Module for Post-Graduate Diploma

in Education Programme

EFO 731P:
SOCIAL AND PHILOSOPHICAL
FOUNDATIONS OF EDUCATION

DR. STEPHEN BAAFI-FRIMPONG

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REPUBLIC OF GHANA INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION, UCC
 IoE/MoF/TUC/GHANA CARES TRAINING AND RETRAINING

PROGRAMME FOR PRIVATE SCHOOL TEACHERS

Ministry of Finance Trade Union Congress University of Cape Coast

DECEMBER, 2022

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 TABLE OF CONTENT

CONTENT PAGE

UNIT 1: THE CONCEPT OF EDUCATION 1

The Meaning of Education 1
The Forms/Processes of Education 5
The Aims and Purpose Of Education 10

UNIT 2: SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION 17

The Meaning of Sociology 17
Sociology of Education 20

THE FUNCTIONS OF EDUCATION 24

Session 1: Social Functions of Education 24
Session 2: Cultural Functions of Education 27
Session 3: Economic Functions of Education 30
Session 4: Political Function of Education 33
Session 5: Selection and Allocation Function of Education 36

UNIT 4: AGENCIES OF EDUCATION 39

Session 1. The Home/ Family 39
Session 2. The Peer Group 41
Session 3: Religious Bodies/Organizations 44
Session 4: The School 46
Session 5. The Mass Media 48
Session 6: Clubs and Societies 50
Session 7: The Community 53

UNIT 5: PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF EDUCATION 55

Session 1: Meaning, Nature, Components of Philosophy and Philosophy of Education 55
Session 2: Schools Of Thought of Philosophy 63

UNIT 6: SOME PIONEER EDUCATORS 70

Session 1: John Amos Comenius (28 March 1592 – 4 November 1670) 70
Session 2: Jean-Jacques Rousseau (28 June 1712 – 2 July 1778) 72
Session 3: Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi (12 January 1746 – 17 February 1827) 75
Session 4: Friedrich Wilhelm August Froebel (April 21, 1782 – June 21, 1852) 77
Session 5: Maria Montessori (1870–1952) 79

REFERENCES 81

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UNIT 1: THE CONCEPT OF EDUCATION

This unit introduces the student who may be studying education for the first time to the meaning
and forms of education. The unit also highlights the individual, family and societal aims of
education. Finally, the unit looks at the social, cultural, economic, political and selection functions
of education.

Learning outcome(s)

By the end of the unit, the participant will be able to:

 Explain the concept of education in his/her own words.
 Identify and explain the three forms of education.
 Demonstrate understanding of individual, family and societal or national aims of education
by giving examples in each case.
 Identify and discuss what constitute the social, cultural, political and selection functions of
education.
 Identify what measures or practices need to be put in place in the school in order to realise
the social, cultural, political and selection functions of education.

THE MEANING OF EDUCATION

In this session, we will focus on understanding the concept education. Specifically, we will
consider the common definitions of education and the etymological definitions. Furthermore, we
will look at the philosophical and sociological definitions. Finally, we will consider the criteria by
which an activity ca be judged as education.

Learning outcomes
By the end of the session, the participant will be able to:

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The Meaning of Education

It is important to note that, education like many other concepts has been defined in various ways.
Some common definitions of education include the following:

1. Education is the process by which people learn.

2. Education refers to the process of learning and acquiring information.
3. Education is the act or process of imparting or acquiring general knowledge, developing
the powers of reasoning and judgment, and generally of preparing oneself or others
intellectually for mature life. `

Etymological Definitions
Etymologically, the word education is derived from the Latin word educare which means to "bring
up", or the Latin word educere which is to "bring out", or "bring forth what is within", that is "bring
out the potential" within the individual. It also relates to the Latin word ducere, which means "to
lead". This is just as a teacher leads the child to discover knowledge by serving as a guide. Educere,
which is to "bring out" suggests that even as the child comes to class one, he should not be regarded
as a ‘tabula rasa’ or an empty slate that we now have to write everything on. What it means is that
the child has innate abilities that the teacher must develop. In other words, this implies that in the
teaching learning process we should not assume that the children do not know anything, hence we
should elicit a lot of responses from them.

Philosophical Definitions
Education has been defined from the philosophical view point by people like Peters, Whitehead
and Dewey. According to Peters, “education implies that something worthwhile is being or has
been intentionally transmitted in a morally acceptable means” (Schofield, 1972). Whitehead
(1932) defines education as “the art of the utilization of knowledge”. He sees education as guidance
towards the understanding of the art of living. John Dewey (1916) on his part views education as
“the reconstruction and reorganization of experience which adds to the meaning of experience and
increase the ability to direct the cause of subsequent experience”. It means helping the child to
develop in such a way as to contribute to his continued growth.

Sociological Definitions
The sociological definition of education sees education as the transmission of culture. This process
of cultural transmission is also called socialization. Another sociological definition is by Emile
Durkheim. To Durkheim (1956) education is the systematic socialization of the younger generation
by which the latter learns religious and moral beliefs, feelings of nationality and collective opinions
of all kinds. Thus, in its technical sense, education is the process by which society deliberately
transmits its accumulated knowledge, skills, and values from one generation to another.

The Criteria for Judging an Activity as Education

It must be acknowledged that it is always very difficult to define concepts. R. S. Peters suggests
that in view of the difficulty of defining education we can use some criteria to measure whether
the process is education or not.

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R.S Peters’ Criteria of what to be Considered as Education
1. An activity is education if it involves the transmission of something worthwhile to those
who become committed to it.

2. Education must involve knowledge and understanding and some sort of cognitive
perspective, which is not inert.

3. Education at least rules out some procedures of transmission on the grounds that they lack
willingness and voluntariness on the part of the learner. (Schofield, 1972).
In sum, education in the largest sense is any act or experience that has a formative effect on the
mind, character or physical ability of an individual. It is related to the acquisition of knowledge,
skills, and values that enable the individual to lead a good and useful life not only to himself but
the society as a whole.

The contexts in which education can be used

Education can be used in the following contexts
Education as a process
This means that the individual learns gradually, from the time he is born until he dies (from cradle
to grave). As a person is born, he/she learns to be abreast with all that he/she needs to know in
order to become a responsible member of the society.
Education as instrument (part) of culture.
Education serves as the transmission of culture (socialization) Culture is the way of life of a group
of people. Such ways of life include practices such as naming, funerals, festivals, as well as habits,
skills, values, attitudes and knowledge.
Education as an activity
Education is seen as one of the activities that occur in the society such as farming, marketing,
governing, etc. Through activities such as, training, initiating, instructing etc. one goes through
educational experiences that may be linked to other activities.
Education as a subject/discipline
In this context, education is seen as a subject or discipline like mathematics or science which
people devote time to study and that it has its own body of accumulated Knowledge.
Education as a product
This means what education can do for persons who go through it. Thus, when one is educated, it
expected that certain attitudes and characteristics can be seen in him/her. In other words, it is about
what education is able to produce out of the individual who goes through it.

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Education as an institution
Education is seen as one of the various institutions deliberately set up to achieve a specific purpose.
Among other things, education is structured to train the right caliber and quantum of manpower as
well as inculcate in them problem solving skills or abilities.
Education as a tool for problem-solving
In this sense, education is considered as the primary means by which Society all over the world
overcome their complex social, political, and economic problems. Thus, education should give the
individual the necessary skills, knowledge and Competencies to face and solve problems that make
living meaningful.

Key ideas

 Etymologically, education is derived from the Latin words; educare, educere, or ducere
which means to bring up, to bring out and to lead out respectively.
 From philosophical view point, education should involve the transmission of something
worthwhile and the utilization of knowledge.
 From sociological view point, education is simply socialization, that is learning the culture
or accumulated knowledge, skills, values, the dos and don’ts in order to fit into the society.
 According to R. S. Peters, for an activity to be judged as education, it must involve the
transmission of something worthwhile; it must involve knowledge and understanding and
it must be learned willingly.
 Generally, education relates to the acquisition of knowledge. Skills and values that enable
the individual to lead a good and useful life not only to himself but the society as a whole.
 Education can be used in different contexts including: as a process; as instrument of culture;
as an activity; as a subject; as a product; and as an institution.

Reflection

 How will the various definitions of education influence your classroom practice as a
teacher?
 What new have you learned about the concept education?
 What are the various contexts that education can be used

 How has this session equipped you to be a better classroom practitioner?

 How significant is the etymological definition of education ‘educere’?
 How do you equate education to socialization?

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 THE FORMS/PROCESSES OF EDUCATION
In this session, we will focus on understanding the three forms of education. Specifically, we will
discuss the characteristics of the various forms of education, namely, formal, non-formal and
informal. Finally, we will conclude by discussing why education should not be considered as only
associated with formal education and the ability to read and write or literacy.

Learning outcomes
By the end of the session, the participant will be able to:

Forms of Education
One may ask how education actually occurs. Education occurs through many forms or processes.
The educational processes to be considered are formal, non-formal and informal. These could be
considered as occurring along a continuum.
Informal ………… Non-formal ………….. Formal

1. Formal education
Formal education is the type of education which takes place in a specially designated place
known as the school. It is systematically structured, curriculum guided and teacher centred. It
is also age specific, chronologically graded, and hierarchically structured, starting from
primary to the university level.
In other words, formal education is intentional and systematic. It is the selection and
systematic structuring of experiences. It involves the establishment of explicit aims
(objectives), roles and patterns of operation. It is institutionalised and operates in special
structures termed schools, colleges, universities etc.
Formal educational system has three sub-systems, each with two components, namely;
Organization, Human and Curriculum

1. Organization
a. Mission
This is legally an established framework of intention within which particular purposes,
goals and objectives are evolved and pursued.

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 b. Sponsor
This consists of political, religious, industrial, or other institutions which initiate,
support and govern the educational enterprise. Within these operating institutions,
schools are established, legitimized and managed.

2. Human
a. Mentors
The personnel trained and certified or those who teach, counsel and administer or staff
the establishment
b. Students
These are the participants who are to be educated

3. Curriculum
a. Content
This is the body of knowledge, subjects or skills which students are expected to learn.

b. Media
These consist of materials, equipment, plants, and processes through which learning
experiences are provided for participants.
The extent to which the system closely integrates each of its organizational, human and
curricular components to its own stability or maintenance requirements determines how
formal it is.

2. Non-formal Education
Non-formal education is any intentional and systematic education outside the normal or
traditional school system aimed at specific target groups or clientele such as the youth, the
aged, farmers, expectant mothers, school drop-outs etc. Such education includes remedial
classes for WASSCE candidates, vocational or apprenticeship training for the youth, extension
services for farmers, adult literacy programme, health education for nursing mothers etc.
Though somewhat organized, curriculum guided and teacher related, it does not involve highly
organized content, staff, and structure as the traditional school system. In other words, non-
formal education is any intentional and systematic education enterprise outside the traditional
school in which content, media, time units, admission criteria, staff, facilities and other system
components are selected or adapted for particular students to maximize attainment of learning
goals.
Non-formal education is different from incidental and informal education in that non-formal
education is intentional and systematic.

Characteristics of Non-formal Education

1. It is not likely to be identified as education
2. It is usually concerned with immediate and practical missions
3. It usually occurs outside of schools

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 4. It takes place at any learning site
5. Proof of education is more likely to be performance than by certificate
6. It does not involve highly organized content, staff or structure
7. It usually involves voluntary participation
8. It is a part-time activity of participants
9. Instruction is seldom graded and sequential
10. It is less costly than formal education
11. It does not involve customary admission criteria
12. Selection of instructors is likely to be based more upon experience and expertise
13. It occurs in a more flexible setting
14. It is need-centred

Learning Needs
Non-formal education is usually based on the specific needs of beneficiaries or clients. The
needs may be classified basically into four main areas.
1. General or basic education; this involves such fundamental processes and skills as literacy
and numeracy- all of which should be related to liberal and cultural studies.

2. Family improvement education to raise the standard of health, nutrition, homemaking,

child-care, family planning etc.

3. Community improvement education through civic education to enable people to participate

actively in civic affairs, manage co-operative or credit banks, join clubs and societies or in
community improvement projects.

4. Occupational education for better living and effective contribution to the community and
national economy eg. Training for drivers, farmers, market women to improve their job
performance.

Clients (beneficiaries) of Non-formal Education

The four groups of beneficiaries are;
1. Persons directly engaged in agriculture.

2. Persons engaged in commercial activities such as traders, transport workers,

manufacturers, dressmakers etc.

3. General service personnel such as local leaders, planners, administrators and managers.

4. Specific target groups such as school drop-outs, street children and nursing mothers

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3. Informal Education
It is the traditional, incidental or indigenous education which one acquires consciously or
unconsciously. Learning goes on anywhere at home, in the community, at the workplace, in the
farm, bush, school, or at sea, etc. Learning is not organized or structured. The agencies of education
include the home, peer group, the community, religious organizations etc.
Informal education takes place even within the formal institutions in the society. The aims, content
and methods of traditional education are interwoven. However, an attempt is made to identify them
as follows:

The Goals of Informal (Traditional Education)

The ultimate is to produce the ideal man and woman who are also builders of the state. The ideal
man is a good father, while the ideal woman is a good mother. Furthermore, the ideal man and
woman are honest, respectful, skilful and cooperative. They conform to social orders in the society
and are, above all, builders of the state.
The following are seven cardinal goals of traditional African education
1. To develop the child physically
2. To develop character
3. To inculcate respect for elders and those in position of authority
4. To develop intellectual skills
5. To acquire specific vocational training and to develop a healthy attitude towards honest
labour
6. To develop a sense of belonging and to encourage active participation in family and
community affairs
7. To understand, appreciate and promote the cultural heritage of the community at large.

Content of Informal Education

Generally, the content of informal education may be classified as general and vocational.
General Education
The child is able to acquire general education through the following:
1. Children and adolescent learn the geography and history of their community from
observation and from elders.

2. Botany and Zoology are the subjects of both theoretical and practical lessons.

3. Proverbs and riddles are exceptional wit sharpeners which are used to teach the child to
reason and to take decisions.

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 4. Mathematics is worked into game of wits. The youth attend baptisms, religious ceremonies,
weddings, funerals and annual yam festivals. In this way they learn the institution, norms
and ideas of their culture.

5. Festivals provide occasions for reunion and learning of culture.

6. Libation poured to the ancestors and gods serves as a means of worshiping or

communicating with God our maker.

7. Good manners, moral rules and social laws are inculcated by close relatives or distant
members of the family. Learning starts early in life with the child picking the mother tongue
and identifying or imitating people who are immediately around Vocational Education

This comprises:
1. Agricultural Education
2. Trades and Crafts – weaving, sculpting, drumming, smiting, soap making, carpentry,
singing, trapping, pottery making, dyeing and hair plaiting.
3. Professions – priesthood, medicine, justice, policing, messengers, judges, hunting, military
(Asafo) and chieftaincy.
Teaching is through apprenticeship and Special Schools (e.g. Secret societies) are created to
provide such vocational training.

Methods of Informal Education

This is done through
1. Observation
2. Imitation
3. Identification
4. participation
Key idea

 There are basically three forms of education namely; formal, non-formal and informal.
 Education is not only associated with formal education or the ability to read and write.
 Formal education has three sub-systems – Organization, Human and Curriculum.
 What distinguishes non-formal education from formal education are that non-formal
education is less structured, outside the normal school system and based on specific needs
of clients.
 Non-formal education is different from informal education in that non-formal education is
intentional and systematic or structured.

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  With non-formal and informal education, learning can take place at anywhere – ie. In the
home, farm, market, street etc.
 The main goal of informal or traditional education is to produce the ideal man or woman
who can fit into the society.
 The methods employed in informal education are; observation, imitation, identification and
participation.

Reflection

 Why will you consider education as not associated with formal education only?
 How do you distinguish between formal, nonformal and informal education?
 How do children come to learn or acquire knowledge and skills in traditional education?

 How do you react to the statement, ‘He is not educated as he has never been to school’?
 What do you consider as five important characteristics of non-formal education’?

THE AIMS AND PURPOSE OF EDUCATION

In this session, we will focus on understanding what is meant by purpose and aims of education.
Specifically, we will consider how education aims at the total or holistic development of the
individual. Furthermore, the session will look at the individual, family and societal aims of
education and how the school can help achieve such aims.

