Power Amplifiers

Floyd 7th Edition

Principles of Electronics by VK Mehta

Dr. M Faraz
ENCD UET Taxila
Introduction
• A practical amplifier consist of a number of stages that amplify a weak signal
until a sufficient power is available to operate a loud speaker or other output
device.

• The first few stages in this multistage amplifier have the function of only
voltage amplification.

• The last stage is designed to provide maximum power.

• This final stage is known as power stage.

• In this chapter we shall talk about the final stage in a multistage amplifier –
the power amplifier.
Introduction

• In the power stage a concentrated effort is made to obtain maximum

output power.
• A transistor that is suitable for power amplification is called power
transistor.
• It differs from other transistors mostly in size, it is considerably larger to
handling great amount of power.
Introduction
Small Signal and Large Signal Amplifiers
• Small Signal Amplifiers: have a power rating of less than 1W, and can handle
an input signal of few µV or few mV.
• Voltage amplifier generally falls in this class.
• Small-signal transistors are typically used at the front end of systems where
the signal power is low.

• Large Signal Amplifiers: have a power ratings of 1W or more and can handle an
input signal of few volts.
• Power amplifiers fall in this class.
• Power transistors are used near the end of systems because the signal power
and current are high.
Introduction
Difference between Voltage and Power Amplifiers
Introduction
Ranges of Frequency
• Amplifiers can also be described in terms of ranges of frequency they operate.

• Audio Amplifiers: refers to an amplifier that operates between 20 Hz to 20 KHz.

• Radio Frequency Amplifiers: is one that amplifies frequency above 20 KHz,

usually much higher. For example RF amplifiers in AM radio, amplify
frequencies between 535 and 1605 KHz and RF amplifier in FM radios, amplify
frequencies between 88 and 108 MHz.

• Narrowband Amplifiers: works over small frequency range like 450 to 460 KHz.

• Wideband Amplifiers: operates over large frequency range like 0 to 1 MHz.

Classes of Power Amplifiers
• Power amplifiers are large signal amplifiers.
• This generally means that the large portions of the load line is used during the
signal operation than in small signal amplifier.
• Here we will cover four class of power amplifiers:
• Class A
• Class B
• Class AB
• Class C
• These amplifier classification are based on the percentage of the input cycle for
which the amplifier operates in its linear region.
• Each class has a unique circuit configuration because of the way it must be
operated.
Class A Power Amplifier
• When amplifier is biased in such a way that it always operate in the linear
region where the output signal is amplified replica of the input signal, it is a
class A amplifier.

• The discussion of amplifiers in previous chapters apply to class A operation.

• Power amplifiers are those amplifiers that have an objective of delivering

power to a load.

• This means that the components must be considered in terms of their ability to
dissipate heat.
• Both large signal and small signal amplifiers are considered to be Class A
amplifier if they operate in linear region at all times.
Class A Power Amplifier
Heat Dissipation
• Power transistors or other power devices must dissipate large amount of
internally generated heat.

• For BJT power transistors the collector terminal is the critical junction for this
reason the transistor’s case is always connected to the collector terminal.

• The case of all transistors is designed to provide large contact area between it
and an external heat sink.

