Chapter – 3 –Related Genres: Oracles and Testaments

The chapter delves into the intricate relationship between oracles and
testaments, particularly within the context of ancient Jewish literature during
the Hellenistic period. It begins by exploring the genre of oracles, focusing on
their historical significance during events such as the Maccabean revolt. The
text articulates how these "historical" apocalypses resonate with biblical
prophecies, especially those found in the Book of Daniel, while also drawing
connections to political oracles from the Hellenistic era. A significant aspect
discussed is the tradition of sibylline oracles, which originated in ancient
Greece and were later adapted by Jewish communities. These oracles,
attributed to prophetic women known as sibyls, addressed various historical
and political issues, although only fragments of the original pagan texts
remain. The chapter emphasizes the Jewish adaptation of these oracles,
notably in "The Third Sibyl," a compilation that spans two centuries and
illustrates power struggles through historical themes like the Babylonian
exile.

The chapters speculates on prophetic references to a "king from the sun,"

potentially linked to Ptolemaic rulers, suggesting that this figure would usher
in an era of peace by adhering to divine teachings. This notion has sparked
controversy, as interpretations often mistakenly equate it with a Jewish
messiah. However, the chapter argues that a more accurate understanding
aligns it with titles historically used for Egyptian pharaohs, thus predicting a
benevolent ruler who would supplant the Ptolemies. Additionally, it draws
parallels to figures like Cyrus, who was seen as a messianic liberator for the
Jews. The oracles also convey moral imperatives urging adherence to God's
laws while denouncing idolatry and immorality, stressing the necessity of
restoring the temple in Jerusalem for both Jews and Gentiles.

It discusses the origins of "Sib. Or. 3," likely produced by Jewish groups
around the mid-second century B.C.E., reflecting a blend of Jewish law and
admiration for Ptolemaic kings. This document is posited to have connections
with Onias III, a high priest known for his piety during a tumultuous period for
Jewish identity. The text characterizes "Sib. Or. 3" as propaganda that
presents Judaism in ethical terms while supporting Ptolemaic authority. It
highlights how this work serves as a unique piece within Hellenistic literature
by focusing on earthly matters rather than celestial themes typical of other
apocalyptic writings.

The chapter also examines testaments as literary forms akin to apocalyptic

literature, emphasizing their role as final speeches from leaders to their
followers. Notable examples include the Testament of Moses, which recounts
Moses' prophecies and reflections on Israel's future amidst historical crises.
This testament reflects significant themes such as martyrdom and divine
purpose, contrasting with deterministic views found in other apocalyptic
texts. It suggests that human actions can influence divine plans and
highlights a divide between those who strictly adhere to religious laws and
those who do not.

This chapter provides an extensive analysis of how oracles and testaments

functioned within ancient Jewish literature as expressions of identity and
ethical teachings amidst Hellenistic influences. It reveals how these texts
navigated complex historical realities while maintaining a focus on moral
imperatives and theological reflections central to Jewish thought during this
period.

Chapter – 4 – Qumran

The discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls has significantly altered our
comprehension of Jewish beliefs post-Bible, particularly regarding
apocalypticism. This transformation occurs in two primary ways. First, the
early manuscripts of Enoch have provided insights into the origins and
evolution of apocalyptic writings. Second, there are evident links between
the texts discovered at Qumran and apocalyptic literature, especially in their
emphasis on angels and eschatological themes. Although Qumran is
identified as an "apocalyptic community," it is important to note that not all
scrolls originated from the same group or the Essene sect. Some writings,
such as certain Enoch texts and Jubilees, predate this community, while
others, like the Genesis Apocryphon, do not clearly belong to a single sect.
Nevertheless, key documents reflecting the ideologies of one movement,
likely the Essenes, include the Community Rule and the War Rule. These
scrolls exhibit similarities with works like Enoch and Daniel, indicating
connections among these groups. However, it remains uncertain whether all
early apocalyptic writings are associated with one particular movement. The
scrolls also reveal influences from various traditions, suggesting that the
authors should not be narrowly associated with a single group from the
Maccabean era. Despite containing few apocalyptic texts, they produced
unique writings that emphasize a worldview characterized by strong forces of
good and evil and a belief in posthumous rewards or punishments. Notably,
these writings do not present themselves as direct revelations from ancient
prophets. The movement was notably influenced by a key figure known as
the Teacher of Righteousness, who prioritized interpreting the Torah over
generating new apocalyptic revelations.

