Heat Transfer

Chapter 2: Heat Conduction Equation

Dr. Tsrong-Yi Wen
Associate Professor of Mechanical Engineering
National Taiwan University of Science and Technology
 Introduction
• Heat transfer and temperature are of a different
nature

– Temperature is a scalar (quantity)

– Heat transfer is a vector (quantity and direction)

• The driving force for any form of heat transfer is

temperature difference

– The larger the temperature difference, the larger the rate

of heat transfer

2
 Multidimensional
Heat Transfer
71
CHAPTER 2

ansfer, but is inversely proportional to the distance in that direction. T

expressed in the differential form by Fourier’s law of heat conduc- dT
ne-dimensional heat conduction as slope — < 0
dx

! · dT dT
Qn = −kA Q cond 5 2kA (W)dx
(W) (2–1) T(x)
dn
"# # # # ·
Q! nconductivity
the thermal = Q! x i + Q! yofj +theQ!material,
z k which is a measure of the Q>0
a material to conduct heat, and dT/dx is the temperature gradient,
∂T curve
he slope of the temperature
! ! on a T-x ∂T
diagram (Fig. 2–7). ∂T
! The Heat flow
Qof
onductivity x =a −kA
material, in Qy = −kA
; general, varies Qz = −kAz But
; temperature.
with
∂x ∂y ∂z
x y
y accurate results can be obtained by using a constant value for x
onductivity at the average
(thermal temperature.
conductivity is assumed to be isotropic) FIGURE 2–7
conducted in the direction of decreasing temperature, and thus
The temperature gradient dT/dx is
erature gradient is negative when heat is conducted in the posi-
simply the slope of the temperature
ection. The negative sign in Eq. 2–1 ensures that heat transfer in the
curve on a T-x diagram.
-direction is a positive quantity.
in a general relation for Fourier’s law of heat conduction, consider a
n which the temperature distribution is three-dimensional. Fig. 2–8 3
isothermal surface in that medium. The heat transfer vector at a
 Heat Flux
• The amount of heat transferred during the process
Δt
Q = ∫ Q! dt (J)
0
10
INTRODUCTION AND BASIC CONCEP
• The rate of heat transfer per unit area
normal to the direction of heat transfer .
Q = 24 W
= const.
is heat ux
3m
A = 6 m2

Q!
q! = (W/m 2 ) 2m
A
.
. Q 24 W
q = — = –—— = 4 W/m2
A 6 m2

FIGURE 1–13
Heat flux is heat transfer per unit
time and per unit area, and is 4equa
· · ·
fl
 Steady Heat Transfer
• Steady implies no change with time at any point
within the medium

– The temperature or heat ux remains unchanged with

time at any location

– The temperature or heat ux may vary from one

location to another (uniform & nonuniform)

5
fl
fl
 Transient Heat Transfer
• Transient implies variation with time or time
dependence

– The temperature normally varies with time and position

– When the temperature varies uniformly with time only:

lumped system

6
 Heat Generation
• Heat or thermal energy generation

– A medium through which heat is conducted may

involve the conversion of mechanical, electrical,
nuclear, or chemical energy into heat (or thermal
energy)

– Volumetric phenomenon

E! gen = ∫ e!gen dV (W)

V

E! gen = e!genV if e!gen is the constant rate of heat generation per unit volume

7
 1D Heat Conduction
Retangular Coordinate
⎛ rate of heat ⎞ ⎛ rate of heat ⎞ ⎛ rate of heat ⎞ ⎛ rate of change of ⎞
⎜ conduction ⎟ − ⎜ conduction ⎟ + ⎜ generation ⎟ = ⎜ the energy content ⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ at x ⎠ ⎝ at x + Δx ⎠ ⎝ inside the element ⎠ ⎝ of the element ⎠
! ! ! ΔEelement
Qx − Qx+Δx + Egen = Energy Balance
Δt
!"m#

ΔEelement = Et+Δt − Et = mc (Tt+Δt − Tt ) = ρ !

