Comparative Grammar of

German, Dutch, and Afrikaans

Learn and Compare 3 Languages Simultaneously

MIKHAIL PETRUNIN
 MIKHAIL PETRUNIN

Copyright © 2024 Mikhail Petrunin

All rights reserved.

ISBN: 9798884904316

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 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR OF GERMAN, DUTCH, AND AFRIKAANS

DEDICATION

For all those who have been so patiently waiting for this book…

…and for those who will be surprised to discover it.

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 MIKHAIL PETRUNIN

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 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR OF GERMAN, DUTCH, AND AFRIKAANS

CONTENTS

Preface To the Learner xvi

What This Book Is About xvi

Lexical Similarities of German, Dutch and Afrikaans xvii
Tips on How to Use This Book xviii
Why You Should Learn German, Dutch and Afrikaans xix

Other Comparative Grammars Published by the Author xxi

Acknowledgements xxii

Symbols xxiii

Introduction: Alphabet 1

Letter Names and Pronunciations 1

Consonants 2
Consonant Sound Rules 5
Vowels 13
Vowel Sound Rules 14
Digraphs 20
Diphthongs 21

Chapter 1: Nouns 23

Gender of Nouns 23

Exceptions of Masculine Nouns 26

Exceptions of Feminine Nouns 28
Exceptions of Neuter Nouns 29
Special Cases of Grammatical Gender in German 32
Making Masculine Nouns Feminine 33
Masculine and Feminine Job Titles for Some Common Professions 35
Pairs of Nouns Denoting Males and Females 36
Plural Forms of Nouns 37

Special Cases of Forming the Plural Nouns 40

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Nouns which are Singular in English but Plural in German, Dutch and Afrikaans 66
Nouns which are Plural in English but Singular in German, Dutch and Afrikaans 67
Nouns which are usually Singular 69
Diminutives in German, Dutch and Afrikaans 72

Forms of the Diminutive 72

Use of the Diminutive 73
Special Cases of Forming the Diminutives 74
Plural Diminutives in German, Dutch and Afrikaans 89
Augmentatives in Germanic Languages 89

Compound Nouns 91

Gender and Forms of Compound Nouns 91

Special Cases of Forming the Compounds 93
Adjectival Nouns 100

Gender and Forms of Adjectival Nouns 100

Plural Forms of Adjectival Nouns 104
Nouns in Apposition 105

Inhabitants of Countries 106

Forming the Feminine and Plural Forms of Noun Nationalities 107

Case in German 112

Overview 112
The Four German Cases 113
The Nominative Case (Der Nominativ/Der Werfall) 113
The Genitive Case (Der Genitiv/Der Wesfall) 115
The Dative Case (Der Dativ/Der Wemfall) 121
The Accusative Case (Der Akkusativ/Der Wenfall) 125
Case Forms of Nouns in German 130

Nouns in the Nominative Case 130

Nouns in the Genitive Case 130
Nouns in the Dative Case 131
Nouns in the Accusative Case 133
Cases in Dutch and Afrikaans 133

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Overview 133
The Nominative Case 133
The Genitive Case 134
The Dative and Accusative Cases 135
Declension of Proper Nouns in German, Dutch and Afrikaans 136

Genitive with Proper Nouns 137

Special Rules of Genitive with Proper Nouns in German and Dutch 139

Chapter 2: Adjectives 140

Inflection of Adjectives 140

Declension of Adjectival Endings 142

Rules for Inflection in German 143

Spelling Rules for Inflection in Dutch 146
Spelling Rules for Inflection in Afrikaans 149
Adjectival Endings After Indefinite Pronouns 153
Indeclinable Adjectives 156
Prefixed Adjectives in West Germanic Languages 164
Adjective-forming Suffixes in Germanic Languages 165
Adjectives Used with Intensifiers 166
Making Adjectives from Verbs 167

The Present Participle as an Adjective 167

Formation of the Present Participle as an Adjective 167
Use of The Present Participle as an Adjective 168
The Past Participle as an Adjective 169
Use of The Past Participle as an Adjective 171
Spelling Changes and Rules for Inflection of Past Participle as an Adjective 172
Predicate Adjectives Followed by a Fixed Preposition 172
Nationality Adjectives 179

