Calculus Chapter 1_Sequences
Calculus Chapter 1_Sequences
Calculus
Chapter 1. Sequences of Real Numbers
Dr. N. M. Phatangare
December 25, 2024
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1 Definition and limit of sequences
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Definition 1.1. Sequence of real numbers is a function X : N → R.
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For every n ∈ N, its image is a real number X(n). We denote it as X(n) = xn for every n ∈ N.
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Thus, on
X(1) = x1 , X(2) = x2 , X(3) = x3 , . . . , X(n) = xn , . . . .
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X(1) = x1
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X(2) = x2
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X(3) = x3
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..
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.
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X(n) = xn
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..
t
.
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Alternatively,
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N : 1 2 3 4 ... n ...
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X ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
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R : x1 x2 x3 x4 . . . xn . . .
We can write the sequence in a simple way as,
X : x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 , . . . , xn , . . . .
That is,
X := (xn ) = {xn } := x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 , . . . , xn , . . . .
For n ∈ N, X(n) = xn is called the nth term of the sequence (xn ).
1
Example 1.2. Let X : N → R be a function defined by X(n) = 2n + 1. Then we have
X(1) = 2 + 1 = 3
X(2) = 2 · 2 + 1 = 5
X(3) = 2 · 3 + 1 = 7
..
.
X(n) = 2n + 1
..
.
We put it as
N : 1 2 3 4 ... n ...
X ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
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R : 3 5 7 9 . . . 2n + 1 . . .
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Alternatively, we write the sequence as,
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X(1), X(2), X(3), X(4), . . . , X(n), . . . ,
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That is,
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X = (xn ) : 3, 5, 7, 9, . . . , 2n + 1, . . .
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Questions:
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1
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Example 1.3. Let xn = , n ∈ N. Write the first ten terms of the sequence (xn ). What is
n
of
n+1
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Definition 1.5. Recurrence relation can also be used to represent the sequence.
√
For example, if x1 = 1, xn+1 = 1 + xn , n ≥ 1. This recurrence relation between nth term and
(n + 1)th term defines the sequence,
√ √ √ √ √ √
q
x1 = 1, x2 = 1 + x1 = 1 + 1 = 2, x3 = 1 + x2 = 1 + 2, . . . , xn+1 = 1 + xn , . . .
Exercise 1.6. Let x1 = 2, x2 = 2, xn+2 = xn + xn+1 , n ≥ 1. Write the first ten terms of the sequence
(xn ).
1 2
Exercise 1.7. Let x1 = 2, xn+1 = xn + , n ≥ 1. Write the first ten terms of the sequence.
2 xn
2
1 1 1
Exercise 1.8. Let xn = 1 + + + . . . + , n ≥ 1. Find x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 , x5 , x6 , x7 , x8 , x9 , x10 .
2 3 n
Exercise 1.9. 1. Let xn = (−1)n , n ∈ N. Write all the terms of sequence (xn ).
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k=1
k(k + 1)
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n
1
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X
6. Let xn = , n ∈ N. Write x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 , x5 , x6 , x7 .
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k=1
k!
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1 on n+1
Exercise 1.10. Let f (x) = 2x2 + 1, x ∈ R. Let xn = , n ∈ N. Let yn = .
n n2
ss
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10. Can you recognize a relation between the sequences (f (xn )), (f (yn )) and lim f (x)?
x→0
1 2
Exercise 1.11. Let f (x) = sin( x1 ), x ̸= 0. Let xn = , n ∈ N. Let yn = .
nπ nπ
1. Find the f (xn ) for every n ∈ N.
3
5. Find the f (yn ) for every n ∈ N.
10. Can you recognize a relation between the sequences (f (xn )), (f (yn )) and lim f (x)?
x→0
Definition 1.12. Let (xn ) be a sequence of real numbers and let x be a real number. Then x is said
to be a limit of sequence (xn ) if for every ε > 0 there is a natural number K such that
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|xn − x| < ε for every n ≥ K.