AΔx c (Tt+Δt − Tt )
V

E! gen = e!genVelement = e!gen AΔx A, E! gen

Q! x Q! x+Δx
! ! Tt+Δt − Tt
⇒ Qx − Qx+Δx + e!gen AΔx = ρ AΔxc
Δt
1 Q! x+Δx − Q! x Tt+Δt − Tt
⇒− + e!gen = ρ c
A Δx Δt Δx
x x + Δx 8
 1D Heat Conduction
Retangular Coordinate

1 Q! x+Δx − Q! x Tt+Δt − Tt
− + e!gen = ρ c
A Δx Δt
Taking the limit: Δx → 0 and Δt → 0
Q" x+Δx − Q" x ∂Q" ∂ ⎛ ∂T ⎞ ∂2 T
∵ lim = = ⎜ −kA ⎟ = −kA 2
Δx→0 Δx ∂x ∂x ⎝ ∂x ⎠ ∂x
1 ∂ ⎛ ∂T ⎞ ∂T
∴ ⎜⎝ k A ⎟⎠ + e"gen = ρ c
A ∂x ∂x ∂t
∂ ⎛ ∂T ⎞ ∂T
⇒ ⎜k ⎟ + e!gen = ρ c
∂x ⎝ ∂x ⎠ ∂t

9
 1D Heat Conduction
Retangular Coordinate
∂ ⎛ ∂T ⎞ ∂T
Variable conductivity ⇒ ⎜⎝ k ⎟⎠ + e!gen = ρ c
∂x ∂x ∂t
∂ 2 T e!gen 1 ∂T
Constant conductivity ⇒ + =
∂x 2
k α ∂t

⎛ ∂ ⎞ ∂ 2 T e!gen
Steady-state ⎜ = 0 ⎟ ⇒ + =0
⎝ ∂t ⎠ ∂x 2
k
∂ 2 T 1 ∂T
(
Transient, no heat generation e!gen = 0 ⇒)∂x 2
=
α ∂t
⎛ ∂ ⎞ ∂2 T
Steady-state, no heat generation ⎜ = 0 and e!gen = 0 ⎟ ⇒ =0
⎝ ∂t ⎠ ∂x 2

10
 1D Heat Conduction
Cylindrical Coordinate
1 ∂ ⎛ ∂T ⎞ ∂T
Variable conductivity ⇒ ⎜⎝ rk ⎟⎠ + e!gen = ρ c
r ∂r ∂r ∂t
1 ∂ ⎛ ∂T ⎞ e!gen 1 ∂T
Constant conductivity ⇒ ⎜⎝ r ⎟⎠ + =
r ∂r ∂r k α ∂t

⎛ ∂ ⎞ 1 ∂ ⎛ ∂T ⎞ e!gen
Steady-state ⎜ = 0 ⎟ ⇒ ⎜ r ⎟+ =0
⎝ ∂t ⎠ r ∂r ⎝ ∂r ⎠ k
1 ∂ ⎛ ∂T ⎞ 1 ∂T
(
Transient, no heat generation e!gen )
=0 ⇒ ⎜⎝ r ⎟⎠ =
r ∂r ∂r α ∂t
⎛ ∂ ⎞ ∂ ⎛ ∂T ⎞
Steady-state, no heat generation ⎜ = 0 and e!gen = 0 ⎟ ⇒ ⎜ r ⎟ =0
⎝ ∂t ⎠ ∂r ⎝ ∂r ⎠
11
 1D Heat Conduction
Spherical Coordinate
1 ∂ ⎛ 2 ∂T ⎞ ∂T
Variable conductivity ⇒ 2 ⎜ r k ⎟ + e!gen = ρ c
r ∂r ⎝ ∂r ⎠ ∂t
1 ∂ ⎛ 2 ∂T ⎞ e!gen 1 ∂T
Constant conductivity ⇒ 2 ⎜ r ⎟ + =
r ∂r ⎝ ∂r ⎠ k α ∂t

⎛ ∂ ⎞ 1 ∂ ⎛ 2 ∂T ⎞ e!gen
Steady-state ⎜ = 0 ⎟ ⇒ 2 ⎜ r ⎟ + =0
⎝ ∂t ⎠ r ∂r ⎝ ∂r ⎠ k
1 ∂ ⎛ 2 ∂T ⎞ 1 ∂T
(
Transient, no heat generation e!gen )
= 0 ⇒ 2 ⎜r ⎟ =
r ∂r ⎝ ∂r ⎠ α ∂t
⎛ ∂ ⎞ ∂ ⎛ 2 ∂T ⎞
Steady-state, no heat generation ⎜ = 0 and e!gen = 0 ⎟ ⇒ ⎜ r ⎟ =0
⎝ ∂t ⎠ ∂r ⎝ ∂r ⎠
∂2 T ∂T
r 2 +2 =0
∂r ∂r 12
 Combined 1D
Heat Conduction
• One dimensional heat conduction equation can be
expressed as