Chapter 3: Adverbs 180

Use of Adverbs 180

Forming Adverbs 180

Other Adverbs 181

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Adverbs of manner 181

Adverbs of place 182
Adverbs of time 184
Interrogative Adverbs 186
Adverbs Ger. hin/her and Dut., Afr. heen/van 189
Adverbs of intensity 190
Adverbs of doubt 192
Adverbs expressing affirmation 192
Adverbs expressing exclusion 193
Adverbs composed of several words 193
Adverbial phrases 193
Word Order with Adverbs 194

Comparative and Superlative of Adjectives and Adverbs 198

Other Structures Associated with Comparatives 200

Superlative of Adverbs in German, Dutch and Afrikaans 200
Spelling Changes in Comparative and Superlative of Adjectives and Adverbs 202
Use of more and most in Dutch and Afrikaans 211
Irregular Comparatives and Superlatives 215

Chapter 4: Articles 218

Definite and Indefinite Articles. Gender 218

Use of the Article 221

General Use of the Indefinite Article 221
General Use of the Definite Article 222
Omission of the Indefinite Article 227
Omission of the Definite Article 232
Article Declension in German 234

Contraction of Prepositions and Articles in German 238

Chapter 5: Pronouns 241

Personal Pronouns 241

Subject Pronouns 243

Overview 243

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Stressed and Unstressed Pronouns in Dutch 244

General Use of Subject Pronouns 245
Use of The First Person Singular 246
Use of The Second Person Singular and Plural 247
Peculiarities of Use of The Second Person Plural 249
Use of The Third Person Singular 250
Impersonal Pronoun Ger. Man, Dut. Men, Afr. (’n) Mens - “One” 254
Use of Ger. Man, Dut. Men, Afr. (’n) Mens - “One” 255
Alternative to Ger. Man, Dut. Men, Afr. (’n) Mens - “One” 260
Omission of Subject Pronouns 261
Direct Object (Accusative) Pronouns 263

Overview 263
Use of Direct Object (Accusative) Pronouns 265
Peculiarities of Direct Object Pronouns Use in Dutch 265
Word Order of Direct Object Pronouns 268
Use of Accusative Case with Certain Prepositions in German 271
Common Verbs Used with Accusative Case in German 271
Indirect Object (Dative) Pronouns 272

Use of Indirect Object (Dative) Pronouns 272

Use of Dative Case with Certain Prepositions in German 274
Common Verbs Used with Dative Case in German 274
Word Order of Indirect Object Pronouns 274
Word Order with Direct and Indirect Objects in the Same Sentence 274

Reflexive Pronouns 276

Use of Reflexive Pronouns 277
Common Reflexive Verbs Used with Accusative Case in German 278
Pronominal Suffix “Self” 279
Use of Pronominal Suffix “Self” 280
Independent “Self” in German, Dutch and Afrikaans 281
Reciprocal Pronoun “Each Other” 282
Dative Reflexive Pronouns in German 283

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Use of Dative Reflexive Pronouns in German 283

Common Reflexive Verbs Used with Dative Case in German 284
Word Order of Reflexive Pronouns 285
Possessive Adjectives and Pronouns 288

Possessive Adjectives 288

Declension of Possessive Adjectives in German 288
Peculiarities of Possessive Adjectives Use in Dutch 292
Adjective Endings after Possessives in Dutch 294
Independent Possessive Pronouns 295

Declension of Possessive Pronouns in German 296

Determine the Case of Possessive Pronouns in German 299
Alternative Forms of Possessive Pronouns in German 304
Informal Possession with Van in Dutch 305
Use of Possession with Van in Dutch 307
Informal Possession with Von in German 308
Use of Possession with Von in German 309
Differences between Possessive Adjectives and Possessive Pronouns 310

