitive nutrients e.g. vitamins
remain unharmed. Freeze dried foods practically remain without any moisture
 Multiplication of microorganisms should not occur in properly processed dehydrated
food, but they are not immune to other types of food spoilage
 Those containing fats are prone to rancidity.
Preservation by heating
Canning:
 The food is sealed in a can which is then heated to such a temperature that all harmful
microorganisms and spores capable of growth during storage of the can at normal
temperature are destroyed.
 No microorganism can gain access to food while the can remains closed,
decomposition does not occur.
 Almost any type of food can be canned. Food is first cleaned and inedible parts such
as fruit stones, peels or bones are removed.
 Fruit and vegetables may be subjected to preliminary blanching before canning in
order to soften them and enable a larger amount to be pressed without being damaged.
 The lid is then loosely placed in position and the can and its contents are heated to
about 95°C by hot water or steam. The process known as exhausting causes the air in
the headspace of the can to expand and displace any remaining air from the fruit or
vegetable tissues. Exhausting also reduces strain on the can during subsequent heat
treatment, it also reduces the amount of oxygen in the headspace so minimizes
internal corrosion of the can and oxidation of nutrients, particularly ascorbic acid after
sealing. The can is sealed when exhausting is complete and it then ready for heat
sterilization or processing.
 Most canned food is processed in batch type cookers (which are large scale pressure
cookers.)
 Processing conditions must be severe enough to ensure that all harmful
microorganisms in the canned food are destroyed. Bacterial spores are easily killed by
heating in acidic conditions.
 Canned vegetables and meat are usually processed at 115°C, whereas fruits can be
processed in boiling water.
HTST Canning
By substantially increasing the temperature at which it is carried out it is possible to reduce
the duration of heat processing. Sterilization is a carried out at about 120°C in special
equipment designed to achieve a high rate of heat transfer. The food is the n cooled
somewhat before sealing into cans which have been previously sterilized with superheated
steam. This procedure is known as aseptic canning. This can be used only for liquid or semi-
solid foods. The heating time varies from 6 secs to about 6min depending on the type of food
being canned.
Advantages
 The food is cooked in thin layers there is less likelihood of some of it being over
processed to ensure that all of it is adequately processed.
 Large cans convenient for large scale catering can be used, because there are no
problems about heat penetration to the centre of the can.
Heat resistant microorganisms
 Bacterial spores are very heat resistant at high temperatures. The death of bacterial
spores in heat treated food follows a logarithmic course in which equal proportions of
surviving cells die in each successive unit of time. Thus if 10000 spores were present
per unit volume were initially present and 9000were killed by exposure to a particular
temperature for one minute, 900 would be killed in the second minute, 90 in the 3rd
minute, 9 in the 4th minute etc. One thousand many spores would be killed during the
1st minute of exposure as during the fourth.
Nutritive value of canned foods
 Some nutrient losses occurs during heat processing and more thiamine is lost during
meat during processing.
 Reduction of ascorbic content also occurs during processing.
Spoilage of canned food
 Properly canned food remains edible for very long periods of the cans are not
corroded
Yeasts
 Yeasts are unicellular microscopic fungi, they reproduce themselves by budding, i.e.
by formation of a small off shoot which becomes detached from the parent yeast cell
when it reaches a certain size and assumes an independent existence.
 Yeasts can also form spores but these are far less heat resistant than mould spores and
bacterial spores.
 Yeasts occur in the soil and on the surface of the fruits.
 Yeasts grow in acid food (pH 4-4.5) with reasonable moisture content. Most yeast
grow best in the presence of oxygen between 20-30°C.
 Yeasts and yeast spores can easily be killed by heating to 100°C
 Yeast is also used for making bread, brewing beer and vinegar.
 They cause spoilage of many foods including fruit, fruit juices, jam wines and meat.
Although they spoil food yeasts are not pathogenic.
Waste disposal
Waste material is a potential threat to food safety because it is a source of food contamination
which can provide food for a variety of pests. Waste can be divided into five groups.
Dry non-food waste
 This comes mainly from packaging wood, cardboard, plastic, some of which can be
sorted for resale. Cardboard, paper, glass can be recycled.
Dry-food waste
 They can either be disposed off at source in a waste disposal unit which grinds the
waste into small particles, mixed with water and flushed into the drainage system. b)
stored in galvanized steel bins with close fitting lids for disposal to swill collectors
Unsavory offensive food waste
 This should be disposed off immediately where possible using a waste disposal unit
 Waste cooking oils and fats. Large quantities have a resale value, small quantities can
be absorbed into dry food waste
Bulky waste
 This can be disposed off either by a) incineration only by using specific equipment or
in isolated areas or b) by compaction.
The refuse site should be clean, located in an easy to clean area with a water supply for
washing down and adequate drainage. For general internal rubbish plastic or paper lined bins
which can be destroyed with the rubbish are preferable to other types of bins.
NUTRITION
Protein
Protein molecules consist of chains of hundreds or even thousands of amino acids joined
together. The proteins are classified into 2 major groups the fibrous proteins and globular
proteins.
FIBROUS PROTEINS
These are much simpler than globular proteins, are made up of individual zigzag polypeptide
chains which are held together by cross links to form elongated or fibrous molecules with a
fairly stable but elastic nature (there are some fibrous proteins that are inelastic in nature.
They are characterized by being rather insoluble substances.
Table 1: Simple classification of proteins
Type Solubility and function Examples and sources
Animal
Fibrous  Insoluble, elastic proteins forming the Keratin (hair), collagen
structural part of tissues. (connective tissue), elastin
(tendons arteries) myosin
 There are elastic and non-elastic fibrous
(muscles)
proteins e.g. ά-keratin is the elastic form
and β-keratin is the non-elastic form.
 Inelastic fibrous protein Elastic
fibrous protein
Globular  Relatively soluble. Part of all fluids of all Enzymes, protein hormones,
body cells. Many food proteins. enzyme albumins, globulins
(blood)
 These are more complex than fibrous
proteins because the helix chain is folded Casein (milk), albumin (egg-
into a more complex irregular bulky white)
shape.
Diagram

Plant 
Glutelin’s  Insoluble in neutral solutions. Soluble in Glutenin (wheat), hordenin
acids and alkalis (barley) oryzenin (rice)
Prolamines  Insoluble in water. Soluble in alcohol Gliadin (wheat), zein (maize)

Protein is an essential part of all living matter; it is therefore needed for the growth of the
body and for the repair of body tissues. There are two kinds of proteins.
1. Animal protein found in meat, game, poultry, fish, eggs, milk, cheese.
2. Vegetable protein found mainly in the seed of vegetables. The proportion of protein in
green and root vegetables is small. Peas, beans and nuts contain most protein and the
grains of cereals such as wheat have a useful amount because of the large quantity
eaten.
  Protein is composed of amino acids., and the protein of cheese is different
from the protein of meat because the number and arrangements of the amino
acids are not the same. A certain number of the amino acids are essential to the
body and have to be provided by the food. Non-essential aa are those that the
body can synthesize. Proteins containing all the essential amino acids are said
to be of high biological values.
 The human body is capable of changing the other kinds of aa to suit its needs.
 It is preferable that the body has both animal and vegetable protein so that the
complete variety of the necessary aa are available.
Table 3: Essential and non-essential amino acids
Essential amino acids Non-essential amino acids
Valine Glycine.
Leucine Alanine
Isoleucine Norleucine
Phenylanine Tyrosine
Threonine Serine
Methionine Cysteine
Tryptophan Cystine
Lysine Ornithine
Arginine

Histidine
Aspartic acid
Glutamic acid

Function in the body

 Proteins are vital to basic cellular functions, including cellular regeneration and
reproduction.