The history of the Qumran community is complex and can be traced back to
around the late second century B.C.E. Archaeological evidence such as coins
from John Hyrcanus and Alexander Jannaeus suggests that a settlement
existed during their reigns; however, the precise dating remains unclear.
Most sectarian writings are believed to have been produced in the first
century B.C.E., a period marked by discussions on Jewish leadership and
purity laws. This community likely emerged as a movement advocating for
repentance and featured a prominent figure known as the Teacher of
Righteousness. Conflicts arose with what they termed the Wicked Priest,
often associated with Hasmonean leaders. The separation from mainstream
Judaism probably occurred during the Hasmonean period, possibly during
John Hyrcanus’s rule. The Qumran community held strong beliefs about
revelation and adhered to a defined set of rules; however, many specifics
regarding their beliefs and practices remain elusive due to limited evidence.
Their most prolific writing phase appears to have been in the first half of the
first century B.C.E.

In Qumran, revelation is understood as following God's "mysteries." This

concept of "mystery," or "raz," reflects a belief in God's omnipotence over all
events, including evil occurrences. Everything that transpires is known to
God and was predetermined by Him. Even negative actions attributed to the
Angel of Darkness fit within God's overarching plan. God's mysteries
encompass not only human affairs but also involve angels and cosmic
elements. These mysteries are revealed directly rather than through
intermediaries like angels. The Teacher of Righteousness is regarded as the
primary source of revelation for this community, possessing direct insight
into these mysteries through divine wisdom. The writings from Qumran
demonstrate confidence in his authority, setting them apart from other
apocalyptic literature. The pesharim—a specific interpretative method—
views scriptures as mysteries pertinent to their current context rather than
merely forecasting future events.

The Instruction on the Two Spirits within the Community Rule articulates a
dualistic theology wherein God orchestrates everything according to a plan
that includes two opposing spirits: one embodying truth (light) and another
representing wickedness (darkness). Individuals are influenced by both
spirits engaged in an ongoing internal struggle throughout history; this
conflict will culminate when God decides to eradicate injustice permanently.
The wicked will face punishment after death while the righteous will enjoy
eternal blessings. This dualism draws inspiration from earlier texts and
Zoroastrian concepts; however, within Judaism's framework, God transcends
both spirits and is accountable for evil's existence. There is ongoing debate
regarding whether individuals are predestined to follow one spirit or possess
free will in their choices. Although dualistic themes appear in some Dead Sea
sect texts, inconsistencies across manuscripts suggest it may have been a
later development.

Humanity's division between Light and Darkness is portrayed throughout

history until an eventual conclusion—a notion derived from various religious
texts including the “Apocalypse of Weeks” and Book of Daniel. At Qumran
exists a fragmented work titled “Pesher concerning the periods made by
God,” which delineates history into ten jubilee periods totaling 490 years—
akin to ten weeks mentioned elsewhere. These writings primarily focus on
anticipated events during the final jubilee period while introducing
Melchizedek as a symbol of goodness opposing evil figures at history's end.
Furthermore, they contain calculations regarding timelines from exile until
the sect's emergence, suggesting attempts to predict an end around the first
century B.C.E., although there is an acknowledgment that this anticipated
end may be delayed beyond initial expectations—this did not seem to
dishearten them since they did not rely on a specific date for hope.

The Messianic expectation within ancient Judaism primarily anticipates

restoring David's kingship based on divine promises found in 2 Samuel 7.
Despite disruptions during Babylonian Exile affecting David's lineage,
prophetic texts such as Jeremiah 23 and 33 foretell a righteous leader
emerging from David's line to restore sovereignty over Israel—a hope that
waned during Maccabean times but resurfaced in the first century BCE amid
dissatisfaction with Hasmonean rulers. The Psalms of Solomon criticized
Hasmoneans for usurping power illegitimately while lacking true divine
lineage. This messianic figure is often depicted as a warrior destined to
liberate Israel by vanquishing its adversaries through references drawn from
Isaiah, Numbers, and Psalms.

The discussions arise around two distinct messiahs within Jewish thought—
particularly among Qumran adherents—who anticipated both a royal
messiah and a priestly messiah as indicated in documents like the Damascus
Document which refers to “the messiah of Aaron and Israel.” Evidence across
various texts supports this dual messiah concept where one functions as
priest while another serves as king; this reflects community practices
emphasizing ritual roles rather than merely savior archetypes.

The evolution of messianic expectations within ancient texts—especially

those found among scrolls—has prompted various theories regarding their
development over time. J. Starcky proposed a four-stage model illustrating
shifts in expectations: initially absent messianism transitioned into dual
messianism focused on priestly figures before evolving into one specific
messiah related closely to Aaron/Israel; ultimately reverting back towards
Davidic messianism later on at Qumran—a theory criticized for its reliance on
contested manuscript dating.