Alternative Constructions for Possessives 310

Possession with “s” in German and Dutch and “se” in Afrikaans 310
Possession with “d’r”, “z’n” and “hun” in Dutch 311
Possession with “s’n” in Afrikaans 312
Demonstrative Adjectives and Pronouns 313

Demonstrative Adjectives 313

Forms of Demonstrative Adjectives 313
Declension of Demonstrative Adjectives in German 314
Demonstrative Adjectives this and these in West Germanic Languages 316
Demonstrative Adjectives that and those in West Germanic Languages 317
Word Order of Demonstrative Adjectives 318
Demonstrative Pronouns 318

Forms of Demonstrative Pronouns 318

Independent (Neuter) Forms of Demonstratives in West Germanic Languages 320

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Forms of Independent (Neuter) Demonstratives 321

Difference between Demonstrative Adjectives and Demonstrative Pronouns 322
Interrogative Pronouns and Adverbs 322

Exclamations with Interrogative Words 336

Relative Pronouns and Adverbs 338

Word Order in Relative Clauses 350

Use of Participles instead of Relative Clauses 352
Indefinite Adjectives and Pronouns 352

Chapter 6: Verbs 399

Overview 399

The Indicative Mood 401

The Present Tense 401

List of Regular Verbs in The Present Tense 403

Verb Spelling and Vowel Changes in The Present Tense 406
The Present Tense of Irregular Verbs in German 415
List of Irregular Verbs in the Present Tense in German 418
Completely Irregular Verbs in the Present Tense in German, Dutch and Afrikaans 421
Verb To Be - Ger. Sein, Dut. Zijn, Afr. Wees 422
Verb To Have - Ger. Haben, Dut. Hebben, Afr. Hê 422
Other Commonly Used Irregular Verbs in German and Dutch 423
Verb To Do - Ger. Tun, Dut. Doen 424
Verb To See - Ger. Sehen, Dut. Zien 425
Verb To Become - Ger. Werden, Dut. Worden 427
Verb To Know - Ger. Wissen, Dut. Weten 428
Verb To Come - Ger. Kommen, Dut. Komen 429
Modal Verbs in the Present Tense 430
Verb Can, Be Able To - Ger. Können, Dut. Kunnen, Afr. Kan 431
Verb Will, Shall, Should - Ger. Sollen, Dut. Zullen, Afr. Sal 432
Verb May, To Be Allowed - Ger. Dürfen, Dut. Mogen, Afr. Mag 433
Verb Must, Have to - Ger. Müssen, Dut. Moeten, Afr. Moet 433
Verb To Want To - Ger. Wollen, Dut. Willen, Afr. Wil 434

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Use of the Present Tense 435

Special Use of the Present Tense with Prepositions of Time, Conditional, and Temporal 438
Clauses
The Past Participle 439

Overview 439
Formation of Past Participle of Regular (Weak) Verbs 441
Common Regular Verbs in The Past Participle 442
Verb Spelling Changes of Regular Verbs in The Past Participle in German and Dutch 443
Formation of Past Participle of Irregular (Strong) Verbs 453
List of (Strong) Irregular Verbs in the Past Participle 455
Mixed Verbs in the Past Participle in German 465
Use of Past Participle 466
The Present Perfect 467

Formation of the Present Perfect 467

Formation of the Present Perfect with the Verb to be in German and Dutch 469
Use of the Present Perfect 476
Special Use of the Present Perfect in German and Dutch 481
The Preterite 481

Overview 481
Formation of the Preterite of Regular (Weak) Verbs 482
Common Regular Verbs in The Preterite Tense 483
Verb Spelling and Vowel Changes of Regular Verbs in the Preterite 484
The Preterite Tense of (Strong) Irregular Verbs 487
Vowel Changes in the Stem of Irregular Verbs in the Preterite Tense and Past Participle 490
Spelling Changes in an Irregular Verb Conjugation in the Preterite Tense in German 495
List of (Strong) Irregular Verbs in the Preterite 495
List of Irregular Verbs in the Preterite in Afrikaans 504
Mixed Verbs in the Preterite in German 506
Use of the Preterite 507
Special Use of the Preterite in German 511
Difference between the Preterite and the Present Perfect in the West Germanic 513
languages