Cellular and tissue provisioning
 Protein is an essential component for every type of cell in the body including muscles,
bones, etc and protein is required since the body is constantly undergoing renewal and
repair of tissues.
Hormone and enzyme production
  Amino acid are the basic components of hormones, which are essential chemicals
responsible for regulating bodily functions and processes e.g. insulin. Enzymes play
an essential role as biological catalysts in biological reactions.
Fluid balance:
 The presence of blood protein molecules such as albumins and globulins are critical
factors in maintaining fluid balance in the body to prevent edema.
Energy provision:
 Protein is not a significant source of energy of the body, but however if there is not
enough carbohydrates being ingested, protein is used as energy needs for the body.
Digestion
During digestion proteins are broken down into amino acids. Peptidases are the hydrolyzing
enzymes which operate by catalyzing the hydrolysis of the peptide links in the protein
molecule so breaking down the protein into smaller units. In the stomach the gastric glands
secrete pepsinogen which at pH2 becomes activated forming the enzyme pepsin. The action
of pepsin is extremely specific it produces peptones. The enzyme rennin is also present and
brings about the coagulation casein in milk.
In the small intestines enzymes such as trypsin and chymotrypsin continue the hydrolysis of
peptones to dipeptides which are broken down into amino acids by a series of dipeptidases.
Proteins are thus completely hydrolyzed to amino acids before passing from the small
intestines into the blood
Effects of protein deficiency
Protein energy malnutrition constitutes the largest health problems in developing countries. In
such countries PEM is the largest cause of death and many as half the children do not reach
the age of 5.
Protein deficiency can lead to reduced intelligence or mental retardation.
Kwashiorkor
 Is a malnutrition disease which arises after a period of breast feeding, children are
weaned into a diet in which the staple food is the main part of the meal and is lacking
in protein. The symptoms include apathy, swollen liver, reddish hair, stunted growth,
flaky skin, and edema of the belly and the legs.
Pellagra
 Is associated with PEM due to deficiency to niacin. It is characterized by muscle
wasting.
Marasmus
 while it is caused by lack of food it is made worse by susceptibility to repeated
infections caused by poor hygiene. Marasmus produces shrunken dehydrated children
with wasted muscles, it is often accompanied by diarrhea.
  PEM is as a result of poverty and ignorance. Tradition also plays aprt resulting in the
father of a family being given meat or any other protein available while the rest of the
family having to make do with other food remains.
 Both of these conditions are common in developing countries due to the general
shortage of food. This condition can be counteracted by eating protein rich foods e.g.
peanut butter, meat, milk, eggs, milk etc.
Excessive protein consumption
 The body is unable to store excessive protein. Proteins are digested into amino acids
which enter the blood stream. Excess proteins are then converted into usable
molecules by the liver in a process called deamination. Deamination converts nitrogen
from amino acids to ammonia which is then converted to urea in the kidneys and the
urea is then later excreted as urea in the urea.
 Excessive protein also results in demineralization of the bone and a deterioration of
kidney function in patients with kidney disease.
Effects of cooking on protein
Protein is coagulated by heat. The process is gradual for example when heat is applied to egg
white it thickens, becomes opaque and then firm. Overheating will harden the protein making
it tough unpalatable and shrunken. This characteristic coagulation of protein when heated is
employed in its use as a coating for deep and shallow fried foods and in the development of
crust in bread formed by the protein gluten in wheat.
Ways of denaturing proteins
 Heat: Normal cooking methods
 Salting by adding salt
 Mechanical action: whipping eggs
 Enzymes meat tenderizers
 Acid by adding acid
Effect of heat on proteins
As heat is increased the kinetic energy of the protein molecules increase and therefore the
bonds are broken due to the increased vibration. Therefore the protein chains start to unfold
and may come into contact with other chains and new weak bonds are formed. The effect of
heat on most globular proteins e.g egg albumin is coagulation to form a gel like structure.
However when fibrous proteins are heated they contract and squeeze out the associated water
e.g when fillet steak is heated the protein myosin coagulates at about 71°C. If the temperature
continues to increase the protein contracts and squeezes much of the water associated with it
and thus becomes drier and eating quality is impaired.
Effects of acid on proteins
Proteins can also be denatured by acids. E.g. in the precipitation of casein from milk the pH
of the milk is lowered by the addition of the microorganism lactobacillus which ferments the
disaccharide o lactic acid. As lactic acid accumulates in the system, the pH is lowered to
approximately 5.4. It is at this ph That casein coagulates and it precipitates out of solution.
This process is applied in the making of cheese, yoghurt and sour cream.
This is also evident if vinegar is added to water for poaching eggs
Effect of mechanical action on proteins
The bonds that maintain the shape of protein molecules are so weak that they can easily be
broken by physically agitating them. E.g in making meringues. By whipping egg whites air is
incorporated and also the physical action causes the protein to unfold and take on a new form.
(Foam structure is formed).
Gluten gives bread dough both elasticity and plasticity. Gluten is formed by two proteins
gliadin and glutenin. During kneading the gluten molecules are rearranged from a tangled
mass to a series of parallel sheets.
CARBOHYDRATES
There are 3 major categories namely
- Monosaccharides,
- Disaccharides and
- Polysaccharides.
Functions in the body
 The function of carbohydrates is to provide the body with most of its energy and heat.
Starch is composed of a number of glucose molecules and during digestion the starch
is broken down into glucose which is later broken down during the process of
respiration into energy, carbon dioxide and water.
 Facilitate in the metabolism fats
 Excess carbohydrates can be stored as glycogen, an energy reserve in the liver and
muscles
 If there is some reserve it is converted to fats and stored under the skin as adipose
tissue
 Can be regarded as a `protein sparer` ie they function as proteins only in the absence
of proteins
 Cellulose provide roughage which reduces constipation and promote bowel
movement
 The central nervous system utilize carbohydrates only, so the supply must be adequate
Monosaccharide
These are single sugar units very simple (e.g. glucose, fructose, galactose, mannose etc).
 Glucose and fructose are the only monosaccharide present to any extent in an
average diet. They occur in honey in roughly equal amounts and in glucose
 syrup which are extensively used by food manufacturers for sweetening in the
production of food.
 Honey consists of about 20% water and about 76% glucose and fructose. 4%
is made p small amounts of unconverted sucrose and some other disaccharides
and minor quantities of minerals, vitamins and flavor producing compounds.
 Fructose is the sweetest carbohydrate.
Disaccharides
These are sugars with 2 subunits joined together
Properties
 Sweet
 Made of two subunits
e.g. maltose glucose + glucose,
sucrose glucose + fructose
Lactose galactose + glucose.
Sources
 Sucrose is found in cane sugar and beet
 Lactose is found in milk
 Maltose is found in cereals. It is produced naturally during the germination of grain.
Polysaccharides
These are complex carbohydrates made up of many sugar units joined together by glycosidic
bonds through repeated condensation processes.
Examples starch, Dextrin, pectin, glycogen, and cellulose
Properties
 Not sweet
 Insoluble
Sources
 Whole grains: rice, oats, barley, tapioca,
 Powdered grains: Flour, corn flour, ground rice.
 Vegetables potatoes, peas, beans.
 Unripe fruit: Bananas, apples, cooking pears.
 Cereals: Cornflakes, shredded wheat etc.
 Cooked starch: cakes biscuits
  Pastes: Macaroni, spaghetti, vermicelli.