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Sequence (xn ) is said to be convergent if it has a limit. If x is limit of (xn ) then we say that the
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sequence (xn ) converges to x. In this case, we write
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lim xn = x. on
n→∞
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Remark 1.13. Sequence (xn ) converges to x if for any ε > 0 there is a natural number K such that
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Therefore, (xn ) converges to x if for any distance ε > 0 there is a K th term of sequence such that
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all the terms after K th term including K th term are in ε-distance from x.
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1
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Exercise 1.14. Let xn = , n ≥ 1. Find the natural number K such that |xn − 0| < ε for every
of
n+3
n ≥ K for the following values of ε.
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en
ε 12 23 2 1
100
2
253
1
2024
ε
tm
K
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What is lim xn ?
ep
n→∞
D
1
Exercise 1.15. Let xn = 2 , n ≥ 1. Find the natural number K such that |xn − 0| < ε for every
n
n ≥ K for the following values of ε.
ε 13 24 2 1
100
2
253
1
2024
ε
K
What is lim xn ?
n→∞
n+1
Exercise 1.16. Let xn = , n ≥ 1. Find the natural number K such that |xn − 1| < ε for every
n+3
n ≥ K for the following values of ε.
ε 12 23 2 1
100
2
253
1
2024
ε
K
What is lim xn ?
n→∞
4
n+1
Exercise 1.17. Let xn = , n ≥ 1. Find the natural number K such that |xn − 0| < ε for every
n2 + 3
n ≥ K for the following values of ε.
ε 12 23 2 1
100
2
253
1
2024
ε
K
What is lim xn ?
n→∞
1
Exercise 1.18. Let xn = , n ≥ 1.
2n
1 1
1. Find a natural number K such that 0 < < for every n ≥ K.
2n 100
1
2. Given ε > 0, find K ∈ N such that − 0 < ε for every n ≥ K.
2n
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3. What is lim xn ?
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n→∞
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Exercise 1.19. Show that
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1
1. lim =0
n→∞ (10)n
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1
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2. lim =0
er
n→∞ 3n
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n+2 1
ics
3. lim = .
at
n→∞ 3n + 4 3
m
2n + 1
he
4. lim = 2.
at
n→∞ n + 1
fM
a
converges to 0 for any a ∈ R.
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Proof. Let (xn ) be a sequence of real numbers. Let L and M be limits of (xn ).
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We claim that L = M .
On the contrary, assume that L ̸= M . Then either L < M or L > M . In any case, we have
|L − M | > 0.
|L − M |
Since lim xn = L, by definition of limit, for ε = , there is a natural number K1 such
n→∞ 2
that
|L − M |
|xn − L| < ε = , ∀n ≥ K1 .
2
|L − M |
Similarly, lim xn = M , again by definition of limit, for ε = , there is a natural number K2
n→∞ 2
such that
|L − M |
|xn − M | < ε = , ∀n ≥ K2 .
2
Let K = max{K1 , K2 }. Then for n ≥ K we have
5
|L − M | |L − M |
|L − M | = |L − xn + xn − M | ≤ |xn − L| + |xn − M | < + = |L − M |,
2 2
which is a contradiction. Hence, our assumption that L ̸= M is not true. Thus, L = M .
Theorem 1.22. Let xn = (−1)n , n ∈ N. Show that limit of sequence (xn ) does not exists.
Definition 1.23. Sequence (xn ) is said to be bounded if there is a constant M > 0 such that |xn | ≤ M
for every n ∈ N. That is, −M ≤ xn ≤ M for every n ∈ N.
2
Example 1.24. Sequences ((−1)n ) , (sin(n)) , are bounded.
n2 + 3
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Lemma 1.25. If sequence (xn ) is convergent then it is bounded.
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Remark 1.26. Converse of the lemma is not true. That is, if sequence (xn ) is convergent then it
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may not be convergent. For example, if xn = (−1)n , n ≥ 1, then (xn ) is bounded but not convergent.