Learning outcomes
By the end of the session, the participant will be able to:

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Difference between Aim and Purpose
Aim and purpose are two words considered to be similar in many ways. They are however, also
used differently in certain contexts and scenarios. Aim is setting a determined course in order to
achieve a set target. Aims are usually long term. Aims can be regarded as long-term goals. Aims
determine a set course or a target at the end that a person wants to reach.
Purpose tries to gauge at the reason behind something that is being done. Purpose defines why the
person is doing something he is doing, what is his reasoning behind doing a particular thing and
what he plans to achieve from it. Thus, while aim refers to intention to do something, purpose
defines why one wants to do that particular something.
In general, however, both words define a result or an end that is intended. It conveys a point which
a person wants to reach

The General Purpose of Education

The purpose of education means the anticipated outcome of education or what education should
do for us. Thus, the following may be the purposes of education:
1. To ensure the survival of the society.
2. To serve the purpose of socialization.
3. To nurture the potentials and talents of individuals.
4. To improve the social conditions of people in the society.
5. To create literate population.
6. To improve the political consciousness of the individual.
7. To develop critical thinking skills in individuals.

The Aims of Education

From our definition of aim stated earlier, an aim of education is the end that is intended after going
through the process of education. The aims of education may be classified as individual, family
and societal or national aims.
Individual Aims of Education
If an individual is asked why he wants to be educated, his response might be “to be able to
secure a good job or to be in good health.” Individual aims are many and varied depending upon
their needs, problems and value systems. Such aims may also depend on how the individual sees
the world.
Education should aim at the wholistic development of the individual. In other words, education
should aim at developing the whole man – his Head, Heart and Hand. The development of the
“Head” means intellectual development, while the development of the “Heart” represents moral
development. Finally, the development of the “Hand” means acquisition of manual or vocational

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skills. This relates to Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives – cognitive, affective and
psychomotor domains.
Another way of saying wholistic development is that, education should aim at the physical, mental,
social, emotional, moral and spiritual development of the individual. It should also equip the
individual, with vocational skills and also help them use their leisure hours profitably. In other
words, individual aims of education are derived from physical, psychological and social needs.
A. Physical Development:

Good health is an asset and a necessary condition to a happy life. The old Latin expression
“Mens sana in corpore sano” translated “a sound mind in a sound body” applies here. For these
reasons education should aim at physical development of the individual.

This can be achieved through:

1. Games and sporting activities
2. Health inspection for example, once every week.
3. The study of elementary science
4. Clearance of pieces of paper, empty tins, weeds, from surroundings, and
5. Observation of rules of hygiene

B. Mental development

We live in an intelligent world where survival depends largely on how well we can think and
solve our problems. Education, therefore, should develop the intellect. It should help us become
critical in our reasoning.
This can be achieved through:
1. The teaching of the various school subjects, such as environmental studies, and
mathematics; exposing pupils to challenging experiences, inquiry skills such as
observation, data collection and analysis, creative activities that will encourage them think
critically.

2. The use of audio-visual aids in teaching

3. Training children to reason in an abstract or deductively and inductively, at the “stage of

formal operations” (about the age of 11 and above).

4. Provision of guidance and counselling in order to help individuals free themselves of

personal problems

5. The use of such techniques of teaching as Discovery Method, Project Method and Activity
Method

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C. Social Development
Education should aim at helping individuals to be sociable. It should also help them to live in
harmony with their neighbours. This aim of education for the individual is important because man
actualizes or fulfils himself in a society and therefore there is the need to develop this human
tendency to live with others.
How this can be achieved
1. Make provision for games and athletics as social activities.
2. Encourage dramatization, drumming and dancing, exhibition, etc.
3. Encourage group work – eg. project work group; Houses/Sections.
4. Help children develop desirable habits such as cleanliness, etc.
5. Train children to enjoy freedom of speech, choice, and movement within the confines of
the norms, rules and regulations of the school or the society.

D. Emotional Development
Here education should aim at developing the positive emotions of the individual such as love,
joy and happiness and do away with negative emotions such as fear, jealousy, envy, worry,
anxiety and aggression. This is important because negative emotional outbursts bring about
unhappiness, diseased personality or disunity. While positive emotions ensure unity, mental and
physical health.
How to achieve this
1. Teachers should motivate children to learn to control their negative emotions. For
example, through the use of rewards and praises.

2. Good examples could be set by teachers and parents for children to emulate.

3. Children can be taught directly to control specific emotions. Eg. not to fear creatures like
cockroaches and earthworms because they are harmless.

4. Through religious teachings. Eg. the Bible teaches how to forgive and love.

5. Emotions bring about excess energy which may be harmful to the body so teachers to help
the child to get rid of the excess energy or use them well.

6. Teachers should encourage such positive emotions as love, joy and happiness amongst
children. Teachers should also create an atmosphere or environment that is free of obstacles.

7. Children can be encouraged to dramatize their fears away. For example, masks can be used
in drama to help children who are afraid of ghosts get rid of that.

8. Play therapy and counselling sessions can be organized to treat children of their negative
emotions.

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E. Moral Development
Education should aim at developing the morals of children according to acceptable ways of
behaviour of the Ghanaian society. Again, it should aim at inculcating good manners in children
so that they can conform to the customs of their people and also be able to judge their own actions
as right or wrong. Furthermore, education should aim at inculcating in the individual friendliness,
respect for authority, honesty and courage.
How to achieve this
1. Discipline should be positive and consistent so that good conduct will sooner or later
become habitual.
2. Praise, rewards and social approval are incentives that can be used in moral training of the
child.
3. Children should be involved in formulating rules and regulations. Discussions and
persuasion could be used to train the morality of adolescents.
4. Moral training at home and in school should aim at one and the same thing, if not the child
may be confused.
5. Group activities such as games, athletics, singing competitions as well as having clubs and
societies such as Red Cross, Boys Scout and Girls Guide can also contribute to moral
development of children.
6. Family life education has lessons to offer towards moral development of boys and girls.

F. Spiritual Development
Religions like Christianity, Islam and Traditional Religion teach about life after death. The
religions use prayers as means of communicating with the Supreme Being. Some people when ill
will only get well after seeking spiritual healing. It is because of such beliefs held by people, that,
education should aim at the spiritual development of the individual.
How this aim can be realized
1. It can be done through the teaching of religions. School worship and meditation should
also be conducted. The art of praying should be taught.
2. Pupils should be guided to observe moral codes of their religions as for example, truth,
honesty etc.
3. Pupils should be taught hygienic rules
4. Again, children should be taught to love others as themselves
5. Children should be guided to form the habit of giving willingly without counting the cost

G. Vocational Skills
Education should predispose children to different vocations. It should guide them to acquire
occupational skills. It should eventually place them in the vocations of their interest, for example,
carpentry, etc. It is also important for education to guide children to have respect for manual work
and actually use their hands in such work. The rationale behind vocational education is that it
provides children with skills necessary for them to achieve economic independence by earning
their living after schooling.

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How to achieve this aim
1. Teachers should encourage creative and manipulative skills, for example, in art and
crafts.
2. Excursions and visits to various work places should be undertaken.
3. Vocational and technical subjects as agriculture, woodwork, tailoring, mental work,
typing and accounting should be included in the school curriculum.
4. Guidance coordinators should be employed to guide and place children in their right
occupations.
5. Pupils should gradually be introduced to manual work. The continuation-school type or
industrial subjects should be introduced in all schools.
H. Leisure
Education should enable the individual use his leisure hours profitably. It should enable the
individual to spend his free period for example, in playing a game, taking part in church choir
activities, engaging in photography, making a farm, reading or undertaking a pleasurable activity
with no aim of earning an income. This is an important aim for individuals because it helps them
to avoid misusing their free periods. As the old saying goes, “Satan has work for idle hands”.
How to realize the aim
1. Encourage pupils to take active part in arts and crafts, physical education, manual work,
science, music etc. This is necessary because skills gained from such subjects can provide
a basis for leisure activities
2. Hobbies like photography and bookbinding could be organized in the school
3. Technical and vocational subjects like carpentry, motor mechanics, home science and
leatherwork should be taught. These also provide skills for leisure activities.
4. Interest created in the study of any school subject or activity will serve as a basis of leisure
time activity.

Key ideas

 While aim refers to intention to do something, purpose defines why one wants to do that
particular thing.
 Education aims at the wholistic development of the individual, i.e. the cognitive, affective and
psychomotor domains.
 Blooms taxonomy, cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domains correspond to the training
of the head, heart and hand.
 The wholistic development of the individual also means the physical, emotional, spiritual etc.
 The aims of education can be classified into three: individual, family and societal or natural
aims.
 National aims of education are usually based on the needs of the country.

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Reflection

 How is the school able to promote the physical, emotional development of the child?
 Explain what you understand by the wholistic development of the individual.
 What do you consider as the needs of Ghana that the education system should aim at
addressing?

 How do you distinguish between the purpose and aim of education?

 What do you consider should be five most significant aims of education?

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UNIT 2: SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION

This unit introduces the student sociology of education. To better understand sociology of
education the we will first look at the meaning of sociology, what constitutes the components of
society as well as the branches of sociology. Since sociology deals with the scientific study of
society, efforts will be made to explain the concept society. The student will then be introduced to
sociology of education and educational sociology. The unit will also highlight on the scope of
sociology of education. Finally, the unit discusses the importance of the study of sociology of
education to teacher trainees or teachers.

Learning outcome(s)
By the end of the unit, the participant will be able to:
 Explain the concept of sociology.
 Identify and explain the components of society
 Provide examples of the various branches of sociology.
 Distinguish between sociology of education and educational sociology.
 Describe the scope of sociology of education
 Identify and explain the reasons why it is important for teacher trainees to study sociology
of education.

THE MEANING OF SOCIOLOGY

In this session, we will focus on understanding the concept sociology. Specifically, we will
consider the definition, components and branches of sociology. Finally, we will discuss the
concept of society since sociology is simply the scientific study of society. In this connection,
efforts will be made to distinguish between community and society.

Learning outcomes
By the end of the session, the participant will be able to:

What is sociology
Introduction
Physicians study anatomy – parts of the body; and physiology – what the various parts of the body
do, i.e., the function of each part of the body. Some of the parts are: The head, heart, liver, kidneys,
stomach, hands, nose, ears, eyes, mouth and so on. Each of these has a role to play to keep the

17
body going. Whenever any of these parts fails to function well, we say the body is sick. So,
physicians have to study the parts of the body and their functions in order to diagnose sicknesses.
The various parts of the body, we say perform specific functions – but they do not work in isolation
that is, they work in a coordinated manner hence their functions are interrelated and
interdependent. In fact, they are so interrelated and so interdependent that none can function well
unless the others also function well.

The Components of Society

Sociologist such as August Comte, Herbert Spencer, Emile Durkheim liken society to an organism.
Just as an organism is made up of component parts working in an interrelated and interdependent
manner, so does society have parts that function in the same manner. The component parts of
society i.e., the structures of society that hold it altogether include:
 The economy
 Education
 The political system
 Culture and technology
 Religion
 Marriage and family
 Medicine
 Military and so on

In sociology these structures or parts are called social institutions, or social facts, or socio facts.
They are put in place by society to perform specific functions without which society cannot hold
together. The parts together and the way they work are called social structure or social
organization.
The main focus of the sociologist is the study of social structures or social organizations or social
institutions. Whenever any of the social institutions fails, all the other social institutions will suffer.
For example, if the economy is weak, it cannot support education, health, agriculture, and so on.
Similarly, if the family breaks down upbringing of children becomes a problem.

Sociology defined
• Sociology is therefore the scientific study of society. It is the study of social structures or
social organizations. It is the study of how each of the structures of society works, as well
as how they work in a coordinated manner.
• Since society is made up of people interacting either as individuals or groups, sociology is
also the scientific study of social relationships. Sociologists focus their study on questions
that may arise from such interactions.
• Sociology can also be defined as the study of social rules and processes that bind and
separate people not only as individuals, but as members of voluntary associations,
professional bodies, groups, and institutions.

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 • Sociology may also be defined as the scientific study of human social behaviour. As the
study of humans in their collective aspect, sociology is concerned with all group activities:
economic, social, political, and religious. Sociologists study such areas as bureaucracy,
community, deviant behaviour, family, public opinion, social change, social mobility,
social stratification, and such specific problems as crime, divorce, child abuse, and
substance addiction. Sociology tries to determine the laws governing human behaviour in
social contexts.
It is important to point out that, sociology evolved as an academic response to the challenges of
modernity, such as industrialization and urbanization. Sociology as a discipline became prominent
in the 18th Century after the Industrial Revolution. What was the industrial revolution?

Branches of Sociology
There are several branches of sociology. One cannot be a specialist in all of them, so sociologists
specialize in their areas of interest. Some of the special branches of sociology are:
 Education
 The family
 Development
 Religion
 Medicine
 Work
 Crime
 Deviance
 Organizations
 Childhood
Since we are in education our focus is on education.

Society defined
Since sociology is the scientific study of society, it is important to understand what society is.
Sometimes society and community are used interchangeably. Both imply a group of people having
something in common such as a geographical territory and feeling that they belong together.
Community however, is more general. It includes both children and adults. Community is
everybody, adults, and children, social and non-social persons, living in a certain territory where
they all share a mode of life, but not all are conscious of its organization or purpose (Collingwood
as cited in Baafi-Frimpong et al., 2016). Society members have become socially conscious. Thus,
society (i) may be defined as a 'group of people drawn together into voluntary membership of a
society through mutual interest in a particular activity.' Society (ii) might be considered 'a
community of people living within certain defined geographical limit.

In education we are interested in the individual in society. We are interested in how children or the
non-social members learn and master the way their society functions, as well as their roles,
responsibilities, rights, and privileges. Children are potential members of society and must be

19
prepared for this membership. The process of teaching the young all that they need to know in
order to become responsible social members of their society is called socialization. The young
belong to the non-social community because they don’t know the laws, the norms, the values and
the customs of the community in which they live. Through education, and for that matter
socialization, they learn to become social members. Thus, the prime aim of education is the
socialization of children and youth.
Key ideas

 Sociology is the scientific study of society and social relationship.

 Society is likened to an organism which is made up of component parts working in an
interrelated and interdependent manner.
 The component parts of society (ie. Structures/institutions/organizations) include: the
economy, education, political system, health system, family etc.
 There are several branches of sociology one may study, which include: education, family,
crime, religion, work, childhood etc.
 Though both community and society refer to a group of people having something in
common such as a geographical territory and feeling that they belong together,
community however, is more general.

Reflection

 Why is sociology likened to human organism?

 What are some of the branches of sociology you may want to study?
 How do you distinguish between community and society?

 Identify any two institutions in society and analyse how their work is interrelated

SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION
In session 1, we discussed sociology as a discipline, but in this session, we will focus on
understanding sociology of education. Specifically, we will distinguish between sociology of
education and educational sociology. Furthermore, we will look at the scope of sociology of
education. Finally, we will discuss the importance of sociology of education to teacher trainees or
teachers generally.

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Learning outcomes
By the end of the session, the participant will be able to:

Sociology of Education
Even though people usually talk about sociology of education, we can distinguish between
educational sociology and sociology of education.

Differences between Educational Sociology and Sociology of Education

Although the two are related, Sociology of Education is distinctly different from Educational
Sociology in certain factors. Sociology of education is the process of scientifically investigating
the institution of education within the society–how the society affects it, how education influences
people in the society in return, and the problems which might occur as a result of the interaction
between the two (Chathu, 2017). Educational Sociology also deals with these, but where Sociology
of Education is a more theory-based study (i.e., it attempts to study directly education as a system
of society and attempts to develop necessary principles and laws regarding education as a social
system), Educational Sociology focuses on applying principles in sociology to the entire system
of education and how it operates within the society. In other words, Sociology of Education studies
the practices within the social institution of education using sociological concepts, while
Educational Sociology engages in the practical application of understandings developed through
sociological research into education (Bhat, 2016). Thus, educational sociology aims to provide
solutions to the problems which occur in education.

Sociology of Education tends to strive towards developing an understanding of how the education
system affects individuals, and what outcomes are visible in people as a result of education
(Chathu, 2017). Educational Sociology, on the other hand, strives to find ways of improving the
institution and system of education so that its potentials can be more advantageously harnessed for
the greater interest of all in the future.