• Heat from the transistors flows through the case to the heat sink and then
dissipates in the surrounding air.
Class A Power Amplifier (Centered Q-Point)
• When the Q-point is at the center of the ac load line, a maximum class A signal can
be obtained.
• You can see this concept by examining the graph of the load line for a given
amplifier in Figure (a).
• This graph shows the ac load line with the Q-point at its center.
• The collector current can vary from its Q-point value, ICQ , up to its saturation value,
Ic(sat), and down to its cutoff value of zero.
• Likewise, the collector-to-emitter voltage can swing from its Q-point value, VCEQ , up
to its cutoff value, Vce(cutoff ), and down to its saturation value of near zero.
• This operation is indicated in Figure (b)
• The peak value of the collector current equals ICQ , and the peak value of the
collector-to-emitter voltage equals VCEQ in this case.
• This signal is the maximum that can be obtained from the class A amplifier.
• Actually, the output cannot quite reach saturation or cutoff, so the practical
maximum is slightly less.
Class A Power Amplifier (Centered Q-Point)
Class A Power Amplifier (Centered Q-Point)
• If the Q-point is not centered on the ac load line, the output signal is
limited.
• Figure (a and b) below shows an ac load line with the Q-point moved
away from center toward cutoff.
• The output variation is limited by cutoff in this case.
• The collector current can only swing down to near zero and an equal
amount above ICQ.
• The collector-to-emitter voltage can only swing up to its cutoff value and
an equal amount below VCEQ. This situation is illustrated in Figure (a).
• If the amplifier is driven any further than this, it will “clip” at cutoff, as
shown in Figure (b)
Class A Power Amplifier
Centered Q-Point
Class A Power Amplifier (Centered Q-Point)
• Figure below (a and b) shows an ac load line with the Q-point moved
away from center toward saturation.
• In this case, the output variation is limited by saturation.
• The collector current can only swing up to near saturation and an equal
amount below ICQ.
• The collector-to-emitter voltage can only swing down to its saturation
value and an equal amount above VCEQ.
• This situation is illustrated in Figure (a).
• If the amplifier is driven any further, it will “clip” at saturation, as shown
in Figure (b).
Class A Power Amplifier
Centered Q-Point
Class A Power Amplifier
Power Gain
• The power gain of the amplifier is the ratio of power delivered to the load to
the input power.
PL = Signal power delivered to load

Pin = Signal power delivered to the amplifier

For ac power V is expressed as rms

Class A Power Amplifier
DC Quiescent Power and Output Power
• The power dissipation of a transistor with no input signal is the product of its
Q-point current and voltage.

• When the signal is present, the power dissipation of a transistor decreases

because the transistor converts some of the quiescent power to signal power.

• For this reason quiescent power dissipation is the worst case.

• The power rating of a transistor in a class A amplifier must be greater than PDQ,
otherwise the transistor will be destroyed.
Class A Power Amplifier
Output Power
• The output signal power is the product of the rms load current and the rms
load voltage.
• The maximum unclipped ac signal occurs when the Q-point is centered on the
ac load line.
• For CE amplifier with centered Q-point the maximum peak voltage swing is

• The rms value is

Class A Power Amplifier
Output Power
• The maximum current swing is

• The rms value is

• Using the rms values of current and voltage the maximum power out by class A
amplifier is
Example 9-1
• Determine the voltage gain and power gain of the class A amplifier in figure
below. Assume βac(Q1) = βac(Q2) = 200 and βac(Q3) = 50.
Sol:-
Sol:-
Sol:-
Sol:-
Class A Power Amplifier
Efficiency
• The efficiency of any amplifier is the ratio of the signal power supplied to the
load to the power from the dc power supply.
• The maximum signal power that can be obtained is given by

• The average power supply current ICC is equal ICQ and the supply voltage is at
least 2VCEQ. Therefore the dc power is
Class A Power Amplifier
Efficiency
• The maximum efficiency of capacitively coupled class A amplifier is

• The maximum efficiency of capacitively coupled class A amplifier cannot be

higher than 0.25 or 25% and in practice is usually considerably less than 10%.

• In general low efficiency of class A amplifiers limit their usefulness to small

power applications that require only few watts of load power.
Example 9-2
• Determine the efficiency of the power amplifier in example 9-1.
Sol:-
Sol:-
Class B and Class AB Push-Pull Amplifiers
• When the amplifier is biased at cutoff so that it operates in the linear region for 180°
of the input cycle and is in cutoff for 180°, it is a class B amplifier.

• Class AB amplifiers are biased to conduct for slightly more than 180°.

• The primary advantage of class B or class AB over class A amplifier is that either one is
more efficient than class A amplifier.

• You can get more output power for given amount of input power.