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Theorem 1.27 (Algebra of limits). Let (xn ) and (yn ) be convergent sequences of real numbers with
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lim = x and lim yn = y. Then
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n→∞ n→∞
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n→∞ n→∞
pa
xn
̸ 0, then show that the sequence
5. if y = is convergent and
yn
xn x limn→∞ xn
lim = = .
n→∞ yn y limn→∞ yn
6
n2 + 5n + 2024
2.
n2 + 2025
n3 + 5n + 2024
3.
n4 + 5n2
Proposition 1.29. If (xn ) is a convergent sequence with lim xn = x then the sequence (|xn |) is also
convergent and lim |xn | = |x| = | lim xn |.
Proof. Given ε > 0. (We want to produce K ∈ N such that ||xn | − |x|| < ε for every n ≥ K.)
Since lim xn = x, by definition of limit, there is K ∈ N such that |xn − x| < ε for every n ≥ K.
Then use the fact that ||a| − |b|| ≤ |a − b| for any a, b ∈ R.
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What about the convergence of (xn )?
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Theorem 1.31. Let (xn ) be a sequence of real numbers and let x ∈ R. Let (an ) be a sequence of
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positive real numbers with lim an = 0. If there is a positive constant M such that
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|xn − x| ≤ M an , ∀non
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n→∞
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To show that lim xn = x, it is sufficient to prove that for any ε > 0, we can produce K ∈ N
at
n→∞
M
M
tm
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7
α
2. Show that for any ε > 0 there is K ∈ N such that 0 < < ε for every n ≥ K.
n
3. Show that for any ε > 0 there is K ∈ N such that |an − 0| < ε for every n ≥ K.
4. What is lim an ?
n→∞
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4. Show that 0 < 1 − a1/n < ϵn for all n ≥ 1.
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5. Show that lim a1/n = 1.
l le
n→∞
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Exercise 1.34. Let a > 1.
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1. Show that for every n ∈ N we have a1/n > 1.
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n→∞
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n→∞
M
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2
3. a2n ≤ for every n ∈ N and hence lim an = 0.
n n→∞
4. lim n1/n = 1.
n→∞
an+1 + bn+1
4. Let 0 < a < b. Evaluate lim .
n→∞ an + b n
8
5n+1 + 3n+1
5. Evaluate lim .
n→∞ 5n + 3n
√ √
6. Evaluate lim ( n + 1 − n).
n→∞
√ √ √
7. Evaluate lim n( n + 1 − n).
n→∞
Theorem 1.37 (Sandwich Principle/Squeeze theorem). Let (xn ), (yn ) and (zn ) be sequences of real
numbers such that xn ≤ yn ≤ zn for each n ∈ N. If (xn ) and (zn ) are convergent with lim xn =
n→∞
lim zn = a, then sequence (yn ) is convergent and lim yn = a.
n→∞ n→∞
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Given ε > 0. (Want to find K ≥ 1 such that |yn − a| < ε, ∀n ≥ K)
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Since lim xn = a, there is K1 ∈ N such that |xn − a| < ε, ∀n ≥ K1 . That is, for n ≥ K1 , we have
a − ε < xn < a + ε.
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Also, since lim zn = a, there is K2 ∈ N such that |zn − a| < ε, ∀n ≥ K2 . That is, for n ≥ K2 we
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have a − ε < zn < a + ε.
Now, let K = max{K1 , K2 }. Then on
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a − ε < xn ≤ yn ≤ zn < a + ε, ∀n ≥ K.
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er
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That is,
a − ε < yn < a + ε, ∀n ≥ K.
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ic
at
⇒ |yn − a| < ε, ∀n ≥ K.
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Hence, lim yn = a.
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n→∞
M
sin n
Exercise 1.38. 1. Let xn = , n ∈ N. Show that lim xn = 0.
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n n→∞
t
en
(−1)n
tm
1 1 1 1
3. Let xn = √ +√ +√ + ... + √ , n ∈ N. Show that lim xn = 1.
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n2 +1 n2 +2 n2 +3 2
n +n n→∞
xn+1
Theorem 1.39. Let (xn ) be a sequence of positive real numbers and let x = lim .
n→∞ xn
9
2n
2. lim =∞
n→∞ n2
n100
3. lim =0
n→∞ 2n
n2
4. lim =0
n→∞ n!
