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Calculus Chapter 1_Sequences

This document is a chapter on sequences of real numbers from a calculus textbook, defining sequences, their limits, and providing examples and exercises. It explains the concept of convergence and the uniqueness of limits, along with various exercises to reinforce understanding. The chapter also discusses bounded sequences and includes numerous examples and problems for students to solve.

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prima.rugved17
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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
17 views15 pages

Calculus Chapter 1_Sequences

This document is a chapter on sequences of real numbers from a calculus textbook, defining sequences, their limits, and providing examples and exercises. It explains the concept of convergence and the uniqueness of limits, along with various exercises to reinforce understanding. The chapter also discusses bounded sequences and includes numerous examples and problems for students to solve.

Uploaded by

prima.rugved17
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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F. Y. B. Sc.

Calculus
Chapter 1. Sequences of Real Numbers
Dr. N. M. Phatangare
December 25, 2024

ne
1 Definition and limit of sequences

Pu
Definition 1.1. Sequence of real numbers is a function X : N → R.

ge
l le
For every n ∈ N, its image is a real number X(n). We denote it as X(n) = xn for every n ∈ N.

Co
Thus, on
X(1) = x1 , X(2) = x2 , X(3) = x3 , . . . , X(n) = xn , . . . .
ss
gu

We write the sequence as,


er
,F

X(1) = x1
s
ic

X(2) = x2
at
m

X(3) = x3
he

..
at

.
M

X(n) = xn
of

..
t

.
en
tm

Alternatively,
ar

 
N : 1 2 3 4 ... n ...
ep

X ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
D


R : x1 x2 x3 x4 . . . xn . . .
We can write the sequence in a simple way as,

X : x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 , . . . , xn , . . . .

That is,
X := (xn ) = {xn } := x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 , . . . , xn , . . . .
For n ∈ N, X(n) = xn is called the nth term of the sequence (xn ).

1
Example 1.2. Let X : N → R be a function defined by X(n) = 2n + 1. Then we have

X(1) = 2 + 1 = 3
X(2) = 2 · 2 + 1 = 5
X(3) = 2 · 3 + 1 = 7
..
.
X(n) = 2n + 1
..
.

We put it as  
N : 1 2 3 4 ... n ...
X ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓

ne

R : 3 5 7 9 . . . 2n + 1 . . .

Pu
Alternatively, we write the sequence as,

ge
l le
Co
X(1), X(2), X(3), X(4), . . . , X(n), . . . ,
on
That is,
ss
X = (xn ) : 3, 5, 7, 9, . . . , 2n + 1, . . .
gu
er

Note here that the nth term of the sequence (xn ) is xn = 2n + 1.


,F

Questions:
s
ic

1. What is 51st term of this sequnce?


at

2. What is 100th term of the sequence (xn )?


m

3. What is 2024th term of the sequence?


he
at

1
M

Example 1.3. Let xn = , n ∈ N. Write the first ten terms of the sequence (xn ). What is
n
of

x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 , x100 , x15 , x201 ?


t
en

Can you guess where xn tends as n tends to ∞?


tm

n+1
ar

Example 1.4. Let xn = , n ∈ N. Find x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 , x15 , x2024 .


n2 + 3
ep

Can you guess where xn tends as n tends to ∞.


D

Definition 1.5. Recurrence relation can also be used to represent the sequence.

For example, if x1 = 1, xn+1 = 1 + xn , n ≥ 1. This recurrence relation between nth term and
(n + 1)th term defines the sequence,

√ √ √ √ √ √
q
x1 = 1, x2 = 1 + x1 = 1 + 1 = 2, x3 = 1 + x2 = 1 + 2, . . . , xn+1 = 1 + xn , . . .

Exercise 1.6. Let x1 = 2, x2 = 2, xn+2 = xn + xn+1 , n ≥ 1. Write the first ten terms of the sequence
(xn ).
 