Cellulose /Fibre
This is the courser structure of vegetables and cereals which is not digested but is used as
roughage in the intestine. Dietary fibre can be described as a non-starch polysaccharide
because of it indestibility
Digestion
Digestion of starch starts in the mouth; the enzymes responsible for the breakdown of starch
are the amylase enzymes which breakdown starch to maltose. Further breakdown of starch
occurs in the small intestine where the pancreatic juices released by the pancreas contain
amylase which breaks down the undigested starch to maltose. The intestines also release
intestinal juices which contain the following enzymes sucrase, maltase and lactase. The
enzymes catalyze the following reactions respectively.
Sucrose glucose +fructose
Maltose glucose+ glucose
Lactose glucose + galactose
Cooking effects on carbohydrates
Thorough cooking is essential if starch is to be absorbed, uncooked starch granules are not
digestible. For example, insufficiently cooked pastry or bread. When coked the starch
granules swell and burst and then the starch can be digested. Foods containing starch have
starch granules covered with cellulose walls which break down when heated or made moist.
When browned as with crust of bread. Toast roast potatoes, the starch forms dextrin’s and
these taste sweeter. On heating with milk or water the starch grains swell and burst, thus
thickening the product. This thickening process is known as the gelatinization of starch.
Fats
There are 2 main groups of fats. Animal and vegetable fats.
Sources
Fats can be divided into:
 Solid fat
 Oils (fat which is liquid at room temperature).
Fats are obtained from the following foods:
Animal origin:
Dripping butter, lard, cheese, bacon, meat fat. Oily fish which are rich in omega 3
polyunsaturated fats
Vegetable origin:
Margarine., cooking fat, nuts soya bean
Oils are obtained from the following foods:
Animal origin:
Cod liver oil
Vegetable origin:
From seeds and nuts.
Fatty Acids
 Fatty acids are those organic acids which are found in fats chemically bound with
glycerol
 The commonest fatty acids contain 16 and 18 carbon atoms.
The fatty acids can be classified as:
Saturated fatty acids
In which the carbon atoms are linked together by single bonds e.g. stearic acid.
Mono-unsaturated acids
In which there is only one double bond in the carbon chain e.g. oleic acid
Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs)
In which there are two or more double bonds in the carbon chains e.g. linoleic acid, contains
2 double bonds.
 The more the double bonds that carbon hydrogen chain posses the greater are its
degree of unsaturation.
 The degree of unsaturation is important in determining its properties
 All natural fats contain both saturated and unsaturated fatty acids, but the greater the
proportion of the unsaturated fatty acids the lower the melting point of the fat.
 Fats which are high in unsaturated fatty acids (e.g. olive oil, sunflower seed oil) are
therefore liquid at room temperature e.g. butter.
Table 2: Sources 0f saturated and ply-unsaturated fats
High in saturated fats Dairy products and other Butter, cream, milk,
products cheese, liver, lamb, beef,
pork, coconut oil
High in poly-unsaturated Vegetable oils Corn oil, soya oil,
fats sunflower seed oil
Nuts

Essential fatty acids (EFAs)

  These are essential to the body and cannot be made by the body and so must be
supplied in the food
 There are 2 Essential Fatty Acids, linoleic acid and linolenic acid
 Most vegetable oils and some fish oils are good sources of essential fatty acids
EFAs have important functions in the body. They form part of the structure of all cell
membrane; they provide the raw materials from which the raw materials from the hormones
known as prostaglandins.
Function of fats on the body
 The function of fat is to protect vital organs of the body,
 to provide heat and energy,
 and certain fats also provide vitamins ADEK.
 Some essential fatty acids form part of the cellular membranes,
 Required for the formation of hormones such as prostaglandins
Digestion of fats
 The liver secretes bile which is then secreted into the bile duct. Bile emulsifies fat into
smaller fat droplets, some bile is stored by the gall bladder.
Small intestines:
 Pancreatic lipases brings about the partial hydrolysis of some fat molecules into
glycerol and fatty acids. These free fatty acids and glycerol are absorbed through the
villi into the lymph vessel where they are re-synthesized into fat molecules that are
more suitable for use by the body.
Effects of deficiency
The amount of essential fatty acids required by the body is relatively very small therefore
there is no known deficiency. If the amount supplied in the diet is reduced the body
compensates by making more itself. The body normal has more cholesterol than it needs and
some of the excess is made into bile salts which help the digestion of fats.
Effects of excessive intake
 Fats accumulate in the body due to excessive intake of foods. Fats if consumed in
excess is stored under the skin because they cannot all be absorbed into the
bloodstream. Or else the person will have high cholesterol level.
 Obesity, this is the state when a person has an excessive amount of body fat. Obese
people are more likely to suffer from diabetes than slimmer people and this may lead
to kidney failure and blindness.
 Coronary heart disease is associated with the high build p of fatty material especially
cholesterol in the blood.
Cooking effects of fats
The nutritive value of fat is not affected by cooking. During cooking processes a certain
amount of fat may be lost from the food as with the grilling of meat for example.
Effects of heat on fats
Slip point:
This is the temperature at which the fats melt into a liquid fat the temperature ranges from
between 30-40°C
Smoke point:
If the temperature is too high 135°C-245°C the smoke point of that fats may be reached at
which temperature blue smoke containing acrolein appears indicating incipient
decomposition.
Flash point
If the temperature is raised above the smoke point the rate of decomposition increase rapidly.
This may result in a fire this is called the flash point.
Rancidity
One way that rancidity develops is when the fat molecules are split by a reaction with water
that releases fatty acids and glycerol. The reaction involves an enzyme (lipases) and its called
hydrolytic rancidity
Types of Rancidity
Hydrolytic rancidity
 Occurs when water splits fatty acid chains away from the glycerol backbone into
glycerides.
Oxidative rancidity
 Occurs when the double bonds of an unsaturated fatty acid reacts chemically with
oxygen.
Microbial rancidity
Refers to a process in which microorganisms such as bacteria use their enzymes, including
lipases, to break down chemical structures in fat.
 In each case these chemical reactions result in undesirable odors and flavors.
 Free fatty acids produced by hydrolysis can undergo auto-oxidation. Oxidation
primarily occurs in unsaturated fats by free-radical mediated processes. These
processes can generate highly reactive molecules in rancid food and oils which are
responsible for producing unpleasant and noxious odors and flavors. These chemical
reactions can also destroy nutrients in food. Under some conditions, rancidity and the
destruction of vitamins occurs very quickly.
Table: Factors affecting rancidity in fats
Factor Effect
 Water Necessary for development of rancidity by hydrolysis
Heat Speeds most chemical reactions including development of rancidity
Lipases Present in certain foods and causes rancidity
Metal ions Speeds up development of rancidity in fats
Light Speeds up oxidative rancidity
Salt food particles Speeds up development of rancidity

Prevention of rancidity
 Antioxidants are often added to fat containing foods in order to delay the onset or
slow the development of rancidity due to oxidation. Natural antioxidants include
flavonoids, polyphenols, ascorbic acids (vitamin C) and tocopherols (vitamin E).
Synthetic antioxidants include butylated hydroxy anisole (BHA) and butylated
hydroxytoluene (BHT), propyl gallate and ethoxyquin. The natural antioxidants
tend to be short lived, so synthetic anti-oxidants are used when longer shelf life is
required.
 In addition, rancidity can be decreased but not completely eliminated by storing
fats in cool dark places with little exposure to oxygen, since heat and light
accelerate the rate of reaction of fats with oxygen. The addition of anti-microbial
agent can also delay or prevent rancidity due to the growth of bacteria or other
microbes.