The Scope of Sociology of Education

The content of the sociology of education therefore included such general concepts as the society
itself, accommodation, assimilation, cultural lag, sub culture, status etc. Such other considerations
as the effect of the polity and economy on education, the social forces and determinants that effect
educational and cultural change; the social institutions involved in the educational process – the
family, the school and the church; various problems of role structure and role analysis in relation
to the total social system and the micro-society of the school; the school viewed as a formal
organisation, involving such problems as authority, selection, the organization of learning and
streaming; the relationship between social class, culture and language, and between education and

21
occupation; and problems of democratization and elitism, all fall within the purview of sociology
of education.
According to Ezewu et al. (as cited in Baafi-Frimpong et al., 2016), sociology deals with the
process of education under four broad headings.
1. The educational process as an aspect of social interaction.
2. The school as a social group (micro-society, rules govern activities).
3. The influence of other social institutions upon the institutions of education (health,
economy).
4. The functions of society as regards the institutions of education (the role society plays
concerning educational institutions, such as, provision of lands, accommodation for
teachers and motivation of pupils and teachers) – The formation of PTA and its roles.

Importance of Sociology of Education in Teacher Education.

The teacher trainee needs to study sociology of education for the following reasons.
1. Education is a social institution, which forms a sub-system or component within the entire
social system and must therefore relate to all other social institutions in the social system.
2. The content of education is the culture of the society. In other words, education is the means
of socialization. The culture of the society is embodied in the curriculum, hence the need
to study sociology.
3. To be effective, the educational system of any society must take into consideration the
technological development, the historical background and the geographical environment
of society.
4. Education is seen as an instrument of social change and it must bring about desired change
without disrupting the total social system and teachers need to understand that.
5. The educational system of any nation must reflect the philosophy of the society. Thus, the
goals or objectives of the society.
6. Also, for it to be functional, education should always meet the needs, aspirations and
ambitions of the society.
7. It helps in identifying the problems of society that may be regarded as problems of
education or schooling and instructions.
8. It tries to answer the questions -- as to what type of education should be given? What should
be the curriculum? Why children become delinquent?
9. It throws light on those institutions and organizations and on those social interactions that
are important in the educational process.
10. It helps teachers to understand the educational interactions that help in the development of
the personality of the individual so that he becomes a better social being.

In sum, in view of the important relationship between education and society, it is absolutely
necessary that the teacher trainee is exposed to sociology of education.

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Key ideas

 Sociology of Education studies the practices within the social institution of education
using sociological concepts, while Educational Sociology engages in the practical
application of understandings developed through sociological research into education.
 Sociology deals with the process of education under four broad headings: The educational
process as an aspect of social interaction; the school as a social group; the influence of other
social institutions upon the institutions of education; and the functions of society as regards
the institutions of education.
 Education is a social institution; the content of education is the culture of the society;
education is seen as an instrument of social change within a society. For these and many
other reasons, it is important for teachers to study sociology of education.
Reflection

 How will you distinguish between sociology of education and educational sociology?
 How is your study of sociology of education likely to benefit you?

 Identify any three institutions and discuss how they impact on education or the school?

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 THE FUNCTIONS OF EDUCATION
In this unit, we will focus on understanding the functions of education. Specifically, we will discuss
the social, cultural, economic, political and selective and allocation functions of education
Furthermore, the session will look at how the school works to achieve these functions of education.

Learning outcomes
By the end of the unit, the participant will be able to:
1. Identify and explain the various functions of education.
2. Explain how the school works to achieve the various functions of education.
3. Explain the concept socialization.
4. Identify and explain the two aspects of the cultural function of education.
5. Distinguish between the quantitative and qualitative dimensions of the economic function
of education.
6. Describe the characteristics of a responsible citizen.

SESSION 1: SOCIAL FUNCTIONS OF EDUCATION

In this session we will examine the role of education in the society. In doing so, we will distinguish
between the manifest and latent functions, explain the concept socialization and describe the
socialization process. Also, effort will be made to explain the concepts, social learning and social
roles. Finally, we will identify the various agencies of socialization.
Learning outcomes
By the end of this session, the participant will be able to:
1. Explain what social functions of education mean.
2. Distinguish between manifest and latent functions of education.
3. Explain the concept socialization
4. Explain what is meant by social learning
5. Describe the socialization process.
6. Identify the various agencies of Socialization

SOCIAL FUNCTIONS OF EDUCATION

Social function means the role of education in the society. In other words, what education is
supposed to do for the society. Man is a social being and therefore must live in and for society.
Thus, education should be able to develop the child’s personality such that he/she will be able to
grow and interact in the social environment. Through education we should be able to pass on the
accumulated knowledge, skills, values and attitudes which can make the younger generation

24
become useful and acceptable members of their communities. This form of education is
socialization.
Manifest and Latent Function of Education
According to Robert King Merton there are several types of consequences, some are anticipated,
and others are not. Thus, there are manifest and latent functions.

Manifest functions are those that are anticipated and recognized as consequences of a thing or an
event. For example, entertainment is the consequence of concert party. It is the main reason why
it is being organized. Therefore, one is not surprised when it comes. Latent functions are the
unanticipated and unrecognized consequence. For example, the moral lesson or education derived
from the concert party was accidental since it was not anticipated by the planners. Another example
of a latent function is, getting a partner as a result of entering the university to learn for a degree.
Both manifest and latent functions can be negative depending on the actor’s motive. For instance,
an armed robber’s manifest function is to rob. When the consequence is destructive it is said to be
a dysfunction and when it is constructive it is eufunction.

Socialization
According to Havighust and Neugarten (as cited in Baafi-Frimpong et al., 2016), there are two
major aspects of social development that are of social importance to educators. The first is the
general process of social learning, whereby the child learns all the many things he must know and
all the things he must do or not do to become an acceptable member of society. This process is
referred to as the socialization process. This means that the child is gradually “socialized” (that is,
he becomes a member of the group and takes on the ways of life that are the group’s ways) into
the society through its agents (parents, teachers, and other persons).
The second aspect of social development is the formation of social values and social loyalties in
the child: his feeling of allegiance to the various groups of which he is a member; his desire to
collaborate with others; and the merging of his self-interest with group-interest.

Social learning
Biologically, the human organism is predisposed toward social living and social learning. Because
of his biological immaturity and his long-extended growth period, the infant is dependent upon
other people. But the human organism is also characterized by adaptability and by intelligence; by
the ability to learn a great variety of modes of behaviour, to benefit from experience, to change
and to organize behaviour in countless ways. Indeed, it is great adaptability that makes the human
infant different from the animal infant (Havighurst & Neugarten, 1967).
The human infant is capable of learning any culture or subculture in which he finds himself. If he
is born and reared in Ghana or any country, he will learn the general culture of that country and
also learn the particular customs and values of his group. For instance, a child born to a catholic
family will learn something different from the child born to a protestant family; the child of
Nigerian immigrants learns differently from a child of Togolese immigrants; and the child born
into an upper-class family learns different behaviours and attitudes from those of a child born into
working class family.

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The socialization processes
Socialization is a lifelong process. The child who learns in school how to read and write, the
adolescent who learns to speak the slang used by his peers, the woman who learns how to behave
as a mother and the man who at 60, learns how to retire from work “gracefully” are all being
socialized. Various social groups constantly provide new learning situations and expect new
responses from the individual; all through life the individual is constantly fitting his behaviour to
social expectations.
One aspect of the socialization process is “housebreaking”. This implies that socialization is a
matter of controlling, restricting, or hindering the child’s behaviour. Socialization has also active
and constructive aspects; it produces growth; it encourages, nurtures, stimulates and motivates; it
produces variety of desires and strivings in the individual; it leads to development and to
achievement of all kinds.
Socialization is therefore said to be a moulding and a creating process, in which the culture of the
group is brought to bear upon the infant, and in which the individual’s thought, feeling, and
behaviour gradually develop in accordance with the values set by the social groups to 'which he
belongs (Harvighurst & Neugarten, 1967).

Social Roles
According to Harvighurst and Neugarten (1967), a social role may be defined as a coherent pattern
of behaviour common to all persons who fill the same position or place in society and a pattern of
behaviour expected by the other members of society. For example, all women behave in certain
patterned ways when they fill the role of mother, so we speak of the social role of a mother. All
teachers are expected to behave in certain ways within the school room; when school is over, they
may fill other roles such as a father or mother, husband or wife, friend or church member.
The growing child takes on a series of social roles and incorporates the expected behaviour into
his personality. A very young child learns first how to behave in the role of child. For instance, he
learns that his parents take care of him and make decisions for him; that he may behave in certain
ways, but not in other ways. He soon learns to differentiate other social roles like that of brother
or sister, playmate and so on.

Social roles increase with age and so as the child grows and his circle of social interactions
becomes wide, he takes on a number of social roles and incorporates the role behaviours into his
personality. In this sense, the socialization consists in large part, of the behaviour the individual
expresses in his various social roles. In this sense, too, the well-socialized individual is one who
fills various roles successfully, or better still the well-socialized person is one whose behaviours
are appropriate to the expectations set by the social groups with which he interacts.
There are many agencies of socialization namely; the home/family, the community, the school, the
church (religious organizations) and the peer group. We are however, interested in how school is
able to help achieve the social functions of education.

26
How does the school achieve the social functions of education
1. Through the observation of school rules and regulations, students are also able to fit and
live in the society and uphold its values.
2. By encouraging students to join clubs and societies which have their constitutions, rules
and regulation that govern the behaviours of members.
3. The use of rewards and punishment to shape the behaviours of students.
4. In the school, teachers are expected to exhibit good behaviours and serve as role models.

Key ideas

 Social function relates to the role/impact of education in the society or how education is
supposed to shape the life styles of individuals in society
 Manifest functions are the anticipated while latent functions are the unanticipated
consequences of education
 The process of social learning, whereby the individual learns the dos and don’ts of society
to become an acceptable member is referred to as socialization
 The human infant is capable of learning any culture in which he finds himself because
biologically, the human organism is predisposed towards social living and social learning
 Social roles which relate to pattern of behaviours expected of all persons who fill the same
position or place in society, increases with age
 The child learns through agencies of education or socialization such as the home or family,
religious organizations, the school, peer group, community and mass media.
Reflection

 How will you describe socialization and the socialization process?

 Recounting your college days, what would you consider as examples of the manifest and
latent functions of education?
 What social roles do you expect from a father, mother, child and a teacher?
 What agencies are responsible for the child’s socialization?

 What social roles do you expect of students and teachers in basic schools?
 How do you distinguish between manifest and latent functions of education?

SESSION 2: CULTURAL FUNCTIONS OF EDUCATION

In this session we will examine the role of education in the transmission and improvement of
culture. To start with, the student will be made to understand what culture is. The student will then
be introduced to the dual nature of the cultural. function of education, which are the conservative

27
and dynamic/change dimensions. Furthermore, there will be a discussion of some processes
through which educated people bring changes into the culture. In addition, the session looks at
some schools of thought on the role of education in cultural change. Finally, the session ends with
a discussion on culture as the content of education.

Learning outcomes
By the end of this session, the participant will be able to:
1. Explain what is meant by cultural function of education
2. Define fine culture.
3. Explain what constitutes the dual nature of the cultural function of education.
4. Identify the factors that lead to culture change

CULTURAL FUNCTIONS OF EDUCATION

Cultural function of education means the consequences of education on culture or the cultural
heritage. It also means the contribution of education to cultural development or improvement.
In other words, it is the role of education in the transmission and improvement of the cultural
heritage.

What is culture?
Before proceeding, it is important to explain what we mean by culture. Culture is about the customs
and practices of the people such as identity, kinship, clan system, inheritance, chieftaincy, seasons,
occupation, music, drumming, dancing, values beliefs, artifacts, symbols and festivals. Thus, as
indicated by Kneller (as cited in Baafi-Frimpong et all., 2016) culture is the total shared way of
life of a given people, which comprises their mode of thinking, acting and feeling and which is
expressed for instance in religion, law, language, art and custom as well as in material products
such as houses, clothes and tools food the people eat, the economic activities they engage in, how
they bring up children, their way of worship. It also includes their accumulated knowledge, skills,
moral laws and values.

The cultural function of education is dual in nature. The first is to promote stability in the society
by transmitting the good or worthwhile elements of culture from generation to generation. It
implies the transmission of more or less the same culture from time to time. This is what is referred
to as conservative/preservation function.

The second is referred to as the dynamic or change function (cultural innovation). What this
means is that apart from transmitting culture from generation to generation, one more role of
education is to make room for cultural change. In other words, the role of education is to transmit
the perennially worthwhile element of the culture while adding new ones to it.

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How the School Performs the Cultural Function
1. The formulation of school rules and regulations may emphasize cultural values such as
punctuality, discipline, respect for authority etc.
2. The school may students’ appreciation of the society’s culture by encouraging them to
join cultural clubs and engage in cultural activities, performances and competitions.
3. The teaching of local languages which are used to transmit the values, beliefs, norms,
taboos, customs and traditions.
4. Incorporating major economic, social, political, and moral values into the curriculum.
5. The teacher is expected to be abreast with his cultural heritage so that he can serve as a
role model.
6. The school can use local experts as resource persons in teaching culture-related courses
such as traditional drumming, dancing blacksmithing etc.
7. Through games and sports, children learn cultural values such as tolerance, cooperation,
teamwork which help them live well in the society.
8. The school can promote educational visits to historical sites and also participate in
cultural festivals.

Key ideas

 Culture is not just about drumming and dancing but an all-inclusive concept which includes
the customs and practices of a given people such as system of inheritance, chieftaincy,
occupation, values, beliefs, music, artifacts, art, moral laws, food, mode of dressing etc.
 The cultural functions of education involve the conservative and dynamic/change
dimensions hence dual in nature
 Culture change may occur as a result of endogenous and exogenous factors
 Educated people can bring about change in culture through origination, diffusion and re-
interpretation
 While the conservativists believe the school is to transmit the perennially worthwhile
element of culture and not to bring about change, the Reconstructionist believe it is the
responsibility of the school to bring about change in culture. On the other hand, the
progressivists believe the school should rather teach children in such a way that, they can
bring about change when change is desirable.
 The content of education is the culture of education because it is what the society cherishes
that is put in the curriculum to be transmitted.

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Reflection

 What do you consider as the aspects of culture?

 Why will you regard the cultural function of education as dual in nature?
 How does culture change occur?
 Considering the conservatists, Reconstructionist and Progressivists views on culture
change, which of them is more appealing to you?

 Why will you consider culture as the content of education?

 How does the school promote culture change?

SESSION 3: ECONOMIC FUNCTIONS OF EDUCATION

This session examines the role of education in economic development, which basically relates to
the production of the requisite manpower for the various sectors of the economy. We shall
therefore look at the quantitative and qualitative aspects of manpower development. There will
also be a discussion on the types and levels of manpower produced and how the school equips
students with the appropriate qualities for the various levels. Finally, the session end with a
discussion on the social/public and private/ individual benefits of education.

Learning outcomes
By the end of this session, the participant will be able to:
1. Explain what is meant by economic function education
2. Distinguish between the quantitative and qualitative dimensions of the economic function
of education.
3. Identify the types and levels of manpower that education may produce.
4. Distinguish between structural and aggregate unemployment that may be created by
education.
5. Suggest ways the school can address the problems of structural and aggregate
unemployment.
6. Analyse the Functionalist and the Conflict Sociologists views on economic functions of
education.
7. Examine the social and private benefits of education.

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ECONOMIC FUNCTIONS OF EDUCATION
The economic function of education means what education does for the economy or the
contributions of education to the economy.
Basically, the economic function of education relates to the development of the human resource.
This is because as indicated by Forojalla (1993), the human resources of a nation are more
important than the material resources because it is the human being that changes the material
resources to usable things, or to produce goods and services.
The economic functions of education are in two dimensions – Quantitative and Qualitative
A) The Quantitative Dimension: By this we mean that education produces the quantity of
manpower or the right number of labour force to service the economy. Thus, education
should help produce the required number of personnel (teachers, nurses, doctors, engineers,
technicians, accountants, administrators etc.) for the various sectors of the economy.

B) The Qualitative Dimension: By this we mean the acquisition of skills as well as the habits
and the dispositions that go with the skills (i.e. skills, habits and dispositions determine the
productivity of the person). Employers need employees who can contribute to high
productivity and this depends on the knowledge, skills, habits, attitudes and behaviours.
Employees need to have initiative and drive and respect for authority and must be
resourceful, hardworking, and must be able to cooperate with others on the job, be able to
work with minimum supervision, and must be regular and punctual at work. The school
covertly (subtly) inculcates these qualities into the student. Students are punished when
they disobey rules while those who respect them are rewarded.