1 2
Exercise 1.7. Let x1 = 2, xn+1 = xn + , n ≥ 1. Write the first ten terms of the sequence.
2 xn

2
1 1 1
Exercise 1.8. Let xn = 1 + + + . . . + , n ≥ 1. Find x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 , x5 , x6 , x7 , x8 , x9 , x10 .
2 3 n
Exercise 1.9. 1. Let xn = (−1)n , n ∈ N. Write all the terms of sequence (xn ).

2. Let xn = 1 + (−1)n , n ∈ N. Write first 20 terms of the sequence (xn ).


 n
1
3. If xn = 1 + , n ∈ N, write the first 5 terms of the sequence (xn ).
n
n
X 1
4. Let xn = k
, n ∈ N. Write x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 , x5 .
k=1
2
n
X 1
5. Let xn = , n ∈ N. Write x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 , x5 , x6 .

ne
k=1
k(k + 1)

Pu
n
1

ge
X
6. Let xn = , n ∈ N. Write x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 , x5 , x6 , x7 .

l le
k=1
k!

Co
1 on n+1
Exercise 1.10. Let f (x) = 2x2 + 1, x ∈ R. Let xn = , n ∈ N. Let yn = .
n n2
ss
gu

1. Find the f (xn ) for every n ∈ N.


er
,F

2. Is (f (xn )) a sequence of real numbers?


s
ic

3. Can you guess where xn tends as n tends to ∞?


at
m
he

4. Can you guess where f (xn ) tends as n tends ∞?


at
M

5. Find the f (yn ) for every n ∈ N.


of

6. Is (f (yn )) a sequence of real numbers?


t
en
tm

7. Can you guess where yn tends as n tends to ∞?


ar
ep

8. Can you guess where f (yn ) tends as n tends ∞?


D

9. Can you guess the limit of f as x tends to ∞?

10. Can you recognize a relation between the sequences (f (xn )), (f (yn )) and lim f (x)?
x→0

1 2
Exercise 1.11. Let f (x) = sin( x1 ), x ̸= 0. Let xn = , n ∈ N. Let yn = .
nπ nπ
1. Find the f (xn ) for every n ∈ N.

2. Is (f (xn )) a sequence of real numbers?

3. Can you guess where xn tends as n tends to ∞?

4. Can you guess where f (xn ) tends as n tends ∞?

3
5. Find the f (yn ) for every n ∈ N.

6. Is (f (yn )) a sequence of real numbers?

7. Can you guess where yn tends as n tends to ∞?

8. Can you guess where f (yn ) tends as n tends ∞?

9. Can you guess the limit of f as x tends to ∞?

10. Can you recognize a relation between the sequences (f (xn )), (f (yn )) and lim f (x)?
x→0

Definition 1.12. Let (xn ) be a sequence of real numbers and let x be a real number. Then x is said
to be a limit of sequence (xn ) if for every ε > 0 there is a natural number K such that

ne
|xn − x| < ε for every n ≥ K.

Pu
Sequence (xn ) is said to be convergent if it has a limit. If x is limit of (xn ) then we say that the

ge
l le
sequence (xn ) converges to x. In this case, we write

Co
lim xn = x. on
n→∞
ss
Remark 1.13. Sequence (xn ) converges to x if for any ε > 0 there is a natural number K such that
gu
er

|xn − x| < ε for each n ≥ K. Note that,


,F

|xn − x| < ε ⇔ −ε < xn − x < ε ⇔ x − ε < xn < x + ε ⇔ xn ∈ (x − ε, x + ε).


s
ic
at

Therefore, (xn ) converges to x if for any distance ε > 0 there is a K th term of sequence such that
m
he

all the terms after K th term including K th term are in ε-distance from x.
at

1
M

Exercise 1.14. Let xn = , n ≥ 1. Find the natural number K such that |xn − 0| < ε for every
of

n+3
n ≥ K for the following values of ε.
t
en

ε 12 23 2 1
100
2
253
1
2024
ε
tm

K
ar

What is lim xn ?
ep

n→∞
D

1
Exercise 1.15. Let xn = 2 , n ≥ 1. Find the natural number K such that |xn − 0| < ε for every
n
n ≥ K for the following values of ε.
ε 13 24 2 1
100
2
253
1
2024
ε
K
What is lim xn ?
n→∞

n+1
Exercise 1.16. Let xn = , n ≥ 1. Find the natural number K such that |xn − 1| < ε for every
n+3
n ≥ K for the following values of ε.
ε 12 23 2 1
100
2
253
1
2024
ε
K
What is lim xn ?
n→∞