Vitamins
Vitamins are chemical substances which are vital for life, and if diet is deficient in any
vitamin ill health results. As they are chemical substances they can be produced synthetically.
GENRAL FUNCTIONS OF VITAMINS
To assist the regulation of body processes e.g.
1. To help the growth of children
2. To protect against diseases.
Vitamin A -Retinol
SOURCES
Cod-liver oil, Kidney, butter, cheese, eggs, milk, herring, carrots, spinach, watercress,
tomatoes, apricots
Function:
1. Assists in the growth of children
 2. Helps the body to resist infection
3. Enables people to see better in the dark
4. Necessary for healthy skin and also for normal growth and development
NB. Carotenes found in vegetables can be converted to retinol in the wall of the small
intestines during absorption and hence vegetables have considerable vitamin A activity. B-
carotene is also an antioxidant and protect easily oxidized nutrients e.g. PUFAs from
oxidation.
Vitamin A is fat soluble therefore it is found in fatty foods. It can be made in the body from
β-carotene, the yellow substance found in many fruits and vegetables. Dark green vegetables
are a good source of vit A, the green color of chlorophyll masking the yellow of carotene.
Fish liver oils have the most vitamins A. The amount of vit A in dairy produce varies.
Because cattle eat fresh grass in summer and stored feeding stuffs in winter, the dairy
produce contains the highest amount of vitamin A in the summer.
Kidney and liver are also useful sources of vitamins A.
Effects of deficiency
A long-term deficiency of vitamin a may lead to a condition known as night blindness which
makes it difficult to see in dim light. Night blindness is caused by a shortage of a retinol
derivative called rhodopsin or visual purple which is essential for the proper functioning of
the retina at the back of the eye. Night blindness is common in some parts of Asia and Africa
where the diet is deficient in vitamin A. An adequate intake of vitamin A is essential for the
maintenance of healthy skin and other surface tissues such as mucous membranes. Long term
deficiency may cause an eye disease known as xeropthalmia in which dead cells accumulate
on the surface of the eyes causing them to become opaque. The cornea may become ulcerated
and infected a condition known as keratomalacia and blindness is a common sequel.
Effects of excessive intake
Retinol is not soluble in water and an excess above the body’s need is not excreted in the
urine but accumulates in the liver. This is why animal liver is such a valuable source of vit A.
The liver of a well-nourished person may contain sufficient retinol to permit subsistence for
several months without further intake of retinol or carotene. Because retinol accumulates in
this way an excessive intake should be avoided. Mothers who give their babies vita
supplements in the form of fish liver oil should take particular care not to exceed the
recommended dose. Including adults who take the vit A pill should not overdose. Headache,
hypertension, high cholesterol, diarrhea
Effects of cooking
Retinol and carotenes are highly unsaturated and so they are easily destroyed by oxidation,
especially at high temperatures. They are much more susceptible to oxidation after extraction
from food than when in animal or plant tissues. Losses due to oxidation processes during
cooking are small, but considerable losses may occur during storage of dehydrated food if
precautions are not taken to exclude oxygen. Apart from this sensitivity to oxidation, retinol
and carotenes are reasonably stable and are slowly destroyed at the temperatures used for
cooking. They are almost insoluble in water and so there is little or no loss by extraction
during boiling of vegetables.
Vitamin D- cholecalciferol
This vitamin controls the absorption of calcium. It is therefore necessary for healthy bones
and teeth.
Like vitamin A. it is fat soluble.
Sources of vitamin D
An important source of vitamin D is on the action of sunlight on the deeper layers of skin
Fish liver oils, oily fish, Margarine to which vit D is added, dairy produce, egg yolk
Compared with vit A there are fewer sources of vit D., the fish liver oils being the most
important.
Functions in the body
Vitamin D is need for the absorption of calcium and phosphorous in the body. In its absence
the body is unable to make use of these elements and they are lost in the faeces. Phosphorous
and calcium are both needed in the formation of bones and teeth.
Effects of deficiency
Deficiency of vitamin D causes rickets in the young, and the related bone disease is
osteomalacia in those whom bone growth has ceased. Rickets is characterized by curvature of
the bones in the limbs. The disease has been successfully treated by exposure to long periods
in the sun. Rickets is often found in conjunction with dental caries because vit D is necessary
for the proper calcification o teeth.
Effects of excessive intake
Excessive intake of vt D can be harmful. Too much calcium can be absorbed from the diet
and the excess is deposited in the kidneys where it causes damage and eventually death can
result. There is a particular danger in that babies who are given vit D in the form of fish liver
oil could receive an excessive intake unless the recommended dosage is carefully observed.
Fragile bones, hypertension, high cholesterol levels, diarrhea
VITAMIN E -Tocopherols
Sources
Plant seed oils
Function in the body
 Vit E protects easily oxidized nutrients such as unsaturated fatty acids, retinol and vit
C from oxidation.
 Helps prevent the occurrence of serious eye disease called retrolental fibroplasia
which affects premature babies. This disease is caused by the action of oxygen on the
developing blood vessels in the baby’s eyes
Effects of deficiency
Results in the development of retrolental fibroplasia in premature babies.
Effects of excessive intake:
Blurred vision headaches
VITAMIN K- Naphtoquinones
Sources
Vitamin K is present in most foods but green leafy vegetables are the richest source. Bacterial
synthesis in the bowel provides humans with vitamin K in addition to that obtained from food
stuffs.
Function in the body
Its essential for normal blood clotting, without vitamin K the liver is unable to synthesize
prothrombin which is the precursor of the blood clotting enzyme thrombin.
Effects of deficiency
There’s is little danger of vitamin K deficiency. But in the absence of vitamin K a life-
threatening hemorrhagic disease may occur in new born babies since they lack the bacteria
which produces vitamin K in the gut and may are given supplements.
Effects of excessive intake: Jaundice in infants, liver damage
WATER SOLUBLE VITAMINS
Vitamin B
The B group of vitamins comprises of several vitamins which have similar functions. In the
body they are largely concerned with the release of energy from carbohydrates. They are all
soluble to a greater extent in water and since the body lacks the capacity of storing them any
excess is excreted in the urine. The members of the B group vitamins are
 Thiamine (vit B1)
 Riboflavin (vitB2)
 Niacin (nicotinic acid)
 Pyrodoxine (vit B6)
 Pantothenic acid
 Biotin
 Cobalamin
 Folate
Thiamine (vit B1)
Sources:
Yeast, bacon, oatmeal, pea, whole meal bread
Function
Vitamin B is required to:
 Utilize carbohydrates by living cells. As a result its present in all natural foods to
some extent. Unfortunately it’s often absent from processed foods because it has been
removed or destroyed in the preparation of the food for the market.
 Promotes normal appetite and growth
Effects of deficiency
The deficiency disease beriberi which is caused by a deficiency of thiamine.
Symptoms being loss of appetite, emaciation and enlargement of the heart. A deficiency of
thiamine causes a check in the growth of children together with the loss of appetite and other
symptoms such as irritability, fatigue and dizziness.
Anxiety, hysteria, nausea
Effects of excessive intake
In common with other water-soluble vitamins. Thiamin is not is not stored by the body and
any excess is rapidly excreted in urine. E regular and adequate supply of the vitamin is
essential.
Effects of cooking
Thiamin is water soluble, as much as 50% may be lost when vegetables are boiled. Potatoes
boiled in their skins retain up to 90% of their thiamin compared with retention of about 75%
in the case of boiled potatoes. Thiamin decomposes on heating though it is fairly stable at the
boiling point of water and little loses occurs at this temperature in acidic conditions. In
neutral or alkaline conditions break down is more rapid. Foods which have been subjected to
higher temperatures as in roasting or n processing during canning may have a large
proportion of their thiamin destroyed. Meat loses about15-40% of its thiamin when boiled,
40-50% when roasted and 75% when canned.