How the School Performs the Economic Function

1. The school through its rules and regulations, rewards and punishment etc. is able to
inculcate in students, qualities such as submissiveness, hard work, initiative, respect for
authority, resourcefulness, cooperation, punctuality, regularity etc which make the
individual more productive.

2. The school equips individuals with specialized skills and therefore producing the
manpower needed in the various sectors of the economy.

3. By emphasizing equalization of educational opportunities, education brings about gender

balance in employment. This enables women to participate in the labour force, thereby
earning income, avoiding dependency and contributing to national productivity.

4. By diversifying the curriculum: that is, introducing many programmes and many courses
so as to train many kinds of manpower. These wide range of courses open opportunities
for occupational choices to be made by students.

5. By introducing new need-driven courses like computer science, tourism etc. that are found
to be very crucial in the economy.

31
 6. Schools can also award scholarships and bursaries to attract students into areas where there
is crucial need. E.g. introducing allowances into training colleges to encourage and attract
people into the teaching profession.

7. The educational system makes provision for pre-service and internship programmes which
provide opportunities for practical training/hands-on experience and sharpening of
acquired skills.

8. Educational visits/field trips/excursions to some industries or workplaces offer students the

chance to observe how such economic activities are organized and managed. Besides it
helps students to develop interests in certain occupations.

9. The school also teaches employable skills such as weaving, pottery, batik, tie and dye, snail
farming, bee-keeping etc.

10. Guidance and counselling services provide in school help students to make appropriate
career choices and maximize their talents to suit various sectors of the economy.

Key ideas

 Economic function of education relates to the contribution of education to economic

development.
 The economic function of education is in two dimensions -Quantitative and Qualitative.
 Whiles the quantitative dimension relates to the number of manpower produced, the
qualitative dimension relates to equipping the manpower with skills, habits and disposition
that will make them productive.
 Though education is supposed to train the much-needed human resource and create
employment, it can create unemployment such as structural and aggregate unemployment
 Education produces different types and levels of manpower.
 Aggregate unemployment occurs when the education system produces more manpower
than what the economy can absorb.
 Structural unemployment occurs when some skills become obsolete as a result of economic
or technical change.
 Whiles the functionalists believe the school should help produce quality works, The
Conflict Sociologists believe, that will be a way of collaborating with the Capitalist to
exploit workers.
 Whiles social/public benefits accrue to the society at large, private/individual benefits
accrue directly to the individual.

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Reflection

 How do you explain the quantitative and qualitative dimensions of the economic function
of education?
 How can education create unemployment?
 How do you distinguish between structural and aggregate unemployment?
 In what ways are you and the nation benefiting from your education?

 What do you consider more important, looking at the quantitative and qualitative
dimensions of the economic function of education?
 What do you identify as the five most significant benefits of education that may accrue to
an individual?

SESSION 4: POLITICAL FUNCTION OF EDUCATION

In this session, we will examine the role of education in political development or political
socialization. the society. In discussing political socialization, we will look at how education
prepares persons for responsible citizenship and leadership. Furthermore, the session focuses on a
discussion of how education can promote national integration or disintegration. Finally, there will
be a discussion on role of the teacher in the community, school and the classroom.

Learning outcomes
By the end of this session, the participant will be able to:
1. Explain the meaning of political function of education
2. Identify and explain at least five characteristics of a responsible citizen
3. Identify and discuss how the school promotes political socialization.
4. Discuss how education promotes national integration or disintegration.
5. Identify and describe the social roles of the teacher in the community, school and the
classroom.

POLITICAL FUNCTION OF EDUCATION

The political function of education means the role of education in political development or what
education does in political development. It is the contribution of education to political development
or the consequences of education on political development.

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The Role of Education in Political Development
The role of education in political development is political socialization.
What is political socialization? It is the process by which we learn all that we need to know in
order to be considered politically competent and politically responsible members of our
community. The goal of political socialization is to produce or prepare the person for a responsible
citizenship and a responsible leadership.

Who is a politically responsible citizen? He/she:

 knows how the constitution works and acts according to the tenets of the constitution.
 is loyal to his community.
 pays his taxes without being forced.
 offers himself/herself for service to the community.
 has a sense of care for public properties.
 participates in decision making in his community.
 Exercises his/her franchise or voting rights
 scales society’s welfare over and above parochial interest.
 lends support to the leadership by providing an input for decision making.

How does school promote political socialization?

1. Through the direct teaching of subjects such as government, political science, history,
social studies, religious and moral education, political socialization is offered. For example,
history may teach us about successful and unsuccessful leaders and why they were
successful and unsuccessful and in social studies we may learn about our rights and
responsibilities as citizens.

2. Clubs and societies are also other vehicles for conveying political socialization. They teach
us how to work with constitutions. Members of clubs and societies hold meetings and
follow procedures.

3. Games and sports – Tolerance is developed through games and sports. One is bound to win
and the other to lose. Also, people learn to obey the rules of games.

4. Prefectorial system – In schools where students are allowed to elect their leaderships, the
students are taught how exercise their franchise (voting rights) to make and unmake
leaders. As students are made to vote, they are prepared to learn democracy.

5. The prefectorial system also practical training in leadership. Certain duties are delegated
to school or class prefects and they are encouraged to take initiatives. Also, some petty
matters relating to students are administered by prefects.

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 6. The hierarchical structure of the school enables students to pass their grievances through
the appropriate channels and also respect authority. This is transferred to the wider society
or nation.

7. In school administration, students are encouraged to participate in decision making,

particularly, in formulating rules and regulations that directly affect students. This
encourages students to respect and obey the rules, hence also obey the laws of the state.

8. Students are encouraged to form clubs and societies with their constitutions, rules and
regulations. This may help them see the need to go by the constitution and obey the laws
of the state.

9. In school, as students from different ethnic and cultural backgrounds come together under
one roof, it enhances cohesion and national integration.

10. Organizing morning assemblies to raise and salute the national flag, recite the National
Pledge and sing the National Anthem all contribute to evoking the patriotism and loyalty
of students.

Key ideas

 The political function of education is basically political socialization which is the process
whereby people learn to be politically responsible citizens.
 Politically responsible citizens are loyal to their community, work in accordance with the
constitution, pay their taxes, participate in community decision making etc.
 Responsible leaders respect the masses and seek their interest. They also respect the
constitution and laws of the land. Besides, they listen and communicate effectively etc.
 The school promotes political socialization through the teaching of certain subjects, the
formation of clubs and societies, sports and games, as well as the prefectorial system etc.
 The school can promote national integration or disintegration.
 Teachers play crucial roles in the community, school and classroom.
 In relation to pupils, the teacher serves as a mediator of learning, disciplinarian, parent
substitute, judge, confidant and a role model.

Reflection

 Why will you consider yourself as a responsible citizen?

 Identify what you perceive as the role of the school in promoting political socialization?
 What roles do you expect the teacher to perform in the community, school and the
classroom?

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  How do you expect political leaders to behave?
 In what ways does the school promote national disintegration?
 Examine how a teacher plays his/her role as a mediator of learning, disciplinarian, a
confidant and a parent substitute

SESSION 5: SELECTION AND ALLOCATION FUNCTION OF EDUCATION

In this session we will examine the role of education or the school in selecting and allocating
people to various jobs and positions in society. Specifically, we will discuss what the selective and
allocative function means, and how the school performs such a function. Finally, we will discuss
the relevance of the selective and allocative function.

Learning outcomes
By the end of this session, the participant will be able to:
1. Explain what the selective and allocative functions of education is about.
2. Identify at least four ways the school performs the selective and allocative functions.
3. Identify and explain at least two reasons why the selective and allocative functions are
relevant.

SELECTIVE AND ALLOCATIVE FUNCTION OF EDUCATION

What is the selective and allocative function of education?
In modern society, the school system serves as a filtering agency or a sieve for selecting and
directing people to various jobs, vocations, professions, roles or positions in the national
economy. This process is referred to as the selective and allocative function of education. The
level of performance in the academic subjects, the kind of skills acquired, the kind of subjects
pursued etc. determine the future occupations, income levels and social status of students.

How does the School Perform the Selective and Allocative Function?
Basically, the school performs these functions through the following:
1. Examinations, tests or continuous assessment processes.

2. Interviews: through interviews students or graduates are face panels to answer questions
relating to the areas of competence to prove their suitability to an institution or a
specialized course of study or job. Thus, such selection is based on merit.

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 3. Promotions. These enable students to progress from one level, state or class to the other.

4. Personal inclination. Some students convinced that they cannot cope with the learning
environment or school work may drop out of school. Invariably some of them may come
out more successful than they would be in school.

5. Nominations/elections. In the school, based on the qualities they possess, students may be
elected or nominated as prefects to perform duties or responsibilities which may help
them enjoy certain privileges and rights.

6. Guidance and counselling services such as information and placement enable students to
have information on job or career opportunities available and their requirements so that
they can make well-informed career choices. Also, organization of career conferences
can help whip up students’ interest in certain vocations.

The Relevance of the Selective and Allocative Functions of the School

Undoubtedly, the selective and allocative function is significant for many reasons. These include
the following:
 Used in filling vacancies or positions – usually, the most competent is selected for the
vacancy.
 Provides basis for the award of certificates – through the use of test instruments.
 Used for promotion purposes from lower to upper classes in school and the work
environment.
 Schools use it to screen and sieve students for placement in restrictive discipline areas
such as medicine, law and charted accountancy.

Key ideas

 The selective and allocative function of education helps in placing people in various jobs,
vocations, professions, roles or positions in the national economy.
 The school performs the selective and allocative function through examinations, interviews,
promotions, elections etc.
 The importance of the selective and allocative functions of the school lies in the fact that,
it helps in filling vacancies based on competence or merit.
 In school the selective and allocative functions provide the basis for promotion to higher
classes, to restrictive discipline areas and certification

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Reflection

 How do you explain the selective and allocative functions of education?

 How is the selective and allocative function promoted in school?
 For what reasons do you deem the selective and allocative function significant?

 How can the selective and allocative function of education be strengthened?

 What do you consider as the importance of the selective function of education?

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UNIT 4: AGENCIES OF EDUCATION

In this unit, we will focus our discussion on how the various agencies of education/socialization
influence the education/socialization of the child. The agencies to be considered are the
home/family, community, school, peer group, religious organizations, mass media and clubs and
societies. Specifically, we will discuss how the various agencies are able to socialize the child and
also look at some negative impacts of these agencies. Effort will also be made to distinguish
between agents and agencies of socialization.

Learning outcomes
By the end of the unit, the participant will be able to:
7. Distinguish between agents and agencies of socialization/education.
8. Identify the categories of educational/socialization agencies
9. Explain how the various agencies promote the socialization of the child.
10. Identify and discuss some negative impacts of the various agencies of socialization.

SESSION 1. THE HOME/ FAMILY

In this session, we will have a look at the home or family which more or less serves as the
foundation for the child’s socialization. Specifically, we will discuss what makes the family the
foremost agency of socialization and how the family promotes the child’s socialization. To start
with efforts will be made to distinguish between agents and agencies of education.
Objectives
 Distinguish between agents and agencies of socialization
 Explain why the family can be regarded as the foremost agency of socialization
 Identify and discuss at least five ways by which the home/family is able to socialize the
child
 Identify and provide examples of the categories of educational agencies

Agents and Agencies of Education/Socialization

Whiles agencies refer to the institutions or groups responsible for the education/socialization of
the child, agents are the individual members within the institutions or groups responsible for
socializing the child. For example, the home/family may be regarded as the agency, while the
individual members within the family such as the father, mother and siblings constitute the agents.

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Categories of Educational Agencies
Debi-Dankwah (as cited in Anyagre and Dondieu, 2007) categorized educational agencies into
four namely:
1. Formal Institutions: Specifically set up by society for the purpose of educating its citizens
e.g., schools, churches, libraries etc.
2. Informal Groups: Such groups serve the needs of the society through educational and social
influence or function e.g., the family, community, peer group etc.
3. Profit Making Organizations: Such organizations serve the society both as recreational and
educational e.g., the press, radio, television, etc., (ie, mass media).
4. Commercial/Industrial Organizations: They conduct programmes or training for their
personnel, e.g., training in factories, departmental stores, farms etc.

How the Home/Family Function as Agency of Education/ Socialization

The family here includes both the nuclear and the extended family. In other words, the home and
the neighbourhood. The family is the foremost agency in the child’s socialization process. That is
he receives the beginning of his education there as follows:
 The family inculcates its customs, norms and beliefs shown in the vocabulary and
language of the child.
 The child discovers and secures satisfaction of his bodily requirement by
communicating through sounds and gestures with others. That is the home provides
affection and belongingness to the child.
 The family teaches the child the basic rules of right and wrong and by that instils in the
child, certain moral standards such as honesty and truthfulness.
 The child learns to play adult as well as sex roles as the family gives him models (i.e.
father and mother) of successful family roles.
 The child learns what to wear and how to wear it.
 The family inculcates its attitudes and values and this is the laying of the foundation of
character of the child and makes the child to develop and establish his own particular
social personality and identify.
 The child acquires a wide range of knowledge from the home before he starts schooling.
Thus, the type of foundation laid during the pre-school life is significant in the child’s
school life. The child enters school with all kinds of attitude and values which he learns
through trial and error and observation.

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Key ideas

 The home/family is the foremost agency for the child’s socialization

 The home is where the child spends the early years and learns his first language, social
values, food to eat, dress code and build his/her personality etc
 Debi- Dankwah 1973 categorized educational agencies into four – Formal Institutions,
Informal Groups; Profit Making Organizations; and Commercial/ Industrial Organizations

Reflection

 Why will you regard the home as the foremost agency of socialization?
 What kind of education did you receive from home?

 What do you consider as five most important ways the home is able to socialize the child?
 Identify any two informal groups and examine how they are able to socialize the individual

SESSION 2. THE PEER GROUP

One important agency that can promote the socialization of the child is the peer group. This is
particularly so during the adolescence period when the adolescent cherishes the advice of peers
more than adults. Thus, in this session, we will discuss what a peer group is and how it functions
as an agency of socialization. The session will also look at how the teacher can use the peer group
to his advantage. Finally, the negative influence of peer group will be discussed.

Learning outcomes
By the end of this session, the participant will be able to:
7. Explain what social functions of education mean.
8. Distinguish between manifest and latent functions of education.
9. Explain the concept socialization

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What is Peer Group
A peer group is a group whose members are equal in age, rank, or ability. At the age of five or six,
the Ghanaian child enters the social world of his peers and begins to receive major socialization
influences from the peer group. In contrast to the family which is typically more authoritarian (and
from the child’s view point always so in some degree) and more likely to transmit traditional
values, the peer group usually offers a freer experience. In the peer group the child or adolescent
is freer, has more initiative and is more active in his learning than he is in most adult-dominated
groups.

How the Peer Group Functions as Agents of Education/Socialization

 Within the peer group there are often opportunities to discuss topics in relation with
adults, all aimed at breaking away from parental constrains and to establish independent
identity.
 The peer group helps the child to form his own social personality i.e. his ways of getting
along with other people, of being friendly or reserved, brave or timid.
 Through playing and working with people equal to him in age and power, the child or
the adolescent learns co-operation and fair play and responsibility.
 Much of the sex information obtained by most boys and girls come from the peer group.
 Teaching masculine or feminine social roles such as shoe shine, sex roles, preparing
cookies, food of all types.
 Teaching a set of moral standards for relations with people of similar age, how to conform
to set rules/regulations, respect the views of others.
 Giving support to the individual as he/she seeks to become independent of his parents
and other adults.
 It provides opportunity for children to learn a number of skills including leadership
qualities.

How the Teacher can use the Peer Group to his Advantage
 In peer group, there is recognition and respect for each member which promotes
cooperation. The teacher can use the cooperative spirit resulting from the right to be heard
to involve students in making school rules and regulations. And when students are part of
decision making, they are more likely to abide by whatever decisions or rules that are
formulated.
 Since children enjoy working together as peers that develops love, security and acceptancy,
the teacher has to encourage group work in order to develop such values in children.
 The teacher can also encourage group work/ activities such as discussions, debates, project
work etc as a means of motivating children to learn

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Negative Influence of Peer Group
It is worth noting that, peer groups have negative influences on the group as well as the
development of the child.
 Failure of parents and adults to give approval and social recognition to children may push
them to identify with delinquent sub-group or peer group.
 Peer groups if not well guided may degenerate into a group of anti-social elements resulting
in truancy and delinquency etc. eg. they may resort to stealing, prostitution, drug abuse etc
 Delinquent peer groups may create indiscipline and unnecessary challenge of authority

Key ideas

 A peer group is a group whose members are equal in age, rank, or ability
 The peer group is the first social group in which the child tries to gain acceptance.
 Peer group influence is particularly important during the adolescence period when the
adolescent cherishes the advice of peers more than adults or parents
 Peer groups influence the development of children by providing them shelter, protection,
security and acceptance as well as teaching specific status and gender roles
 Teachers can use the interest and cooperation in peer groups to encourage group activities
that can motivate children to learn.
 The negative effects of peer group groups include; indiscipline, unnecessary challenge of
authority and delinquent behaviour.

