Aircraft Stability Elements of Aeronautics

Module – 4

AIRCRAFT STABILITY
Syllabus:
Forces on an aircraft in flight; static and dynamic stability; longitudinal, lateral and roll
stability; necessary conditions for longitudinal stability; basics of aircraft control
systems. Effect of flaps and stats on lift, control tabs, stalling, gliding, landing, turning,
aircraft maneuvers; stalling, gliding, turning. Simple problems on these. Performance of
aircraft – power curves, maximum and minimum speeds for horizontal flight at a given
altitude; effect of changes in engine power and altitude on performance; correct and
incorrect angles of bank; aerobatics, inverted maneuver, maneuverability. Simple
problems.

1. Describe forces acting on an aircraft in flight.

By simplified motion we mean that some of the four forces acting on the aircraft
are balanced by other forces and that we are looking at only one force and one direction at
a time. In reality, this simplified motion doesn't occur because all of the forces are
interrelated to the aircraft's speed, altitude, orientation, etc. But looking at the forces ideally
and individually does give us some insight and is much easier to understand.

In an ideal situation, an airplane could sustain a constant speed and level flight in
which the weight would be balanced by the lift, and the drag would be balanced by the
thrust. The closest example of this condition is a cruising airliner. While the weight
decreases due to fuel burned, the change is very small relative to the total aircraft weight.
In this situation, the aircraft will maintain a constant cruise velocity as described by
Newton's first law of motion.
If the forces become unbalanced, the aircraft will move in the direction of the
greater force. We can compute the acceleration which the aircraft will experience from
Newton's second law of motion

F=m*a

Where a is the acceleration, m is the mass of the aircraft, and F is the net force acting
on the aircraft. The net force is the difference between the opposing forces; lift minus

91 | Gopalan College of Engineering and Management, Bangalore [email protected]

Aircraft Stability Elements of Aeronautics

weight, or thrust minus drag. With this information, we can solve for the resulting motion
of the aircraft.

If the weight is decreased while the lift is held constant, the airplane will rise:

Lift > Weight - Aircraft Rises

If the lift is decreased while the weight is constant, the plane will fall:

Weight > Lift - Aircraft Falls

Similarly, increasing the thrust while the drag is constant will cause the plane to accelerate:

Thrust > Drag - Aircraft Accelerates

And increasing the drag at a constant thrust will cause the plane to slow down:

Drag > Thrust - Aircraft Slows

92 | Gopalan College of Engineering and Management, Bangalore [email protected]

Aircraft Stability Elements of Aeronautics

2. Explain static and dynamic stability.

Or
With a neat sketch, explain conditions of static and dynamic
stability of an aircraft.
Or
Describe in detail about the types of stability with suitable
diagrams.

93 | Gopalan College of Engineering and Management, Bangalore [email protected]

Aircraft Stability Elements of Aeronautics

94 | Gopalan College of Engineering and Management, Bangalore [email protected]

Aircraft Stability Elements of Aeronautics

95 | Gopalan College of Engineering and Management, Bangalore [email protected]

Aircraft Stability Elements of Aeronautics

3. Describe longitudinal, lateral and roll stability.

Or
Describe stability analysis
Or
With a neat sketch, explain contribution of control surfaces in
maintaining aircraft stability and control.
(i) Longitudinal Stability (Pitch Stability):

• The longitudinal axis is an imaginary line running from the nose to the tail of the
aircraft, motion about this axis is called "roll," controlled by the ailerons.
• Longitudinal stability is the tendency of an aircraft to return to the trimmed angle
of attack
• Accomplished through elevators and rudders
• Contributors:
o Straight wings (negative)
o Wing Sweep (positive)
o Fuselage (negative)
o Horizontal stabilizer (largest positive)
• An aerodynamic center aft of Center of Gravity (C.G.) is a stabilizing moment
• An aerodynamic center forward of C.G. is a de-stabilizing moment

96 | Gopalan College of Engineering and Management, Bangalore [email protected]

Aircraft Stability Elements of Aeronautics

(ii) Lateral Stability (Roll Stability):