Riboflavin (vit B2)
Sources:
Riboflavin is widely distributed in plant and animal tissues. Liver, kidney, fortified
cornflakes, cheese, eggs beef, milk, bread, liver, kidney, beer, cabbage, potatoes
Function in the body
In the body riboflavin is esterified with phosphoric acid or pyrophosphoric acid and forms
part of the coenzymes involved in the variety of oxidation-reduction processes concerned
with the release of energy from protein, fat and carbohydrate in living cells.
Effects of deficiency
A deficiency of riboflavin produces a check in the growth of children and lesions on the lips
and scariness at the corners of the mouth may occur. The tongue and eyes may also become
irritated.
Excessive intake
When riboflavin is eaten it is stored temporarily in the liver until its need by the body. It is
not possible to store large amount in this way, however it is necessary for regular and
adequate amounts to be eaten.
Effects of cooking
Heating causes little breakdown of riboflavin and little or no loss during canning. Meat loses
about amino acid quarter of the riboflavin during roasting. Greater losses occur if riboflavin
is heated under alkaline conditions such as occur when bicarbonate of soda is added to the
water used for boiling vegetables. Although riboflavin is stable to heat it is sensitive to light
especially in milk. Up to three quarters of the riboflavin may be destroyed by exposure to
direct sunlight for 3 hours. The substances produced when riboflavin breaks down in this way
are oxidizing agents capable of destroying the vitamin C present in milk. The fats in the milk
may be oxidized producing unpleasant off-flavors.
Niacin (nicotinic acid and nicotinamide)
Sources;
Found in both animal and plant tissues. Main sources are meat, potatoes, bread and fortified
cereals.
Functions in the body
Nicotinamide occurs in the body as part of two essential enzymes concerned in a large
number of oxidation processes involved in the utilization of carbohydrates, fats and proteins.
Aids nerve function and digestion
Deficiency
A severe deficiency of niacin can cause the disease pellagra which is characterized by
dermatitis, diarrhea and symptoms of mental disorder. Less severe deficiencies can produce
one or more of these symptoms. Pellagra has long been associated, like many other
deficiency diseases with a low standard of living. In particular pellagra result from
subsistence on a diet consisting mainly of maize.
Excessive intake;
Skin flushing
Pyridoxin or vitamin B6
Pyridoxine is the name given to a group of three pyridine derivatives, pyridoxal, pyridoxal
pyridoxamine. All three compounds are inter-convertible in the body and they are equally
potent as vitamins. Vitamin B6 is found in foods which contain the other B vitamins. The
main sources in the diet are potatoes and other vegetables, milk and meat. Symptoms of
vitamin B6 deficiency in animals can be produced by feeding them with a diet devoid of the
vitamin. It is not easy to do the same things with humans although various skin lesions are
reputed to be caused by vitamin B6 deficiency. Infants fed on milk powders devoid of
vitamin B6 were found to suffer from convulsions but responded quickly to treatment with
the vitamin.
Function
Vitamin B6 functions as a coenzyme for a large number of enzymes involved in amino acid
metabolism
Effects of deficiency:
Depression, confusion and convulsions in infants
Pantothenic acid
This vitamin is a pale-yellow oil. It is found in a wide variety of plant and animal tissues. It is
soluble in water and it is rapidly destroyed by treatment with acids and alkalis or by heating
in the dry state. Pantothenic acid is an essential constituent of coenzyme A which is
concerned in all metabolic processes involving addition or removal of an acetyl group. Such
processes are of great importance in the many complex transformations occurring within the
human body, especially those concerned with the release of energy from carbohydrate,
protein and fat.
Biotin
Biotin is another widely distributed vitamin which is required in minute amounts as a
coenzyme involved in the metabolism of fats and carbohydrates. Many foods contain biotin.
Liver and kidney are good dietary sources and smaller amounts are found in egg yolk, milk
and bananas. Such small amounts of biotin are required by the body that sufficient amounts
may be produced by the microorganisms present in the large intestines. Consequently dietary
sources and there is no evidence of biotin deficiency. Except in infants where it results in
scaly skin, fatigue and pain. Raw egg white contains a protein like substance called avidin
which combines with the biotin of the yolk to form a stable compound. This is not absorbed
from the intestinal tract and therefore the biotin is not available to the body.
Cobalamin or vitamin B12
Cobalamin is a deep red crystalline substance. The presence of cobalt gives this vitamin its
characteristic red color. Cobalamin is found in small quantities in all animal tissues but it
absent from foods of vegetable origin. It is required by the body in extremely minute amounts
and vegetarians usually obtain sufficient from eggs and milk. Vegans who abstain from foods
of animal origin including dairy foods may suffer from a deficiency. Fortunately, cobalamin
can be made from a mould used to produce the antibiotic streptomycin and supplies are
available for vegans from this source.
Function
Cobalamin plays a part in the production of nucleic acids and in the complex process of cell
division in the body. It is especially important in conjunction with folate and iron, for the
formation of red blood cells. It is also involved in the formation of the myelin tube or sheath
which surrounds each nerve fibre.
Deficiency
Some people are unable to absorb cobalamin from their diet suffer from a serious disease
known as pernicious anemia, in which extreme anemias is accompanied by degeneration of
the nerve tracts in the spinal chord. Pernicious anemia is caused by the absence from the gut
of an intrinsic factor which is essential for the absorption of cobalamin. It is NOT a
deficiency disease because if the intrinsic factor is absent, it will occur even when the diet
contains sufficient cobalamin.
Folate
Folate is the name given to a group of closely related compounds derived from folic acid,
Folates are involved in the body in conjunction with cobalamin in the production of nucleic
acids and in particular in the formation of red blood cells. A deficiency of folate may cause a
particular type of anemia called megaloblastic anemia. This is similar to the anemia caused
by the non-absorption of cobalamin but it is not accompanied by degeneration of nerve cells
which is a feature of pernicious anemia. Pregnant women are prone to develop this type of
anemia. Folate deficiency during pregnancy may lead to premature birth and low birthweight.
If a mothers diet is deficient in folate before conception or during the early stages of
pregnancy there is evidence of an increased risk that the baby will be born with neural tube
defects such as spina bifida.
Folates are found in small amounts a wide variety of foods, liver, green vegetables potatoes.
Fortified cornflakes are good sources of the vitamin.
Folates are easily destroyed during cooking and a good deal can be lost in the water used for
cooking vegetables. Even greater losses occur if sodium bicarbonate is added to the water to
preserve the green colour of green vegetables.
Magnesium
A human contains about 20-25g and most of it is found in the bones as magnesium
phosphate. Magnesium is also present in ionic form in all tissues where it plays a part in
many reactions involved in energy utilization.
Sources
Magnesium occurs widely in foods. It is present in green vegetables as a part of the
chlorophyll molecule and vegetables provide two-thirds of magnesium in an average diet.
Meat is also a good source as a consequence of animals eating grass and other vegetation.
Zinc
An adequate intake of zinc is essential for the maintenance of good health. It forms part of the
enzyme carbonic anhydrase found in red blood cells, which assists in releasing carbon
dioxide from venous blood passing through the lungs. Zinc is also a constituent of several
other enzymes, and it plays a part in protein and carbohydrate metabolism. Prolonged
absence of zinc can lead to retarded physical and mental development in adolescents.