G. Brooke presents an alternative perspective suggesting original

expectations centered on one messiah linked closely with Aaron/Israel later
revised at Qumran; both theories converge on interpretations found within
Damascus Document discussing singular messiahship yet conflict with other
texts referencing dual figures alongside mentions of enigmatic prophets
potentially tied to Elijah.

The War Rule outlines military organization reminiscent of practices seen in

later conflicts like Maccabean wars while emphasizing spiritual warfare
underscored by prayer alongside angelic forces—a dualistic worldview
contrasting “Sons of Light” against “Sons of Darkness.” This structured
conflict bears influences from Persian dualism yet diverges from traditional
Israelite beliefs leading scholars into ongoing debates surrounding War
Rule’s development alongside its relation towards Qumran’s overall pacifist
outlook despite expectations surrounding final battles culminating ultimately
leading towards disappointment when Romans destroyed settlements.

Essenes’ beliefs about afterlife derived mainly through ancient writings

remain ambiguous concerning salvation post-eschatological war; they
propose peaceful existence for Sons of Light without explicitly outlining world
destruction while suggesting adherence leads towards longevity
accompanied by joy versus severe punishment awaiting wrongdoers—
historian Josephus posited soul immortality aligning somewhat with
communal beliefs whereas Hippolytus interpreted Essenes’ views favoring
bodily resurrection despite scant references within Qumran texts
predominantly discussing reward/punishment devoid resurrection notions.

The Dead Sea Scrolls represent a diverse collection encompassing numerous

writings not uniformly reflective upon community views compiling them—
however essential texts such as rule books alongside Hôdâyôt indicate
shared belief systems among group members despite lacking overtly
apocalyptic characteristics exhibiting certain traits indicative towards
apocalyptic worldview suggesting critical truths necessitate special
revelation closely tied towards interpreting traditional scriptures unlike other
apocalyptic literature like Enoch/Daniel.

These scrolls convey historical narratives marked by distinct periods

culminating towards predetermined end times aspiring towards messianic
age heralding renewal encompassing restored temple alongside awaited
messiah while depicting battles against evil coupled with notions surrounding
eternal punishment designated for damned individuals emphasizing lawful
observance superseding rigid dogmatic adherence showcasing flexibility
inherent within faith understanding.

Ultimately aiming towards leading pure angelic lives often necessitating

stringent marital/social regulations prompting some individuals opting
wilderness lifestyles though varying degrees existed amongst community
members aspiring heavenly existence whilst maintaining separation
particularly within Judean desert confines.

Chapter – 6 – The Similitudes of Enoch

The Aramaic fragments discovered at Qumran have provided insights into
the Book of Enoch; however, no fragments of the Similitudes, which
encompass Enoch 37-71, have been found. J. T. Milik posits that this absence
indicates the Similitudes are not of Jewish origin but rather a Christian
composition from the third century. This perspective is significant for the
study of the New Testament and ancient Judaism, particularly concerning the
“Son of Man” figure prominent in the Similitudes. If these texts are confirmed
as Christian, it would alter our understanding of their relevance in Jewish
thought during New Testament times. Milik's argument relies on the absence
of evidence from Qumran, his theory that the Similitudes supplanted another
text known as the Book of Giants, and certain parallels with the Sibylline
Oracles, although these points have faced scrutiny. The lack of discovery at
Qumran does not imply that the Similitudes were non-existent at that time,
as the Essenes' library likely did not encompass every text from that era. The
Similitudes may have been excluded due to their unconventional views on
celestial bodies, differing from other writings. There is no evidence
suggesting that Enochic writings were ever compiled into a five-book
collection. The similarities with the Sibylline Oracles are weak since those
texts lack a comparable visionary style. The current iteration of the
Similitudes portrays Enoch as the “Son of Man,” indicating it is likely a Jewish
text because a Jewish author would probably avoid using that title after it
became associated with Christianity. Notably, some passages in the Gospel
of Matthew appear to be influenced by the Similitudes. Therefore, it is
plausible that the Similitudes were composed in the early to mid-first century
CE, prior to the Jewish revolt from 66-70 CE, with no evidence contradicting
this timeframe. Historical references such as those to the Parthians and
Medes suggest a date post-40 BCE. The Similitudes are associated with
ancient Jewish apocalypticism; while only the Ethiopian version exists today,
it likely derives from an Aramaic original.
The Similitudes consist of three primary parables and two concluding
chapters, introduced as a “vision of wisdom” in Chapter 37. This wisdom
pertains to post-death scenarios, particularly regarding judgment day
outcomes. The first parable poses a question about sinners' fate during the
righteous' judgment, emphasizing that grasping righteousness's secrets is
vital. Enoch embarks on a celestial journey where he observes the abodes of
the righteous and numerous angels. He discovers that true wisdom eludes
earthly grasp due to evil's concealment; instead, it resides with angels in
heaven. The second parable addresses those who disregard sacred matters,
clarifying that they will find no place in heaven or on Earth. Enoch converses
with angels and learns about both virtuous and wicked individuals' futures.
The third parable elaborates on the destinies of the righteous and chosen
ones, unveiling additional cosmological secrets and visions of judgment. The
Similitudes illustrate a distinct relationship between righteousness and
wickedness, heaven and earth, and universal order. Classified as apocalyptic
literature, Enoch receives these revelations through visions guided by angels
while focusing on heavenly realms and humanity's impending judgment.
Although it mentions influential leaders, it refrains from chronicling historical
events like some other apocalyptic texts do; instead, it emphasizes
mysticism and revealed wisdom.