4
n+1
Exercise 1.17. Let xn = , n ≥ 1. Find the natural number K such that |xn − 0| < ε for every
n2 + 3
n ≥ K for the following values of ε.
ε 12 23 2 1
100
2
253
1
2024
ε
K
What is lim xn ?
n→∞

1
Exercise 1.18. Let xn = , n ≥ 1.
2n
1 1
1. Find a natural number K such that 0 < < for every n ≥ K.
2n 100
1
2. Given ε > 0, find K ∈ N such that − 0 < ε for every n ≥ K.
2n

ne
3. What is lim xn ?

Pu
n→∞

ge
Exercise 1.19. Show that

lle
Co
1
1. lim =0
n→∞ (10)n
on
ss

1
gu

2. lim =0
er

n→∞ 3n
,F

n+2 1
ics

3. lim = .
at

n→∞ 3n + 4 3
m

2n + 1
he

4. lim = 2.
at

n→∞ n + 1
fM

a
converges to 0 for any a ∈ R.
to

Example 1.20. Show that the sequence


n
en
m

Lemma 1.21. Limit of a sequemce is unique, if it exists.


rt
pa

Proof. Let (xn ) be a sequence of real numbers. Let L and M be limits of (xn ).
De

We claim that L = M .
On the contrary, assume that L ̸= M . Then either L < M or L > M . In any case, we have
|L − M | > 0.
|L − M |
Since lim xn = L, by definition of limit, for ε = , there is a natural number K1 such
n→∞ 2
that
|L − M |
|xn − L| < ε = , ∀n ≥ K1 .
2
|L − M |
Similarly, lim xn = M , again by definition of limit, for ε = , there is a natural number K2
n→∞ 2
such that
|L − M |
|xn − M | < ε = , ∀n ≥ K2 .
2
Let K = max{K1 , K2 }. Then for n ≥ K we have

5
|L − M | |L − M |
|L − M | = |L − xn + xn − M | ≤ |xn − L| + |xn − M | < + = |L − M |,
2 2
which is a contradiction. Hence, our assumption that L ̸= M is not true. Thus, L = M .

Theorem 1.22. Let xn = (−1)n , n ∈ N. Show that limit of sequence (xn ) does not exists.

Definition 1.23. Sequence (xn ) is said to be bounded if there is a constant M > 0 such that |xn | ≤ M
for every n ∈ N. That is, −M ≤ xn ≤ M for every n ∈ N.
 
2
Example 1.24. Sequences ((−1)n ) , (sin(n)) , are bounded.
n2 + 3

ne
Lemma 1.25. If sequence (xn ) is convergent then it is bounded.

Pu
ge
Remark 1.26. Converse of the lemma is not true. That is, if sequence (xn ) is convergent then it

lle
may not be convergent. For example, if xn = (−1)n , n ≥ 1, then (xn ) is bounded but not convergent.

Co
Theorem 1.27 (Algebra of limits). Let (xn ) and (yn ) be convergent sequences of real numbers with
on
lim = x and lim yn = y. Then
ss
gu

n→∞ n→∞
er

1. show that the sequence (xn + yn ) is convergent and


,F
ics

lim (xn + yn ) = x + y = lim xn + lim yn .


at

n→∞ n→∞ n→∞


m
he

2. show that the sequence (xn − yn ) is convergent and


at
fM

lim (xn − yn ) = x − y = lim xn − lim yn .


to

n→∞ n→∞ n→∞


en
m

3. for any constant k, show that lim kxn = kx = k lim xn .