Other mineral elements
 The body requires small quantities of other mineral elements and these are referred to as trace
elements. Normal diets provide a sufficient supply of all the trace minerals except for fluorine
and iodine.
Iodine
Sources
Milk, sea food, iodized salt
Function in the body
Iodine is carried around the body in blood as iodide and is absorbed in the thyroid in the neck
where it is converted to the hormones thyroxine and tri-iodothyronine. These two hormones
are concerned with the general metabolic activity of the body and control the rate of energy
production of cells.
Effects of deficiency
When the diet provides insufficient iodine, the thyroid gland may increase in size in an
attempt to compensate for the deficiency a condition known as goiter. Some vegetables are
known to be goitrogenic i.e. capable of causing goiter e.g. cabbages and cauliflower contains
toxins called goitrogens.
Fluorine
Traces of fluoride in the diet are beneficial in protecting teeth against decay especially in
children below the age of 8 years. Dietary fluoride hardens tooth enamel. Fluoridation of
water reduces the incidences of dental caries, particularly in young children.
Table 2 Some trace elements
Element Approximate Average adult Main food sources Functions in the body
average daily intake body content
Cobalt (Co) 0.3mg 1.5mg Liver and other meat Required for formation of red
blood cells
Copper (Cu) 3.5mg 75mg Green vegetables Component of many enzyme
fish, liver As. Necessary for hemoglobin
formation
Chromium (Cr) 0.15mg 1mg Liver, cereals beer Contained in all tissues.
yeast Involved in glucose
metabolism
Fluorine (F) 1.8mg 2.5g Tea, seafood water Required for bone and tooth
formation
Iodine (I) 0.2mg 25mg Milk seafood, Component of thyroid
iodized salt hormones
Manganese 3.5mg 15mg Tea, cereals pulses, Forms part of some enzyme
(Mn) nuts systems
Molybdenum 0.15mg ? Kidney cereals, Enzyme activation
(mo) vegetables
Selenium (Se) 0.2mg 25mg Cereals, meat, fish Present in some enzymes.
Associated with vitamin E
activity

Non-starch polysaccharides Dietary fibre

Dietary fibre comes from the cell walls which form the structural support of the plant from
which the food originated. E.g cellulose, hemicellulose, pectin’s, lignin. NSPs differ from
starch in that they cannot be digested by the enzymes in the small intestines and they enter
the bowel unchanged.
Sources:
Wheat, maize, rice, oats, barley, rye, vegetables
Functions of NSPs
 Prevents constipation-NSPs absorb water in the small intestines leading to formation
of softer and larger stools.
 NSPs speeds the passage of food through the alimentary tract
 Helps prevent many bowel diseases such as appendicitis, diverticular diseases in
which distended pockets are formed in the bowel walls.
 They are of value to diabetes mellitus sufferers in which the concentration of glucose
in the blood exceeds the normal levels. Diet high in fibre slow down the release of
glucose in the blood stream and in this way the symptoms of diabetes are minimized.
 Lowers the blood cholesterol levels in some individuals therefore the risk of coronary
heart disease is reduced.
Digestion of dietary fibre
NSPs are unaffected by the enzymes of the digestive system and it passes more or less
unchanged to the large intestines. Once there it is attacked and broken down by harmless
bacteria which inhabit the bowel and is partly converted to short chain fatty acids, carbon
dioxide hydrogen and methane. The short chain fatty acids are absorbed into the blood stream
and hence contribute to the body’s energy intake. The hydrogen formed during NSP
breakdown is absorbed and subsequently expired in the breath.
The carbon dioxide and methane are not absorbed however it results in flatulence.
Effects of deficiency
Constipation is characterized by longer transit of food through the intestinal tract and
formation of hard small stools.
May result in bowel diseases such as diverticular diseases
Effects of excess intake
Diets with a high NSP content may also have high phytate (natural toxin) content. This toxin
complexes with iron and calcium and may interfere with their absorption.
Water
Sources:
Water, beverages and food.
Water is unlike other essential nutrients in that most of it does not undergo chemical changes
within the body
Function
 Transports nutrients through the body
 To dissolve substances or to hold them in colloidal suspension
 Water remains liquid over a wide temperature range and this property enables water
to provide a liquid medium in which thousands of reactions necessary to life can
occur.
 Some water is involved in chemical changes e.g. enzymic and hydrolytic breakdown
of nutrients during digestion
Deficiency
Feeling dizzy, fainting, thirsty all these are signs of dehydration
Excess intake
Most of it lost through urine and sweat
Dietary needs of special groups
Babies’ diet
Mother’s milk is the ideal food for the baby and all mothers should be encouraged to
breastfeed. It is desirable that breast feeding continues throughout the first year of a baby’s
life. Mother’s milk provides the correct balance of nutrients for the baby’s needs except for
vitamin C. The infant’s requirements of energy and protein over the first six months of life
are provided by breastfeeding and no nutrient supplement should be required as long as the
mother is receiving an adequate diet. Nursing mothers are advised to take vitamin
supplements to increase calcium intake.
Another advantage of breastfeeding is that the milk is available at the right temperature and
in the right quantity. Also with breast feeding the risk of infection is decreased compared to
bottle feeding, the young baby is protected by antibodies and other substances in the mother’s
milk at a time when its own protective mechanisms are not properly developed. Breastfeeding
reduces the risk of diarrhea from contaminated milk because the milk passes from mother to
baby without any external contact. Non-nutritional advantages of breastfeeding include
fostering of a close physical relationship between mother and baby and a beneficial effect on
the health of the mother.
Bottle feeding:
For many mothers there may often be a good reason why they cannot breast feed in which
case they will bottle feed their baby using commercial baby milk. Cow’s milk has a
composition very different from that of human milk and on its own is an incomplete food for
babies; hence has been modified to make it equivalent to breast milk. Although such attempts
have not been successful there are many commercial products that are satisfactory.
Commercial baby milks are normally in concentrated form –either dried or evaporated and
are reconstituted by the addition of water. Cow’s milk is modified in a number of ways so
that it more closely resembles human milk. The main objects are to reduce the mineral and
protein content and increase the lactose content. In addition such products are easily fortified
with vitamin D as neither mother’s milk nor cows’ milk contains sufficient amounts for the
baby’s needs. In some products the animal fat of cows’ milk is replaced by vegetable oils.
Ordinary skimmed milk is not good for the babies as it contains less vitamin A and has lower
energy content than cows milk
Nutritional requirements for infants
Recommended Dietary requirements
Age Calcium Magnesium Phosphorous Iron Vitamin Vitamin K
mg/day mg/day mg/day mg/day D IU/day mcg/day
0-6 months 400 40 300 6 300 5
6-12mths 600 60 500 10 400 10
1-3 years 800 80 800 10 400 15

Calcium, phosphorous, vitamin D

Formula fed infants generally consume more than the recommended daily allowance of
calcium, phosphorous and vitamin D, breast fed infants consume less total calcium from
breast milk but retain similar amounts to formula fed babies because of better absorption of
calcium from breast milk.
Iron deficiency
Breast fed infants are at risk for iron deficiency because while iron in breast milk is well
absorbed, iron level in breast milk are inadequate about a fifth of supplemented breast fed
babies develop evidence of iron deficiency by nine months of age. Iron fortified cereals
starting around 4 to 6 months greatly reduces the risk of Iron deficiency.
Vitamin K
Breast milk is low in vitamin K. Before mandated use of vitamin K in the new born baby, the
devastating hemorrhagic disease of the new born occurs in 1in 200 babies. The condition has
been almost eliminated by vitamin K use at birth.
