EEE / INSTR F244

Microelectronic
Circuits
BITS Pilani Anu Gupta
Pilani Campus
 BITS Pilani
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Modelling—Two port NW theory

• Device models
• Amplifier Circuit Models
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Modelling of devices
 MOSFET Example (z parameter)

𝐼1 𝑧21
𝑧21 𝐼1 = 𝑉1 [ 𝑧21 ] = 𝑉 --thevenin
𝑉1 𝑧11 1
= 𝐴𝑉𝑜 𝑉𝑔𝑠

𝑧21
Norton-→ 𝑉𝑔𝑠 [𝐴𝑉𝑜 /𝑧22 ] = 𝑉 = 𝑔𝑚 𝑉𝑔𝑠
𝑧11 𝑧22 1

𝑧21 𝑉2 𝐼1 𝐼2
= × = = 𝒈𝒎
𝑧11 𝑧22 𝐼1 𝑉1 𝑉1 BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956
 gm= v2/I1

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 MOSFET Example (h parameter)

𝑉1 𝑉1 ℎ21
ℎ21 𝐼1 × = ℎ21 = 𝑉1 = 𝑔𝑚 𝑉𝑔𝑠
𝑉1 ℎ11 ℎ11
ℎ21 𝐼2 𝐼1 𝐼2
= × = = 𝑔𝑚
ℎ11 𝐼1 𝑉1 𝑉1 BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956
Example- model of MOSFET

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contd….Y PARAMETERS

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Amplifier Circuit Models

Ease of analysis
Multi stage amplifier

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Ease of analysis

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Amplifier circuit models-
analysis tools

Amplifiers must be characterized for its terminal behavior

first to be used as block in system design

For analysis purpose, complex circuits are replaced by their

(models)--- simple circuits

Voltage amplifier model (v,v)

Current amplifier (i,i)

Trans-conductance (v,i)

Trans-resistance (i,v)
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Voltage amplifier model

Vin, Vout------ Z parameter model

Z parameter model

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 Z parameter model

1/24/2025
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Voltage Amplifier

Ro

+ + +
vi Ri vo
Avvi
- -
-

Using the voltage divider rule open circuit voltage gain is

Av,o = vo/vi|io=0
Unit (V/V)
Ideal conditions: R0 = 0 Ri =  condition for no loss
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Design guideline for voltage
amplifier
Ideal conditions of impedances at input/
output port

Ro = 0
Ri = 

condition for no loss of signal

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Current amplifier
Y parameter
ii io

+ +
Ri A iv i Ro vo
- -

Short-Circuit current gain

Ais = io/ii |vo=0
Unit (A/A)
Ideal conditions Ri = 0 ; R0 = 

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Trans-conductance amplifier
H parameter io
+ +
vi Ri Ro vo
Gmvi
- -

Short-Circuit Transconductance

Gm,s =[ io/vi ] |vo=0

Unit (A/V)
Ideal conditions Ri =  ; R0 = 

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Trans-resistance amplifier
G parameter
ii Ro

+
Ri vo
Rm*ii
-

Open-Circuit Trans-resistence

Rm,o = [vo/ii ]|io=0

Unit (V/A)
Ideal conditions Ri = 0 ; R0 = 0

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Relations between parameters

Av,o = Ais(Ro /Ri)

Av,o = GmRo

Av,o = Rm/Ri

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Analysis using amplifier models

Example

An amplifier with an input resistance of 10K, when driven by

---a current source of 1 µA and

---a source resistance of 100K,

---has a short-circuit output current of 10mA and

----an open circuit output voltage of 10V,

Sketch and label the circuit. When driving a 4K load. Find

(1) Ro and Vo.

(2) Av, Ai and Ap in dB.