1 ∂ ⎛ n ∂T ⎞ ∂T
⎜⎝ r k ⎟⎠ + e!gen = ρ c
r ∂r
n
∂r ∂t
n = 0 : for a plane wall (replace r by x)
n = 1 : for a cylinder
n = 2 : for a sphere

13
 sient heat conduction problem since the temperature within the ball changes
with the radial distance r and the time t. That is, T 5 T(r, t).
The thermal conductivity is given to be variable, and there is no heat genera-
tion in the ball. Therefore, the differential equation that governs the variation

General
of temperature in the ball in this case is obtained from Eq. 2–30 by setting the
heat generation term equal to zero. We obtain
1 0 2 0T 0T
ar k b 5 rc
r 2 0r 0r 0t

Heat Conduction Equation

which is the one-dimensional transient heat conduction equation in spherical
coordinates under the conditions of variable thermal conductivity and no heat
generation.
Discussion Note again that the conditions at the outer surface of the ball have
no effect on the differential equation.

⎛ rate of heat ⎞
⎛ rate of heat ⎞ ⎜ ⎟ ⎛ rate of heat ⎞ ⎛ rate of change of ⎞
2–3 GENERAL HEAT CONDUCTION EQUATION
conduction ■

⎜ conduction ⎟ − ⎜ In the last section ⎟we+considered

⎜ generation ⎟ = ⎜ the and
one-dimensional heat conduction energy content ⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ atassumed
x + Δx, ⎟ ⎜in other directions to be negligible.
heat conduction ⎟ ⎜Most heat ⎟
⎝ at x, y, z ⎠ ⎜ transfer problems encountered
⎟ ⎝ inside the
in practice can element ⎠ as⎝being
be approximated of the
one- element ⎠
+ Δy, z + Δz ⎠
⎝ y this
dimensional, and we mostly deal with such problems in this text. However,
is not always the case, and sometimes we need to consider heat transfer ·
ΔE
Qz + Δ z

( )
in other directions as well. In such cases heat conduction is said to be multidi-
(Q! x − Q! x+Δx ) + Q! y − Q!in such
+ (Q! − Q!
systems in rectangular,
y+Δy z z+Δz ) + E!
=
mensional, and in this section we develop the governingelement
cylindrical,
gen
Δt
differential equation
and spherical coordinate systems.
Volume element
·
Qx
·
Qy + Δy

Rectangular Coordinates!" #V # $ e·gen ΔxΔyΔz

Δz

t shown in(T
= Et+Δt − EConsider t ) = the
ρ ΔxΔyΔz ( )
a small rectangular element of length Dx, width Dy, and height Dz,
ΔEelement = − TAssume − Tthe
·
mc density of thecbody
Tt+Δt ·
Qx + Δ x
as Fig. 2–20.
t+Δt % # & # ' is r and t specific
heat is c. An energy balance on this element during a small time interval Dt
z Qy
Δx Δy
m y
can be expressed as ·
E! gen = e!genVelement = e!genRate
x
ΔxΔyΔz
Qz
Rate of heat Rate of heat Rate of change
of heat FIGURE 2–20
£ conduction at ≥ 2 §
conduction generation of the energy ¥
−T
¥1§ ¥5§

( )
⇒ (Qx − Qx+Δx ) + Qy − Qy+Δy + (Qz − Qz+Δz ) + e!gen ΔxΔyΔz = ρ cΔxΔyΔz
Three-dimensional heat conduction
! ! ! ! ! !
x, y, and z
at x 1 Dx
y 1 Dy and z 1 Dz
T inside the
element
content of the
element throught+Δt t volume element.
a rectangular
Δt
1 Q! x+Δx − Q! x 1 Q! y+Δy − Q! y 1 Q! z+Δz − Q! z Tt+Δt − Tt
⇒− − − + e!gen = ρc
ΔyΔz Δx ΔxΔz Δy ΔxΔy Δz Δt 14
 (called the Laplace equation)
to the ones developed in the previous section for a plane wall (Fig. 2–21). 02T 02T 02T
+ + =0
Note that in the special case of one-dimensional heat transfer in the x-direction, 0x2 0y2 0z 2
the derivatives with respect to y and z drop out and the equations above reduce
Cylindrical Coordinates FIGURE 2–21