rt

n→∞ n→∞
pa

4. show that the sequence (xn yn ) is convergent and


De

lim (xn yn ) = xy = lim xn · lim yn .


n→∞ n→∞ n→∞

 
xn
̸ 0, then show that the sequence
5. if y = is convergent and
yn
 
xn x limn→∞ xn
lim = = .
n→∞ yn y limn→∞ yn

Exercise 1.28. Evaluate limits of the following sequences:


 
n + 2024
1.
2025n + 2

6
n2 + 5n + 2024
 
2.
n2 + 2025
n3 + 5n + 2024
 
3.
n4 + 5n2
Proposition 1.29. If (xn ) is a convergent sequence with lim xn = x then the sequence (|xn |) is also
convergent and lim |xn | = |x| = | lim xn |.

Proof. Given ε > 0. (We want to produce K ∈ N such that ||xn | − |x|| < ε for every n ≥ K.)
Since lim xn = x, by definition of limit, there is K ∈ N such that |xn − x| < ε for every n ≥ K.
Then use the fact that ||a| − |b|| ≤ |a − b| for any a, b ∈ R.

Remark 1.30. Question: Is the converse of above proposition true?


For example, if xn = (−1)n , n ∈ N, then |xn | = |(−1)n | = 1, ∀n ≥ 1. Hence (|xn |) is convergent.

ne
Pu
What about the convergence of (xn )?

ge
Theorem 1.31. Let (xn ) be a sequence of real numbers and let x ∈ R. Let (an ) be a sequence of

l le
positive real numbers with lim an = 0. If there is a positive constant M such that

Co
|xn − x| ≤ M an , ∀non
ss
gu

then show that lim xn = x.


er

n→∞
,F

Proof. Given that


s
ic
at

|xn − x| ≤ M an , ∀n. (1)


m
he

To show that lim xn = x, it is sufficient to prove that for any ε > 0, we can produce K ∈ N
at

n→∞
M

such that |xn − x| < ε for every n ≥ K.


of

Given ε > 0. We want to produce K.


ε
t

Since lim an = 0, for ε1 = , there is K ∈ N such that


en

M
tm
ar

|an | = |an − 0| < ε1 , ∀n ≥ K.


ep
D

Therefore, by (1), if n ≥ K then


ε
|xn − x| ≤ M an < M ε1 = M = ε.
M
Thus, for any ε > 0, we can produce K ∈ N such that |xn − x| < ε for all n ≥ K. Hence,
lim xn = x.
n→∞

Exercise 1.32. Let 0 < a < 1.

1. Show that for every n ≥ 1 we have


1
0 < an ≤ α ,
n
for some constant α > 0.

7
α
2. Show that for any ε > 0 there is K ∈ N such that 0 < < ε for every n ≥ K.
n
3. Show that for any ε > 0 there is K ∈ N such that |an − 0| < ε for every n ≥ K.

4. What is lim an ?
n→∞

Exercise 1.33. Let 0 < a < 1.

1. Show that for every n ≥ 1 we have 0 < a1/n < 1.


1
2. Show that for every n ≥ 1 there is ϵn with 0 < a1/n = < 1.
1 + ϵn
3. Show that lim ϵn = 0.
n→∞

ne
4. Show that 0 < 1 − a1/n < ϵn for all n ≥ 1.

Pu
ge
5. Show that lim a1/n = 1.

l le
n→∞

Co
Exercise 1.34. Let a > 1.
on
1. Show that for every n ∈ N we have a1/n > 1.
ss
gu

2. Show that for every n ∈ N, there is ϵn > 0 such that a1/n = 1 + ϵn .


er
,F

3. Show that lim ϵn = 0.


s

n→∞
ic
at

4. Show that 0 < a1/n − 1 = ϵn foe each n ∈ N.


m
he

5. Show that lim a1/n = 0.


at

n→∞
M
of

Exercise 1.35. Show that


t
en

1. n1/n ≥ 1 for every n ∈ N.