Fluoride
While adequate dietary fluoride helps prevent tooth decay an unsightly mettling and
structural and structural weakening of permanent teeth known as fluorosis has become more
prevalent. Younger children get a significant amount of fluoride from water supplied and
swallowing toothpaste.
Nutritional requirements for children
Nutrition guidelines recommended for adults are inappropriate for most children under the
age of five, because children have small stomachs and so need plenty of calories and nutrients
in a small amount of food to ensure they grow properly.
While low fat diets are recommended for older children and adults, toddlers need diet that
contains good amounts of fats. This fat should come from food that contains plenty of other
nutrients, like meat, fish and full fat milk rather than high fat food that contains few vitamins
and minerals for example cakes, biscuits and chocolates. They should not eat too much fibre
rich food as they may fill them up so much that they cannot eat enough ot provide them with
adequate calories and nutrients
Nutritional requirements for children
Toddlers
Nutrition guidelines recommended for adults are inappropriate for most children under the
age of five. This is because young children only have small tummies and so need plenty of
calories and nutrients in a small amount of food to ensure they grow properly. As a child
grows milk alone is insufficient. At four moths or later solids should be introduced to a childs
diet. The child should continue to have plenty of milk while he or she is gradually let itnot the
family’s diet.
Points to remember
 Always introduce new foods gradually
 Serve small portions of food, however should be as nourishing as possible and make it
as attractive as possible.
 Encourage children to be self-reliant and start teaching them good table manners at an
early stage. Introduce them to their own plate and cutlery to encourage sense of
ownership
 Do not give your children rich spicy or greasy foods. It is too much for their digestive
systems
 Sugar is not good for children’s teeth and sweet things in between meals soil their
appetite.
While low fat diets are recommended for older children and adults, under five need diet that
contain good amounts of fats.
This fat should come from food that contains plenty of other nutrients like meat, dry fish and
full fat milk rather than from high fat food that contains few vitamins and minerals e.g. cakes,
biscuits and chocolates.
Meanwhile young children should not eat too many fibre rich foods as these may fill them up
so much that they cannot eat enough to provide them with adequate calories and nutrient.
School children
As kids approach school age they should gradually move towards a diet that’s lower in fat
and higher in fibre and by the age of five their diets should be low in fat, sugar salt and high
in fibre with five fruits and vegetables per day just like adults. Fortunately whatever their age
children can easily get a balanced diet and lower the risk of becoming obese by eating a
variety of foods from the four main groups. Children in this age group are very active and
grow very fast. Consequently their meals should include energy foods as well as food for
growth. The choice of food is widened as they grow older
Bread, other cereals, potatoes these starch foods which include pasta provide energy fibre,
vitamins and minerals.
Fruits and vegetables
These provide fibre, vitamins minerals and are a source of antioxidants.
Milk and dairy products
These provide calcium for healthy bones teeth, proteins for growth, vitamins and minerals.
Meat, fish, pulses, eggs
These foods provide proteins and vitamins and minerals especially iron. Pulses contain fibre.
Teenagers
Teenage years are a period of rapid physical and emotional growth and changes. At this stage
they are encouraged to eat a variety of foods and regular exercise. Rapid growth, greater
needs, body image influences and erratic eating means good food is as important in the teen
years. Some nutrients are especially important at this stage. E.g. teens should eat iron rich
foods and the equivalent of a pint of milk daily, yoghurt, cheese, baked beans leafy
vegetables and fortified breakfast cereals will contribute to the body’s iron needs. Girls start
to menstruate at this stage and this regular loss of blood may trigger anemia. They should eat
foods rich in iron
Aim for five portions of fruits and vegetables every day and eight glasses of water.
Encourage five meals per day from all the food groups and healthy snacks in between meals.
The physical changes of adolescence have direct influence on a person’s nutritional need.
Teenagers need additional calories, protein, calcium and iron.
Calories
Adolescence need additional calories to provide energy for growth and activity. Boys aged
between 11-18 years need between 2000-2800 calories per day. Adolescent girls need 2200
calories each day. This is a significant increase from childhood requirement. To meet this
calorie need teens should choose a variety of healthy foods such as lean protein sources, low
fat dairy products, whole grain foods, fruits and vegetables.
Protein
Protein is important for growth and maintenance of muscles. Teens need between 45-60g of
protein each day by eating pork beef, chicken, eggs and dairy products. Protein is also
available from certain vegetable sources including, soy food beans and nuts.
Calcium
Adequate calcium intake is essential for development for strong dense bones during the
adolescent years and young adulthood years. Inadequate intake of calcium during teenage
years puts individuals at risk for developing osteoporosis later in life. Teenagers are
encouraged to consume three to four servings of calcium rich food every day e.g. milk
yoghurt, cheese, cereals etc.
Iron
As adolescents gain muscle mass, more iron is needed to help their new muscle cells obtain
oxygen for energy. A deficiency in iron causes anemia which leads to fatigue confusion and
weakness.
Pregnant and lactating women
 4-6 servings of carbohydrate
 5-6 servings of vegetables
 4 servings of fruits
 2 servings from milk dairy
 2 servings from meat
Energy requirements
Energy requirements are increased with pregnancy due to the growth of the unborn baby and
placenta.
Physical activity has health benefits for the mother prepares the body for childbirth. Healthy
eating is important for the pregnant women and their unborn babies. There are many
nutritional issues to consider ensuring good health of both woman and baby during and after
pregnancy. A wide varied diet is vital in supporting the growth and development of the fetus
and the maintenance of the woman’s own health
During pregnancy there is increased requirement for most nutrients. Energy, iron, folate,
iodine, zinc, vitamin C. Her diet should include foods which contain plenty of dietary fiber
to guard against constipation
for the safety of the unborn baby a pregnant mother should be mindful of listeria, mercury,
alcohol, caffeine.
Iron
The increased needs of pregnancy and lactation can normally be satisfied from the body’s
iron stores in the absence of losses through menstruation. Supplementation of the dietary
intake is usually only required when the maternal iron stores are low at the start of the
pregnancy.
Folate
Pregnant women are prone to develop megaloblastic anemia. Folate deficiency during
pregnancy may lead to premature birth and low birth weight. If a mothers diet is deficient in
folate before conception there is a probability that the baby will be born with neural tube
defects such as spina bifida. Therefore pregnant women are encouraged to take supplements.
Vitamin A
This vitamin is responsible for the normal growth and development of the baby. Pregnant
women need this vitamin in large quantities
Sedentary workers
Nature demands from every form of life a certain amount of activity or motion. Intestinal
congestion which is almost universal in sedentary workers is caused in nearly all cases by
consuming a quantity of food in excess of physical demand. The diets therefore have to be
light. The diet may include foods such as fruits, fish, and vegetable and should be a little low
on fat and carbohydrates. Ailments suffered from sedentary workers are indigestion,
constipation and anemia. In dealing with each and all of these conditions including obesity
which is normally as a result of sedentary habits, the first thing is to limit the quantity of food
to the normal requirement of the body and in extreme cases a diet below the normal should be
observed. Then with proper care as to the selection, combination and proportions of food and
an increased amount of exercise and deep breathing, a person of sedentary habits should be
made as healthy and strong as the manual laborer.
Manual workers
Manual workers need a diet high in energy giving foods than sedentary workers. Adults need
less body building foods than children. Energy foods should contain more fats than
carbohydrates because carbohydrates are difficult to digest while one is doing physical work.
They need more water and salt to replace that which has been lost through sweat
Invalids
Children seem to get sick very suddenly. Invalids are people who have been weak through
illness or injury. Convalescents are people recovering from serious illness or an operation.