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Asking Questions 514

Asking Questions Using Statement Additions 514

Negation 515

Formation of Negation in Simple Tenses 516

Negation with Adjectives and the Adverb Very 519
Formation of Negation in Compound Tenses 519
Other Negative Expressions 520
The Pluperfect Tense 529

Formation of the Pluperfect 529

Use of the Pluperfect Tense 531
The Future Tense 531

Formation of the Future 531

Use of The Future Tense 532
Use of The Present Tense to Express the Future 534
The Future Tense Using the Verb Gaan in Dutch and Afrikaans 534
The Future Perfect Tense 535

Formation of the Future Perfect 535

Use of the Future Perfect Tense 536
The Conditional Tense 537

Overview 537
Formation of the Present Conditional 537
Use of the Conditional Tense 538
The Conditional Perfect Tense 541

Overview 541
Formation of the Conditional Perfect 541
Use of the Conditional Perfect Tense 542
Conditional Clauses 544

Alternatives to Ger. wenn, Dut. als, Afr. as - “if” 547

The Subjunctive Mood 547

Overview 547
Basic Rules for Indicative and Subjunctive 548

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The Present Subjunctive 549

Formation of the Present Subjunctive 549

Use of the Present Subjunctive 549
The Past Subjunctive 552

Overview 552
Formation of the Past Subjunctive (Subjunctive II) in German 553
Formation of the Subjunctive II of Regular Verbs in German 553
Common Verbs in The Subjunctive II 554
Spelling Changes of Regular Verbs in the Past Subjunctive (Subjunctive II) in German 554
The Subjunctive II of Irregular Verbs in German 556
The Subjunctive II Verb Forms that are still Used in German 558
Could/Should Have Done in German 560
The Passive Voice 561

Overview 561
Formation of the Passive Voice 561
Passive Voice with Ger. Sein/Werden, Dut. Zijn/Worden, Afr. Wees/Word 563
Modal Verbs in the Passive Voice 564
Use of the Introductory Ger. es, Dut. er, Afr. daar with Passives 565
The Statal Passive 566
Alternatives to Passive Voice in the West Germanic Languages 567
When to Use the Passive Voice 569
The Continuous Tenses 570

Formation of Continuous Tenses 571

Use of Continuous Tenses 577
The Present Continuous 577
The Past (Imperfect) Continuous 577
The Infinitive 578

Overview 578
Rules for the use of Ger. zu, Dut. te, Afr. om te with Infinitives 578
Omission of Ger. zu, Dut. te, Afr. om te 579
Use of Ger. um…zu, Dut. om…te, Afr. om…te before Infinitives 580

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Use of The Infinitive 581

Ger. zu, Dut. te, Afr. om te + Infinitive: the “Verbable” 583
Ger. lassen, Dut. laten, Afr. laat in Causative Constructions 583

Let and Verbs of Perception + the Infinitive in West Germanic languages 585

The Present Participle (Gerund) 586

Overview 586
Formation of the Present Participle (Gerund) 586
Use of Present Participle 587
No Use of Present Participle (Gerund) 588
The Imperative Mood 588

Irregular Imperative of Ger Sein, Dut. Zijn, Afr. Wees - “to Be” 591
Other Irregular Verbs in the Imperative in German 592
The Negative Imperative 592
Softened Commands in West Germanic Languages 594
Particles Used with Commands in Dutch 595
Reflexive Verbs 596

Verbal Prefixes 596

Overview 596
Separable Verbal Prefixes in German and Dutch 596
Other Characteristics of Separable Verbal Prefixes 597
Examples of Separable Verbal Prefixes 600
Inseparable Verbal Prefixes 622
Other Characteristics of Inseparable Verbal Prefixes 624
Examples of Inseparable Verbal Prefixes 626
Distinction between Separable and Inseparable Verbs in German, Dutch, and Afrikaans 637