General to the ones developed in the previous section for a plane wall (Fig. 2–21).
The general heat conduction equation in cylindrical coordinates can be
obtained from an energy balance on a volume element in cylindrical coor-
Cylindrical
dinates, shown inCoordinates
be obtained
Fig. 2–22, by following the steps just outlined. It can also
The three-dimensional heat
conduction equations reduce to the one-
dimensional ones when theFIGURE
temperature
2–21
varies in one dimension only.
The general directly from Eq. 2–38
heat conduction by coordinate
equation transformation
in cylindrical coordinates using
can the
be The three-dimensional heat

Heat Conduction Equation

followingfrom
obtained
cylindrical
dinates,
relations
shown
between
an energy
coordinate
in Fig. systems:
be obtained directly
x 5from
the coordinates
balance on a volumeofelement
a point inin cylindrical
rectangularcoor-
and
2–22, by following the steps just outlined. It can also
r cosEq.
f, 2–38
y 5 rbysincoordinate
f, and transformation
z5z using the
conduction equations
z reduce to the one-
dimensional ones when the temperature
dz in one rdimension only.
varies
dr
following relations between the coordinates of a point in rectangular and z

For rectangular coordinate :

cylindrical coordinate systems:
After lengthy manipulations, we obtain z
dz r
x 5 r cos f, y 5 r sin f, and z 5 z
∂ ⎛ ∂T ⎞ ∂ ⎛ ∂T ⎞ ∂ ⎛ ∂T ⎞ ∂T
dr
1 0 0T 1 0 0T 0 0T 0T
ak b 1 e·gen 5 rc
⎜⎝ k ⎟⎠ + ⎜ k ⎟ + ⎜k ⎟ + e! akr b 1 2
r 0rmanipulations,
0r r 0f
ak
0f
b1
0z
gen 0z = ρc 0t
(2– 43)

∂y ⎝ ∂y ⎠ ∂z ⎝ ∂z ⎠
After lengthy we obtain z
∂x ∂x ∂t
y
1 0 0T 1 0 0T 0 0T 0T
ak b 1 e·gen 5 rc
Spherical
r 0r Coordinates
akr b 1 2
0r r 0f
ak
0f
b1
0z 0z 0t
(2– 43)
x f df

The general heat conduction equations in spherical coordinates can be

FIGURE 2–22
For cylindrical coordinate :
obtained from an energy balance on a volume element in spherical coordi-
A differential volume element in
y
nates, shown in Fig. 2–23, by following the steps outlined above. It can also
Spherical Coordinates x f df
cylindrical coordinates.
x = r cosφ; y = r sin φ; z = z
be obtained directly from Eq. 2–38 by coordinate transformation using the
The general heat conduction equations in spherical coordinates can be
following relations between the coordinates of a point in rectangular and z FIGURE 2–22
obtained from an energy balance on a volume element in spherical coordi-
spherical coordinate systems: A differential volume element in
1 ∂ ⎛ ∂T ⎞ 1 ∂ ⎛ ∂T ⎞ ∂ ⎛ ∂T ⎞ ∂T
nates, shown in Fig. 2–23, by following the steps outlined above. It can also
cylindrical coordinates.
⎜⎝ kr ⎟⎠ + + ⎜k ⎟ + e! = ρc
be obtained directly from Eq. 2–38 by coordinate transformation using the
⎜ k ⎟
dr

r ∂φ ⎝ ∂φ ⎠ ∂z ⎝ ∂z ⎠
x 5 r cos f sin u, y 5 r sin f sin u, and z 5 cos u
r ∂r ∂r 2
following relations between the coordinates of a gen
spherical coordinate systems:
∂t
point in rectangular and z u

Again after lengthy manipulations, we obtain r

dr
x 5 r cos f sin u, y 5 r sin f sin u, and z 5 cos u
1 0 2
0T 1 0 0T 1 0 0T · 5 rc 0T u du
akr b 1 ak b 1 ak sin u b 1 e
For rectangular
spherical Again
coordinate:
coordinate
r 2 0r :
0r r 2 sin2 u 0f
after lengthy manipulations, we obtain
0f r 2 sin u 0u 0u gen
0t
r df y
(2– 44) f
x = r cosφ sin θ1;Obtaining
0y = r0Tsin
akr
φ sin
analytical
b1 2
θ0; akz =0Ttobcos
1 solutions θ1differential
these
1
0 0T
ak sin equations
0T
u b 1 e· requires
5 rc a
du
2 2 2 2 gen x
r 0r
knowledge 0r sin u 0f
of the rsolution techniques
0f sin u 0udifferential
ofr partial 0uequations, which
0t
1 ∂ ⎛ 2 ∂T ⎞ 1 ∂ ⎛ ∂T ⎞ 1 ∂ ⎛ ∂T ⎞ ∂T
df
is beyond the scope of this introductory text. Here we limit our consideration
FIGURE 2–23
y
(2– 44)