tm
ar

2. For every n ∈ N there is an ≥ 0 such that n = (1 + an )n .


ep
D

2
3. a2n ≤ for every n ∈ N and hence lim an = 0.
n n→∞

4. lim n1/n = 1.
n→∞

Exercise 1.36. 1. Evaluate lim 21/n .


n→∞

2. Evaluate lim (3/5)1/n .


n→∞

3. Let 0 < a < b. Evaluate lim (an + bn )1/n .


n→∞

an+1 + bn+1
4. Let 0 < a < b. Evaluate lim .
n→∞ an + b n

8
5n+1 + 3n+1
5. Evaluate lim .
n→∞ 5n + 3n
√ √
6. Evaluate lim ( n + 1 − n).
n→∞
√ √ √
7. Evaluate lim n( n + 1 − n).
n→∞

Theorem 1.37 (Sandwich Principle/Squeeze theorem). Let (xn ), (yn ) and (zn ) be sequences of real
numbers such that xn ≤ yn ≤ zn for each n ∈ N. If (xn ) and (zn ) are convergent with lim xn =
n→∞
lim zn = a, then sequence (yn ) is convergent and lim yn = a.
n→∞ n→∞

Proof. Assume that lim xn = lim zn = a.


n→∞ n→∞
Claim: lim yn = a.

ne
Given ε > 0. (Want to find K ≥ 1 such that |yn − a| < ε, ∀n ≥ K)

Pu
Since lim xn = a, there is K1 ∈ N such that |xn − a| < ε, ∀n ≥ K1 . That is, for n ≥ K1 , we have
a − ε < xn < a + ε.

ge
l le
Also, since lim zn = a, there is K2 ∈ N such that |zn − a| < ε, ∀n ≥ K2 . That is, for n ≥ K2 we

Co
have a − ε < zn < a + ε.
Now, let K = max{K1 , K2 }. Then on
ss
a − ε < xn ≤ yn ≤ zn < a + ε, ∀n ≥ K.
gu
er
,F

That is,
a − ε < yn < a + ε, ∀n ≥ K.
s
ic
at

⇒ |yn − a| < ε, ∀n ≥ K.
m
he

Hence, lim yn = a.
at

n→∞
M

sin n
Exercise 1.38. 1. Let xn = , n ∈ N. Show that lim xn = 0.
of

n n→∞
t
en

(−1)n
tm

2. Show that lim = 0.


n→∞ n
ar
ep

1 1 1 1
3. Let xn = √ +√ +√ + ... + √ , n ∈ N. Show that lim xn = 1.
D

n2 +1 n2 +2 n2 +3 2
n +n n→∞

4. Let 0 < a < b. Evaluate lim (a1/n + b1/n )n .


n→∞

xn+1
Theorem 1.39. Let (xn ) be a sequence of positive real numbers and let x = lim .
n→∞ xn

1. If 0 < x < 1, then (xn ) is convergent and lim xn = 0.


n→∞

2. If x > 1, then lim xn = ∞.


n→∞

Exercise 1.40. Show that


n2
1. lim n = 0
n→∞ 2

9
2n
2. lim =∞
n→∞ n2

n100
3. lim =0
n→∞ 2n

n2
4. lim =0
n→∞ n!

2n
5. lim = 0.
n→∞ n!

Proposition 1.41. Let (xn ) be a sequence of real numbers such that xn ≥ 0 for all n ∈ N. If (xn )
is convergent then lim xn ≥ 0.
Proof. Let lim xn = x. We claim that x ≥ 0.
On the contrary, assume that x < 0. Then |x| = −x. Since lim xn = x, by definition of limit, for

ne
Pu
|x| −x
ε= > 0, there is K ∈ N such that |xn − x| < ε = , f oralln ≥ K.
2 2

ge
Therefore,

lle
Co
−x −x
− < xn − x < ,∀n ≥ K
on
2 2
ss
x −x
+ x,∀n ≥ K
gu

x + < xn <
2 2
er

3x x
,F

< xn < < 0,∀n ≥ K.