Chapter 7: Numbers, Time and Dates 638

Numbers 638

Overview 638
Cardinal Numbers 638

Peculiarities of Spelling Rules of Cardinal Numbers in the West Germanic Languages 642
Phrases of Approximation Used with Cardinal Numbers 646

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Use of Cardinal Numbers 647

Ordinal Numbers 650

Peculiarities of Spelling Rules of Ordinal Numbers in the West Germanic Languages 653
Use of Ordinal Numbers 655
Adverbial Ordinals in the West Germanic Languages 657
Fractions 657

Decimals 659
Arithmetical Operations 660
Collective Numbers 661

Multiple Numerals 661

Dates 662

Days 662
Months 663
Ways to Ask the Date in the West Germanic Languages 667
Seasons 667
Time 668

Adverbs of Time 672

Prepositions of Time 674
Age 675

Chapter 8: Prepositions 676

Overview 676

Most Commonly Used Prepositions 677

Uses of Prepositions 679

Prepositions and Cases in German 735

Prepositions with Accusative 735

Noun and Article Change with Prepositions in the Accusative 736
Pronoun Change with Prepositions in the Accusative 738
Common Verbs Used with Accusative Case 738
Prepositions with Dative 739
Noun and Article Change with Prepositions in the Dative 740
Pronoun Change with Prepositions in the Dative 741

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Common Verbs Used with Dative Case 743

Prepositions with Accusative and Dative 745
Common Verbs Used with Accusative/Dative Case 747
Prepositions with Genitive 748
Noun and Article Change with Prepositions in the Genitive 749
Pronoun Change with the Genitive Preposition Wegen 751
Common Verbs Used with Genitive Case 752

Chapter 9: Conjunctions 753

Overview 753

Coordinating Conjunctions 753

Word Order in Coordinate Clauses 755

Word Order with Adverbs of Time in Coordinate Clauses 756
Subordinating Conjunctions 756

Word Order in Subordinate Clauses 757

Special Rules of Word Order in Subordinate Clauses 757
Most Common Subordinating Conjunctions 759
Correlative Conjunctions 774

Conjunctive Adverbs 776

Chapter 10: Interjections 779

Overview 779

Types of Interjections 779

Interjections with Exclamatory Words 786

Index 787

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PREFACE TO THE LEARNER

“Be patient. Everything is coming together”

Many of my readers who purchased and used in their studies the Comparative Grammar of
Spanish, Portuguese, Italian and French, that I publish in 2018, and who liked it, asked me to release the
Comparative Grammar of German, Dutch and Afrikaans as well. So I decided to write and publish the
Comparative Grammar of German, Dutch and Afrikaans for my loyal and patient readers, as well as for all
of the fans and learners of West Germanic languages who would be happy to have such a book.

What This Book Is About

Comparative Grammar of German, Dutch and Afrikaans is a complete reference guide to all the
aspects of these three West Germanic languages. It is the ideal reference book for those who would like to
learn and compare German, Dutch and Afrikaans simultaneously or one by one.
It is designed not only for beginners who do not have an extensive knowledge of grammar, yet
need a guide through the grammatical concepts of all mentioned above languages, but also intermediate
and advanced students who would like to have a reference book of several West Germanic languages at
once.

Comparative Grammar of German, Dutch and Afrikaans can also be used for either independent
study or for learners in classes of all types.

It presents a clear and easy-to-read description of the German, Dutch and Afrikaans grammar
with chapters divided into nouns, pronouns, verbs, prepositions, articles, etc. detailing how each of the
three West Germanic languages operate. The book is well-organized, neatly tabulated, with separate
subheadings for topics that require a little more language-specific discussion.

This book features:

• Coverage of German, Dutch and Afrikaans.

• Detailed contents section and index for easy access to information.

• Hundreds of illustrative and authentic examples.

• Coverage of all the grammatical aspects and useful expressions.

• Sections on the geographical, historical and cultural facts of the German, Dutch and Afrikaans-speaking
world.

This book is written for learners who are particularly fond of or would like to concentrate on
learning German, Dutch and Afrikaans or just to get an all-round knowledge of these three West
Germanic languages.