⎜⎝ k sin θ = ρ c volume element in

f
⎜⎝ kr ⎟⎠ + ⎜ k ⎟ + ⎟⎠ +x e!gen
to one-dimensional steady-state cases, since they result in ordinary differen-
A differential
r ∂r
2
∂r r sin θ ∂φ ⎝ ∂φ ⎠ r sin θ ∂θ
Obtaining
2 analytical
tial equations. 2
∂θ
solutions to these differential
2 equations requires a
∂t coordinates.15
spherical
knowledge of the solution techniques of partial differential equations, which
is beyond the scope of this introductory text. Here we limit our consideration FIGURE 2–23
 General
Heat Conduction Equation
Steady-state (Poisson equation):
∂ 2 T ∂ 2 T ∂ 2 T e!gen
+ 2 + 2 + =0
∂x 2
∂y ∂z k

Transient, no heat generation (Diffusion equation) :

∂ 2 T ∂ 2 T ∂ 2 T 1 ∂T
+ 2 + 2 =
∂x 2
∂y ∂z α ∂t

Steady-state, no heat generation (Laplace equation) :

∂2 T ∂2 T ∂2 T
+ 2 + 2 =0
∂x 2
∂y ∂z

16
 Boundary and Initial
Conditions
• The number of conditions required in a speci c
83
dimension is equal to the order of the differential CHAPTER 2

atical pointequation in that

of view, solving dimension
a differential equation is essen-
f removing derivatives, or an integration process, and thus
The differential equation:
differential equation typically involves arbitrary constants
• Heat conduction equation is second
lows that to obtain a unique solution to a problem, we need
d2T
=0
2
dx
order
than just the in spatial
governing differential equation. We need to General solution:
ditions (such as the value of the function or its derivatives at T(x) = C1x + C2
independent variable) so that forcing the solution to satisfy
– Two BCs for 1D heat conduction
at specified points will result in unique values for the arbi- Arbitrary constants
d thus a unique solution. But since the differential equation
Some specific solutions:
he additional
– information
Four BCsorfor conditions,
2D heatweconduction
need to supply
T(x) = 2x + 5
n the form of boundary or initial conditions. T(x) = –x + 12
ariation of temperature along the wall of a brick house in T(x) = –3
– Six
erature at any BCs
point forwall
in the 3Ddepends
heat conduction
on, among other T(x) = 6.2x
tions at the two surfaces of the wall such as the air tem-

…
17
ouse, the velocity and direction of the winds, and the solar
fi
 Types of BCs
• Speci ed temperature

• Speci ed heat ux

• Insulated boundary

• Thermal symmetry

• Convection

• Radiation

• Interface 18
fi
fi
fl
 T(x, y, z, 0) 5 Ti. N
tion does not invol
an initial condition
The heat conduc
Speci ed Temperature dition cannot invol
However, the heat
and thus a boundar
• The temperature of an exposed surface canasusually
well as specifie
be measured directly and easily monly encountere
flux, convection, a

1 Specified
The temperature o
150°C T(x, t) 70°C
easily. Therefore,
on a surface is to s
0
through a plane w
L x boundary conditio
T(0, t) = 150°C
T(L, t) = 70°C

FIGURE 2–27
where T1 and T2 ar
Specified temperature boundary
respectively. The
19 s
fi
 conditions on both surfaces
of a plane wall.