2n
5. lim = 0.
n→∞ n!
Proposition 1.41. Let (xn ) be a sequence of real numbers such that xn ≥ 0 for all n ∈ N. If (xn )
is convergent then lim xn ≥ 0.
Proof. Let lim xn = x. We claim that x ≥ 0.
On the contrary, assume that x < 0. Then |x| = −x. Since lim xn = x, by definition of limit, for
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|x| −x
ε= > 0, there is K ∈ N such that |xn − x| < ε = , f oralln ≥ K.
2 2
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Therefore,
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−x −x
− < xn − x < ,∀n ≥ K
on
2 2
ss
x −x
+ x,∀n ≥ K
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x + < xn <
2 2
er
3x x
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Theorem 1.42. Let (xn ) be a convergent sequence of non-negative real numbers with lim xn = x.
√
Then the sequence ( xn ) is convergent and
to
√
en
√ q
lim xn = x = lim xn .
m
n→∞ n→∞
rt
pa
10
√
By definition of limit, for ε1 = xε > 0, there is K ∈ N such that
|xn − x| < ε1 , ∀n ≥ K.
2 Monotone Sequences
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Definition 2.1. 1. Sequence (xn ) is said to be monotonically increasing if xn ≤ xn+1 for every
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n ∈ N.
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2. Sequence (xn ) is said to be monotonically decreasing if xn+1 ≤ xn for every n ∈ N.
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3. Sequence (xn ) is said to be monotone if it is either monotonic increasing or monotonic de-
creasing. on
ss
1 1 1
gu
n n+1 n
,F
1
Exercise 2.3. Let xn = 1 − , n ∈ N. Show that (xn ) is monotone increasing.
at
n
m
he
Exercise 2.4. Determine which the following sequences is increasing, decreasing or neither.
at
M
2
1. (en ) 1 n 5!
3. 5. 7.
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2n 2n 5n
t
en
n
2
tm
2. (e−n ) 4. 6. ((−1)n )
n2
ar
ep
1. Show that there is a sequence (xn ) of rational numbers such that lim xn = a. That is, xn ∈ Q
for every n and lim xn = a.
2. Show that there is a sequence (yn ) of irrational numbers such that lim yn = a. That is, yn ∈ Qc
for every n and lim yn = a.
3. Show that for every real number a there is a sequence of rational numbers that converges to a
and a sequence of irrational numbers that converges to a.
Theorem 2.6 (Monotone Convergence Theorem). 1. If the sequence (xn ) is monotonically in-
creasing and bounded above then it is convergent.
11
2. If the sequence (xn ) is monotonically decreasing and bounded below then it is convergent.
Exercise 2.7. Check whether the following sequences (xn ) are monotone and discuss their conver-
gence.
p √
1. x1 = 1, xn+1 = 2 + xn , n ≥ 1.
√
2. x1 = 1, xn+1 = 3 + xn , n ≥ 1.
1 2
3. x1 = 1, xn+1 = xn + ,n ≥ 1
2 xn
1 1 1
4. xn = 1 + + + . . . + , n ≥ 1.
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2! 3! n!
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1 1 1
, n ≥ 1.
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5. xn = + + ... +
1×2 2×3 n × (n + 1)
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Co
1 1 1
6. xn = 1 + 2
+ 2 + . . . + 2 , n ≥ 1. on
2 3 n
ss
7. x1 = 1, x2 = 1, xn+2 = xn + xn+1 , n ≥ 1.
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er
Remark 2.8. 1. If sequence (xn ) is monotonic increasing and not bounded above then it
,F
diverges to +∞.
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ic
at
2. If sequence (xn ) is monotonic decreasing and not bounded below then it diverges to −∞.
m
he
lating sequence.
M
of
n
1
Exercise 2.9. Let xn = 1 + , n ∈ N.
t
en
n
tm
12
n n n/2 !
