12th hacker series

Semiconductor

Electronics
• a device whose functioning is based on control movement of electrons
through it is called an electronic device
• Some of the present demo common such devices include a semiconductor
junction diode, transistor, and integrated circuit
• The related branch in which we study the functioning and use of such
devices is called electronics

Energy bands in solids

• an isolated atom has well defined energy levels. However, when large
number of atoms get together to form a solid, these individual energy
levels overlap and get completely modified.
• Inside the crystal, each electron has a unique position, and electrons
have exactly same pattern of surrounding charges. Because of this, each
electron will have a different energy level.
• Instead of discrete value of energy of electrons, the energy values lie in a
certain range. The collection of these closely packed energy levels are set
to form an energy band.

Valence band and conduction band

• two types of such bands formed in solids are called valence band and
conduction band. The band formed by energy levels is known as
valence band, whereas partially filled or unfilled band is known as
conduction band.
• The two bands are generally separated by a gap called energy gap of
forbidden gap. Depending upon the size of the energy gap, different
materials behave as conductor, semiconductors, or insulator.
• The insulators have generally large energy gaps, whereas the
conductors do not have any such gap. Semiconductors as small energy
gap.
 Formation of hole
• at zero Kelvin, no electron jumps from valence band to conduction
band. It means germanium or silicon semiconductor at zero Kelvin
behaves as an insulator.
• When the temperature of germanium or silicon semiconductor
increases, then some electrons gain thermal energy due to thermal
agitation and jump the conduction band from valence band, leaving
behind equal number of holes in valence band as shown. This
deficiency of electron is called hole. The hole behaves as a apparent free
particle with effective positive charge.
 Types of semiconductors- intrinsic and extrinsic
• common semiconductors are of two type- intrinsic and extrinsic.
Germanium and Sillicon are two most commonly used semi
semiconductor material.
Intrinsic semiconductor
• pure semiconductors is in which the conductivity is caused due to
charge carriers made available from within the material are called
intrinsic semiconductors
• There are no free recharge carriers available under normal conditions.
However, when the temperature is raise slightly, some of the covalent
bonds in the material get broken due to thermal education and few
electrons become free
• in order to fill the vacancy, created by absence of electron at a
particular location electron from other position, move to this location
and create a vacancy at another place called hole
• The movement of electrons and holes within the material result in
conduction
• And intrinsic semiconductor, behave as a perfect insulator at
temperature, zero Kelvin
Extrinsic semiconductors
• the semiconductors in which the conductivity is caused due to charge
carriers, made available from external source by adding impurity from
outside are called extrinsic semiconductor
• The process of adding impurity is called doping. The impurity added is
generally from third group or fifth group. There are two types of dopant
used in doping the tetravalent, silicon or germanium.
• 1) pentavalent- like arsenic, antimony, and phosphorus
• 2) trivalent- like Indium, boron, aluminium
• There are two types of extrinsic semiconductors
• 1) n- type semiconductor
• 2) p- type semiconductor
• if. ni Is the density of intrinsic charge carriers ne And An a density
of electrons and whole intrinsic semiconductors, then the selection
among them is nenn ni
=
 n- type semiconductor
• when a pentavalent impurity like phosphorus, antimony arsenic is
doped in pure germanium, then the conductivity of Crystal increases
due to surplus electrons and such a crystal is said to be n- type
semiconductor while the impurity atoms are called donor atoms
• Thus in, n- type semiconductor, the charge carriers are negatively
charged electrons and the donor level lies near the bottom of the
conduction band

p- type semiconductor
• when a trivalent impurity like aluminium, Indian boron, gallium, etc
is doped in pure germanium or silicon, then the conductivity of the
crystal increases due to deficiency of electrons I.e, holes, and such a
crystal is said to be p- type, semiconductor, while the impurity atoms
are called acceptor
• Thus in, p- type semiconductor, the charge carriers are holes. Except a
level lies near the top of the valence band.
 Semiconductor diode- p- n junction diode
• a semiconductor having p- type impurity at one end and n - type
impurity at the other end is known as p- n junction diode. The junction
at which p- type and n- type, semiconductor combine is called p- n
Junction
• in p- type region, there is majority of holes and in n- type region, there
is majority of electrons