Speci ed Heat Flux

• When there is suf cient information
about energy interactions at a surface,
it may be possible to determine the Heat
flux Conduction
rate of heat transfer and thus the heat
. 0T(0, t)
ux on that surface q0 = –k ———
0x
Heat
Conduction flux
• The heat ux in the positive x-direction
0T(L, t) .
– k ——— = qL
anywhere in the medium, including the 0x
boundaries, can be expressed by 0
L x
Fourier’s law of heat conduction
FIGURE 2–28
Specified heat flux boundary
∂T ⎛ heat flux in the ⎞ conditions on both surfaces
q! = −k =⎜ ⎟ (W/m 2
)
∂x ⎝ positive x-direction ⎠ of a plane wall.
20
fl
fl
fi
fi
 85
CHAPTER 2

at flux at the surface at x 5 L is in the negative x-direction,

50 W/m2. The direction of heat flux arrows at x 5 L in
Insulated Boundary
ase would be reversed.

e: Insulated
• Heat Boundary
transfer through a properly
e commonly insulated in practice in order to minimize heat
insulated
) through them. Insulationsurface
reduces heatcan bebuttaken
transfer does to
ate it unless its thickness is infinity. However, heat transfer
be zero since adequate insulation
y insulated surface can be taken to be zero since adequate
reduces
heat transfer heattotransfer
through a surface through
negligible levels. There- a
ated surface can be modeled as a surface with a specified Insulation T(x, t) 60°C
surface to negligible levels
Then the boundary condition on a perfectly insulated sur-
example) can be expressed as (Fig. 2–29) 0
L x
• A well-insulated surface can be 0T(0, t)
0T(0, t) 0T(0, t) =0
k
0x
modeled
5 0 or as
0x
a
5 0surface with(2–49)
a 0x
speci ed heat ux of zero T(L, t) = 60°C
ulated surface, the first derivative of temperature with re- FIGURE 2–29
variable (the temperature gradient) in the direction normal A plane wall with insulation
∂T that the temperature
rface is zero. This also means ∂T function and specified temperature
q! = −k since
cular to an insulated surface
= 0 the
⇒slope of=temperature
0
∂x ∂x boundary conditions.
t be zero.
21
fi
fl
ariable (the temperature gradient) in the direction normal A plane wall with insulation
ace is zero. This also means that the temperature function and specified temperature
lar to an insulated surface since the slope of temperature boundary conditions.
be zero.
Thermal Symmetry
ial Case: Thermal Symmetry
problems
• possess
Therethermal
is no symmetry
heat ow as a across
result of the
the symmetry plane
sed thermal conditions. For example, the two surfaces
of thickness L suspended vertically in air is subjected
– The
al conditions, symmetry
and thus planedistribution
the temperature can be viewed
in as an insulated
e is the same as that in thei.e.,
surface, other half. That is,
insulated the heat
boundary
this plate possesses thermal symmetry about the center Center plane
lso, the direction of heat flow at any point in the plate is
– point,
closer to the Heatandux at isthe
there no symmetry plane
heat flow across the is zero Zero
fore, the center plane can be viewed as an insulated sur- slope
Temperature
al condition at this plane of symmetry can be expressed distribution
(symmetric
about center
∂T ∂T plane)
0T(L/2, t) q! = −k
50
=0 ⇒ =(2–50)
0
0x ∂x ∂x
0
L L x
—
2
e insulation or zero heat flux boundary condition. This
0————
T(L/2, t)
=0
duced from a plot of temperature distribution with a max- 0x
o slope, at the center plane. 22
fl
fl
 Convection
• The convection boundary condition is based on a
surface energy balance 87
CHAPTER 2

onal heat transfer in the x-direction in a plate of thickness L,

oundary conditions on both surfaces can be expressed as Convection Conduction
h2
0T(0, t) T`2
5 h1[T`1 2 T(0,heat 0T(0, t)
⎛ 2k
heat conduction
0x ⎞ ⎛ t)] convection ⎞ (2–51a) h1[T`1 – T(0, t)] = – k
0x
⎜ at the surface in ⎟ = ⎜ at the surface in ⎟ Conduction Convection
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ h1
⎝ the same direction ⎠ ⎝ the same direction ⎠ T`1
0T(L, t)
0T(L, t) –k = h2[T(L, t) – T`2]
2k∂T 5 h2[T(L, t) 2 T`2] (2–51b) 0x
−k 0x
∂x
(
= h T −T ∞ ) 0
L x
are the convection heat transfer coefficients and T`1 and T`2
res of the surrounding mediums on the two sides of the plate,
FIGURE 2–32
2–32.
Convection boundary conditions on
2–51 for convection boundary conditions, we have selected
the two surfaces of a plane wall.
eat transfer to be the positive x-direction at both surfaces. But 23
 Radiation
• The radiation boundary condition is also based on
a surface energy balance