• A disadvantage of class B or class AB is that it is more difficult to implement the

circuit in order to get linear reproduction of input waveform.
Class B Operation For class A
Q-Point at Cutoff
For class B

• The class B amplifier is biased at cutoff point so that ICQ = 0, and VCEQ = VCE(cutoff) .

• It is brought out of cutoff and operates in its linear region when the input signal
drives the transistor into conduction.
Class B Push-Pull Operation
• The circuit in figure only conducts for positive half of the cycle.
• To amplify the entire cycle, it is necessary to add a second Class B amplifier that
operates on the negative half of the cycle.
• The combination of two Class B amplifiers working together is called push-pull
operation.
Class B Push-Pull Operation
• There are two approaches for using push-pull amplifiers to reproduce entire
waveform.

1. Transformer Coupling

2. Complementary Symmetry Transistors (matching pair of npn/pnp BJT’s or a

matching pair of n-channel/p-channel FETs)
Class B Push-Pull Operation
Transformer Coupling
• The input transformer has center-tapped secondary that is connected to ground,
producing phase inversion of one side with respect to the other.

• The input transformer thus converts the input signal to two out off phase signals for
the transistors.

• Because of signal inversion Q1 will conduct for the positive part of the input cycle and
Q2 will conduct on the negative part.

• The output transformer combines the signals by permitting current in both

directions, even though one transistor is always cutoff.

• The positive power supply is connected to the center tap of the output transformer.
Class B Push-Pull Operation
Transformer Coupling
Class B Push-Pull Operation
Complementary Symmetry Transistors
• Figure shows one of the most popular types of push-pull class B amplifiers
using two emitter followers and both positive and negative power supplies.

• This is a complementary amplifier because one emitter follower uses npn

transistor and other uses pnp, which conducts on opposite alternations of input
cycle.

• Transistor Q1 conducts for the positive half of input cycle and Q2 conducts
during the negative half.

• Note: There is no dc base bias voltage (VB = 0)

Class B Push-Pull Operation
Complementary Symmetry Transistors
Class B Push-Pull Operation
Crossover Distortion
• When the dc base voltage is zero,
both the transistor are cutoff and
the input signal voltage must exceed
VBE before a transistor conducts.
• Because of this there is time interval
between the positive and negative
alternations of the input when
neither transistor is conducting.
• The resulting distortion in the output
waveform is called crossover
distortion.
Eliminating Crossover Distortion in Transformer Push-Pull
Amplifier
Biasing the Push-Pull Amplifier for Class AB Operation
• To overcome the crossover distortion, the biasing is adjusted to just overcome
the VBE of the transistors.

• This results in modified form of operation called Class AB.

• In Class AB operation, the push-pull stages are biased into slight conduction,
even when no input signal is present.

• This is done with a voltage divider and diode arrangement as shown in the
figure.
Biasing the Push-Pull Amplifier for Class AB
Operation
• When the diodes characteristics Diode Current = ICQ +VCC = -VCC
of D1 and D2 are closely matched
to the characteristics of the R1 = R2
transistor base-emitter junction,
0V
the current in the diodes and the
current in the transistors are
same, this is called current mirror.
This current mirror produces the
desired class AB operation and
eliminates crossover distortion.
Biasing the Push-Pull Amplifier for Class AB Operation

Dc current is obtained when

collector to emitter of both
transistor are shorted. This
assumes short across the power
supplies which causes maximum
currents form power supplies.
So dc load line passes almost
vertically through the cutoff.