• The lateral axis is an imaginary line running from wing tip to wing tip; movement
about this axis causes the nose of the aircraft to raise or lower and is caused by
moving the elevators
• Lateral stability is the tendency of an aircraft to resist roll
• Dihedral Effect:
o Dihedral is evident when an aircraft rolls, creating a side-slip (assume no
rudder)
o One of the wings is lower than the other, creating an angle of attack
difference for each wing
97 | Gopalan College of Engineering and Management, Bangalore [email protected]
Aircraft Stability Elements of Aeronautics

o The lower wing has an increase in the angle of attack, which causes it to
create more lift and therefore rise, while the opposite is true for the higher
wing
o The net result is the aircraft rolling away from the side-slip, thus resisting
roll and attempting to bring the wings back to level
o Use of the rudder will smoothen the turn and overcome these forces as
well as others, such as adverse yaw

• Swept Wing Effect:

o Side-slips create more direct relative wind to the upwind swept wing,
which creates a roll toward wings level

(iii) Vertical Stability (Yaw Stability):

• The vertical axis is an imaginary line running from the top of the plane to the
bottom of the plane
98 | Gopalan College of Engineering and Management, Bangalore [email protected]
Aircraft Stability Elements of Aeronautics

• The rudder controls rotation about this axis and is called "yaw"
• Tendency to resist yawing
• The more surface area behind the CG, the more directional stability
• Dutch Roll:
o Coupling of the lateral and directional axes causes Dutch roll
o Dutch roll is a combined yawing-rolling motion of the aircraft but may
only be a nuisance unless allowed to progress to large bank angles
o Large rolling and yawing motions can become dangerous unless properly
damped
o The side-slip disturbance will cause the aircraft to roll
o The bank angle, in turn, causes a side-slip in the opposite direction
o While not unstable, this continual trade-off of side-slip and angle of bank
is uncomfortable
o Dutch roll may be excited by rough air or by lateral-directional over-
controlling
o Once induced, normal aircraft stability dampens the effect
o Poor Dutch roll characteristics may make the aircraft susceptible to pilot
induced oscillations (PIO)
o Lateral-directional PIO is most common when the pilot attempts to line up
in the landing configuration

99 | Gopalan College of Engineering and Management, Bangalore [email protected]

Aircraft Stability Elements of Aeronautics

4. Draw a neat diagram showing primary control surface,

Airplane movement, Axes of Rotation and type of stability with
respect to Aircraft.

Aircraft control systems are carefully designed to provide adequate responsiveness

to control inputs while allowing a natural feel. At low airspeeds, the controls usually feel
soft and sluggish, and the aircraft responds slowly to control applications. At higher
airspeeds, the controls become increasingly firm and aircraft response is more rapid.

Movement of any of the three primary flight control surfaces (ailerons, elevator or
stabilizer, or rudder), changes the airflow and pressure distribution over and around the

100 | Gopalan College of Engineering and Management, Bangalore [email protected]

Aircraft Stability Elements of Aeronautics

airfoil. These changes affect the lift and drag produced by the airfoil/ control surface
combination, and allow a pilot to control the aircraft about its three axes of rotation.

Design features limit the amount of deflection of flight control surfaces. For
example, control-stop mechanisms may be incorporated into the flight control linkages, or
movement of the control column and/or rudder pedals may be limited. The purpose of these
design limits is to prevent the pilot from inadvertently over controlling and overstressing
the aircraft during normal maneuvers.

A properly designed aircraft is stable and easily controlled during normal

maneuvering. Control surface inputs cause movement about the three axes of rotation. The
types of stability an aircraft exhibits also relate to the three axes of rotation.

101 | Gopalan College of Engineering and Management, Bangalore [email protected]

Aircraft Stability Elements of Aeronautics

5. Describe the effects of flaps and stats on lift.

Or
Explain with neat diagram: i) Flap and Slats ii) Control Tabs.

• The amount of lift generated by a wing depends on the shape of the airfoil, the wing
area, and the aircraft velocity.
• During takeoff and landing the airplane's velocity is relatively low. To keep the lift
high (to avoid objects on the ground!), airplane designers try to increase the wing
area and change the airfoil shape by putting some moving parts on the wings'
leading and trailing edges.
• The part on the leading edge is called a slat, while the part on the trailing edge is
called a flap.
• The flaps and slats move along metal tracks built into the wings. Moving the flaps
aft (toward the tail) and the slats forward increases the wing area.
• Pivoting the leading edge of the slat and the trailing edge of the flap downward
increases the effective camber of the airfoil, which increases the lift.
• In addition, the large aft-projected area of the flap increases the drag of the aircraft.
This helps the airplane slow down for landing.

Control Tabs (Trim Tabs):

A tab is like an additional, miniature control surface, with its own change in lift.
Since it sits near the trailing edge of a larger control surface, this lift change affects the
hinge moment of the larger surface.