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Furthermore, I have aimed to create a useful and must-have book for all those interested in the
three main and most wide-spread West Germanic languages - German, Dutch and Afrikaans with concise
and clear explanations of all grammatical areas and numerous practical examples taken from current
German, Dutch and Afrikaans usage.

Below I will briefly discuss characteristics and lexical similarities of German, Dutch and
Afrikaans. Also, I will give eight tips on how to effectively study these four languages and avoid confusion
while learning them simultaneously or one by one, as well as why you should ever learn German, Dutch
and Afrikaans.

Lexical Similarities of German, Dutch and Afrikaans

We know that all the Germanic languages are divided into three groups: West, East and North
Germanic. Many scholars claim that all Germanic languages remained mutually intelligible until the late
20th century.

In fact, thanks to the significant scientific progress in the study of Proto-West Germanic
languages in the 21st century, there is a growing consensus that specifically East and West Germanic
languages would have been mutually unintelligible at that time.

Therefore, the significant grammatical and lexical convergence will allow the simultaneously
study of several West Germanic languages.

Below are some examples that demonstrate apparent lexical similarities between German, Dutch,
and Afrikaans.

Count from one to ten

German Dutch Afrikaans English

eins één een one

zwei twee twee two

drei drie drie three

vier vier vier four

fünf vijf vyf five

sechs zes ses six

sieben zeven sewe seven

acht acht ag eight

neun negen nege nine

zehn tien tien ten

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Several common verbs

German Dutch Afrikaans English

schlafen slapen slaap to sleep

trinken drinken drink to drink

essen eten eet to eat

haben hebben hê to have

spielen spelen speel to play

arbeiten werken werk to work

Some other commonly used nouns

German Dutch Afrikaans English

Mann man man man

Frau vrouw vrou woman

Brot brood brood bread

Sonne zon son sun

Gras gras gras grass

Leben leven lewe life

Tips on How to Use This Book

The answer is no. In order to avoid mess and confusion in learning, I suggest 8 tips on how to
effectively study these four languages:

1. To make the process of learning better structured and more effective, learn the grammatical rules and
phrases of these four languages in a fixed and strict sequence. These languages have already been put
in a strict order for you to learn. The sequence is this: at first you read a rule or phrase in German =>
then in Dutch => and finally in Afrikaans. You should get used to this particular sequence in order to
avoid confusion.

2. As Leonardo da Vinci once said, “Study without desire spoils the memory, and it retains nothing that it
takes in.” Motivate yourself and develop an overwhelming and strong desire to learn and master
German, Dutch and Afrikaans. Motivation and understanding of how important the knowledge of
these languages is to you is the key to success. Constantly remind yourself why you need to learn
several or all of these languages and where you are going to use them.

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3. Try to read and memorize the rules of each chapter at least twice before starting with the next one. If
you genuinely wish to improve your German, Dutch or Afrikaans, return and revise each chapter over
again. Practice makes perfect. Remember that.

4. While reading new rules, phrases and constructions, try to make up your own sentences and examples
using the rules that you just learned.

5. Use this book with a pencil to underline rules or constructions that you feel are important and which
you may use later on in conversation.

6. Revise comparative grammar of German, Dutch and Afrikaans from time to time. Because our brain
tends to forget all the grammar rules we’ve learned so rapidly, we constantly need to refresh our
memory by reviewing and repeating them at times.

7. Practice your German, Dutch and/or Afrikaans in real conversations with native speakers no matter
how good or bad you know those languages. Use these language every day and at every opportunity
both in the streets and on the internet, on social networks or different online chats. Learning is an
active process. You will never learn a language until you practice it with people.

8. Your final goal is to speak German, Dutch and/or Afrikaans. Therefore, use your notebook or any
device to record all the new words and phrases you hear while practicing your languages with people
or watching TV or listening radio in German, Dutch or Afrikaans.

Why You Should Learn German, Dutch and Afrikaans

The West Germanic languages represent the largest of the two existing branches of the Germanic
family of languages (the other being the North Germanic).