Reflection

 How does the peer group influence the socialization of children?

 As a teacher how is your knowledge of peer group influence likely to influence your
teaching?
 What are some positive and negative effects of the peer group?

 Why is peer group influence very strong among adolescents?

 What suggestions do you offer to address the negative impacts of peer groups?

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SESSION 3: RELIGIOUS BODIES/ORGANIZATIONS

In this session, we look at the influence of religious bodies on the child's socialization. Such
religious organizations include: various churches, Islamic sects, prayer groups, scripture unions,
traditional religious organizations. Specifically, the discussion will centre on how religious
organizations educate or socialize the child as well as the negative influence of religious bodies

Learning outcomes
By the end of this session, the participant will be able to:
1. Provide examples of the various religious bodies.
2. Identify and describe at least five ways religious bodies socialize the child.
3. Identify and explain at least three negative influences of religious bodies.
How religious Organizations Socialize the Child

The church or the religious organizations whose principal function is to show the individual how
to relate himself/herself to the unknown and the supernatural, take on other functions such as
teaching or governing. The church or the religious organization acts through people who train the
child by the usual methods of social learning. Children are socialized through the following:
 The church provides moral education through its formal and informal teaching. Through
Bible stories such as the Good Samaritan.
 It helps in moulding the child’s personality through inculcating virtues such as honesty,
respect and patriotism, and modelling our life style on that of Christ.
 It provides models for imitation. For example the young imitate the adults’ ways of worship
and their being devout Christian, Muslim, Hindu etc.
 It helps to transmit the society’s culture to the child e.g. drumming, dancing, enacting plays.
 Through the various groups within the church the child is trained for leadership and other
responsible positions e.g. boy’s brigade, girls fellowship.
 It provides formal education – grammar type, vocational and technical education.
 It directly teaches certain skills and vocations. – Talks/seminars/workshops using resource
persons.
 They preach sermons on morals during church service or memorize sections of the Koran
or Bible in order to stress the spiritual values and attitudes which are desirable for the
child and Society.
 Children learn from welfare services such as visiting and caring for the sick and
consoling the bereaved etc.
 Through initiation rites like baptism and confirmation children are socialized into adult
roles.

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 Negative Influences of Religious Bodies
 Religious intolerance between some religious sects usually result in violence and
instability
 It can lead to role confusion/conflict eg. a Christian in a muslim institution etc.
 There may be discrimination in favour of a particular religious groups especially in
admission into some mission or lslamic institutions.
 Productivity may be reduced because of some "taboo" . For example, in some
communities, people are not allowed to go to farm or work on certain days.
 Strict adherence to certain religious beliefs may be detrimental to our lives. eg. Some
religious bodies do not accept blood donation/transfusion. This can lead to one's untimely
death.

Key ideas

 Religious organizations are organizations whose identity and mission are derived from a
religious or spiritual tradition and which operate as registered or unregistered, nonprofit,
voluntary entities
 Religious organizations include Churches, Islamic sects, prayer groups, scripture
societies, traditional religions etc.
 The ways religious organizations educate or socialize the child include: preaching
morality; inculcating desirable virtues such as honesty; harmonious living, respect for
authority etc., leadership training, provision of role model, direct teaching of culture etc.
 Religious intolerance and violence, role, confusion, discrimination, strict adherence to
certain religious beliefs are among the negative influences of religious organizations.

Reflection

 What are examples of religious organizations?

 Recount how your religious body is able to educate or socialize the young ones.
 What do you perceive as negative influences of religious organizations?

 What do you consider as the five most important means by which religious organizations
educate or socialize the child?
 What suggestions do you offer for addressing the negative influences of religious
organizations?

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SESSION 4: THE SCHOOL

In this session, we will focus our discussion on the school which is an institution specifically set
up by the society to promote the educational/socialization of the child. Specifically we will
discuss the meaning of a school, how the school functions as an agency of socialization and the
negative influences of the school as an agency of socialization.

Learning outcomes
By the end of this session, the participant will be able to:
1. Explain the meaning of a school
2. Describe how the school serves as an agency of socialization
3. Identify and explain at least three ways the school can negatively impact on the child's
socialization.

Meaning of a school

Generally, a school may be considered as a place where teachers and learners meet in a supper-
ordinate, subordinate relationship for the purposes of teaching and learning. It is a planned social
institution which act as an instrument of the community for teaching the young.

How the School Functions as Agency of Socialization

 Through the teaching of some specific subjects, such as religious and moral education
(RME), social studies, government etc. the child is able to learn about his/her rights and
responsibilities as a citizen.
 The school provides the child with social learning which will be valuable for him when he
becomes an adult member of his community. Through interaction with colleagues, teachers
and the non-teaching staff, the child learns how to live among people.
 The school offers the pupils who are young citizens diverse opportunities to demonstrate
the sense of civic responsibility. They are encouraged to clean the school compound, and
take part in decision making etc.
 Teachers and other personnel within the school set-up serve as role models.
 The recitation of the pledge and singing of national anthem, instill in students, a sense of
patriotism.
 Through the prefectorial system, the school trains children to acquire leadership skills.
 By encouraging students to obey school rules and regulations they learn to observe the
laws of the nation or society.
 Through worship and morning assemblies, students learn religious moral laws.
 The school provides the environment for peer group influence
 The school directly teaches children the culture of the society.

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Negative Influences of the School as Agency of Socialization
 At times there is some kind of indoctrination whereby children are made to accept certain
values not based on their free will.
 The best discipline comes from within but at times school discipline is extremely impose.
Thus, students may obey rules not because they understand the need for such but for fear
of punishment.
 Some delinquent peer groups within the school may undermine the positive impact of the
school's socialization of the child.
 In a democratic school, children will be encouraged to express themselves freely but
where there is autocratic, fear will be instilled in students who will be discouraged from
expressing themselves freely.
 When there is no effective cooperation between the school and the home the socialization
of the child is undermined eg. parents may ask their children to disregard the good things
their teachers teach them.

Key ideas

 The school is the place where teachers and students meet in a supp-ordinate and sub-
ordinate relationship for the purpose of teaching and learning.
 The school is the principal agency or institution specifically established by modern
society for the socialization of children.
 The school functions as an agency of education by teaching some specific subjects such
as RME and social studies; by ensuring children obey school rules; teaching good
hygiene; teaching specific vocational and technical skills; and teachers serving as role
models etc.
 The negative influences of the school as an agency of socialization include the fact that at
times children are indoctrinated, discipline is externally imposed, delinquent groups may
undermine the positive impact of the school etc.

Reflection

 For what reasons are schools established?

 Why will you consider the school as an institution specifically established to promote the
socialization of the child?
 What do you consider as negative influences of the school as an agency of socialization?

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  Identify any four subjects taught in the school and discuss how they are able to socialize
the child.
 Compare and contrast the home and the school as agencies of socialization

SESSION 5. THE MASS MEDIA

In this session, we will focus on the activities of the mass media as an agency of socialization.
Specifically, look at the meaning of mass media, the categories of mass media, how the mass media
functions as an agency of socialization as well as the negative influences of the mass media.

Learning outcomes
By the end of this session, the participant will be able to:
1. Explain the meaning of mass media
2. Distinguish between print and electronic media
3. Describe how the mass media serves as an agency of socialization
4. Identify and discuss the negative impact of the mass media as an agency of socialization

Meaning of Mass Media

Mass media is communication- whether written, broadcast or spoken that reaches a large audience.
Basically, the mass media can be classified into two – The print media and electronic media.
1. The Print Media; It provides information in the form of graphics or in written form.
Examples includes; newspapers, magazines, journals and books.
2. The Electronic Media; It presents information through electro- magnetic waves
with the aid of electric current. Examples include; Radio, television, video, cinema
and the internet - social media.

How the Mass Media Functions as Agency of Education/ Socialization

The various ways through which the mass media serves as agent of socialization are as follows:
 The television which at present seems to be especially important in the socialization of
children has children’s special programmes. E.g.by the fire side whereby children learn
about the history and culture of the people as well as moral lessons through story telling.

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  There are entertainment programmes such as football; other games and sports on the
television as well as on radio which serve as the platform to learn how to socialize and
obey rules.
 The radio and television programmes which are given to supplement school programmes.
E.g. ‘science quiz’ and ‘what do you know’ serve as important source of knowledge
acquisition.
 News commentaries and bulletins on radio and TV serve as a source of knowledge on
current world affairs.
 Some of the dailies carry separate sections for the education of children.
 The government reports, policies etc. are published in the dailies and magazines.
 Books and libraries are major socialization influences.
 Children form concepts of appropriate and desirable behaviour from the heroes they read
about, and they can imitate those heroes. Thus, politicians, economists, businessmen,
scientists, industrialists, footballers, musicians who have succeeded in their fields, who
serve as role models.
 Through the internet and the social media, people acquire knowledge, skills, language,
mode of dressing etc.
 They help in developing the language of children. Examples are programmes such as
‘Everyday English’ and ‘French for beginners ‘. This may expand children’s vocabulary
and ideas
 They help to keep the child up-to-date with current political, economic, social and
technological issues.
 They offer political and civic education to equip children with patriotism as well as
leadership skills.
 They serve as sources or moral training. Eg TV adverts insist on abstinence from sex as
the surest way to prevent contracting HIV/AIDS (Anyagre & Dondieu, 2007)
.
Demerits of the Mass Media
Training in leadership skills, community improvement, social skills, obedience of rules, self-
discipline are some of the way societies and clubs are able to socialize the individual.
 The dominance of foreign films and TV programmes may change our value system and
result in cultural alienation
 It can promote bad habits or behaviors such as stealing, fighting, lying, drug addiction,
robbery etc among the youth
 Some programmes do not take into consideration children’s level of maturation, interest
and socio- economic background. Examples are pornographic films, movies and computer
games
 Children may spend too much time watching programmes which are of no educational
value instead studying or doing their homework.
 Compared to those in urban areas, the impact of the mass media in children’s socialization
in rural areas may be limited because of limited mass media such as TV, cinema, internet

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 etc. This may however, be regarded as positive, considering the negative impact of the
social media

Key ideas

 Mass media is written, broadcast or spoken communication that reaches a large audience.
 The two types of mass media are 1). Print media and 2). Electronic media.
 The mass media is non-personal agent of socialization
 By teaching children language; offering political and civil education.; offering moral
training; and providing children with role models etc. the mass media serves as agent of
socialization.
 Change in value system because of foreign influence; promotion of bad habits, children
spending too much time on programmes that have no educational values etc. are some
demerits of the mass media.

Reflection

 What are examples of print and electronic media?

 Provide concrete examples as to how the mass media is able to socialize children
 What do you consider as some disadvantages of the social media as an agency of
socialization?

 What do you consider as the four most important ways the mass is able to socialize
children?
 How can the negative impact of the mass media be minimized?

SESSION 6: CLUBS AND SOCIETIES

In this session we discuss the activities of Clubs and Societies within the school and community
which tremendously influence the socialization of the young ones. Specifically, we will discuss
the meaning of Clubs and Societies and the role they play as agencies of education. Finally, we
will look at some weaknesses of Clubs and Societies as agents of socialization
 Objectives Describe what Clubs and Societies are?
 Provide examples of Clubs and Societies in Ghana

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  Identify and explain at least five ways Clubs and Societies function as agents of
socialization.
 Identify and at least three shortcomings of Clubs and Societies as agents of socialization.

What are Clubs and Societies?

Clubs and Societies are social groups or organizations either in the school or community
established to promote the overall development of people, pupils or students. Examples include:
Boys and Girls Brigade, Red Cross Society, Wildlife Club, Drama Clubs, Catholic Youth
Organizations (CYO), Green Earth Club, Virgin Club, Yong Men Christian Association
(YMCA), and Scripture Union (SU).

The Role of Clubs and Societies in the Child’s Socialization

Clubs and Societies contribute to socializing/educating the child in the following ways:
 Children are trained in leadership skills and qualities and perform roles expected of them
as future leaders of society.
 Children learn to develop social skills such as cooperation, friendliness, sympathy,
honesty and a sense of responsibility
 Clubs and Societies satisfy children's need for society, love, acceptance, and
belongingness, which they learn to exhibit
 They promote the health of their members as well as those of their communities through
such programmes as clean-up campaigns, tree planting and protection of water bodies.
 Through clean-up campaigns, children’s interest in community service to improve the
quality of life of the people is aroused. Also, through organized talks, symposia etc.
community members are counselled on topics such as environmental degradation.
 They are useful avenues for moral and character training
 They give children social experiences. For example, through participation in discussions
children learn self-control, tolerance and the spirit of give and take. They also learn to
adjust freely to the opposite sex.
 They are trained to learn to learn to respect group norms, rules and regulations which
they transfer to the larger society.

Weaknesses of Clubs and societies as Agency of Socialization

The following weaknesses can be identified as militating against the noble intentions of clubs
and societies:

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  Immoral practices among some members when they go on camping, excursions, field
trips etc.
 Unhealthy rivalry and competition may exist among some clubs and societies.
 Restrictions on the use of some natural resources posed by such clubs as Wildlife and
Green Earth Clubs may hamper economic activities which ultimately, will affect
productivity (Anyagre & Dondieu, 2007)

Key ideas

 Clubs and Societies are social groups or organizations established in the community
or school to promote the overall development of people.
 Examples of clubs and Societies are: Red Cross Society, Virgin Club, CYO, YMCA,
and SU etc.
 Training in leadership skills, community improvement, social skills, obedience of
rules and self-discipline are some of the ways Clubs and Societies are able to socialize
the individual.
 If the activities of Clubs and Societies are not properly monitored it can lead immoral
practices, unhealthy rivalry etc.

Reflection

 What were some of the Clubs and Societies that operated in the secondary school you
attended?
 Explain five ways Clubs and Societies are able to educate or socialize the youth
 What are some of the likely challenges that may confront Clubs and Societies in the
socialization process?

 Identify any club or Society you are familiar with and discuss how it is able to educate or
socialize it members
 Identify any three weaknesses of Clubs and Societies as agents of socialization and
suggest ways of overcoming them.

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SESSION 7: THE COMMUNITY

In this last session of the unit, we will discuss how the community functions as an agency of
socialization and the negative influences of the community.
Learning outcomes
By the end of this session, the participant will be able to:
5. Explain the importance of the community as an agency of socialization
6. Describe how the community serves as agency of socialization
7. Identify and discuss the negative impact of the community as an agency of socialization

The Importance of the Community as Socialization Agency

The community inculcates in the individual its culture, values and social attitudes. The influence
is so great that it sets the social climate which the home and the school function. The child in the
course of his development is influenced by the habits of his community hence the difference in the
behavior of the children of different nationalities and from children of rural areas from children of
urban areas. The influence of the community can be either good or bad. The school should be
aware of the influences of the community and help the child to make the right choices and again
to help educate the community.

How the Community Functions as Agency of Socialization

The community contributes to the socialization of the Ghanaian child in the following ways:
 They help in personality development by shaping the child’s attitudes, way of thinking and
values:
 Through activities such as funerals, festivals etc. children learn their cultural values;
 They provide models for imitation;
 Help in cultural transmission;
 Provide avenues for the interaction with peers;
 Help train children for leadership and other roles; and
 Provide avenues for learning vocational and technical skills.

Negative Influences of the Community as socialization Agency

 Some delinquent peer groups within the community may undermine the positive impact
of the community's socialization of the child.
 Insistence on the community’s cultural values may lead to ethnocentrism – children tend
to look down upon others’ culture but see theirs as the best.
 Children may wrongly copy the bad behaviours of celebrates they cherish as role models.
 Some communities may not be prepared for change and stick to archaic cultures.

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Key ideas

 The community inculcates in the individual its culture, values and social attitudes.
 The influence of the community is very great because it sets the social climate which the
home and the school function.
 Among others, the community serves as an agency of socialization by transmitting its
culture; providing models for imitation; leadership training; providing vocational training
etc.
 Blindly copying bad behaviours of role models; sticking to archaic cultures; ethnocentrism
etc. are among the negative impact of the community as an agency of socialization.