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solution

Determine Ro, -----given-for RL=0, sc o/p current = 10mA

𝐴𝑣𝑜 𝑣𝑖 10𝑉
𝑹𝒐 = = = 1𝐾 𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑠
𝐼𝑜 10𝑚𝐴
Determine Vo-------
4𝐾
𝑉𝑜(𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑅𝐿 ) = × 10 𝑉 = 8𝑉
4𝐾 + 1𝐾)

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Determine Rm, Gm, Av, Ai, Ap-----
100𝑘
𝑖𝑖 = × 1𝑢𝐴 = 0.9 𝑢𝐴,
110𝑘
𝑣𝑖 = 0.9𝑢𝐴 × 10k = 9𝑚𝑉, 𝑖𝑜 =2 mA

𝑣𝑜,𝑜𝑐 10𝑉
𝑅𝑚,𝑜𝑐 = = = 10 × 106 Ω
𝑖𝑠 1𝑢𝐴
𝑣𝑜 8𝑉
𝑅𝑚,𝑅𝐿 = = = 8 × 106 Ω
𝑖𝑠 1𝑢𝐴

𝑖𝑜,𝑠𝑐 10𝑚
𝐴𝑖,𝑠𝑐 = = = 11,111
𝑖𝑖 0.9 𝑢𝐴
𝑖𝑜,𝑠𝑐 10𝑚
𝐴𝑖,𝑠𝑐 = = = 10,000
𝑖𝑠 1 𝑢𝐴
𝑖𝑜,𝑅𝐿 2𝑚
𝐴𝑖,𝑅𝐿 = = =2,000
𝑖𝑠 1 𝑢𝐴
 𝑣𝑜,𝑅𝐿 8𝑣 8
𝐴𝑣,𝑅𝐿 = = =
𝑣𝑖 𝑖𝑖 10𝑘 0.9𝑢𝐴 × 10𝑘
8
= × 1000 = 𝟖𝟖𝟖 (V/V)
9

𝑖𝑜,𝑠𝑐 10𝑚𝐴
𝐺𝑚,𝑠𝑐 = = = 22.2 𝑚ℎ𝑜,
𝑣𝑖 0.9𝑚𝑉
𝑖𝑜,𝑅𝐿 2𝑚𝐴
𝐺𝑚,𝑅𝐿 = = = 2.22 mho
𝑣𝑖 0.9𝑚𝑉

𝐴𝑝,𝑅𝐿 = 𝐴𝑣,𝑅𝐿 × 𝐴𝑖,𝑅𝐿 = 2000 × 888 = 1776 × 103 𝑊

IMPORTANT POINTS---

• When R1 increases , less loss of signal, more gain

• Though input is current signal but ckt. is of voltage

amplifier. So we should convert Is to Thevenin equivalent.

• Av < Av ,oc due to losses

Question---- what will happen if Vcc < Vo???

Ex—> vout= 100 (50mV)=5V, Vcc=3V-----vout ????

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Amplitude Clipping –
Amplitude distortion

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Example2 --- practice

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Conditions on Ri, Rout
for no loss

Ri- infinite
Ro-- zero

Home Practice--
What if
Ri--- 100x,
Ro---- (1/100) x ?

Find Av?

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Amplifier
performance parameters
Amplifier– I
Input continuous Signal
Arbitrary in nature.

Obtained through sensors, (eyes, ears)---variations

converted into current or voltage

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Sinusoidal Input

• Important signal in analysis , design, testing

• For an LTI system, if input is sinusoid, output is
also sinusoid with modified amplitude and
phase. Hence analysis is easy

• Every natural signal can be represented as sum

of sine waves of different frequencies and
amplitude.

• Lab testing is possible

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Why Amplifier first?
Reasons—

• Fundamental signal processing function

• Employed in every electronic system

• Design techniques can be easily extended to design of

complex analog circuits.

• Any operation can be configured using OPAMP

• Easy to understand

Similar to NOT gate (simplest gate )in Digital Electronics

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BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
Amplifier circuit symbol

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Specifications–
Characterizing parameters

• Gain (in deciBel notation)

• Voltage swing

• Power efficiency

• Frequency response, bandwidth

• Power supply and dc bias

• Input / output impedances

• Linearity (distortion)

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Multiple Analog Design
tradeoffs
• Design is
complex

• Full custom
designs

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Amplification factor – A
(Av, Ai, Gm, Rm)
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Amplification Factor/ notation

Av---- voltage amplifier

Ai--- current amplifier

Gm--- trans conductance amplifier

Rm--- trans resistance amplifier

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Amplifiers–
Mathematical representation
Need- Weak signals- energy too small for reliable
processing

Requirement---Information contained in the signal should

not get changed/ Output must be exact replica of the
input.