102 | Gopalan College of Engineering and Management, Bangalore [email protected]

Aircraft Stability Elements of Aeronautics

Included in the trim controls are the trim tabs, servo tabs, balance tabs, and spring
tabs. Trim tabs are small airfoils recessed into the trailing edges of the primary control
surfaces. Trim tabs can be used to correct any tendency of the aircraft to move toward an
undesirable flight attitude. Their purpose is to enable the pilot to trim out any unbalanced
condition which may exist during flight, without exerting any pressure on the primary
controls.

Servo tabs, sometimes referred to as flight tabs, are used primarily on the large
main control surfaces. They aid in moving the main control surface and holding it in the
desired position. Only the servo tab moves in response to movement by the pilot of the
primary flight controls.

Balance tabs are designed to move in the opposite direction of the primary flight
control. Thus, aerodynamic forces acting on the tab assist in moving the primary control
surface.

Spring tabs are similar in appearance to trim tabs, but serve an entirely different
purpose. Spring tabs are used for the same purpose as hydraulic actuators—to aid the
pilot in moving the primary control surface.

103 | Gopalan College of Engineering and Management, Bangalore [email protected]

Aircraft Stability Elements of Aeronautics

6. Derive the basic equations of motion for a leveled and

unaccelerated flight with a neat sketch.

104 | Gopalan College of Engineering and Management, Bangalore [email protected]

Aircraft Stability Elements of Aeronautics

7. How high lift devices are classified? Also explain its effects on
lift.
The passive high-lift devices, commonly referred to as flaps, are based on the following
three principles:

• Increase of camber.
• Increase of wet surface (typically by increasing the chord).
• Control of the boundary layer.

There are many different types of flaps depending on the size, speed, and complexity
of the aircraft they are to be used on, as well as the era in which the aircraft was designed.
Plain flaps, slotted flaps, and Fowler flaps are the most common trailing edge flaps. Flaps
used on the leading edge of the wings of many jet airliners are Krueger flaps, slats, and
slots (Notice that slots are not explicitly flaps, but more precisely boundary layer control
devices).

The plain flap is the simplest flap and it is used in light . The basic idea is to design the
airfoil so that the trailing edge can rotate around an axis. The angle of that deflexion is the
flap deflexion δf . The effect is an increase in the camber of the airfoil, resulting in an
increase in the coefficient of lift.

Another kind of trailing edge high-lift device is the slotted flap. The only difference
with the plain flap is that it includes a slot which allows the extrados and intrados to be
communicated. By this mean, the flap deflexion is higher without the boundary layer
dropping off.

The last basic trailing edge high-lift device is the flap Fowler. This kind of flap
combines the increase of camber with the increase in the chord of the airfoil (and therefore
the wet surface). This fact increases also the slope of the lift curve. Combining the different
types, there exist double and triple slotted Fowler flaps, combining also the control of the
boundary layer. The Fairey-Youngman, Gouge, and Junkers flaps combine some of the
exposed properties.

The last trailing edge high-lift device is the split flap (also refereed to as intrados flap).
This flap provides, for the same increase of lift coefficient, more drag but with less torque.

The most important leading edge high devices are: slot, the leading edge drop flap, and
the flap Krueger.

105 | Gopalan College of Engineering and Management, Bangalore [email protected]

Aircraft Stability Elements of Aeronautics

The slot is a slot in the leading edge. It avoid the dropping off of the boundary layer by
communicating extrados and intrados. The leading edge drop has the same philosophy as
the plain flap, but applied in the leading edge instead of the trailing edge. The Kruger flaps
works modifying the camber of the airfoil but also acting in the control of the boundary
layer.

Types of high-lift devices:

Effects of high lift devices in airfoil flow, showing configurations for normal, take-off,
landing, and braking:

106 | Gopalan College of Engineering and Management, Bangalore [email protected]

Aircraft Stability Elements of Aeronautics

8. Describe altitude effects on power available and power required.

Or
Explain with a characteristics chart effect of power and altitude
on performance of the aircraft.

107 | Gopalan College of Engineering and Management, Bangalore [email protected]

Aircraft Stability Elements of Aeronautics

108 | Gopalan College of Engineering and Management, Bangalore [email protected]

Aircraft Stability Elements of Aeronautics

9. Explain power required curve for the CP – 1 at sea level.

Or
Explain with neat graph i) Power curve ii) Maximum and
Minimum speed for horizontal flight at a given attitude.