Radiation Conduction
⎛ heat conduction ⎞ ⎛ radiation exchange⎞
⎜ at the surface in ⎟ = ⎜ at the surface in ⎟ 4
e1s [Tsurr, 4 0T(0, t)
1 – T(0, t) ] = – k ———
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ 0x
⎝ the same direction ⎠ ⎝ the same direction ⎠ e1 e2
Tsurr, 1 Tsurr, 2
∂T
−k
∂x
(
= εσ T 4 − T∞4 ) Conduction Radiation

ε = emissivity of the boundary surface 0T(L, t)

– k ——— = e2s [T(L, t)4 – Tsurr,
4
2]
0x
W
σ = the Stefan-Boltzmann constant, 5.67 × 10 −8 0
L x
m 2K 4
FIGURE 2–35
Radiation boundary conditions on both
24
surfaces of a plane wall.
 Interface
• Some bodies are made up of layers of different
89
materials, it requires the boundary conditions at CHAPTER 2
each
to determine them. interface
Therefore, it is tempting to ignore radiation exchange at Interface
a surface during a heat transfer analysis in order to avoid the complications Material Material
associated with nonlinearity. This is especially the case when heat transfer at the A B
• The boundary conditions at an interface are
surface is dominated by convection, and the role of radiation is minor. TA(x0, t) = TB(x0, t)
based on the requirements
5 Interface Boundary Conditions TA(x, t) TB(x, t)
Some bodies– are made up of layers
Temperature of different
continuity: twomaterials,
bodies and the solution
in contact
of a heat transfer problem
must have in the
such same
a medium requires the solution of the heat
temperature Conduction Conduction
transfer problem in each layer. This, in turn, requires the specification of the
boundary conditions at each interface. 0TA(x0, t) 0TB(x0, t)
– Surface
The boundary conditionsenergy (heat areux)
at an interface balance:
based an interface
on the requirements that is –kA = –kB
0x
0x
(1) two bodies a in surface
contact must
such havethat
the same storeatany
temperature
it cannot the area of con-
energy 0 x0 L x
tact and (2) an interface (which is a surface) cannot store any energy, and thus
the heat flux on the twoTsides of an = interface
T must be the same. The boundary FIGURE 2–36
A interface B interface
conditions at the interface of two bodies A and B in perfect contact at x 5 x0 Boundary conditions at the interface
can be expressed as (Fig. 2–36)∂T ∂T of two bodies in perfect contact.
−kA A
= −kB B
∂x 0, t) 5 TB(x0, t) ∂x
TA(xinterface interface
(2–53)
25
and
fl
 Therefore, any straight line is a solution of this differential equation. Integrate again:
The general solution contains two unknown constants C1 and C2, and thus T(x) = C1x + C2
we need two equations to determine them uniquely and obtain the specific so-
lution. These equations are obtained by forcing the general solution to satisfy General Arbitrary

Solution of Steady 1D
the specified boundary conditions. The application of each condition yields
one equation, and thus we need to specify two conditions to determine the
constants C1 and C2.
When applying a boundary condition to an equation, all occurrences of
solution constants

FIGURE 2–41

Heat Conduction Problems

the dependent and independent variables and any derivatives are replaced by
the specified values. Thus the only unknowns in the resulting equations are the
arbitrary constants.
The first boundary condition can be interpreted as in the general solution,
Obtaining the general solution of
a simple second order differential
equation by integration.
92 replace all the x’s by zero and T(x) by T1. That is (Fig. 2–42),
93
HEAT CONDUCTION EQUATION T(0) 5 C 3 0 1 CCHAPTERS C 25 T
1 2 2 1

