02 AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE NOTES & ASSIGNMENT FOR G11C

Structure and functions of mammary glands

Functions of mammary glands

 Mammary glands produce milk for the born baby.
 Mammary glands provide for suckling of young ones.
 Mammary glands produce milk that can be milked out during lactation for human
consumption.
The process of milk let-down and milk hold-up in lactating animals
Milk let-down
 Milk let-down is a down flow of milk from the alveolar cavity and small duct system to
the gland cistern and teat canal to outside. This action is dictated by the oxytocine
hormone
Milk hold-up
 Milk hold-up is when the milking animal fails to give its milk. This is caused by external
factors like frightening, beating, talking roughly to the milking animal just before or
during milking time.
Health in livestock
Signs of good and poor health in livestock
Good health in livestock
An animal in a good health shows the following signs;
 Good appetite
 Spends most of its time feeding
 The body temperature is normal
 The pulse rate per minute is normal
  The respiration rate is normal
 The hair is bright
 The eyes are bright and alert
 There is no mucus discharge from the mouth or nostrils
 The urine is of normal colour and smell
 The dung is soft but not loose without worms or segments of blood and has normal smell
 No limping but normal walking
Poor health in livestock
 Decline in production of milk
 Variations in body temperature
 Loss of weight
 Loss of appetite
 Looks sick and not active
 Variation in pulse rate
 Dung very loose or hard
 Urine may contain blood
 Hair stands
 Mucus discharge from the mouth and nostrils
Nutritive value of livestock feed
Livestock are given feed to provide the following values;
 Feed provides energy for all movements of the animal and for reactions in the cells of the
body.
 Provides minerals required for growth and repair of the worn out cells of the body.
 Feed provides substances required to keep the body health and to give it protection
against diseases.
 Feed provides power for doing work for draught animals
 Provides raw materials required for the production of products from animal’s body e.g.
milk, eggs, meat, wool.
 Feed provides substances for fattening animals before selling.
The presence of various types of nutrients in animal feeds
Animal feeds should contain the following types of nutrients;
 Carbohydrates: They contain elements Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen which are chief
sources of energy for animals.
 Fats: Fats contain Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen as carbohydrates do, also a source of
energy but they provide twice or three times more energy than carbohydrates.
 Proteins: They are made of Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen and Nitrogen although some
contain Sulphur and Phosphorus. They are required for growth, repair and replacement of
damaged or worn out tissues.
 Vitamins: vitamins are complex compounds required in the animal’s body in small
quantities to help control different chemical reactions in the animal’s body.
 Minerals: They are also required in small amounts to promote health and prevent mineral
deficiencies.
Nutritional deficiencies
Symptoms of nutritional deficiencies in livestock
Some ill-health conditions in livestock are the result of deficiencies in the feeds, for example
lack of or insufficient mineral salts, proteins or vitamins.
Below is a table summarising symptoms of nutritional deficiencies in cattle and poultry;

Deficient nutrient Symptoms in cattle Symptoms in poultry

(Layers)
a) Protein Reduced growth, infertility, Poor growth, infertility, poor
poor muscular development, muscular development,
reduced milk and meat. reduced egg production.
b) Carbohydrates General weakness, Weakness, emaciation, death.
emaciation, death.
c) Mineral elements
i. Calcium Reduced growth and reduced Decreased egg production,
appetite, rickets, dullness, poor egg shells, loss of muscle
decreased sensitivity. control.
ii. Phosphorus Loss of appetite, growth Reduced egg production, loss
failure, rickets and stiffness, of appetite, weakness.
rough hair coat, death,
weakness, decline in milk
yield.
iii. Sodium Growth failure, lack of Growth failure, lack of
appetite, decreased pulse appetite, low egg production,
rate, decline in milk yield. cannibalism among birds.
iv. Zinc Enlarged hocks, shortening Poor feathering, low egg
and thickening of leg bones, production, loss of appetite,
scaling of skin, loss of weak embryos, poor skeletal
appetite. development.
v. Manganese Crooked calves, malformed Chicks have slipped tendons,
necks and limbs. thin shelled eggs and poor
hatchability.
vi. Iron Anaemia, abnormal cells, Anaemia, low haemoglobin,
low haemoglobin, lowered lowered immune system.
immune system.
vii. Magnesium Grass tetany, convulsions Poor bone formation,
excitability, death. emaciation, low egg
production and hatchability,
deformed chicks.
viii. Potassium General muscle weakness, General muscle weakness,
weak heart muscle, laboured laboured breath, loss of
breath, loss of appetite, rough appetite.
hair coat.
ix. Iodine Goitre, stunted growth, Stunted growth, low egg
 lowered production potential, production.
poor hair.
x. Copper Anaemia, slow growth, hair Anaemia, slow growth,
discolouration, emaciation, feather discolouration, loss of
bone deformation, diarrhoea, weight, bone disorders,
dullness. diarrhoea.
xi. Cobalt Anaemia, weakness and Anaemia, weakness and
death, emaciation, loss of death, emaciation, loss of
appetite, low fertility. appetite, low egg production.
d) Vitamins
A Infertility, night blindness, Infertility, diarrhoea.
diarrhoea.
B Emaciation, diarrhoea, Emaciation, diarrhoea,
anaemia, poor growth. anaemia, poor growth, loss of
appetite.
D Rickets, dental decay. Rickets.
E Sterility. Sterility.
K Prolonged blood clotting. Prolonged blood clotting.