Relation ship of amplifiers

vo(t) = A vi(t) linear relation

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Ideal Gain/ transfer
characteristics---- linear
Voltage Gain

Current gain

Power gain

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Opamp-Amplification A---
infinite (why?)
• Reason for A to be large---high for stability in closed loop,
larger amplification in open loop mode)
• Vout = A Vin,
• Rin = high,
• A= Gain= - (R2/R1) = 10
• A should be stable (immune to PVT variation)

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Reason—
Negative feedback

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Aβ
Specification for Av
1 1 1 1
𝐴𝑓 = ≈ 1−
𝛽 1+ 1 𝛽 𝐴𝛽
𝐴𝛽 Gain error
--------------------using binomial expansion

1> > 1/ A β for less gain error

e.g. If β=0.01, ( as β≤1 always )

A >= 105
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Linearity

• Amplifier follows a relationship.--- linear

amplifier

• vo(t) = Av vi(t)

• But BJT/ MOSFET – Non Linear!!!!

• Any deviation (higher powers of vi) ---

nonlinear distortion
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Ideal Gain/ transfer
characteristics---- linear
Voltage Gain

Current gain

Power gain

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 Practical VTC

Practical VTC is non linear--

• device nonlinear, varying slope
( HARMONICS)
• Saturation at extreme values (
CLIPPING) ,
Output will be distorted

Remedy---
--Operate at a point where VTC is close
to linear-middle
--Keep input small

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 𝟏 ′ 𝑾 𝟐
𝑰𝑫 = 𝑲𝒏 𝑽𝒈𝒔 − 𝑽𝒕 + {𝟐𝒗𝒈𝒔 + 𝟐𝒗𝒈𝒔 𝑽𝒈𝒔 − 𝑽𝒕 } + 𝒗𝒈𝒔 𝟐
𝟐 𝑳
 Generation of harmonics
• MOSFET amplifier (operating in active region )
provides a current :

• The amplitude of 2nd harmonic normalized to that of

the fundamental is

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BJT

𝑉𝐵𝐸 = 𝑉𝑚 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑡

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Frequency/ harmonic distortion
in output of amplifier
Frequency distortion —due to harmonics generated in output
due to nonlinear behavior of device or inter-modulation
frequencies (not visible to naked eye)
However, if the signals are small enough then the square
/exponential expression can be approximated as very linear

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Distortion-
not visible to naked eye (plot spectrum of signal)

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THD (total harmonic distortion)

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Small signal approximation

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 Small Signal
(vin=vgs) approximation

How much small vin?

• Typically Vgs << 2Vov

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Small signal approximation

If vgs need to be much small, then vout will also be small

How to get large vout??

Remedy---- design multistage amplifier

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Gain/ Transfer characteristics (VTC)

(VTC/ CTC/ TRANS RESISTANCE/ TRANS CONDUCTANCE )
Gain/ transfer characteristics

Voltage Gain

Current gain

Power gain

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Practical VTC
Practical VTC is non linear--
Saturation, varying slope

Slope Variations cause Output

distortion
Remedy----

--Operate at a point where VTC

is close to linear in the middle
of VTC (why middle??) class A
operation
--Keep input small

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VTC-- TYPES

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VTC1----
Non inverting

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VTC 1----
Amplification shown on VTC

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VTC 2 -
inverting

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Amplification shown on
VTC2

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Information from VTC

• Highest and Lowest signal amplitude

• Gain—steepness of transition

• Inverting/ non inverting nature

• Single/ dual power supply

• Offset
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Voltage/ Power gain---

Gain in dB---10 log[ (Vo2/RL) / (Vi2/Ri)]

If RL= Ri

Gain in dB= 20 log (Vo/ Vi)

Power gain= 10 (Vo/ Vi)

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Measuring Unit---
Use of Decibel unit

The decibel, or dB, is a means of expressing either the gain

of an active device (such as an amplifier) or the loss in a
passive device (such as an attenuator or length of
cable).

The decibel was developed by the telephone company to

conveniently express the gain or loss in telephone
transmission systems.