The second boundary chapter. If you

condition can feel rusty on differential
be interpreted equations
as in the general solution,or haven’t taken differen-
re time, we obtain tialL equations
replace all the x’s by and T(x) byyet, no need
T2. That is, to panic. Simple integration is all you need to solve
Heat transfer problem Boundary condition:
T(x) 5 C1x 1 C2 the steady one-dimensional heat conduction
Differential equation: T2 2 T1 problems.
T(0) = T1
T(L) 5 C1L 1 C2 S T2 5 C1L 1 T1 2S C1 5
solution of the differential equation (Fig. 2–41). The gen-The solution procedure dfor T =solving
0 heat
L conduction problems can be sum-
General solution:
Mathematical formulation dx2
ase resembles the general formula
(Differential equationofand
a straight line
Substituting Cmarized
whose
the as (1) formulate
1 and C2 expressions the problem
into the general solution,by
weobtaining
obtain the applicable T(x)differen-
= C1x + C2
se value at x 5 0 boundary
is C2. This is not
conditions) surprising since the
tial equationT2in2 its
T1 simplest form and specifying the boundary
Integrate: conditions,
resents the change in the slope of a function, and a zero T(x) 5 x 1 T1 dT = C (2–56) Applying the boundary condition:
(2) obtain the general
L solution of
1 the differential equation, and (3) apply T(x) =the
C1x + C2
dicates that the slope of the function remains constant. dx
General solution of differential equation
ht line is a solution of this differentialwhich is the desired
equation.
boundary
solution conditions
sinceIntegrate and
it satisfies
again:
determine
not only thethe arbitraryequa-
differential constants in the general↑solu-↑
0 0
on contains two unknown constants tion C1 andbutCalso the tion (Fig. 2–39).
two specified Thisconditions.
boundary isT(x)
demonstratedC2 is,below
= C1x +That with examples.
differentiating
2, and thus

}
Eq. 2–56 with respect T1
so- to x twice will give d T/dx , which is the given differential
2 2
Application
ns to determine of boundary
them uniquely andconditions
obtain the specific
equation, and Substituting:
ns are obtained by forcing the general solution to substituting
satisfy x 5 0 and x 5 L into Eq.Arbitrary
General 2–56 gives T (0) 5 T1 and
T (L) condition
5 T2, respectively, T1 = C1 × 0 + C2 → C2 = T1
yields which are the specified conditions at the boundaries.
solution constants
ary conditions. The application
Solution of each
of the problem
hus we need to specify two conditionsSubstitutingto determinethe thegiven information, the value of the temperature at x 5
EXAMPLE 2–10 Heat Conduction in a Plane Wall It cannot involve x or T(x) after the
0.1 m is determined to be boundary condition is applied.
boundary condition to an equation, all occurrences ofConsider (50 2a 120)8C
large plane wall of FIGURE
thickness L 5 0.2 m, thermal conductivity k 5
2–41
T(0.1 m) 5 (0.1 m) 1 120°C 5 85°C
ndependentFIGURE 2–39
variables and any derivatives are replaced by1.2 W/m·K, and surface
0.2Obtaining
m the area A5
general 15 m of
solution
2
. The two sides of the wall are main-
Thus the Basic
only unknowns in the resulting
steps involved in the equations
(b)solution
The rate of areheat
thetained at constant
conduction temperatures
anywhere in the wallofisT1determined
5 120°C and
fromT2 5 50°C, respectively,
a simple second order differential
of heat transfer problems.Fourier’s law to be as shown in Fig. 2–40. Determine
equation (a) the variation of temperature within the
by integration. FIGURE 2–42
condition can be interpreted as in the general solution,wall and the value of temperature at x 5 0.1 m and (b) the rate of heat con-
dT T2 2 T 1 T1 2 T2 When applying a boundary condition
zero and T(x) by T1. That is (Fig. 2–42), Q·
wall 5 2kA duction 5 2kACthrough the wall under
1 5 2kA 5 kAsteady conditions. (2–57)
dx L L to the general solution at a specified
T(0) 5 C1 3 0 1 C2 S C2 5 T1 point, all occurrences of the dependent
The numerical value of the rate of heat conduction through the wall is deter-
y condition can be interpreted as in mined
the general solution,SOLUTION
by substituting
A plane wall with specified surface temperaturesand
the given values to be
is given. The variables should
independent
L and T(x) by T2. That is, variation of temperature and the rate of heat transfer are to be determined. be replaced by their specified
Plane · T 2 T2 (120
Boundary condition: 2 50)8C
T2 Q
25 T1 kA
1 Assumptions 1 Heatm2conduction
5 (1.2 W/m·K)(15 ) 6300 W 2 Heat conduction is one-
is 5steady. values at that point.
wall
1 C2 S T2 5 C1L 1 T1 S C1 5 L T(0) = T 0.2 m
dimensional since the wall1is large relative to its thickness and the thermal
L
T1 T2Discussion Note thatconditions on both
under steady sides are
conditions,
General solution: the uniform. 3 Thermal
rate of heat conductivity is constant.
conduction 26
nd C2 expressions into the general solution, we obtain
through a plane wall4isThere
constant.
is no heat T(x)
generation.
=C x+C