Suitable species of pasture for livestock production in Zambia

The species of pasture are classified in two groups, namely;
 Grass pasture species
 Legume pasture species
Grass and legume pastures species can be planted and managed like any other and fed or grazed
by livestock.
a) Suitable utilisation of pasture
 Pasture grass and / pasture legumes can be conserved as hay or silage for future use
especially the dry season when there are little pasture for livestock.
 Pasture conservation maintains livestock production throughout the year because there
will be enough feed all the year round.
b) Consequences of overgrazing
Overgrazing is a situation where livestock are grazed continuously on a piece of land and they
eat away most of the vegetative cover to the effect that the land surface is almost bare and
subject to soil erosion agents. Overgrazing results into;
 Soil erosion
 Disappearance of some pasture species
 Leaving less palatable pasture species
 Poor health in animals because they get little pasture which is of low nutritive value
Pests/Parasites of livestock
Effects of pests on livestock
  Pests like ticks, lice, mites and hook worms suck blood of the host animal thereby
weakening them and anaemia can occur.
 Ectoparasites cause irritation on the body of the animal causing great discomfort and
lowering production.
 They reduce the host growth rate and cause emaciation of the host.
 They transmit diseases to the host animal. They damage the hide or skin of a host animal
as they bite and suck blood.
 Internal parasites may block the internal passage causing obstruction which may lead to
death of an animal
 They lower the quality of livestock products.

Cycles of Parasites
A. Ectoparasites
 One host tick
Adult female sucks blood from a host becomes engorged and drops to the ground where
it lays eggs. Eggs hatch into larva which limb on plants. Larva climbs on host as it grazes
and sucks blood and become engorged. Engorged larva moult and become nymphs, suck
blood of the same host.
Nymph becomes engorged and moult into adults.
Adult mate on the same host, suck blood and become engorged and drop to the ground to
lay eggs.
 Two host tick
Adult female lays eggs on the ground, eggs hatch into larvae which hatch onto the first
host. Larvae suck blood and become engorged. Engorged larva moult to nymphs, suck
blood and become engorged and drop to the ground and become adults. Adults climb a
second hose suck blood and mate. They drop to the ground and lay eggs.
 Three host tick
Adult female lays eggs on the ground, eggs hatch into larvae which climb on the host.
Larvae suck blood and become engorged then fall to the ground and moult to nymphs.
Nymphs climb a second host suck blood, become engorged and drop to the ground and
moult to adults. Adults climb a third host, suck blood, mate on host and become engorged
and drop to the ground.
 Chicken mites
12 to 24 hours after its first blood meal fertilised females lay batches of three to seven
eggs in cracks or under debris in poultry houses. Larvae emerge after 48 to72 hours and it
does not feed but moult into protonymphs which do not feed. After 1 to 2 days these
nymphs moult to adults. Chicken mites may survive several months without feeding.