Reflection

 Why do you regard the community as an important agency of socialization?

 In what ways does your community influence children’s socialization?
 What do you consider as some negative impact of the community as an agency of
socialization?

 What do you consider as the four most important ways the community is able to
socialize children?
 How can the negative impact of the community be minimized?

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UNIT 5: PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF EDUCATION

This unit focuses on the philosophical foundations of education where issues relating to meaning
of philosophy as well as philosophy of education will be discussed. Our attention will also be
focused on schools of thought in philosophy such as Idealism, Realism, and Pragmatism and their
influence on educational practice with regard to the learner, the teacher, the curriculum, and
methodology.

Learning outcomes
By the end of this unit, the participant will be able to:
 Explain the meaning, nature and components of philosophy.
 Explain the meaning and scope of philosophy of education and its importance to the
teacher.
 Demonstrate an understanding of Idealism, Realism and Pragmatism as philosophical
schools of thought and their implications for educational practice.

SESSION 1: MEANING, NATURE, COMPONENTS OF PHILOSOPHY AND

PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION
In this session we will examine the etymological meaning of philosophy as well as the nature of
philosophy. Also, our attention will be focused on the components of philosophy where we will
look at metaphysics, epistemology and axiology. Furthermore, we will look at the meaning and
scope of philosophy of education and highlight on its importance to the teacher.

Learning outcomes
By the end of this session, the participant will be able to:
1. Demonstrate an understanding of the etymological meaning of philosophy.
2. Explain the major components of philosophy.
3. Demonstrate an understanding of the meaning and scope of philosophy of education.
4. Explain the importance of philosophy of education to the teacher.

What is philosophy?
People think of philosophy in different ways because of differences in viewing the world. Over
the years, philosophers have tried to identify what philosophy is but they have not come out with
any universally accepted one.

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In Plato’s book “The Republic” he stated that Socrates preferred not to call his students wise men.
Rather he called them by a more modest and appropriate title “lovers of wisdom” or philosophers.
Philosophy has its root in the ancient Greek words “phillos” (loving) and “Sophia” (wisdom) and
means “love of wisdom”. Wisdom is commonly linked with the process of knowing.
Philosophy can be described as rational investigation into certain fundamental problems about the
nature of man and the world he lives in. Gyekye (1987) also defines philosophy as a rational,
critical and systematic inquiry into the fundamental ideas underlying human thought, experience
and conduct.
Philosophy can also be described broadly as a conceptual activity in which a person by proposing
relevant questions seeks to clarify meanings of concepts and language, establish rational basis of
beliefs and assumptions, thereby leading to an organized and reasoned view of himself/herself and
the universe in which he/she lives; and finally seeks to determine standards for assessing values,
judging conduct and appraising art.
Bertrand Russel as cited in Schofield (1972) sees philosophy as lying half-way between theology
and science. It has characteristics of science as well as theology. It shares some properties with
theology because it consists of speculations of matters on which definite knowledge has so far not
been proved. For example, what happens to the spirit of man after death? Certain aspects of
philosophical enquiry can also be subjected to proof that is why it resembles science. For instance,
there are certain propositions and statements that can be proved from a truth table. Bertrand Russel
contends that between theology and science there is a no-man’s land which is occupied by
philosophy.
Philosophy is the rational and critical inquiry into the basic principles of life including the nature
and meaning of existence, truth, good and evil, morality and judgement, the origins, validity, and
the limits of knowledge, beauty in the fine arts, among others.
Philosophy can also be described as a rational investigation into certain fundamental problems
about the nature of man and the world he lives in.
In recent times, philosophy is considered in a more general sense as an attempt by man to give
meaning to his existence through the continue search for comprehensive and consistent answers to
basic problems. The emphasis is not just to love wisdom.

Nature/Characteristics of Philosophy
1. Critical Thinking. Philosophy involves critical thinking. This is because philosophical
inquiry is an activity that demands thinking critically about issues. Hence, a thoughtless
person cannot engage in any meaningful philosophical argument.

2. Methodology. Philosophy is methodological; hence, it employs formal methods. The most

widely used method of philosophy is reflection. Reflection means thinking deeply and
carefully about issues.

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 3. Absolute Reliance on Logical Reasoning. In philosophy, we employ logical reasoning as
the basis for arriving at conclusions.

4. Conclusions are Tentative. In philosophical inquiry, conclusions reached are considered

tentative. No conclusions are absolute and certain because they are subject to further
correction based on new evidence. In philosophy, the truth is therefore contingent on time,
place and circumstances.

COMPONENTS/AREAS OF PHILOSOPHY
1. Problems of Reality. Metaphysics is the branch of philosophy which usually deals with
this problem. Metaphysics is from a Greek word ta meta physica meaning, things beyond
the physical realm. It consists of all theories which purport to set down the nature of exiting
things. It deals with the nature of man and the nature of the world he lives in. Questions
usually discussed are: What is the nature of the universe we live in? What is reality? What
really is man? Where is his origin? What place is he going? Where does man go after death?
Metaphysics also deals with abstract and hidden topics as well as issues. For example, the
nature of the soul or mind. Whether man has a soul or mind. Others include: does God
exist? How can we know Him? We also have the predestination of human beings, fate, and
free-will under metaphysics.

Sub-divisions of metaphysics are:

i. Ontology. It is the study of ultimate reality. Is the reality one or many? Or both one
and many? If reality is many, what is the relationship between these many
elements? All these are ontological questions. Ontology raises questions about how
entities are grouped into basic categories as well as which of these entities exist on
the most fundamental level. It also deals with the existence and relations between
things. For example, human beings, plants, animals, and water.

ii. Cosmology. It deals with the origin and general structure of the universe with its
parts, elements and laws. It is also a branch of metaphysics, a theory or doctrine
describing the natural order or arrangement of the universe. For instance, planets,
and stars as well as astronomy i.e. the origins, structure ad space –time relationships
of the universe.

2. Problems of Knowledge. This branch of philosophy is known as Epistemology.

Epistemology has its origin from the Greek word episteme which means knowledge. It is
a branch of philosophy that deals with the nature, the scope, the limits and criteria of human
knowledge. Hence, the first problem which arises before a philosopher is about the nature
of knowledge and its limitations. Epistemology focuses on truth, falsehood, validity of
knowledge, limits of knowledge, the knower as well as known. Questions discussed are:
How do we get knowledge? How does a man know what is real? What do we mean by
knowledge itself? What is it to know something? What are the sources of knowledge?

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 Types of Knowledge
i. Revealed knowledge. It is the type of knowledge that is made available to man by God
through inspiration. In other words, God reveals this type of knowledge to men who are
inspired.

ii. Empirical/Scientific knowledge. This refers to the type of knowledge obtained through
observation of the things around us by the use of our senses (seeing, hearing smelling,
feeling, and tasting). It is also acquired through personal experience from various actions
in which we are involved. It is empirical because it can be verified for its truth by those
who have the expertise to do so.

iii. Rational knowledge. This refers to the of knowledge we derived by reasoning. That is not
by observation but by inferring new knowledge from what we already know. For example,
the mathematical subjects are good illustrations of rational knowledge. Philosophy is
another example of rational knowledge. In philosophy we employ logic. Deductions can
be made and based on the deductions, we draw conclusions. For example, given the
premise that Kofi is a man, all men are mortals. It follows that Kofi is mortal.

iv. Intuitive knowledge. It is the type of knowledge that a person finds within himself in a
moment of insight. By insight or intuitive, it means a sudden discovery of a solution to a
problem with which our unconscious mind has been gripped for a long period of time. The
first type of intuitive knowledge involves a solution to a problem arrived at by an individual
who has been working on that problem for a long time without any solution. Then all of a
sudden, he arrives at the solution assisted by his earlier effort to find a solution to the
problem. For example, Archimedes. The second type occurs when others come to an
individual with a problem and he makes a quick guess of a solution. It must be pointed out
that whether intuitive solution is right or wrong, it is finally decided by rational means of
knowledge. Knowledge acquired solely by intuition cannot be said to be a final knowledge.
Intuition is probably not a reliable source of knowledge. Therefore, our educational
institutions tend to de-emphasize intuition because it is unpredictable, and highly personal
Even though the solution may be right, the individual cannot explain how he/she arrives at
the solution.

v. Authoritative knowledge. This is the type of knowledge that is characterized by

dependence on what someone who is known to be a specialist in any field of knowledge
has said or written without verification. For example, we derive knowledge from
dictionaries, encyclopedia, and other documents without taking the pain to cross check
them. This piece of information is considered to be true because authorities in various fields
have written them.

3. Problems of Values. The branch of philosophy which deals with this problem is called
Axiology. The problems of values include questions such as: What are the principles of
life? How do they support the view of reality? Axiology concerns itself with good and bad,
right and wrong, means and ends, among others. Axiology has been divided into the
following branches namely:

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 i. Ethics. It deals with study of moral conduct. It discusses the criteria of right or
good. That is what makes actions right or wrong, and of how theories of right
actions can be applied to special moral problems.

ii. Aesthetics. It deals with the nature and criteria of art and beauty. Specifically, it is
concerned with art, sculpture, painting, style, taste, among others.

PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION
Common Sense / Personal / Public Notion of Philosophy of Education
In ordinary discussion, people take their philosophy of education to mean their personal view of
what the school should be doing or their attitude to the educational system. There can be many
philosophies of education as there are individuals who care to express their opinions. For example,
when politicians refer to their philosophy of education they mean programmes of education, which
they are going to follow when voted into power. They only indicate the trends or orientation. There
is no systematically thought out, profound, or comprehensive view. They usually make use of
catchy phrases like our philosophy of qualitative education or pragmatic and functional education
or ‘Education from the grassroots’ to catch the attention of voters to vote for them.
In the public sense, philosophy of education is associated with the public expressions of opinions
in educational matters. It includes what the public appraise as good and right to be done in
education as well as the public’s evaluation of teachers and educational programmes. For example,
if enlightened citizens who are mostly educators ask the headmaster of a secondary school about
the school’s philosophy they mean the objectives or goals the school is trying to achieve. The
headmaster’s response will be in the school’s motto. That of UCC is ‘Veritas Nobis Lumen’ “Truth
our Guide”. What is the motto of your school or college?
The personal and the public sense of philosophy of education can also be described as the common
sense notion of philosophy of education. Some observations that can be made about the personal
and public sense of philosophy of education are that:
i. They are generally vague and are not based on any systematic thought about what type
of man/woman they want to produce.
ii. They are also silent on the type of values their educated man/woman would cherish.
iii. No mention is also made of the type of society in which the scholar would be educated.
Although these ideas may exist at the back of their minds, they are not subject to scrutiny and
analysis.

The Professional or Technical Sense (Philosophy of Education as a Discipline)

Philosophy of education as a discipline, deals with the accumulated wisdom expressed by
educational theorists who have received professional training in philosophy. Professional

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philosophers of education have provided direction to philosophy since the mid, 20th century. They
have provided professional educators with copious philosophical literature relevant to the context,
design and activities of education. Professional philosophers of education usually conduct in-depth
studies of educational systems and analyze them after deep reflection and produce alternative
systems.

Philosophical Meanings of Education

Philosophers see education as the totality of the influence that nature or humans are able to exercise
either on their intelligence or on their will. Similarly, education is viewed philosophically as all
that we ourselves do and all that others do in order to bring us closer to the perfection of our nature
(Agyeman, 1986). The objective of education is to make the individual an instrument of happiness
for himself and his fellows.
This philosophical view of education implies that education places emphasis on the perfection of
man’s nature through the development of his mental, physical and psychic faculties.
Philosophically, education is also seen as the art of utilization of knowledge and conception of
knowledge. It is the guidance towards the understanding of the art of living (Whitehead, 1932)
Dewey (1916) views education from the pragmatist philosophical perspective. He sees education
as the reconstruction and reorganization of experience which adds to the meaning of experience
and increase the ability to direct the cause of subsequent experience. This implies that education
is to help the individual to develop in order to contribute to his continue growth. It is clear that
education places emphasis on the complete development of the individuality of the person so that
he can make an original contribution to human life according to his best capability.

The Gifts of Philosophy to Education are as follows:

1. Philosophy assists education in understanding man, his life, his actions, deals and
problems.
2. Philosophy assists the educator in formulating beliefs, arguments, assumptions and
judgements concerning teaching and learning, character and intellect, subject-matter and
skills, desirable ends and appropriate means of schooling.
3. Philosophy assists education in the determined effort to find out what education should
do in the face of contradictory demands of life and factors arising out of experience which
brings meaning and direction to thinking.
4. Philosophy assists education in giving unity of outlook to the diverse interests of the
individual, his family, community and state.
5. Philosophy provides logical rigour envisaging transcendence and disciplined imagination
which when taken out of the person will find him barren mass of flesh.

Note
1. The art of education would never attain complete clearness without philosophy.

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 2. Education without philosophy would mean a failure to understand the precise nature of
education.
3. Philosophy is the theory of education in its most general phrases.
4. If education is a set of techniques of imparting knowledge, skills and attitudes, philosophy
is the foundation to vitualise these. Philosophy is the foundation and education is the super
structure.
5. Without philosophy, education would be a blind effort and without education, philosophy
will be a cripple.

Philosophy and Education

1. The goal of philosophy is to explain the baffling mysteries of universe, the place of man in
the universe and the problems he created.
2. Education is a practical activity of philosophical thought. Every educational practice is
illuminated with the backdrop of philosophy.
3. The speculative, normative and critical function of philosophy affects the moral guidance
that the teacher gives, as well as, the direction and the emphasis of the curriculum.
4. No practice is good and scientific unless rooted in philosophical thought which gives logic,
rationale, sequence and system to education.
5. Since philosophy speaks the language of analysis and reason, there is hardly any problem
of education which is not solved by the calm lights of philosophy.

What is Philosophy of Education?

It is the study of education using methods, principles and theories of philosophy. The subject
matter is education and the methods used are those of philosophy. Philosophy of education is
concerned with the concepts, aims, forms, and methods of education which are drawn from
metaphysics, epistemology, axiology, and other philosophical methods such as speculative,
prescriptive and analytic. It is used to address questions in pedagogy, educational policy,
curriculum and the process of learning.
Philosophy and education are obverse and reverse of the same coin. They are both the same thing
but we look at them from different perspectives. This is because:
1. Both education and philosophy seek to solve the problem of living.
2. They all deal with problems of values. That is what is right and what is wrong; what is
good and what is bad; also both find out the truth.

Importance of Philosophy of Education in Teacher Education

1. It enables the teacher to help the learners to develop a high sense of rationality
2. The study of philosophy of education enables the teacher to influence educational policies
under which they operate. This can be done when teachers are engaged in theoretical
discussions of educational policies with their colleagues.

3. Philosophy of education is important because it helps to sharpen the moral consciousness

of the teacher trainee. Through the study of philosophy, teachers are exposed to concepts
such as honesty, virtue and vices, duties and obligations, among others.

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 4. Knowledge in philosophy enhances the professional competency and efficiency of teachers
in teaching of their subjects. For example, teachers are able to ask fundamental
philosophical questions as follows:
- What is the nature of the subject?
- What is its basic structure?
- What is its purpose?
- Has it any value?

5. Philosophy has a humbling effect on those who pursue it because it forces an individual
to keep an open mind on any subject since new evidence may render one’s previous ideas
and opinion less tenable. Teachers are generally considered to be conservative, hence,
knowledge in philosophy will help to reverse this notion and make them critical,
innovative, and more objective about issues.

Key ideas

 Philosophy is the rational investigation into certain fundamental problems about the nature of
man and the world he lives in.
 The nature/ characteristics of philosophy are critical thinking, use of formal methods, absolute
reliance on logical reasoning and tentative conclusions.
 The components/areas of philosophy are metaphysics, epistemology and axiology.
 Philosophy of education is the study of education by using philosophical principles, methods
and theories to understand concepts, aims and forms of education which are drawn from
metaphysics, epistemology and axiology.
 Education without philosophy would mean a failure to understand the precise nature of
education.

Reflection
 How have my experiences in this training session I went through prepared me to form my own
personal philosophy of education?
 Which specific examples can I draw from this course to support my work?

Discussion
 How has this session equipped you to be a better classroom teacher/practitioner?
 How important is philosophy of education to you as a practitioner?