The Similitudes underscore the fates awaiting both righteous and wicked
individuals, asserting that the righteous will be rewarded with heavenly
realms and a renewed earth while the wicked will suffer punishment in Sheol.
The term “righteous” refers to a unique community believing in the Lord of
Spirits. Specific references to this group highlight their persecution and
rejection of worldly corruption. The wicked include powerful figures who deny
God's name and depend on wealth and idols for security. The primary
distinction between these groups lies in belief—in faith in the Lord of Spirits
and acknowledgment of forthcoming judgment. Although currently
powerless, the righteous's faith is essential for their righteousness; this faith
transcends mere legal adherence and embodies profound spiritual insight.
Wisdom accompanying righteousness stems from divine revelations from
God through Enoch's experiences. The Similitudes present a vision wherein
faith in the Son of Man is crucial, assuring followers that he will unveil truths
and enact judgment upon humanity.

The chapter introduces a distinctive figure known as the “Son of Man,”

integral to Jewish apocalyptic literature. This figure stands out because it
emphasizes an individual termed “Chosen One” or “Messiah.” The “Son of
Man” first appears in Chapter 46 as Enoch sees him described without
suggesting he is widely recognized; he possesses a human-like form yet
embodies righteousness and secrets. This term connects back to Daniel 7,
imbuing this figure with significance beyond mere humanity; he symbolizes
ties to both earthly and heavenly righteous individuals. He acts as a guide for
them amid struggles while playing an essential role in judgment. While some
may perceive this figure collectively, he is distinctly portrayed as an
individual representing community destiny—akin to deities in ancient Near
Eastern mythology who connect with their people yet remain separate.

The chapter delves into the complex identity of this “Son of Man” within
Enoch's writings, exploring various interpretations regarding his identity. One
passage suggests a direct link between Enoch and this figure; however,
concerns arise due to discrepancies among ancient manuscripts indicating
they might be distinct entities—complicating identification efforts. It is noted
that it seems unusual for a visionary like Enoch not to recognize himself
within his visions. Another argument posits that Enoch represents a
righteous man whose counterpart could be this heavenly figure. Various
interpretations are considered regarding these identities; notably, “Son of
Man” might simply denote “a man” rather than refer to an individual entity
specifically. Lastly, discussions contemplate whether later textual additions
or modifications might have influenced these identities—especially
considering how early Christians employed "Son of Man" when referencing
Jesus.

The Similitudes aim to provide reassurance to righteous individuals about

their secure future alongside the “Son of Man.” This figure embodies their
hope residing in heaven where prepared places await them. Readers are
encouraged to maintain faith during oppressive times—such as under Roman
rule over Jews—suggesting dignity derives from divine sources rather than
earthly circumstances. It is believed that terms like “righteous” and “chosen”
may refer to an actual community rather than merely anyone virtuous; some
similarities exist with phrases found within Qumran scrolls yet indicate
distinct authorship for the Similitudes—not originating there but rather
drawing upon earlier Enochian knowledge to create something original.

In relation to New Testament themes, while acknowledging that concepts

surrounding "Son of Man" predate Christianity within Jewish thought—as
evidenced by these writings—their influence on New Testament theology
appears limited since earlier texts can elucidate Jesus's designation without
relying heavily on them. Emphasizing faith in this celestial figure over strict
legal adherence suggests connections to early Christian beliefs; however,
such parallels should not be overstated given existing differences.