2 2
ics
at

This is a contradiction to the fact that xn ≥ 0 for every n ≥ 1.


m

Hence, x < 0 is wrong. Therefore, x = lim xn ≥ 0.


he
at
fM

Theorem 1.42. Let (xn ) be a convergent sequence of non-negative real numbers with lim xn = x.

Then the sequence ( xn ) is convergent and
to


en

√ q
lim xn = x = lim xn .
m

n→∞ n→∞
rt
pa

Proof. Given ε > 0.


De

Case 1: Assume that x = 0. Since lim xn = x, for ε1 = ε2 , there is K ∈ N such that

|xn = x| = |xn − 0| = |xn | = xn < ε1 = ε2 , ∀n ≥ K.



Therefore, if xn < ε, ∀n ≥ K.
Thus, √
√ √ √
| xn − x| = | xn − 0| = xn < ε, ∀n ≥ K.
√ √
Hence, lim xn = 0 = x.
Case 2: Assume that x ̸= 0. Then x > 0 (why?). We have
√ 2 √ 2 √ √ √ √
|xn − x| = | xn − x | = | xn − x|| xn + x|
√ √ |xn − x| |x − x| |x − x|
⇒| xn − x| = √ √ = √ n √ ≤ n√ . (2)
| xn + x| xn + x x

10

By definition of limit, for ε1 = xε > 0, there is K ∈ N such that

|xn − x| < ε1 , ∀n ≥ K.

Thus, from (2), if n ≥ K then



√ √ |xn − x| ε1 xε
| xn − x| ≤ √ < √ = √ = ε.
x x x
√ √
Hence, lim xn = x.
n→∞

2 Monotone Sequences

ne
Definition 2.1. 1. Sequence (xn ) is said to be monotonically increasing if xn ≤ xn+1 for every

Pu
n ∈ N.

ge
2. Sequence (xn ) is said to be monotonically decreasing if xn+1 ≤ xn for every n ∈ N.

l le
Co
3. Sequence (xn ) is said to be monotone if it is either monotonic increasing or monotonic de-
creasing. on
ss
1 1 1
gu

Example 2.2. Let xn = , n ≥ 1. We have n + 1 ≥ n for all n, so that ≤ , ∀n ≥ 1. Hence,


er

n n+1 n
,F

xn+1 ≤ xn for all n. Thus, (xn ) is monotonically decreasing.


s
ic

1
Exercise 2.3. Let xn = 1 − , n ∈ N. Show that (xn ) is monotone increasing.
at

n
m
he

Exercise 2.4. Determine which the following sequences is increasing, decreasing or neither.
at
M

   2  
1. (en ) 1 n 5!
3. 5. 7.
of

2n 2n 5n
t
en

 n
2
tm

2. (e−n ) 4. 6. ((−1)n )
n2
ar
ep

Exercise 2.5. Let a ∈ R.


D

1. Show that there is a sequence (xn ) of rational numbers such that lim xn = a. That is, xn ∈ Q
for every n and lim xn = a.

2. Show that there is a sequence (yn ) of irrational numbers such that lim yn = a. That is, yn ∈ Qc
for every n and lim yn = a.

3. Show that for every real number a there is a sequence of rational numbers that converges to a
and a sequence of irrational numbers that converges to a.

Hint: Use the density theorem.

Theorem 2.6 (Monotone Convergence Theorem). 1. If the sequence (xn ) is monotonically in-
creasing and bounded above then it is convergent.

11
2. If the sequence (xn ) is monotonically decreasing and bounded below then it is convergent.

3. If the sequence (xn ) is monotone and bounded then it is convergent.

Exercise 2.7. Check whether the following sequences (xn ) are monotone and discuss their conver-
gence.
p √
1. x1 = 1, xn+1 = 2 + xn , n ≥ 1.

2. x1 = 1, xn+1 = 3 + xn , n ≥ 1.
 