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SESSION 2: SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT OF PHILOSOPHY
In this session, we will look at the schools of thought of philosophy. Specifically, our attention
will be focused on Idealism, Realism and Pragmatism. Emphasis will be placed on how these
philosophical schools of thought have influenced educational practice with regard to the learner,
the teacher, the curriculum and methodology.

Learning outcomes
By the end of this session the participant will be able to:
1. Explain the Idealist school of thought of philosophy and demonstrate an understanding of
its influence on educational practice.
2. Discuss the philosophical views of Realism and show how these views have influenced
educational practice.
3. Demonstrate an understanding of how Pragmatism has influenced educational practice.

Idealism in Education
Idealism is derived from the German philosopher Emmanuel Kant. He says the world in which we
live in is dual in nature. That is world is divided into two:
1. Phenomenon
2. Noumenon

Phenomenon – Is the world of everyday experience and aspect of life which can be perceived
through the senses. For example, seeing, hearing, tasting, touching and smelling. We learn using
the senses to help us understand the world. Therefore, teachers should be made to use the various
senses appropriately to help the students understand.

Noumenon – Is the part of the human world which the senses cannot fathom. The senses are not
enough to help understand the world of noumenon. To understand what is in the world of the
Noumenon, one must be spiritually and intellectually well developed. That is why idealists
emphasize religion in their education. It is believed that God reveals hidden things to the spiritually
well-developed so that they can see, feel and hear things that ordinary people cannot see.

Also, one must be intellectually well developed to be able to understand the world of the
noumenon. Idealist therefore emphasize liberal education that is education that helps the individual
to understand a little bit about almost all the subject areas. Idealist also believe that the educated
person must be pansophic (all-round/well read). Idealists, therefore, places emphasis on the
classics, religion, philosophy, history, literature and all the theoretical sciences. This idea has led
to the belief that only those who understand the noumenal world can understand the world better.
This led to the idea of elitist education (selecting the best to climb higher on the academic ladder)

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Idealist View of Education
1. To bring the learner as close to God as possible. That is to develop the learner spiritually.
2. To train future leaders (therefore religion and moral education is important).
3. To develop morality in learners.
4. To transmit worthwhile element of culture.
5. Education is to make the individual subservient to the state.

Idealist view of the Teacher

1. The teacher is pivot of education. He serves as a model for learners. Therefore, teachers
should live a life worthy of emulation.
2. The teacher is a guide. Hence, he is considered to be the repository of all knowledge. The
teacher should be a source of knowledge not only in the classroom.
3. The teacher should be a role model in most things. For example, dressing, language and
the way he/she carries him/her self about.

Idealist view of the Learner/Student

1. The student is considered as a spiritual being in the process of becoming like the ideal or
absolute.
2. The student must imitate the teacher so as attain perfection.
3. The student is not tabula rasa hence; he/she must be helped to develop his/her capacities.
4. Idealist recommend self-learning activities for the student.

Idealist view of the Curriculum

The curriculum emphasizes on the humanities. For example, history, religion, literature, and
classics. That is subjects that promote understanding and intelligence of the students to enable
them to realize their spiritual self.
The idealists place less emphasis on vocational education. They also place less emphasis on
science but they believe science should be studied in order to appreciate nature.

Idealist Methodology
The principal methods of teaching for the idealist are lecture and discussion. They also emphasize
on imitation. According to the idealist, learning is the exercise of the mind hence, the mind should
be stretched to its fullest for it to be able to absorb and handle ideas. The idealists use the Socratic
method or the dialectical method which employs questions and answers. Socrates used such
methods to teach slaves mathematics.

Discipline and Idealism

1. Idealism believes in inner discipline.

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 2. Idealism advocates cultivation of higher values of life through moral and religious
instruction.
3. Idealism accepts restraints of freedom.
4. It requires the teacher to present good examples because the child or learner considers the
teacher to be an ideal person to be emulated.

Contribution of Idealism to Education

1. Idealism has been supported by many great educational philosophers from both the west
and the east, hence, a lot of educational schemes and plans have their root or beginning in
idealism.
2. Idealism has given higher place to mental and spiritual than to the physical world. Thus,
the aim of education is the perfection of the individual.
3. Idealism requires that the past culture must be given its place and accordingly education
aims at providing the means of acquainting the student with great achievement literature,
art, mathematics and science.
4. Idealism holds that every human being must receive a chance to be educated and the goal
of idealists is universal education.
5. The most important element in social culture, according to idealism is character. Education,
therefore, is to develop character of the students. As a result, many educationists stress on
religious education for character training.
6. Emphasis of idealists on personality development has resulted in a fresh look at human
relations in teaching.
7. Idealistic philosophy has provided clear and direct guidelines in education, curricula,
teacher’s role and methods of teaching.
8. Education according to the idealist pattern is ideal centred. Therefore, the personality of
the teacher has become the single most important influence in the student’s learning
experience.
9. We are not part of a mechanical universe and in the world threatened by materialism.
Idealistic philosophy has restored man to his proper place and educational institutions have
become places for creating values like truth, beauty and goodness.

Weaknesses and Limitations of Idealism in Education

1. Idealistic concepts like spirit, mind, soul, the cosmos have little relevance in classroom
teaching.
2. The idealistic education places emphasis on imitation of models but younger generation
prefers invention and originality rather than imitation.
3. Too much emphasis on gaining knowledge is likely to turn educational institutions as
information mongers’ workshops. School curricula becomes overloaded with obsolete
knowledge sometimes.
4. Idealistic scheme of education largely pays less attention to physical, industrial as well as
electronic environment of today.
5. Idealism may be considered as outmoded in the prevailing scientific world view. This is
because the Spiritualist theory of spiritual universe is not considered to be in consonance
with the scientific research today.

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Realism in Education
Realists believe that the world in which we live in is governed by the laws of nature. These laws
must be studied and understood so that one can live meaningfully. This will help us control and
manipulate the world to our advantage. Realists therefore emphasize the natural sciences (physics,
chemistry, biology, mathematics) to be the focus of our education.
Realism is a revolt against the idealist doctrine that things that are in the experiential universe are
dependent upon the mind perceiving them. The realists, on the other hand, believe that things of
human experience or things of the material world have real existence and their existence are true
and objective.

Aims of Education to the Realists

To teach those things and values that lead to the good life and to live the good life one must master
the laws of nature and live in consent with those laws. In other words, the aim of education
according to the realists is to teach the child the natural and moral laws. Education, is therefore,
seen as a process of developing the capacity of man to enable him know the truth and as it is.

Realist view of the Learner/student

The student is capable of learning provided he/she is taught through the senses of
learning/perception. Using the senses of perception, the student is capable of learning on his/her
own. Therefore, the student should not be spoon-fed. He/she should be trained to read for salient
information. The student must also be disciplined until he/she has learned to make proper response.

Realist view of the Teacher

To the Realist, the teacher is a guide. The teacher should introduce students to the real world. The
teacher is to know the basic truth and culture. He/she is also expected to be loyal to his/her subject
or discipline so as to be able to present the truth as faithfully as possible without any biases.

Realist view of the Curriculum

Realists also believe in liberal education with natural sciences being the main focus. They are
interested in subjects such as language, natural sciences, history, and integrated science. They
emphasize on mathematics because it is a precise abstract symbolic system for describing the laws
of nature. Religion should also be taught. Aesthetic subjects like drama, painting, sculpture must
also be taught. To the Realist, vocational education is only a supplementary.

Realists Methods of Teaching

The scientific method of inquiry is the methodology prescribed by the realists. These are
experimentation and discovery learning. The realists believe the best knowledge is the one the
individual has personally experienced and not what somebody has told. The students should be
made to be instrumental in the lesson. Do not spoon-feed students. Give the students tasks and tell
them what they should look for. The Realist curriculum is the sciences – natural sciences – physics,
chemistry, mathematics, and biology.

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Teachers must use concrete objects when presenting concepts. Hence, models, pictures, and maps,
should be used in teaching. When exploring concepts teachers should use demonstration, facial
expressions and the senses. Teach students not feel satisfied with what they know. This is because
we can discover what we do not know by not feeling satisfied and content with what we have.
According to the Realists, as soon as we feel satisfied, civilization comes to end.

Pragmatism in Education
Pragmatism is a theory of action. They say that knowledge is rooted in experience. That is, we
acquire this knowledge through personal experience. Experience is the best teacher. In the
classroom, students can learn better when they learn on their own with teacher’s guidance. Teach
students where to go for information. The pragmatists also say that we acquire knowledge through
interaction with environment. It means we learn better through our interaction with the
environment.
Pragmatism as an educational philosophy emerged in America. It is considered a major
contribution of America to modern philosophy and philosophy of education. Its exponent was John
Dewey. Pragmatism is also referred to as Instrumentalism, Empiricism and Experimentalism. It
has a profound influence on educational theory and practice due to:
a. The 20th century is pre-eminently the age of science and technology. Therefore, science
and technology became the foundations on which the philosophy of pragmatism was built.
b. The age of materialism also influenced pragmatism as an educational theory and practice.
This is because people become more interested in material benefits and the practical
usefulness of any activity that is undertaken. That is, the utility of ideas and cash value of
ideas became the main pre-occupation of pragmatic philosophy.

Pragmatism is based on the theory of truth and meaning. To the pragmatist, the truth is tentative.
It means, it is not final. That is what is considered to be true today may tend out to be not the truth
tomorrow. Hence, the truth is subject to further testing. The pragmatist believe that the truth can
only be known only through its practical consequences. The truth is therefore a social matter rather
than an absolute.

Pragmatists View on Education

Education is the process of reconstruction and reorganization of experience. Learning is more or
less permanent change of behaviour. The pragmatists say that the child must be helped in such a
way for him/her to contribute to his/her continue growth. The aim of education therefore is to
provide the conditions that make growth possible.
The pragmatists also see education as life and not a preparation for life. This implies education
should be related to the experience, interest and aspirations of the learner.

Pragmatists View of the Student

The student is an experiencing organism capable of using intelligence to resolve problems.
Students learn as they do, so they must be allowed to explore the environment and learn through
personal experience. The role of the teacher is only that of a facilitator. The student is also seen as

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a biological, social and psychological person who brings to the school values and experiences that
constitute his personality and therefore make him/her unique and should be treated as such. The
student has his/her likes, dislikes etc. the student must be helped to determine the future direction
of his/her learning.

Pragmatists View of the Teacher

The pragmatists say the teacher should not be reserviour of knowledge. That is, there should not
be the authoritarian type who is considered as the embodiment of all wisdom and custodian of
knowledge. He/she should not be a spectator or the laissez-faire type. The pragmatist sees the
teacher as a member of a learning group (participant) who serves as a helper, a guide and arranger,
helper, guide, an organizer or moderator of student’s lesson.
To the pragmatists, the teacher should have adequate knowledge about the psychological
development needs and interest of the individuals in order to select appropriate learning activities
for them. The learning task should also be arranged according to the students, developing ability.
The teacher should also serve as a resource person. Finally, the pragmatists say that, the teacher
should arrange the social and group learning and moderate the interaction between members of the
group.

Pragmatists View of the Curriculum

To the pragmatists, any experience in education that contribute to growth should be included in
the curriculum or should form the subject matter. The sciences should be taught. Their emphasis
is on the practical application of theory. That is, the laws and theories in science should not merely
be learnt but they should be put into practice.
The pragmatists also say that, the social sciences should be part of the curriculum. This is because
they represent the social environment and the factors that affect human behaviour in his
community. The humanities are also included in the pragmatist curriculum. This is because they
deal with the cultural heritage of the people. To the pragmatists, language should also be taught.
This is because it is considered as an instrument of communication. Aesthetics subjects like arts,
drama, literature and music should also be taught. This is because they help in developing the
creative ability of the students. The subject matter should be released to the needs, capacity and
concerns of students. The curriculum to the pragmatist is learner concerned. The pragmatists place
much emphasis on vocational education.

Pragmatists View of Methodology

1. Teaching must be student or learner centered. That is the needs, ability and interests of the
student must be taken into account.
2. It must involve activity on learning by doing. This involves activity or learning by doing.
This involves the use of more than one of the senses.
3. The group method or the co-operative and collaborative learning is highly recommended
by the pragmatists.

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 4. Freedom and encouragement is needed to enable the students use their intelligence and
initiative. Hence, the project method or the problem-solving method is encouraged by the
pragmatists.
5. The pragmatists also lay emphasis on experimentation and the use of scientific method.
6. Classroom discussion in a free and open atmosphere is encouraged.

Key ideas

 Idealism is an educational philosophy which argues that the world is dual in nature- the
physical world and the spiritual world. Things of the spiritual world can only be
understood by those who are intellectually and spiritually well developed. The goal of
Idealism is universal education.
 Realism as an educational philosophy argues that the world is governed by natural laws.
These laws must be studied and understood. Realism places emphasis on the natural
sciences as the focus of education.
 Pragmatism as an educational philosophy argues that, knowledge is rooted in
experience. Experience is the best teacher. We acquire knowledge through personal
experience.

Reflection
 In what ways have my experiences in this training session prepared me to apply the
philosophical schools of thought in my work as a practitioner?
 Which specific examples can I draw from Idealism, Realism and Pragmatism to support
my work?

Discussion
 How has this session equipped you to be a better classroom practitioner?

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UNIT 6: SOME PIONEER EDUCATORS

The practice of education, it is significant to note, has passed through several phases over the
course of time. Each theory of education did not just happen by chance but through the works of
pioneer educators some of whom were great psychologists as well as philosophers. This unit
focuses on some pioneer educators whose educational philosophies, ideas and thoughts have had
profound influence on contemporary education the world over. There are scores of them, but we

have carefully selected just a few, not because these were the greatest, but to reflect a different age
from their period till today. Some of these educators include Comenius, Rousseau, Pestalozzi,
Froebel, and Montessori.

Learning outcomes
By the end of this unit, the participant will be able to:
 Demonstrate an understanding of the background of Comenius, his educational principles
and their influence on educational practice today.
 Discuss the significant contributions of Jean-Jacques Rousseau to educational practice.
 Explain the contributions of Pestalozzi to educational practice.
 Demonstrate an understanding of Froebel’s views and their influence on educational
practice.
 Discuss the significant contributions of Montessori to educational practice

SESSION 1: JOHN AMOS COMENIUS (28 MARCH 1592 – 4 NOVEMBER 1670)

In this session our attention will be focused on John Amos Comenius. Specifically, we will look
at his background with regard to schooling and education, as well as his principles of education
and how they influence educational practice.

Learning outcomes
By the end of this session, the participant will be able to:
1. Demonstrate an understanding of the background of Comenius with regard to schooling
and education.
2. Explain the principles of teaching and learning of Comenius and their influence on
educational practice.

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Background: Education and Schooling
Comenius was a Czech teacher, educator, and a writer. He was born in the Moravian town of
Nivnitz and lived during Europe’s post-reformation era which was characterized by religious
violence between Catholics and Protestants. Hoping to end religious intolerance, he constructed a
new educational philosophy known as pansophism with objective of cultivating universal
understanding. As a pioneer peace educator, he believed that universally shared knowledge would
generate a love of wisdom that would overcome ethnic and religious hatred and create a peaceful
world order.
Comenius honoured multicultural principles that respected religious and cultural diversity. He
believed that schooling, by cultivating universal knowledge and values could promote
international understanding and peace (Rusk & Scotland, 1979).

Principles of teaching and learning

Comenius formulated the idea of education according to nature. He respected children’s natural
needs and interests and strongly opposed the conventional wisdom that children were inherently
bad and that teachers needed corporal punishment to discipline them. Instead, Comenius wanted
teachers to be gentle and loving persons who create joyful and pleasant classrooms.
Comenius urged teachers to make their lessons and materials appropriate to children’s natural
stages of growth and development. He also advised teachers to organize lessons into easily
assimilated small steps that made learning gradual, cumulative and pleasant. Comenius
emphasized the following principles:
1. Use objects or pictures to illustrate concepts (obtaining ideas through objects rather than
words).
2. Apply lessons to students’ practical lives (giving the child a comprehensive knowledge of
his environment, physical and social, as well as instruction in religious, moral, and
classical subjects).
3. Present lessons directly and simply.
4. Emphasize general principles before details.
5. Emphasize that all creatures and objects are part of a whole universe.
6. Present lessons in sequence stressing one thing at a time.
7. Not leaving specific subject until students understand it completely.
8. Starting with objects most familiar to the child to introduce him to both the new language
and the more remote world of objects.
9. Learning foreign languages through the vernacular.
10. Making this acquisition of a compendium of knowledge a pleasure rather than a task.
11. Making instruction universal.