Load lines for complementary symmetry push-pull

amplifier. Only load lines for npn transistor are shown.
Biasing the Push-Pull Amplifier for Class AB Operation
• Figure (a) below illustrates the ac load line for Q1 of the class AB amplifier in
Figure (b).
• In the case illustrated, a signal is applied that swings over the region of the ac
load line shown in bold.
• At the upper end of the ac load line, the voltage across the transistor (Vce) is a
minimum, and the output voltage is maximum.
• Under maximum conditions, transistors Q1 and Q2 are alternately driven from
near cutoff to near saturation.
• During the positive alternation of the input signal, the Q1 emitter is driven
from its Q-point value of 0 to nearly VCC, producing a positive peak voltage a
little less than VCC.
Biasing the Push-Pull Amplifier for Class AB Operation
• Likewise, during the negative alternation of the input signal, the Q2 emitter
is driven from its Q-point value of 0 V, to near producing a negative peak
voltage almost equal to –Vcc.
• Although it is possible to operate close to the saturation current, this type of
operation results in increased distortion of the signal.
• The ac saturation current is also the peak output current.
• Each transistor can essentially operate over its entire load line.
• Recall that in class A operation, the transistor can also operate over the entire
load line but with a significant difference.
• In class A operation, the Q-point is near the middle and there is significant
current in the transistors even with no signal
Biasing the Push-Pull Amplifier for Class AB Operation
AC Operation

Input signal swings over the

Vout(peak)≅ VCEQ ≅ VCC
ac load line.

Q2 conducts
for negative
half cycle of
the input
signal
Example 9-3
Q. Determine the maximum peak output voltage and current for the circuit
shown in figure below.
Sol:-
Single Supply Push Pull Amplifier

Emitter voltage is
set to VCC/2
Example 9-4
Q. Determine the maximum peak output voltage and current for the circuit
shown in figure below.
Class B/AB Power Amplifier
Maximum Output Power
• The maximum peak output current for both dual supply and single supply push-
pull amplifier is Ic(sat) and maximum peak output voltage is approximately VCEQ.
• The maximum average output power is therefore:
Class B/AB Power Amplifier
DC Output Power

• Since each transistor draws current for half cycle, the current is a half wave sine
signal with an average value of:
Class B/AB Power Amplifier
Efficiency

or
Class B/AB Power Amplifier
Input Resistance
• The complementary push-pull configuration used in class B/AB amplifiers is in
effect two emitter followers so the input resistance is same as for emitter
follower amplifier.
Example 9-5
Q. Find the maximum ac output power and the dc input power of the amplifier
given below. Also determine the input resistance assuming βac = 50 and r’e = 6 Ω.
Sol:-
Class C Amplifiers
• Class C amplifiers are biased so that the conduction occurs for much less than
180°.

• Class C amplifiers are more efficient than either class A, class B and class AB
amplifiers which means that more output power can be obtained from class C
operation.

• As the output waveform is severely distorted, class C amplifiers are normally

limited to applications as tuned amplifiers at radio frequencies (RF).
Basic Class C Operation
• The basic concept of class C operation is shown in figure below.

• A common-emitter class C amplifier with resistive

load is shown in figure below.
• It is biased below cutoff with negative VBB supply.
Basic Class C Operation
• The ac source has a peak value that
is slightly greater than VBB + VBE so
that the base voltage exceeds the
barrier potential of base-emitter
junction for a positive peak of each
cycle.
• During this short interval the
transistor is turned on.
• When the entire ac load line is used,
the ideal maximum current is Ic(sat)
and the ideal minimum collector
voltage is Vce(sat).
Class C Amplifiers
Power Dissipation
• The power dissipation of class C amplifier is low because it is ON for only a
small percentage of input cycle.

• The time between the pulses is the period (T) of the input ac voltage.

• To avoid complex mathematics we use ideal pulse approximation for the

collector current and the collector voltage during the on time of the transistor.