1 2
3. x1 = 1, xn+1 = xn + ,n ≥ 1
2 xn
1 1 1
4. xn = 1 + + + . . . + , n ≥ 1.

ne
2! 3! n!

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1 1 1
, n ≥ 1.

ge
5. xn = + + ... +
1×2 2×3 n × (n + 1)

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1 1 1
6. xn = 1 + 2
+ 2 + . . . + 2 , n ≥ 1. on
2 3 n
ss
7. x1 = 1, x2 = 1, xn+2 = xn + xn+1 , n ≥ 1.
gu
er

Remark 2.8. 1. If sequence (xn ) is monotonic increasing and not bounded above then it
,F

diverges to +∞.
s
ic
at

2. If sequence (xn ) is monotonic decreasing and not bounded below then it diverges to −∞.
m
he

3. A divergent sequence which is neither diverges to +∞ nor diverges to −∞ is called an oscil-


at

lating sequence.
M
of

 n
1
Exercise 2.9. Let xn = 1 + , n ∈ N.
t
en

n
tm

1. Show that (xn ) is monotonic increasing.


ar
ep

2. Show that (xn ) is bounded above.


D

3. Show that (xn ) is convergent and that 2 < lim xn < 3.

4. If x = lim xn , show that x is not a rational number.


 n 
1
Remark 2.10. Limit of a sequence 1+ is an irrational number, denoted by e. Thus,
n
 n
1
lim 1 + = e.
n→∞ n

Exercise 2.11. Evaluate limits of the following sequences:

12
 n   n  n/2 !
1 1 
1
1. 1− 3. 1+ 2 5. 1+ .
n n 4n
 n   n 
2 1
2. 1+ 4. 1+
n 3n
1 1 1
Exercise 2.12 (Hard Problem). Let yn = 1 + 1 + + + . . . + , n ≥ 1. Show that
2! 3! n!
 n
1
lim yn = e = lim 1 + .
n→∞ n
 
1 a
Exercise 2.13. Let a be a positive real number. Define x1 > 0, xn+1 = xn + , n ≥ 1.
2 xn

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1. Show that (xn ) is monotone sequence.

Pu
2. Show that (xn ) is convergent.

ge

l le
3. Show that lim xn = a.

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n→∞
√ on
4. Find a sequence of rational numbers that converges to 5.
ss

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5. Find a sequence of rational numbers that converges to 2025.


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s ,F

3 Subsequences
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at
m

Definition 3.1. Let (xn ) be a sequence of real numbers. Let (nk ) be a strictly increasing sequence
he

of natural numbers. Then the sequence (xnk ) is called a subsequence of (xn ).


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M

1 1 1
Example 3.2. Let xn = , n ∈ N and nk = k 2 , k ≥ 1. Then xnk = = 2 , k ∈ N.
of

n nk k
t

   
1 1
en

Thus, is a subsequence of .
tm

k2 n
ar

Example 3.3. Let xn = (−1)n , n ≥ 1. Let nk = 2k, k ≥ 1 and let nr = 2r − 1, r ≥ 1. Then


ep

xnk = (−1)nk = (−1)2k = 1 for every k ∈ N and xnr = (−1)nr = (−1)2r−1 = −1 for every r ∈ N.
D

Thus, (xnk ) = (1), a constant sequence and (xnr ) = (−1), again a constant sequence.
Note here that the subsequences (xnk ) and (xnr ) are convergent with lim xnk = 1, lim xnr = −1
k→∞ r→∞
but the sequence (xn ) is divergent.
Remark 3.4. 1. Subsequence of a sequence is obtained by deleting some of its terms.

2. If (xnk ) is a subsequence of (xn ), then nk is the position of the term xnk in the original sequence
(xn ) and k is the position of xnk is subsequence (xnk ).
Thus the position of a term in subsequence is lower that its position in the original sequence.
Hence k ≤ nk for every k ∈ N.
1
Exercise 3.5. Let xn = , n ≥ 1.
n
13
1. Let nk = 2k + 3, k ∈ N. Find the subsequence (xnk ) and lim xnk .