B. Endo parasites
 Liver fluke – attack liver and bile ducts of infected animal. Adult fluke in liver and bile
lay eggs. Eggs via the blood vessels reach the intestine and pass out in feaces and hatch
into larvae called miracidia which enters the snails where they develop into sporocytes.
Sporocytes develop into radia and cercariae which come out of snails and swim about.
 Caricariae climb water plants and encyst themselves and develop into young flukes.
Young flukes are swallowed by animals and become adults in liver or bile ducts.
 Roundworms – are found in alimentary canal of infested host and are of two types.
Roundworm (haemonchus Contortus); adult worms in alimentary canal lay eggs
which are passed out in faeces. Eggs develop into larvae, moult twice and climb on
vegetation. Livestock eat infested vegetation and larvae develop into adults in the
alimentary canal and start laying eggs.
Roundworm (ascaris lumbricoides);adults in the gut lay eggs which are passed out
in the faeces. Eggs develop into larvae or infective stage in the egg shell. Young
roundworms migrate in the body by boring through the intestinal wall to the blood
stream, heart, lungs and coughed out into the mouth and swallowed back into the
intestines where males and female mate and eggs are produced.
Methods of controlling and preventing pests of farm animals.
Ticks
Fencing the livestock farm.
Regular dipping and spraying of animals with recommended acaricides
Hand picking of ticks from the animals
Heavily infested pastures can be ploughed or burned during the dry season to
kill eggs, larvae nymphs and adult ticks.
 Double fencing with clear spaces between fences to stop ticks from crossing
the adjacent farm.
Chicken mite
 General sanitation and cleanliness
 All new birds to be checked to ensure they are pest free before they are
brought into the farm.
 Physical examination of the flock
 Apply chemical pesticides directly on the infested birds, using a wettable
powder or in dust form.
Liver fluke

Dose animals with suitable anthelmintic periodically

Draining of waterlogged areas

Burning of muddy areas during the dry weather.

Hand picking and killing water snails using fish or water birds to feed on them
or spraying copper sulphate in infested water.
 Livestock grazing in poorly drained places should be avoided.
 Periodic cleaning of wells.
Roundworms
 Regular drenching of farm animals with suitable anthelmintic
 Providing livestock with clean water.
 Regular sanitation in livestock houses
 Rotational grazing.
 Correct disposal of human faecal material in pit latrines.
 Draining of waterlogged pastures ploughing infested pasture.
Diseases
Identify methods of preventing and controlling animal diseases
 Regular vaccination of livestock
 Isolating suspected and treating sick animals.
 Controlling disease causing agents like ticks and tsetse flies
 Rotational grazingof animals.
 Proper disposal of livestockwaste products.
 Proper feeding and watering of livestock
 Regular cleaning and disinfecting of animal houses.
 Burning or burying dead animals on the farm.
 Using artificial insemination when breeding farm animals.
 Periodic testing for particular animal diseases and culling positive reactors
 Proper fencing to keep out other animals from entering the farm and not allowing
livestock to go out of the farm.
 Zero grazing for large animals like cattle, pigs, goats and deep litter or battery system for
poultry.
 Instituting quarantine on livestock and their products.

Housing and Marketing

Explain the suitability and maintenance of various types of livestock housing
Calf house
 It should be able to protect calves against extreme weather conditions.
 Floor should be made of concrete to facilitate cleaning with a slanting drainage channel
through which urine can drain.
 It should be sheltered in order not to subject the calves to draughts which can predispose
them to pneumonia.
 It should be located on well drained soils.
 It should have enough space for the number of calves housed to avoid overcrowding.
 It should be well ventilated.
 It should have individual calf pens to avoid calves suckling navels of fellow calves which
can cause hairballs in the digestive system.
Maintenance of calf house
 Regular cleaning
 Check regularly for any cracks which should be filled with concrete to avoid pest hiding
there.
 Renew thatchbefore it gets old if the floor is made out of thatch.
 Plaster old walls.