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Influence on Educational Practices Today
Comenius’s use of education to promote ethnic and religious tolerance remains important to us
today, especially a world torn by violence and terror. He outlined a system of schools that is the
exact counterpart of the existing system of kindergarten, elementary school, secondary school,
college, and university. His encouragement of children’s active and engaged learning promoted
child- centered education. In terms of education according to nature he served as the forerunner of
Rousseau, Pestalozzi, Froebel, among others.
Key ideas
 Comenius constructed a new educational philosophy called pansophism.
 His main objective was to cultivate a universal understanding in order to end religious
violence between Catholics and Protestants.
 Comenius argued for multicultural education and formulated the idea of education
according to nature.

Reflection
 What are some of the experiences I went through during this training session?
 How have these experiences prepared me as a classroom practitioner with regard to
Comenius principles of teaching and learning?
Discussion
 How has this session equipped you to be a better classroom practitioner?
 How will you apply Comenius methods of education in order to promote peace and
harmony in your school as a practitioner?

SESSION 2: JEAN-JACQUES ROUSSEAU (28 JUNE 1712 – 2 JULY 1778)

In this session, we will learn about Jean-Jacques Rousseau. Specifically, we will focus on his views
on education and schooling. We will also discuss his educational principles and their influence on
educational practice today.

Learning outcomes
By the end of this session, the participant will be able to:
1. Demonstrate an understanding of the background of Rousseau with regard to his views
on education and schooling.
2. Discuss Rousseau’s principles of teaching and learning and how they influence
educational practice today.

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Background: Education and Schooling
Rousseau was a Swiss-born French theorist, philosopher, writer, and composer. He believed in
educating the natural person and emphasized respecting children’s freedom. The basic philosophy
of education of Rousseau is rooted in the notion that human beings are good by nature. Rousseau
sought to claim that the goal of education should be to cultivate our natural tendencies. He
minimizes the importance of book learning, and recommends that a child's emotions should be
educated before his reason (Rusk & Scotland, 1979).

Rousseau conveyed his educational philosophy through his famous 1762 novel, Emile, which tells
the story of a boy’s education from infancy to adulthood. The novel attacks the child depravity
theory and an exclusively verbal and literary education, which Rousseau believed ignored the
child’s natural interests and inclinations. He also believed that the child must be freed from
society’s imprisoning institutions, of which the school was one of the most coercive. He believed
children needed freedom to explore their environment and his emphasis on learning from direct
experience with the environment was endorsed by progressive educators later.

Rousseau preferred the natural to the social and emphasized human instincts as the initial means
of knowledge.
In formulating his personal philosophy of education, Rousseau used the following key ideas:
1. Childhood is an important foundation of human development
2. Children’s natural interests and instincts are valuable beginnings of a more thorough
exploration of the environment
3. Human beings in their life cycles, go through necessary stages of development
4. Adult coercion has a negative impact on children’s development

Principles of Teaching and Learning

Rousseau recognized the crucial importance of stages of human development. In Emile, Rousseau
identified five developmental stages: Infancy; Childhood; Boyhood: Adolescence; and Youth.
Rousseau insisted that the early formative stages be free from society’s corruption. Thus, Emile was
to be educated by a tutor on a country estate away from the temptations of a ruinous society.

Infancy (birth to age 5) – The child makes his first contact with objects in the environment and
learns directly from his senses

Childhood (ages 5 to 12) – The child constructs his personality as he becomes aware that his
actions cause either painful or pleasurable consequences.
Motivated by curiosity, he actively explores his environment, learning more about the world
through his senses. Rousseau called the eyes, ears, hands and feet the first teachers and considered
the senses better and more efficient than the schoolmaster who teaches words the learner does not
understand.

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Emile’s tutor deliberately refrained from introducing books at this stage to avoid substituting
reading for the child’s direct interaction with nature.
Boyhood (ages 12 to 15) – Emile learned natural science by observing the cycles of growth of
plants and animals. By exploring his surroundings, he learned geography far more realistically
than from studying maps. In addition, Emile also learned a manual trade, carpentry to make the
connection between mental and physical work
Adolescence (ages 15 to 18) – Emile was now ready to cope with the outside world and to learn
about society, government, economics and business. His aesthetic tastes were to be cultivated by
visits to museums, art galleries, libraries, and theatres.
Youth (ages 18 to 20) – During this last stage, Emile travelled to Paris and to foreign countries to
visit different peoples and societies. The book ends with his marriage and telling his tutor that he
would give his children the same natural education that he had received.
Influence on Educational Practices Today
Rousseau’s idea that the curriculum should reflect children’s interests and needs and not just
conform to adult prescriptions deeply influenced child-centered education
Rousseau’s ideas have also influenced the constructivist view of child development in which
children interpret their own reality rather than learn information from indirect sources.

Key ideas
 According to Rousseau, human beings are good by nature.
 The goal of education is to cultivate our natural tendencies.
 Children need freedom to explore the environment. Learning should emanate from direct
experiences with the environment.

Reflection
 How have my experiences in this training session prepared me to be a better classroom
practitioner?
 Which specific examples can I draw from the course, particularly, with regard to
educational principles of Rousseau to support my position?
Discussion
 How has this session equipped you as a classroom practitioner? How can you contribute
to achieving respect for the natural rights of children drawing from Rousseau’s education
principles?

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SESSION 3: JOHANN HEINRICH PESTALOZZI (12 JANUARY 1746 – 17 FEBRUARY
1827)
In the first and second sessions, we discussed the pioneering works of Comenius and Rousseau. In
this session, you will learn about Pestalozzi and how his ideas, thoughts and philosophies have
influenced educational theory and practice.

Learning outcomes
By the end of this session, the participant will be able to:
1. Explain the background of Pestalozzi with regard to his views on education and schooling.
2. Discuss Pestalozzi’s principles of teaching and learning and they influence educational
practice.

Background: Education and schooling

Pestalozzi was a Swiss educator. He lived during the early period of the industrial revolution.
Concerned about the impact of this economic change on families and children, Pestalozzi sought
to develop schools that like loving families would nurture children’s development.
He was an avid reader of Rousseau’s Emile and agreed with Rousseau that humans were naturally
good but spoiled by a corrupt society that traditional schooling was a dull mess of deadening
memorization and recitation, and that pedagogical reform could generate social reform. Pestalozzi,
as a Swiss educational reformer, put Rousseau’s theories into practice and thus became the first
applied educational psychologist.
Pestalozzi established schools at Burgdorf and Yverdon to educate children and prepare teachers.
Here he devised an efficient method of group instruction by which children learned in a loving and
unhurried manner. The success of his schools attracted educators from all over the world who paid
visits to the schools.

Like Rousseau, Pestalozzi based learning on natural principles and stressed the importance of
human emotions. Unlike Rousseau, however, he relied not on individual tutoring but on group
instruction.
Both Rousseau and Pestalozzi defined “Knowing” as understanding nature, its patterns, and its
laws. He also stressed empirical learning, through which people learn about their environment by
carefully observing natural phenomena (Aggarwal, 2007.
Like Comenius, Pestalozzi believed children should learn slowly and understand thoroughly what
they were studying. He was especially dedicated to children who were poor, hungry, and socially
or psychologically handicapped. He fed them if they were hungry, comforted them if they were
frightened before he attempted to teach them. He believed that love of humankind was necessary
for successful teaching.

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Principles of teaching and learning
Pestalozzi’s approach to teaching can be organized into general and special methods. The general
method created a permissive and emotionally healthy homelike learning environment that had to
be in place before specific instruction occurred (Aggarwal,2007).
Once the general method was in place, Pestalozzi implanted his special method. Believing that
thinking began with the senses, he developed his object lesson; which stressed sensory learning.
In this approach, children studied the common objects in their environment – plants, rocks,
artifacts, and other objects encountered in daily experience. To determine the form of an object,
they drew and traced it. They also counted and named objects.
Thus, they learned the form, number and name or sound related to objects. From these lessons
grew exercises in drawing, writing, counting, adding, subtracting, multiplying, dividing and
reading. The first writing exercises consisted of drawing lessons in which the children made a
series of rising and falling strokes and open and close curves. These exercises developed the hand
muscles and prepared children for writing.

Pestalozzi employed the following principles in teaching (viewed as correct even today):

 Begin with the concrete object before introducing abstract concepts

 Begin with the immediate environment before dealing with what is distant and remote
 begin with easy exercises or activities before introducing complex ones
 Always proceed gradually, cumulatively, and slowly

Influence on educational practices today

His belief that education should be directed to both the mind and the emotions stimulated educators
to develop instruction to encourage both cognitive and affective learning. His assertion that
emotional security is a necessary precondition for skill and subject learning strongly parallels the
contemporary emphasis on supportive home-school partnerships. His feeding of the poor can be
related to the school feeding programme in Ghana. Pestalozzi’s principles in teaching are very
much relevant today.

Key ideas
 Pestalozzi was an educational reformer and he became the first educational psychologist.
 Pestalozzi based learning on natural principles and place emphasis on human emotions.
 Pestalozzi also stressed empirical learning through which people learn about their
environment through careful observation of natural phenomenon.
 Teaching should be organized from general to specific.
 The idea of feeding poor children in school has profound influence on the introduction
of school feeding programmes.

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Reflection
 What are some of the experiences I went through in this training session?
 How have these experiences prepared me as a practitioner to encourage both cognitive
and affective learning?
Discussion
 How has this session equipped you to be a better classroom practitioner?
 How can you contribute to supporting home-school partnership drawing from the ideas
of Pestalozzi?

SESSION 4: FRIEDRICH WILHELM AUGUST FROEBEL (APRIL 21, 1782 – JUNE 21,
1852)
This session focuses on the pioneering works of Froebel. Specifically, our attention will be focused
on his background as well as education and schooling. Also, we will learn about his principles of
teaching and learning and their influence on educational practice.

Learning outcomes
By the end of this session, the participant will be able to:
1. Demonstrate an understanding of the background of Froebel with regard to education and
schooling.
2. Explain Froebel’s principles of teaching and learning and their influence on educational
practice.

Background: Education and Schooling

Froebel, a German educator was a student of Pestalozzi and is renowned for his pioneering work
in developing a school for early childhood education- the kindergarten, or children’s garden. He
developed the concept of the “kindergarten” and also coined the word now used in German and
English.

The name Kindergarten signifies both a garden for children, a location where they can observe
and interact with nature, and also a garden of children, where they themselves can grow and
develop in freedom from arbitrary political and social imperatives.

Many of us form our first impressions of schools and teachers in kindergarten. Froebel considered
the kindergarten teachers personality of paramount importance. The kindergarten teacher should
respect the dignity of human personality and personify the highest cultural values so that children
could imitate those values. Above all, the kindergarten teacher should be sensitive, approachable,
and open.

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Principles of Teaching and Learning
Froebel was a philosophical idealist. He believed that every child’s inner self contained a spiritual
essence that stimulated self-active learning. He therefore designed a kindergarten that would be a
“prepared environment” designed to externalize children’s interior spirituality through self-
activity.
Froebel’s kindergarten, founded in 1837 in Blankenburg, was a permissive environment featuring
games, play, songs, stories, and crafts. The kindergarten’s songs, stories, and games, now a
standard part of early childhood education, stimulated children’s imaginations and introduced
them to the culture’s folk heroes and heroines and values. The games socialized children and
developed their physical and motor skills. As the boys and girls played with other children, they
became part of the group and were prepared for further socialized learning activities. The
curriculum also included “gifts”, objects with fixed form, such as spheres, cubes, and cylinders,
which were intended to bring to full consciousness the underlying concept represented by the
object. In addition, Froebel’s kindergarten featured “occupations,” which consisted of materials
children could shape and use in design and construction activities. For example, clay, sand,
cardboard, and sticks could be manipulated and shaped into castles, cities, and mountains.

The kindergarten was essentially tri-partite:

 toys for sedentary creative play (these Froebel called gifts and occupations)
 games and dances for healthy activity
 observing and nurturing plants in a garden for stimulating awareness of the natural world

Influence on Educational Practices Today

Froebelianism soon grew into an international education movement and kindergarten has become
part of the many school systems throughout the world. Also, the play method and the use of toys
have been influenced by Froebel.

Key ideas
 Froebel developed a school for early childhood education – the kindergarten.
 Froebel argues that the kindergarten teacher should be sensitive and approachable.
 According to Froebel, every child’s inner self contained a spiritual essence that
stimulates self-active learning.

Reflection
What are some of the experiences I went through during this training session?
How have these experiences prepared me as a classroom practitioner?
Discussion
 How has this session equipped you to be a better classroom practitioner?
 In what ways will you apply Froebel’s education principles to achieve educational
goals as a practitioner?

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SESSION 5: MARIA MONTESSORI (1870–1952)
We shall conclude this unit with a session dealing with Maria Montessori. In this session, you will
learn about the ideas and philosophies of Montessori with regard to education and schooling. We
will also look at how her principles of teaching and learning have influenced educational practice.

Learning outcome
By the end of this session, the participant will be able to:
1. Explain Montessori’s education principles and their influence on educational practice
today.
Montessori was an Italian physician and educator who devised an internationally popular method
of early childhood education. Montessori was admitted to the University of Rome and was the first
woman in Italy to be awarded the degree of doctor of medicine.
Like Pestalozzi and Froebel, Montessori recognized that children’s early experiences have an
important influence on their later lives. As a physician, Montessori worked with children regarded
as mentally handicapped and psychologically impaired. Her methods with these children were so
effective that she concluded they were useful for all children.

Education and schooling

Montessori’s curriculum included three major types of activity and experience: practical, sensory,
and formal skills and studies. It was designed to introduce children to such practical activities as
setting the table, serving a meal, washing dishes, tying and buttoning clothing, and practicing basic
manners and social etiquette. Repetitive exercises developed sensory and muscular coordination.
Formal skills and subjects included reading, writing, and arithmetic. Children were introduced to
the alphabet by tracing movable sandpaper letters. Reading was taught after writing. Coloured rods
of various sizes were used to teach measuring and counting.
Because they direct learning in the prepared environment, Montessori educators are called
directresses rather than teachers. Under the guidance of the directress, children use materials in a
prescribed way to acquire the desired skill mastery, sensory experience, or intellectual outcome.
Montessori education is characterized by an emphasis on independence, freedom within limits,
and respect for a child’s natural psychological development. The essential elements of Montessori
classroom are:

 mixed age classrooms, with classrooms for children aged 2½ or 3 to 6 years old by
far the most common
 student choice of activity from within a prescribed range of options
 uninterrupted blocks of work time
 a constructivist or "discovery" model, where students learn concepts from working
with materials, rather than by direct instruction
 specialized educational materials developed by Montessori and her collaborators

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Montessori education theory was based on self-construction, liberty, and spontaneous activity

Principles of teaching and learning

Montessori argued that children, contrary to the assumptions of conventional schooling, have an
inner need to work at what interests them without the prodding of teachers and without being
motivated by external rewards and punishments. Children, she found, are capable of sustained
concentration and work. Enjoying structure and preferring work to play, they like to repeat actions
until they master a given activity. In fact, children’s capacity for spontaneous learning leads them
to begin reading and writing.

Influence on Educational Practices Today

Montessori’s pioneering contribution to education was her emphasis on the formative significance
the early childhood years have for later development. Her other important educational
contributions were her:
1. Concept of sensitive periods, phases of development, when certain activities and materials
are especially useful in sensory, motor, and cognitive learning
2. Recognition that learning is complex and involves a variety of experiences
3. Emphasis on the school as part of the community and the need for parent participation and
support.
4. The discovery that all children, no matter what privations they had previously suffered,
were capable of achieving great things when simply given what they needed
5. Recognition that children fail, not because they have some innate deficiency, but because
adults (schools, and their staff) have failed to give them the right conditions in which to
prosper and that all children are capable of achieving success if given the right conditions.
There are many schools in the world now modeled on Montessori’s concept of education.
Key ideas
 Montessori devised an internationally acceptable method of early childhood education.
 Montessori worked with children with special needs.
 Montessori argued that, in the process of education, teachers should respect the child’s
natural psychological development.
 Montessori placed emphasis on the formative significance childhood years for later
development of children.

Reflection
 What are some of the experiences I went through during this training session?
 How have these experiences prepared me as a classroom practitioner?
Discussion
 How has this session equipped you to be a better classroom practitioner?
 How will you apply Montessori’s educational principles to achieve learning outcomes
as a practitioner?

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