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• Input >---- Amp #1 ---- Amp #2 ------> Output

• A1 = 275, A2 = 55

• The total gain factor At = 275 x 55 = 15,125.

• Use logarithms-

• log (A x B) = log A + log B

• log (A/B) = log A - log B

• Invented a unit of gain measurement called a
"Bel," named after Alexander Graham Bell.

• They defined the Bel as

Gain in Bels = log Ap

= log (Pout / Pin )

where Ap = Power amplification factor

• log 275 = 2.4393326 and
• log 55 = 1.7403626,

15,125

• so the total gain in our cascade is

• 2.4393326 + 1.7403626 = 4.179,695,289 Bels

• Rounding problem---
• 4.179 Bels15124.99----4.2 Bels15,849
• 5% error----- large
• it was decided to express power gain in units which were equal
to one-tenth of a Bel, or in deci-Bels

• 1 Bel=10 deciBels

• Gain in decibels (dB) = 10 log A

• 24.393326 + 17.403626 = 41.79,695,289 Bels

15,125
• 24.39 + 17.40 = 41.79 decibels = 15,101 V/V

• 41.79 dB is a power gain of 15,101

• while 41.8 dB is a power gain of 15,136, so the error is only

0.23%.----- small
Amplifier Power Efficiency

• Important part of the circuit

• Power balance equation---
Pdc + Pin = P load + P dissipated
• Maximum power must be delivered to the
load
• Figure of merit---Amplifier Power efficiency

PL
 100
Pdc
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Example1-

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Classes of Amplifiers

• Class A----ηmax = 25 %

• Class B (~50%)

• Class AB (~50%)

• Class C (>70%)

• Class D (>90%)
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Power Efficiency of
class A operation of voltage amplifier
Power Balance equation 𝑃𝐼𝑁 + 𝑃𝐷𝐶 = 𝑃𝐿 + 𝑃𝐷𝐼𝑆𝑆𝐼𝑃𝐴𝑇𝐸𝐷

𝑃𝐷𝐶 = 𝑉𝐷𝐷 𝐼𝐼𝑁 ;

Ideal device Threshold=0

𝑣𝑖𝑛=𝑉𝑝 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑤𝑡

𝑃𝐼𝑁 = 𝑣𝑖𝑛,𝑟𝑚𝑠 × 𝑖𝑖𝑛,𝑟𝑚𝑠

𝑃𝐿 = 𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑡,𝑟𝑚𝑠 × 𝑖𝑜𝑢𝑡,𝑟𝑚𝑠

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 Power Efficiency of class A operation
Vcc vout

Vcc/2
Q

0
𝑉𝐶𝐶 𝑉𝐶𝐶
𝑉𝐶𝐸 𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 = ; peak 𝐼𝐶 = ;
2 2𝑅𝐶

𝑉𝐶𝐶 𝑉𝐶𝐶 𝑉𝐶𝐶 2

𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑎𝑐 = × =
2 2𝑅𝐶 2𝑅𝐶

𝑉𝐶𝐶 𝑉𝐶𝐶 𝑽𝑪𝑪 𝟐

𝑚𝑎𝑥. 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑟𝑚𝑠 = × 2 2𝑅 =
2 2 𝐶 𝟖𝑹𝑪

𝑉𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
2
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Power efficiency

Power efficiency is a critical parameter for power

amplifiers.

For voltage amplifiers, voltage is the output

variable. Hence power efficiency is not a critical
parameter.

Nonetheless, it does gives us an idea about the

power lost in the circuit.

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Amplifier Bandwidth
Frequency Response
Ideal Bandwidth-
Electromagnetic spectrum
𝒄 = 𝝊𝝀

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Ideal Bandwidth-
visible light (infra red to ultra violet)

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Frequency response-
Bandwidth
• Ideal frequency response desirable.---gain should not
change with frequency. Why ??
• Practical frequency response (shown below)
• Green shaded region does not exist in IC amplifiers .
Why??