Nowadays over 500 million people speak the West Germanic languages in Europe, South and
North America, Africa and Asia. The West Germanic languages include the four most widely spoken
Germanic languages: English, German, Dutch and Afrikaans.

English is the most-spoken West Germanic language with around 400 million native speakers.
German has over 100 million native speakers. Dutch comprises around 25 million native speakers; and
Afrikaans, which is an offshoot or a daughter language of Dutch originating from the Afrikaners of South
Africa, with over 7.2 million native speakers.
Besides these four most widely spoken West Germanic languages, there are also Low German,
Luxembourgish, Yiddish, Scots, Limburgish and and the Frisian languages. Additionally, creoles, patois,
and pidgins are based on Dutch, English, or German.
It is quite difficult to determine the exact number of languages belonging to the West Germanic
group as there are no accurate methods of division between a “language” and a “dialect”.

Low German is considered a separate set of unstandardized dialects, with around 7 million native
speakers and probably 6-10 million people who can understand it. Yiddish is used by approximately 1.5
million native speakers; Scots has about 1.5 million native speakers; Limburgish varieties with roughly 1.5
million speakers along the Dutch–Belgian–German border; and the Frisian languages has over 500,000
native speakers on the southern fringes of the North Sea in the Netherlands and Germany.

German is mainly spoken in Western and Central Europe. It is the official or co-official language
in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Belgium, the Italian province of South
Tyrol, as well as a recognized national language in Namibia. It is also spoken by German communities in
France, Czech Republic, Poland, Slovakia, and Hungary.

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In Europe, Dutch is the official or one of the official languages in the Netherlands and Belgium (as
one of three official languages). Outside Europe, Dutch holds an official status and is the native language
of the South American country of Suriname, the Caribbean island countries of Aruba, Curaçao and Sint
Maarten, which are constituent countries of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. It is also spoken by Dutch
communities in the United States, Canada and Australia (half a million native speakers combined).

Afrikaans is spoken, as the native and second language by over 17 million people, in South Africa,
Namibia and, to a lesser extent, Botswana, Zambia and Zimbabwe.

There is a large number of television programs and radio programs broadcasting, many books,
newspapers, magazines and journals are published worldwide in German, Dutch and Afrikaans.

Furthermore, German, Dutch and/or Afrikaans are official languages of the European Union, as
well as many other international organizations, communities, congresses and conferences. Also, Afrikaans
and/or Dutch are official languages of such international institutions as Benelux Union, African Union,
Caribbean Community.

Thus, the West Germanic languages play a significant role in the world, arouse genuine interest
and have obvious practical benefit for learners.

In conclusion, I would like to sincerely thank you for purchasing the book and your interest in it. I
hope it will help you improve your languages. If I can help you in any way, please do not hesitate to
contact me. I would be glad to answer any questions and share ideas related to multilingualism and
learning multiple languages simultaneously.

I also welcome any remarks from readers. I have created a list of errata for the book in Google
Docs. So I welcome you to make remarks and corrections to improve it. Here are the QR code and the
link: https://rb.gy/8ufoov

Mikhail Petrunin

Email: [email protected]

Website: quadrilingual.com

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 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR OF GERMAN, DUTCH, AND AFRIKAANS

OTHER COMPARATIVE GRAMMARS

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VISIT FOR MORE INFO:

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 MIKHAIL PETRUNIN

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to thank the following people for the hours of their precious time they devoted to
supporting, encouraging and motivating me, as well as proofreading this book: Dr. Martens - a PhD in
Linguistics, polyglot, experienced language educator and expert in phonology of Germanic languages;
Hope - a McGill alumnus, editor, my girlfriend and my biggest supporter; Asya - my former student,
linguist who helped me writing this book; Kai - one of the nicest friends I met in Montreal; Michel David -
my mentor and competent reviewer.

Despite the care and attention that has been involved into producing this book, there are,
undoubtedly, errors, oversights and inaccuracies for which I take full responsibility.