Maximum velocity

109 | Gopalan College of Engineering and Management, Bangalore [email protected]

Aircraft Stability Elements of Aeronautics

110 | Gopalan College of Engineering and Management, Bangalore [email protected]

Aircraft Stability Elements of Aeronautics

10. Explain with neat sketch Turning flight performance.

Or
Banking

• When an aircraft banks, the resultant lift splits between a vertical and horizontal
component, providing the horizontal forces necessary to turn.
• Lift is a key principle of flight, essential to flight and therefore turn performance.
• When an aircraft is placed in a bank, the lift vector of an aircraft rotates with it,
producing a vertical and horizontal component.
• The relationship between the aircraft's speed and bank angle determines the rate and
radius of turns.
• The bank angle, in conjunction with aircraft speed, form a relationship between the
rate of turn and radius of turn.
• The equal and opposite reaction to this side-ward force is centrifugal force, which
is merely an apparent force as a result of inertia.
• Pilots endeavor to maintain coordination throughout turns to avoid
slipping/skidding.
• Understanding the rate, radius, and performance in a turn, aircraft performance
while turning is easier to understand.
• Pilots must be careful to not over-anticipate or over-compensate, leading to
overbanking in a turn.
• These principles are typically in reference to turns, but they are foundational to
several maneuvers, including aerobatics.

111 | Gopalan College of Engineering and Management, Bangalore [email protected]

Aircraft Stability Elements of Aeronautics

11. Write a note on stalling

• A stall is a condition in aerodynamics and aviation such that if the angle of attack
increases beyond a certain point, then lift begins to decrease.
• The angle at which this occurs is called the critical angle of attack. This angle is
dependent upon the airfoil section or profile of the wing, its planform, its aspect
ratio, and other factors, but is typically in the range of 8 to 20 degrees relative to
the incoming wind ("relative wind") for most subsonic airfoils.
• The critical angle of attack is the angle of attack on the lift coefficient versus angle-
of-attack (Cl~alpha) curve at which the maximum lift coefficient occurs.
• Stalling is caused by flow separation which, in turn, is caused by the air flowing
against a rising pressure.
• For the trailing-edge stall, separation begins at small angles of attack near the
trailing edge of the wing while the rest of the flow over the wing remains attached.
As angle of attack increases, the separated regions on the top of the wing increase
in size as the flow separation moves forward, and this hinders the ability of the wing
to create lift. This is shown by the reduction in lift-slope on a Cl~alpha curve as the
lift nears its maximum value.
• The separated flow usually causes buffeting.
• Beyond the critical angle of attack, separated flow is so dominant that additional
increases in angle of attack cause the lift to fall from its peak value.
• Piston-engined and early jet transports had very good stall behaviour with pre-stall
buffet warning and, if ignored, a straight nose-drop for a natural recovery.

112 | Gopalan College of Engineering and Management, Bangalore [email protected]

Aircraft Stability Elements of Aeronautics

12. Explain the effects of correct and in correct angles of bank

with neat diagram.
We have so far assumed that the airplane is banked at the correct angle for the given turn.
Fortunately the pilot has several means of telling whether the bank is correct or not (Fig.
8.6, overleaf), and since the methods help us to understand the mechanics of the turn, it
may be as well to mention them here.

A good indicator is the wind itself, or a vane, like a weather cock, mounted in some
exposed position. In normal flight and in a correct bank the wind will come from straight
ahead (neglecting any local effects from the slipstream); if the bank is too much, the
airplane will sideslip inwards and the airplane, and pilot if he is in an open cockpit, will
feel the wind coming from the inside of the turn, whereas if the bank is too small, the wind
will come from the outside of the turn, due to an outward skid on the part of the airplane.

Angle of bank too small

Fig 8.6 Effects of correct and incorrect angles of bank

Another indication would be a plumb-bob hung in the cockpit out of contact with
the wind. In normal flight this would, of course, hang vertically; during a correct bank it
would not hang vertically, but in exactly the same pos-ition relative to the airplane as it
would in normal flight, i. e. it would bank with the airplane. If over-banked the plumb-line
would be inclined inwards; if under-banked, outwards from the above position. This plumb-
bob idea, in the form of a pendulum, forms the basis of the sideslip indicator which is
pro-vided by the top pointer of the so-called turn and bank indicator. The pointer is geared
so as to move in such a way that the pilot must move the control column away from the
direction of the pointer, this being the instinctive reac-tion. Sometimes a curved transparent
tube containing a metal ball is used, and again the control column must be moved away
from the indication given on the instrument. It is interesting to note that in early airplanes
113 | Gopalan College of Engineering and Management, Bangalore [email protected]
Aircraft Stability Elements of Aeronautics