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Gain Bandwidth product
(GBW) – figure of merit

Desirable values--
• Gain---high
• Bandwidth--- high

An amplifier should have GBW as high as

possible

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UGB/ 3 dB Bandwidth
IC amplifier

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 Evaluating the frequency
response--- Bode Plots

Single time constant circuits

Vo (s) = 1/ [1+sCR] vi (s) Vo (s) = sCR/ [1+sCR] vi (s)

Av(s)= [vo./ vi]= K / [1+{s/wo}] Av(s)= [vo./ vi]= K s / [1+{s/wo}]

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Low pass response

Av(s)= [vo / vi] = K / [1+{s/wo}]

How to draw Bode plot???

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 𝟏
Magnitude and phase 𝑨 𝒔 =
𝒋𝝎
of complex expression 𝟏+
𝝎𝒐
1
| 𝐴 𝑠 | 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝐵 = 20 log Mag. 𝑗𝜔
1+
𝜔𝑜

1
| 𝐴 𝑠 |𝑑𝐵 = 20 𝑙𝑜𝑔 √ 2
𝜔
1+
𝜔𝑜
2
𝜔
| 𝐴 𝑠 |𝑑𝐵 = 20 𝑙𝑜𝑔1 − 20 𝑙𝑜𝑔 √1 +
𝜔𝑜
2
𝜔
| 𝐴 𝑠 |𝑑𝐵 = 0 − 20 𝑙𝑜𝑔 √1 +
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 𝟏
Magnitude and phase 𝑨 𝒔 =
𝒋𝝎
of complex expression 𝟏+
𝝎𝒐

𝟐
𝝎
| 𝑨 𝒔 |𝒅𝑩 = −𝟐𝟎 𝒍𝒐𝒈 √𝟏 +
𝝎𝒐

3 cases:

𝝎 ≫ 𝝎𝟎 = 𝟏𝟎𝝎𝟎 → | 𝐴 𝑠 |𝑑𝐵 ≈ −𝟐𝟎 𝒍𝒐𝒈 𝟏𝟎 = −𝟐𝟎𝒅𝑩

𝝎 = 𝝎𝟎 , → | 𝐴 𝑠 |𝑑𝐵 ≈ −𝟐𝟎 𝒍𝒐𝒈 𝟐 = −𝟐𝟎 × 𝟎. 𝟏𝟓𝟎𝟓 ≈ −𝟑𝒅𝑩

𝝎 ≪ 𝝎𝟎 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝝎𝟎 →, | 𝐴 𝑠 |𝑑𝐵 ≈ −𝟐𝟎 𝒍𝒐𝒈 𝟏 ≈ 𝟎𝒅𝑩

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 Magnitude and phase
of complex expression
1 𝝎
−𝟏
𝑗𝜔 𝒑𝒉𝒂𝒔𝒆 → ∅ = −𝒕𝒂𝒏
1+ 𝝎𝒐
𝜔𝑜
3 cases:

𝝎 ≫ 𝝎𝟎 = 𝟏𝟎𝝎𝟎 → ∅ = −𝟗𝟎°

𝝎 = 𝝎𝟎 → ∅ = −𝟒𝟓°

𝝎(≪ 𝝎𝟎 ) = 𝟎. 𝟏𝝎𝟎 → ∅ = 𝟎°
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 1
𝑗𝜔
1+
Gain (in dB) 𝜔𝑜

~0.1 wo wo ~10 wo
0dB w (log scale)
-20 dB
-20 dB/ dec

Ө= -tan-1 (w/wo)
Ө ~0.1 wo
w (log scale)
-45 -45o/ dec

-90
~10 wo
Av(s)= [vo./ vi]= K / [1+{s/wo}], K=1
 BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus

High pass response

Av(s)= [vo./ vi]= K s / [1+{s/wo}]

 Av(s)= [vo./ vi]= K s / [1+{s/wo}], K=1

𝜔𝑜
𝑗𝜔 𝑗𝜔
𝜔𝑜
𝐴𝑣 𝑠 = → 𝐴𝑣 𝑠 =
𝑗𝜔 𝑗𝜔
1+ 1+
𝜔𝑜 𝜔𝑜

𝑗𝜔
𝜔𝑜 𝜔𝑜
𝜔𝑜
𝐴𝑣 𝑠 = → 𝐴𝑣 𝑠 =
𝑗𝜔 1
1+ 1 + 𝑗𝜔
𝜔𝑜
𝜔𝑜
 𝝎𝒐 𝝎𝒐
𝑨𝒗 𝒔 = =
𝟏 𝒋𝝎𝒐
𝟏+ 𝝎 𝟏−
𝒋 𝝎
𝝎𝒐