1 1
1
1. 1− 3. 1+ 2 5. 1+ .
n n 4n
n n
2 1
2. 1+ 4. 1+
n 3n
1 1 1
Exercise 2.12 (Hard Problem). Let yn = 1 + 1 + + + . . . + , n ≥ 1. Show that
2! 3! n!
n
1
lim yn = e = lim 1 + .
n→∞ n
1 a
Exercise 2.13. Let a be a positive real number. Define x1 > 0, xn+1 = xn + , n ≥ 1.
2 xn
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1. Show that (xn ) is monotone sequence.
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2. Show that (xn ) is convergent.
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√
l le
3. Show that lim xn = a.
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n→∞
√ on
4. Find a sequence of rational numbers that converges to 5.
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√
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3 Subsequences
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at
m
Definition 3.1. Let (xn ) be a sequence of real numbers. Let (nk ) be a strictly increasing sequence
he
1 1 1
Example 3.2. Let xn = , n ∈ N and nk = k 2 , k ≥ 1. Then xnk = = 2 , k ∈ N.
of
n nk k
t
1 1
en
Thus, is a subsequence of .
tm
k2 n
ar
xnk = (−1)nk = (−1)2k = 1 for every k ∈ N and xnr = (−1)nr = (−1)2r−1 = −1 for every r ∈ N.
D
Thus, (xnk ) = (1), a constant sequence and (xnr ) = (−1), again a constant sequence.
Note here that the subsequences (xnk ) and (xnr ) are convergent with lim xnk = 1, lim xnr = −1
k→∞ r→∞
but the sequence (xn ) is divergent.
Remark 3.4. 1. Subsequence of a sequence is obtained by deleting some of its terms.
2. If (xnk ) is a subsequence of (xn ), then nk is the position of the term xnk in the original sequence
(xn ) and k is the position of xnk is subsequence (xnk ).
Thus the position of a term in subsequence is lower that its position in the original sequence.
Hence k ≤ nk for every k ∈ N.
1
Exercise 3.5. Let xn = , n ≥ 1.
n
13
1. Let nk = 2k + 3, k ∈ N. Find the subsequence (xnk ) and lim xnk .
3. Is lim xn = lim xnk = lim xnr ? Will it be true for any subsequence of (xn )?
Theorem 3.6. Let (xn ) be a sequence of real numbers. If (xn ) is convergent and lim xn = x then
every subsequence of (xn ) is convergent and conerges to the same limit x.
Remark 3.7. In the context of above theorem the following statements are equivalent:
1. Suppose that lim xn = x. If (xnk ) is any subsequence of (xn ) then lim xnk = x.
k→∞
2. Let (xnk ) be a convergent subsequence of sequence (xn ) with lim xnk = x. If (xn ) is convergent
then lim xn = x.
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3. Let (xn ) be a sequence. Let (xnk ) and (xnr ) be subsequences of (xn ).
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If either of the subsequences is divergent or both convergent but lim xnk ̸= lim xnr , then (xn ) is
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divergent.
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Exercise 3.8. Show that the sequence ((−1)n ) is divergent. on
ss
Exercise 3.9. Show that the seuence (1 + (−1)n ) is divergent.
gu
er
1
m
n→∞ n
at
1
M
Proposition 3.15. Suppose (xn ) is a monotone sequence. If there is a convergent subsequence (xnk )
ar
ep
1 1 1
Exercise 3.16. Let xn = 1 + + + . . . + , n ≥ 1. Let nk = 2k − 1, k ∈ N
2 3 n
1. Find xn1 , xn2 , xn3 , . . . , xnk .
14
4 Cauchy Criteria
Definition 4.1. A sequence (xn ) is said to be Cauchy sequence if for any ε > 0 there is K ∈ N such
that |xn − xm | < ε for every n, m ≥ K.
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Theorem 4.4. Every Cauchy sequence of real numbers is convergent.
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Thus, the sequence of real numbers is convergent if and only if it is Cauchy.
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1 1 1 on
Exercise 4.5. Let xn = 1 + + + . . . + , n ≥ 1.
2 3 n
ss
gu
1 1 1
xm − xn =
at
+ + ... + .
n+1 n+2 m
m
he
m−n
at
m
to
1
4. Show that for each n ∈ N, |x2n − xn | ≥ .
en
2
m
rt
15