Cattle houses (Zero grazed)

  The house should be protected from extreme weather, sheltered, built on well drained
soil, slightly slanting land to allow water to run off. The walls should be plastered and all
cracks filled to prevent parasites from hiding there. There should be enough ventilation;
the roof should not leak and enough feeding and watering space. A yard around the
building can be constructed so that animals can spend some time outside when they are
not feeding to help them exercise and get vitamin D.
Maintenance of calf houses
 There should be a clear space around the houses so that the area is kept dry to avoid
dampness in the walls and floors.
 Repair of walls, floor and roof should be done immediately to avoid further damage
which may necessitate constructing new houses which is expensive.
 Cattle dung and urine should be removed from the houses daily to keep them clean and
habitable.
Pig houses
 A pig house should protect pigs from bad weather conditions like rain, wind and
coldness. It should be located on a well drained site.
 It should be leak-proof. Floor should be made of concrete to ease cleaning.
 There should be a slightly slanted channel to drain away dung and urine to facilitate
cleaning. The room should be well ventilated.
 It should have enough space with feeding and watering area.
 It should be dry and warm enough to keep the pigs warm because the pigs do not have
enough hair to keep them warm if exposed to draughts.
 The walls should be smooth with no cracks where ectoparasites can hide.
 It should be large enough to hide a number of pigs without overcrowding.
 It should be strong enough to keep pigs.
Maintenance of pig houses
 Pig houses should be cleaned of dung and urine and scrubbed by a brush and detergent
and disinfectant daily for proper hygiene to guard against diseases.
 Any potholes on the floor should be sealed with concrete to avoid dung and urine
collecting there.
 The thatch on the floor should be repaired if old. The walls should be repaired if damaged
or cracked.
Poultry houses
 A poultry house should protect birds against extreme weather conditions i.e. sunshine,
rain and wind.
 The housing should be leak-proof with solid wall on the windward side to protect birds
against draughts which can stress birds.
 The house should be located on a well drained site to avoid the build-up of pests and
diseases which build where damp conditions prevail.
 The house should have enough space to accommodate a number of birds allocated.
 Walls should be plastered smooth with no cracks where pests hide
 Housing should be leak and vermin proof.
 It should have a lockable door to shut out predators.
 It should be well ventilated to guarantee good health.
  It should have watering and feeding facilities.
Maintenance of poultry houses
 Regular cleaning of the house.
 Old litter should be removed and replaced to keep the house clean and warm.
 Walls, floors and roof should be repaired if damaged.
 Poultry equipment in the house should be kept clean.
 All the bush around the poultry house should be dug up to avoid walls becoming dump.
 Ensure that watering facilities if leaking are repaired immediately.
Preparation of livestock and livestock products for marketing
Livestock – should be well fed and watered before marketing so that they fatten and look fit
and fetch good prices. They should be groomed or cleaned to remove dirt from their body in
order to attract buyers. Animals should be handled gently and carefully to avoid bruising
them. They should not be overcrowded in vehicles when being transported.
Livestock products – should be graded according to quality, size, colour before marketing
such that each lot is marketed and priced singly. For example eggs should be sorted and
graded as small, medium and big such that each lot in packed and priced independent of
others.
Organisations in Zambia that process and market livestock products.

Organisation What it does

Zambeef Processing and distributing beef, chicken
pork, milk, dairy products and eggs.
Master Pork Processing and distribution of pork products.
Kachema meat supplies limited Processing and distribution of meat products
such as fresh, cooked, cured, smoked pork
beef, lamb and goat meat.
Zambia Pork Products Process and marketing pork products.
Zamchick Processing and marketing poultry products

AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE ASSIGNMENT FOR G11C

• Answer all the questions.

• Answer the questions accordingly

•Write your answers at the back of your note book.

QUESTION 1
(a) Name three classes of crops according to their life cycle. [3]

(b) Which structure in a crop plant is responsible for the;

(i) transportation of water and dissolved nutrients. [1]

(ii) transportation of organic substances made during photosynthesis. [1]

(c) Describe the preparation of a seed bed for sowing maize. [5]

(d) How should a farmer prepare a harvested maize crop for storage? [5]

(e) Why are farmers advised to grow a crop like cotton where they plan to grow maize the nest
planting season? [3]

(f) Explain the importance of intercropping. [1]

(g) Why are farmers encouraged to practice organic farming? [1]

[20 marks]

QUESTION 2
Refer to the livestock you studied to answer the following questions. (Name the specific
livestock.)
a) State any four economic importance of this animal or bird. [4]

(b) Describe any four signs of poor health in this livestock. [4]
(c) Elaborate on any four nutritive values of the feed they eat. [4]

(d) Explain any four methods of preventing and controlling diseases. [4]

(e) Describe how to prepare livestock in general and/or their products for marketing. [4]

[Total: 20]

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