Both invalids and convalescents have specific dietary needs. It is important to follow the
doctor’s instructions when looking after a sick person. During an illness the patient may run a
very high temperature. They consequently loose their appetite and it is not necessary to give
them solid food. A fluid diet is ideal.
Dehydration
The main concern with children is their high-risk dehydration through loss of fluids with
vomiting and diarrhea. This is also true with adults, but due to body size it takes longer to be
dehydrated. The main aim is to get fluids into the child. It is best to encourage small sips they
will not tolerate large volumes in one go including fluids with some energy value is worth
trying if they can tolerate it. If the child has been sick for along period of time try an oral
dehydration fluid. These fluids have the right balance of sugar and salts and these are an
important source of electrolytes sodium and potassium. Which are lost through vomiting and
diarrhea.
Introducing food for invalids
As invalids get better slowly introduce food back into the diet. keep the rough fibrous type of
food low initially. Bland foods are also better tolerated than rich food. It is best to offer things
frequently and in small amounts. Some children will bounce back easily and resume a normal
diet quickly. Others may take sometime before they start feeling comfortable with a wide
range of food
Breads for invalid food
Use white bread and use only a scraping of butter or margarine. Adding marmite is a good
way of replacing salt. Dry toast is also a good option
Fruit and vegetables
Fruits
Try bananas, stewed fruits such as apples peaches. Apply
Vegetables
Try boiled or mashed root vegetables which could be easier to tolerate e.g. potatoes,
pumpkin, and carrots.
Protein choice natural
Egg- poached boiled scramble
Fish steamed
Plain chicken
Plain lean roast meat
Cereals.
Elderly people
Elderly people may suffer from an inadequate diet for a variety of reasons including
loneliness, poverty, reduced enjoyment of food due to loss of taste and smell mental and
physical lethargy, or illness or inability to chew and digest food properly, For these reasons
elderly people often suffer from malnutrition than the rest of the population. Energy needs
decreases with age because of the reduction of physical activity therefore carbohydrates
should not be excessive. There elderly need a high protein diet to repair worn and torn
tissues. Old people suffer from loss of calcium from a bone disease called osteoporosis.
Although this condition cannot be prevented or remedied by diet, foods which are rich in
calcium such as milk and cheese should be included in the diet of the elderly. Among those
elderly who are malnourished, the nutrients most likely to be deficient are vitamin C, D and
folate. Many old people have inadequate intakes of folate and this may be because they eat
few green leafy vegetables. There are some particular hazards for older people e.g. old people
who have difficulty in peeling fruits or cooking potatoes may lack sufficient vitamin C, while
the housebound will have little or no chance of being in the sunshine and consequently may
lack vitamin D. Vitamin supplements may well be beneficial
Food habits for Zimbabwe’s different cultural groups
A number of cultural groups exist in Zimbabwe and each has their own traditional way of
eating their food. The differences arise from the different types of foods how they are
prepared and cooked and eating habits. Indigenous Zimbabweans for example, sit on mats or
mud stops and eat their food from the same plate, with or without individual side plates. This
approach is slowly falling away and a more individual approach is being adopted i.e. food is
either dished into single plates or spooned from a common big plate into individual smaller
ones. The Moslems buy their meat from special Halal butcheries. This is because these
butcheries kill the animals and chickens in a special way.
Special Diets
Vegetarian diets
There are three main types of vegetarian regime, the ova-lacto-vegetarian diet, which
consists of foods of plant origin together with eggs and dairy products; the lacto vegetarian
diet which is similar but excludes eggs and the vegan diet which excludes all foods not of
plant origin. Vegetarians in the first two categories get animal protein from eggs and dairy
products and can easily obtain a nutritionally adequate diet if care is taken to eat a sufficient
variety and quantity of food. Vegans can also achieve a diet which is satisfactory in most
respects, but unless care is taken it is difficult for them to receive sufficient vitamin B12, and
possibly vitamin D from their very restrictive diet.
Although a carefully contrived vegetarian diet can be nutritionally adequate, it should be
borne in mind that plant proteins are usually of lower biological value than animal proteins
unless a variety of plant proteins are eaten on the same day, preferably as a part of the same
meal so that the absence of an essential amino acid in the proteins of one food can be
complemented by its presence in another. The table below shows the amino acid strength and
weaknesses of the food which figure prominently in vegetarian diets.
Table 4: Essential amino acids composition of vegetarian food groups
Food groups Weaknesses Strengths
Pulses or legumes Tryptophan, methionine, cysteine* Lysine
Cereals Lysine, isoleucine Tryptophan, methionine, cysteine*
Seeds and nuts Lysine Tryptophan, methionine, cysteine*
Other vegetable foods Isoleucine, methionine Tryptophan, lysine cysteine*
Eggs None Tryptophan, lysine, methionine,
cysteine*
Dairy foods None lysine
Cysteine* is not an essential amino acid because the body can make from mentioning but its
presence spares methionine
The maximum nutritional benefit will be obtained by combining foods in such a way that the
amino acid weaknesses of one group are compensated by the strength of another. For
example, when food of cereal origin is eaten at the same time as a pulse, as in the case of
bake beans on toast, the two proteins combined provide high quality protein. It is important
that young children are provided with high quality protein to sustain a high rate of growth so
proteins in the diets of vegetarian children and especially vegan children should be from
mixed sources.
Lacto-vegetarian diets usually contain more fat because of the amount of milk and other dairy
products consumed. Vegetarian and vegan diets are normally richer in EFA linoleic acid than
the diet of non-vegetarians. The calcium intake of lacto and ovo-lacto vegetarian is usually
high but that of vegans very low. Most vegans do not eat white bread and hence do not have
the benefit of calcium carbonate which is added to flour.
Iron is normally poorly absorbed from plan sources and so the iron content of a vegetarian
diet needs to be higher than that of a non-vegetarian diet to provide the same amount of iron
to the body. Vegetarians who consume milk and dairy products usually have an adequate
vitamin intake and are unlikely to suffer from vitamin deficiencies but vegan diets may lack
vitamin D and vitamin B12. Natural vitamin D is found in dairy products which are not eaten
by vegans. A deficiency may be avoided by eating margarine which is fortified with synthetic
vitamin D. Cobalamin can be attained from commercially growing bacteria which produces
streptomycin.
Low fat diets
Exclude or severely limit foods which are high in fat but allow other foods to be eaten freely.
Fats have more than twice the energy value than carbohydrates or proteins, so that a low-fat
diet is likely to be a low energy diet. This type of diet is currently recommended by many
doctors because lowering fat intake, and particularly lowering saturated fats is considered to
be healthy and may be a way of reducing coronary heart diseases.
High fiber diet:
(whole food diet) are very popular and aim at establishing a diet that has a low energy value
but a high NSP content. Whole food is rich in NSPs have the advantage that they have a low
energy value while because of their capacity to hold considerable amounts of water, they
provide bulk which gives a feeling of fullness. Moreover it is believed that an increased
intake of NSPs lowers the blood cholesterol levels and therefore lowers the risk of obesity.
Another advantage is that whole foods are eaten in place of refined convenience foods.
Gluten free diet;
A glutei free diet is a diet completely free from ingredients derived from gluten containing
cereals;- wheat, barley, rye etc as well as the use of gluten as a food additive in the form of
flavoring, stabilizing or thickening agent. It is recommended amongst other things in the
treatment of colic disease, migraines. Additionally the diet may exclude oats. Gluten free
foods e.g. corn, potatoes, rice and cassava