the slip indicator was, in effect, a spirit level, the tube being curved the opposite way and
with a bubble (in liquid) instead of the ball; the pilot was then told to ‘follow the bubble’ –
not the instinctive reaction. Nowadays such simple mechanical devices are being replaced
by electronic or digital displays which nevertheless often mimic the appearance of the older
instruments. Figure 8.6 shows how a tumbler full of water would not spill even when tilted
at 80° in a correct bank; if the bank were too small it would spill outwards over the top lip
of the tumbler!

Lastly, during a correct bank the pilot will sit on his seat without any feeling of
sliding either inwards or outwards; in fact, he will be sitting tighter on his seat than ever,
his effective weight being magnified in the same proportions as the lift so that if he weighs
800 N in normal flight he will feel that he weighs 8000 N when banking at 84°! If he over-
banks he will tend to slide inwards, but outwards if the bank is insufficient.

114 | Gopalan College of Engineering and Management, Bangalore [email protected]

Aircraft Stability Elements of Aeronautics

13. Explain aerobatics and inverted manoeuvre.

Or
Explain with neat sketch inverted maneuvers of aircraft.
Or
Write notes on Aircraft maneuvers
Aerobatic maneuvers are flight paths putting aircraft in unusual attitudes, in air shows,
dogfights or competition aerobatics. Aerobatics can be performed by a single aircraft or in
formation with several others.

Chandelle: This is a combination of a vertical climb and a turn. It's actually a basic flying
fundamental, rather than a true aerobatic move.

Dive: This one's just like it sounds. The plane's nose is turned downward, though the plane
is not necessarily completely perpendicular to the ground. Diving causes an increase in air
speed, which the pilot can use to pull up at the right moment.

Loop: A loop is when an aircraft flies upward and then, at the top of its arc, begins to slow
down, so that it turns down and completes the circle. You can do an inward or outward
loop.

Roll: A roll is a 360-degree revolution along the plane's longitudinal axis.

Barrel roll: A barrel roll is a combination of a loop and a roll. The flight path is the shape
of a corkscrew.

115 | Gopalan College of Engineering and Management, Bangalore [email protected]

Aircraft Stability Elements of Aeronautics

Wingover: A wingover is a left or right 180-degree tight turn at the top of an upward quarter
loop. (Point B in below stall turn fig.)

Hammerhead or stall turn: Contrary to its name, this maneuver doesn't actually involve
stalling. The plane soars upward and then abruptly turns 180 degrees and descends.

Cuban eight: The plane does five-eighths of a loop to the 45 degree line, a half-roll, another
five-eighths of a loop back to the 45 degree line again, another half roll, and then three-
eighths of a loop to level out. If that's too complicated to picture, imagine a Hot Wheels car
doing a figure eight on one of those loop-de-loop tracks. The variations include the Half
Cuban Eight and the Reverse Half Cuban Eight.

116 | Gopalan College of Engineering and Management, Bangalore [email protected]

Aircraft Stability Elements of Aeronautics

14. Explain Gliding

117 | Gopalan College of Engineering and Management, Bangalore [email protected]

Aircraft Stability Elements of Aeronautics

15. Write a note on Landing.

118 | Gopalan College of Engineering and Management, Bangalore [email protected]

Aircraft Stability Elements of Aeronautics

119 | Gopalan College of Engineering and Management, Bangalore [email protected]

Aircraft Stability Elements of Aeronautics

120 | Gopalan College of Engineering and Management, Bangalore [email protected]

Aircraft Stability Elements of Aeronautics

16. Write a short note on Takeoff.

Power settings:

• Takeoff is the phase of flight in which an aerospace vehicle goes from the ground
to flying in the air.
• For aircraft that take off horizontally, this usually involves starting with a transition
from moving along the ground on a runway.
• For balloons, helicopters and some specialized fixed-wing aircraft (VTOL aircraft
such as the Harrier), no runway is needed. Takeoff is the opposite of landing.
• For light aircraft, usually full power is used during takeoff. Large transport category
(airliner) aircraft may use a reduced power for takeoff, where less than full power
is applied in order to prolong engine life, reduce maintenance costs and reduce noise
emissions.
• In some emergency cases, the power used can then be increased to increase the
aircraft's performance. Before takeoff, the engines, particularly piston engines, are
routinely run up at high power to check for engine-related problems.
• The aircraft is permitted to accelerate to rotation speed (often referred to as Vr). The
term rotation is used because the aircraft pivots around the axis of its main landing
gear while still on the ground, usually because of manipulation of the flight controls
to make this change in aircraft attitude.
• The nose is raised to a nominal 5°–15° nose up pitch attitude to increase lift from
the wings and effect liftoff. For most aircraft, attempting a takeoff without a pitch-
up would require cruise speeds while still on the runway.
• Fixed-wing aircraft designed for high-speed operation (such as commercial jet
aircraft) have difficulty generating enough lift at the low speeds encountered during
takeoff. These are therefore fitted with high-lift devices, often including slats and
usually flaps, which increase the camber and often area of the wing, making it more
effective at low speed, thus creating more lift. These are deployed from the wing
before takeoff, and retracted during the climb. They can also be deployed at other
times, such as before landing.
• The speeds needed for takeoff are relative to the motion of the air (indicated
airspeed). A headwind will reduce the ground speed needed for takeoff, as there is
a greater flow of air over the wings.

121 | Gopalan College of Engineering and Management, Bangalore [email protected]

Aircraft Stability Elements of Aeronautics

• Typical takeoff air speeds for jetliners are in the 130–155 knot range (150–180 mph,
240–285 km/h). Light aircraft, such as a Cessna 150, take off at around 55 knots
(63 mph, 100 km/h). Ultralights have even lower takeoff speeds.
• For a given aircraft, the takeoff speed is usually dependent on the aircraft weight;
the heavier the weight, the greater the speed needed. Some aircraft are specifically
designed for short takeoff and landing (STOL), which they achieve by becoming
airborne at very low speeds.

Speed required:

• The takeoff speed required varies with air density, aircraft gross weight, and aircraft
configuration (flap or slat position, as applicable).
• Air density is affected by factors such as field elevation and air temperature. This
relationship between temperature, altitude, and air density can be expressed as a
density altitude, or the altitude in the International Standard Atmosphere at which
the air density would be equal to the actual air density.
• Operations with transport category aircraft employ the concept of the takeoff V-
Speeds, V1, VR and V2. These speeds are determined not only by the above factors
affecting takeoff performance, but also by the length and slope of the runway and
any peculiar conditions, such as obstacles off the end of the runway.
• Below V1, in case of critical failures, the takeoff should be aborted; above V1 the
pilot continues the takeoff and returns for landing. After the co-pilot calls V1, he/she
will call VR or "rotate," marking speed at which to rotate the aircraft. The VR for
transport category aircraft is calculated such as to allow the aircraft to reach the
regulatory screen height at V2 with one engine failed. Then, V2 (the safe takeoff
speed) is called. This speed must be maintained after an engine failure to meet
performance targets for rate of climb and angle of climb.

122 | Gopalan College of Engineering and Management, Bangalore [email protected]

Aircraft Stability Elements of Aeronautics

17. Describe stall speed.

Stall speed refers to the minimum speed at which an airplane must fly to produce
lift. Going back to the basics of aerospace dynamics, airplanes produce lift in response to
the air moving over their wings. At high speeds, the fast-moving air “lifts” the airplane so
that it doesn’t fall to the ground. At low speeds, on the other hand, the lack of air movement
will result in little or no lift being produced, in which case the airplane may stall.

All airplanes have a specified stall speed. Stall speed is simply the minimum speed
needed for an airplane to produce lift. If an airplane drops below its specified stall speed, it
will no longer produce lift. Stall speeds vary depending on many factors, some of which
include the airplane’s weight, dimensions, altitude and even the weather dimensions.
Regardless, airplanes must fly faster than their respective stall speed to maintain lift.

18. Problems:

123 | Gopalan College of Engineering and Management, Bangalore [email protected]

Aircraft Stability Elements of Aeronautics

124 | Gopalan College of Engineering and Management, Bangalore [email protected]

Aircraft Stability Elements of Aeronautics

3.

Basic Gliding Equation:

125 | Gopalan College of Engineering and Management, Bangalore [email protected]

Aircraft Stability Elements of Aeronautics

19. Pull up and Pull down Maneuver

126 | Gopalan College of Engineering and Management, Bangalore [email protected]

Aircraft Stability Elements of Aeronautics

127 | Gopalan College of Engineering and Management, Bangalore [email protected]