2. Let nr = 3r + 7, r ∈ N. Find the subsequence (xnr ) and its limit.

3. Is lim xn = lim xnk = lim xnr ? Will it be true for any subsequence of (xn )?
Theorem 3.6. Let (xn ) be a sequence of real numbers. If (xn ) is convergent and lim xn = x then
every subsequence of (xn ) is convergent and conerges to the same limit x.
Remark 3.7. In the context of above theorem the following statements are equivalent:
1. Suppose that lim xn = x. If (xnk ) is any subsequence of (xn ) then lim xnk = x.
k→∞

2. Let (xnk ) be a convergent subsequence of sequence (xn ) with lim xnk = x. If (xn ) is convergent
then lim xn = x.

ne
Pu
3. Let (xn ) be a sequence. Let (xnk ) and (xnr ) be subsequences of (xn ).

ge
If either of the subsequences is divergent or both convergent but lim xnk ̸= lim xnr , then (xn ) is

l le
divergent.

Co
Exercise 3.8. Show that the sequence ((−1)n ) is divergent. on
ss
Exercise 3.9. Show that the seuence (1 + (−1)n ) is divergent.
gu
er

Exercise 3.10. Show that the sequence (sin n π2 ) is divergent.


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Exercise 3.11. Show that the sequence (sin n) is divergent.


s
ic
at

 
1
m

Exercise 3.12. Show that lim sin does not exists.


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n→∞ n
at

  
1
M

Exercise 3.13. Show that the sequence cos is divergent.


n
t of
en

Exercise 3.14. Show that the sequence (sin(π/n)) is divergent.


tm

Proposition 3.15. Suppose (xn ) is a monotone sequence. If there is a convergent subsequence (xnk )
ar
ep

of (xn ) with lim xn = x then (xn ) is also convergent and lim xn = x.


D

1 1 1
Exercise 3.16. Let xn = 1 + + + . . . + , n ≥ 1. Let nk = 2k − 1, k ∈ N
2 3 n
1. Find xn1 , xn2 , xn3 , . . . , xnk .

2. Show that (xnk ) is monotone increasing.

3. Show that (xnk ) is not bounded above.

4. Conclude that (xn ) is divergent.


Theorem 3.17 (Monotone subsequence theorem). Every sequence has a monorone subsequence.
Theorem 3.18 (Bolzano-Weierstrass). Every bounded sequence of real numbers has a convergent
subsequence.

14
4 Cauchy Criteria
Definition 4.1. A sequence (xn ) is said to be Cauchy sequence if for any ε > 0 there is K ∈ N such
that |xn − xm | < ε for every n, m ≥ K.

Exercise 4.2. Show that the following sequences are Cauchy.


1 1 1
 
1
1. 4. xn = 1 + + + . . . + , n ≥ 1.
n 2! 3! n!
 
1
2. 1 1 1
n2 5. xn = + +. . .+ ,n ≥
1×2 2×3 n × (n + 1)
3. (1) 1.

Theorem 4.3. If the sequence (xn ) is convergent then it is Cauchy.

ne
Pu
Theorem 4.4. Every Cauchy sequence of real numbers is convergent.

ge
lle
Thus, the sequence of real numbers is convergent if and only if it is Cauchy.

Co
1 1 1 on
Exercise 4.5. Let xn = 1 + + + . . . + , n ≥ 1.
2 3 n
ss
gu

1. Show that xn ≤ xn+1 for each n ∈ N.


er
,F

2. Let m > n. Show that


ics

1 1 1
xm − xn =
at

+ + ... + .
n+1 n+2 m
m
he

m−n
at

3. Show that |xm − xn | ≥ for any m, n ∈ N with m ≥ n.


fM

m
to

1
4. Show that for each n ∈ N, |x2n − xn | ≥ .
en

2
m
rt

5. Show that (xn ) is not Cauchy sequence.


pa
De

6. Show that (xn ) is not convergent.

15

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