Formation of depletion layer and potential barrier

• at the Junction, there is diffusion of charge carriers due to thermal
agitation. Therefore, some of the electrons of n - region diffuse to p-
region, while some of the holes of p- region, diffuse into n - region
• Some charge carriers combine with opposite charges to neutralise each
other. Does near the junction there is an axis of positively charged ions in
n- region and an excess of negatively charged iron in p- region
• This set up a potential difference called potential barrier and hence an
internal electric field across the junction. The potential barrier is usually
of the order of MV.

• The field. Ei Is directed from n- region to p- region. This field stops the
further diffusion of charge carriers. Thus, the layers on either side of the
junction becomes free from mobile charge carriers and hence is called the
depletion layer.
 Forward bias
• in this arrangement, the positive terminal of battery is connected to p-
end and negative terminal to n- and of the crystal so that an external
electric field E established directed from p to n end to oppose the internal
field, E.Thus,
i the junction is set to conduct
Under this arrangement, the whole move along the field E from p- region to
n - region and electrons move opposite to field E from n- region to p- region,
eliminating the depletion layer. Current is thus set up in the junction
diode.

• within the junction diode, the current is due to both types of majority
charge carriers, but in external circuit, it is due to electrons only
• The current is due to diffusion of majority charge carriers through the
junction and is of the order of Milliamperes
 Reverse bias
• in this arrangement, positive terminal of battery is connected to n- end
and and negative terminal to p- end of the crystal so that the external
field established to support the internal field Ei as shown
• Under the biasing, the holes in p- region and the electrons in n- region
are pushed away from the junction to hide the depletion layer and hence
increases the size of the potential barrier. Therefore, the junction does not
conduct.

• in the potential difference across the junction is increased in steps, a

very small reverse current of the order to micro ampere flow
• The reason is that due to thermal agitation, some covalent bonds of pure
semiconductor break, releasing a few holes in n- region and a few
electrons in p- region called the minority charge carriers
• The reverse bias opposes the major majority charge carrier, but aids the
minority charge carriers to move across the junction. Hence, a very
small current flows.

• the basic features of reverse bias are:

• 1) within the junction diode. The current is due to both types of
minority charge carriers, but in external circuit, it is due to electrons
only.
• 2) the current is due to leakage of minority charge carriers through
the junction and is very small of the order of uA
 Characteristic of p - n junction diode
• breakdown voltage: it is the reverse voltage at which p- n junction breaks
down with sudden rise in reverse current
• Dynamic or AC resistance: the ratio of change in forward voltage across
the diode to the resulting change in current through. It is called
dynamic or AC forward resistance of the diode.
Va =

• avalanche breakdown: if the rivers wires is made sufficiently high,

the covalent bond near the junction breakdown, releasing free
electrons and holes
• These electrons and holes gain sufficient energy to break other
covalent bond
• Does a large number of electrons in holes get free
• The reverse current increases abruptly to high value
• This is called avalanche breakdown and may damage the Junction
 p - n junction diode as a half wave rectifier
• the conversion of AC into DC is called the rectification

• during first half of the input cycle, the secondary terminal or the
transformer be positive relative to S2. Then the junction diode is forward
biased. Therefore the current flows and its direction of current in lower
resistance is from A to B
• in next half cycle, the terminal S one becomes negative relative to S2.
Then the diode is in reverse by us. Therefore no current flows in diode
and hence there is no potential difference across load R. The
L cycle repeats
• The output current in load flows only when S1 is positive relative to S2
that is during first half cycles of the input AC signal. There is current
in circuit enhance potential difference across the resistance R while
L no
current flows for the next half of this cycle.
• T the direction of current in Load is always from A to B which is direct
current. Thus, a single p n junction diode acts as a half a rectifier.

p- n junction diode as a full wave rectifier