• During the on time the maximum current is Ic(sat) and the minimum voltage is
Vce(sat). The power dissipation during the on time is
Class C Amplifiers
Example 9-6

Sol:-
Class C Amplifiers
Tuned Operation
• As the collector voltage (output) is not replica of the input voltage the resistive
load class C amplifier alone is of no value in linear applications.
• It is therefore necessary to use a class C amplifier with parallel resonant circuit
(tank) as shown in figure (a).
• The resonant frequency of tank circuit is determined by the formula

• The short pulses of the collector current on each cycle of the input initiates and
sustains the oscillations of the tank circuit so that an output sinusoidal voltage
is produced as shown in figure (b).
Class C Amplifiers
Tuned Operation
Tank circuit
Class C Amplifiers
Tuned Operation
• The current pulses charges the capacitor to +VCC.
• After the pulse the capacitor quickly discharges, thus charging the inductor.
Class C Amplifiers
Tuned Operation
• When the capacitor completely
discharges, the inductor’s magnetic
field collapses and then quickly
charges C to near VCC in a opposite
direction to the previous charge.

• This completes one half cycle of the

operation.

• The capacitor discharges again,

increasing the inductor’s magnetic
field.
 Class C Amplifiers
Tuned Operation
• The inductor then quickly recharges
the capacitor back to positive peak
slightly less than the previous one
due to energy loss in the winding
resistance.

• This completes on full cycle.

• The peak to peak output voltage is

thus approximately equal to +2VCC.
 Class C Amplifiers
Tuned Operation
• The amplitude of each successive cycle of oscillation will be less than that of
the previous cycle because of energy loss in the resistance of the tank circuit
and the oscillation will eventually die out.

• However, the regular occurrence of the collector current pulse re-energizes the
resonant circuit and sustains the oscillations at a constant amplitude.
 Class C Amplifiers
Tuned Operation
• When the tank circuit is tuned to the
frequency of the input signal
(fundamental), re-energizing occurs at
each cycle of the tank voltage Vr.
• When the tank circuit is tuned to the
second harmonics of the input signal,
re-energizing occurs on the alternate
cycle. In this case the class C amplifier
operates as frequency multiplier (X2).
• By tuning the resonant circuit to
higher harmonics, further frequency
factors are achieved.
Class C Amplifiers
Maximum Output Power
• Since the voltage developed across the tank circuit has peak-peak value of
approximately 2VCC, the maximum output power can be expressed as:
Rc is the equivalent parallel
resistance of the collector
tank circuit and represents
the parallel combination of
coil resistance and the load
resistance.

The total power that must be supplied to the amplifier is:

When Pout >> PD(avg), then efficiency of

class C amplifier approaches 1 (100%)
Example 9-8
Q. Suppose the Class C amplifier of PD(avg) = 4 mW has a VCC = 24 V and Rc = 100
Ω. Determine the efficiency.
Sol:-
Clamper Bias for Class C Amplifier
• Figure below shows a class C amplifier with a base bias clamping circuit. The
base emitter junction function as a diode.
 Clamper Bias for Class C Amplifier
• When the input signal goes positive,
capacitor C1 is charged to the peak
value with the polarity as shown in
figure (a).
• This action produces an average
voltage at the base of approximately
–Vp.
• This places the transistor at cutoff
except at positive peaks, when the
transistor conducts for short interval.
• For good clamping action the time
constant R1C1 >> period of the input
signal.
Clamper Bias for Class C Amplifier
• During the time up to positive peak
of the input (to - t1), the capacitor
charges to Vp – 0.7 V through the
base emitter diode as shown in
figure (b).
• During the time through (t1 - t2), the
capacitor discharges very little
because of very large value of RC
time constant as shown in figure (c).
• The capacitor therefore maintains
an average charge of approximately
Vp - 0.7 V.
 Clamper Bias for Class C Amplifier
• Since the dc value of the input signal
is zero (positive side of C1), the dc
0V
voltage at the base (negative side of
C1) is slightly more than
–(Vp – 0.7 V), as shown in figure (d).
• As shown in figure (e), the capacitor
couples the ac input signal through
to the base so that the voltage at the
transistor base is the ac signal riding
on the dc level slightly more positive
than –(Vp - 0.7 V).
• Near the positive peaks of the input
voltage, the base voltage goes slightly
above 0.7 V and causes the transistor
to conduct for short time.
Example 7-9 (9th edition)