𝜔𝑜 2
|𝐴𝑣 𝑠 |𝑑𝐵 = 20 log 𝜔𝑜 − 20 𝑙𝑜𝑔 √ 1 +
𝜔

𝜔𝑜
𝛷=− − tan−1
𝜔
 𝑗𝜔
Magnitude and phase 𝐴𝑣 𝑠 =
𝑗𝜔
of complex expression 1+
𝜔𝑜
𝜔𝑜
| 𝐴 𝑠 | 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝐵 = 20 log Mag. 𝑗𝜔
1+ 𝜔𝑜

1
| 𝐴 𝑠 |𝑑𝐵 = 20 𝑙𝑜𝑔 √ 2
𝜔𝑜
1+
𝜔

𝜔𝑜 2
|𝐴𝑣 𝑠 |𝑑𝐵 = 20 log 𝜔𝑜 − 20 𝑙𝑜𝑔 √ 1 +
𝜔
𝜔𝑜 2
|𝐴𝑣 𝑠 |𝑑𝐵 = −20 𝑙𝑜𝑔 1+ ; if 𝜔𝑜 = 1 rad/sec
𝜔
Bits, pilani

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

 𝒋𝝎
Magnitude 𝑨𝒗 𝒔 =
𝒋𝝎
of complex expression 𝟏+
𝝎𝒐

𝜔𝑜 2
|𝐴𝑣 𝑠 |𝑑𝐵 = −20 𝑙𝑜𝑔 1+ ; 𝜔𝑜 = 1 rad/sec
𝜔

3 cases:

𝝎 ≫ 𝝎𝟎 = 𝟏𝟎𝝎𝟎 → | 𝐴 𝑠 |𝑑𝐵 ≈ −𝟐𝟎 𝒍𝒐𝒈 𝟏𝟎 = −𝟎𝒅𝑩

𝝎 = 𝝎𝟎 , → | 𝐴 𝑠 |𝑑𝐵 ≈ −𝟐𝟎 𝒍𝒐𝒈 𝟐 = −𝟐𝟎 × 𝟎. 𝟏𝟓𝟎𝟓 ≈ −𝟑𝒅𝑩

𝝎 ≪ 𝝎𝟎 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝝎𝟎 →, | 𝐴 𝑠 |𝑑𝐵 ≈ −𝟐𝟎 𝒍𝒐𝒈 𝟏 ≈ −𝟐𝟎𝒅𝑩

Bits, pilani

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

 𝒋𝝎 𝝎𝒐
phase 𝑨𝒗 𝒔 =
𝒋𝝎
=
𝟏
of complex expression 𝟏+ 𝟏 + 𝒋𝝎
𝝎𝒐
𝝎𝒐
𝝎𝒐
𝒑𝒉𝒂𝒔𝒆 → ∅= +𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏
𝝎

3 cases:

𝝎 ≫ 𝝎𝟎 = 𝟏𝟎𝝎𝟎 → ∅ = 𝟎°

𝝎 = 𝝎𝟎 → ∅ = +𝟒𝟓°

𝝎 ≪ 𝝎𝟎 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝝎𝟎 → ∅ = +𝟗𝟎°
Bits, pilani

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

 Frequency response as a combination of
terms Frequency response as a
addition of
𝒋𝝎 𝟏
𝑨𝒗 𝒔 = 𝑗𝜔 and
𝒋𝝎 𝟏+
𝒋𝝎
𝟏+ 𝝎𝒐
𝝎𝒐

Gain (dB)=
2
𝜔
20 log 𝜔𝑜 − 20 log 1+
𝜔𝑜

Bits, pilani
BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956
 BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus

Bode Plot of different complex terms in a

transfer functions
 Different types of complex terms in
transfer functions

Different types of complex terms in transfer functions--

-

K, 𝑗𝜔
w 1 1
j jw
wo j
w 1 1
jw
wo wo wo

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

K - constant
Magnitude and phase
Of 𝑗𝜔

Gain in dB 𝑗𝜔 ∅ = 900 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ∞

+ 20 dB/ dec
Mag. 𝑤 = 𝑤

0
Log w

Ө Ө= 90

Log w

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

 𝑗𝜔
Magnitude and phase of 1+
𝜔𝑜

𝑗𝜔 𝑗𝜔 𝜔 2
Mag. 1+ =√ 1+
1+ 𝜔𝑜 𝜔𝑜
𝜔𝑜
𝝎
𝒑𝒉𝒂𝒔𝒆 → ∅= +𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏
𝝎𝒐

3 cases—
𝝎(≫ 𝝎𝟎 ) = 𝟏𝟎𝝎𝟎 → ∅ = 𝟗𝟎°
𝝎 = 𝝎𝟎 → ∅ = 𝟒𝟓°
𝝎(≪ 𝝎𝟎 ) = 𝟎. 𝟏𝝎𝟎 → ∅ = 𝟎°
Bits, pilani

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

 𝑗𝜔
1+
𝜔𝑜
Gain in dB
Corner plot

wo
Log w
Corner frequency
Ө

90

45
Ө= tan-1 (w/wo)

0.1 wo Log w
~10 wo
 1
Magnitude and phase of 𝑗𝜔
1+
𝜔𝑜

1
1 1
𝑗𝜔 Mag. 𝑗𝜔 =√ 𝜔 2
1+ 1+ 𝜔𝑜 1+
𝜔𝑜 𝜔𝑜

𝝎
𝒑𝒉𝒂𝒔𝒆 → ∅= −𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏
𝝎𝒐
3 cases—

𝝎 ≫ 𝝎𝟎 = 𝟏𝟎𝝎𝟎 → ∅ = −𝟗𝟎°
𝝎 = 𝝎𝟎 → ∅ = −𝟒𝟓°
𝝎(≪ 𝝎𝟎 ) = 𝟎. 𝟏𝝎𝟎 → ∅ = 𝟎°
Bits, pilani

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

 𝑗𝜔
𝜔𝑜
Gain in dB

𝑗𝜔 𝜔
+ 20 dB/ dec Mag. =
𝜔𝑜 𝜔𝑜

∅ = 900 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ∞

wo
Log w

Ө Ө= 90

Log w
 𝑗𝜔 1
− = 𝑗𝜔 ; 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝜔𝑜 =1, pole is at the origin
𝜔𝑜
𝜔𝑜
1 1 𝜔𝑜
= =
𝑗𝜔 𝜔 2 𝜔
Gain in dB 𝜔𝑜 √ 𝜔
𝑜

-20 dB/ dec

𝑗𝜔
Log w or log (𝜔 )
𝑜

wo rad./ sec

For a pole at the origin draw a line with a slope of -20

Ө dB/decade that goes through 0 dB at 1 rad/sec

Log w

Ө= -90
 BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus

Poles, Zeros of amplifier

Poles, Zeros and Bode Plots
Characterization:
K ( s  z1 )( s  z 2 ) ... ( s  z m )
G (s) 
s  ( s  p1 )( s  p2 ) ... ( s  pn )
s s s
(  1)(  1) ... (  1)
K  z1 z 2 z m  z1 z2 zm
G (s) 
 p1 p2 pn  s  ( s  1)( s  1) ... ( s  1)
p1 p2 pn
K  z1 z 2 z m 
KB 
 p1 p2 pn 
( z1s  1)( z 2 s  1) ... ( zm s  1)
G (s)  K B
s  ( p1s  1)( p 2 s  1) ... ( pn s  1)
(Time Constant Form.)
BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956
Transfer function of voltage
Amplifier

𝒔 𝒔 𝒔
𝒗𝒐𝒖𝒕 (𝒔) 𝟏+ 𝟏+ −− − 𝟏 +
𝒛𝟏 𝒛𝟐 𝒛𝒎
𝑨𝑽 = = 𝑨𝑽𝑶
𝒗𝒊𝒏 (𝒔) 𝒔 𝒔 𝒔 𝒔
𝟏+ 𝟏+ 𝟏+ −− 𝟏+
𝒑𝟏 𝒑𝟐 𝒑𝟑 𝒑𝒏

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956