Mikhail Petrunin, 2024

xxii

 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR OF GERMAN, DUTCH, AND AFRIKAANS

SYMBOLS
> – becomes, changes to

/ – or, alternative forms or meanings

Ger. – German

Dut. – Dutch

Afr. – Afrikaans

Masc. or m. - Masculine

Fem. or f. - Feminine

Neut. - Neuter

Pl. - Plural

Cons. - Consonant

Pronun. - Pronunciation

N. - Nominative

A. - Accusative

D. - Dative

G. - Genitive

ex. - Example

xxiii

 INTRODUCTION: ALPHABET

INTRODUCTION: ALPHABET
Letter Names and Pronunciations

The alphabet of West Germanic languages is based on the Latin alphabet with a variety of
additional accent marks and extra letters. The German, Dutch and Afrikaans alphabet consists of 26
letters.

Like any other languages, German, Dutch and Afrikaans pronunciation of some of the letters
differ between particular regions and areas. For instance, German is spoken over a large area and in
several countries, therefore, there are a lot of regional variants of pronunciation. Some of these variations
are considered standard, while others are considered dialects. In this book we dealt with standard
variants. Standard Dutch officially has two main pronunciation standards: Northern and Belgian.

The only way to pronounce and understand various accents of German, Dutch and Afrikaans
correctly is to listen and try to copy native speakers.

Below is the table that shows letters and their names in German, Dutch and Afrikaans:

German Dutch Afrikaans

Letter - Name of the Letter

A - [aː] A - [aː] A - [aː]

B - [beː] B - [beː] B - [beː]

C - [tseː] C - [seː] C - [seː]

D - [deː] D - [deː] D - [deː]

E - [eː] E - [eː] E - [eː]

F - [ɛf] F - [ɛf] F - [ɛf]

G - [ɡeː] G - [ɣeː] G - [ɣeː]

H - [haː] H - [ɦaː] H - [ɦaː]

I - [i] I - [i] I - [i]

J - [jɔt]; in Austria [jeː] J - [jeː] J - [jeː]

K - [kaː] K - [kaː] K - [kaː]

L - [ɛl] L - [ɛɫ] L - [ɛɫ]

M - [ɛm] M - [ɛm] M - [ɛm]

N - [ɛn] N - [ɛn] N - [ɛn]

O - [oː] O - [oː] O - [oː]

1

 INTRODUCTION: ALPHABET

German Dutch Afrikaans

P - [peː] P - [peː] P - [peː]

Q - [kuː]; in Austria [kveː] Q - [ky] Q - [ky]

R - [ɛʁ] R - [ɛɾ] R - [ɛɾ]

S - [ɛs] S - [ɛs] S - [ɛs]

T - [teː] T - [teː] T - [teː]

U - [uː] U - [y] U - [y]

V - [faʊ̯] V - [veː] V - [veː]

W - [veː] W - [ʋeː] W - [ʋeː]

X - [ɪks] X - [ɪks] X - [ɪks]

Y - [ʏpsilɔn] Y - [ɛɪ] Y - [ɛɪ]

Z - [tsɛt] Z - [zɛt] Z - [zɛt]

NOTE:
German also has letter-diacritic combinations using the umlaut, such as Ää,
Öö, Üü and one ligature ẞß. It is called eszett (sz) or scharfes S (sharp s).
However, these letters are not part of the German alphabet.

Consonants
In the West Germanic languages, many consonants are pronounced in the similar or very close
way as their English equivalents, such as: b, d, f, g, k, l, m, n, s, t etc. However, there are German, Dutch
and Afrikaans sounds that are not used in standard English.

The following table demonstrates all the consonants, their respective pronunciation and
examples in German, Dutch and Afrikaans.

German Dutch Afrikaans

Consonant b b b

Pronun. [b]; [p] [b]; [p] [b]; [p]

Example Bein been; rib been; rib

Consonant c c __

Pronun. [tse] [k]; [s] __

Example Cent cliënt; cent __

2
 INTRODUCTION: ALPHABET

German Dutch Afrikaans

Consonant d d d

Pronun. [d]; [t] [d]; [t] [d]; [t]

Example denken denken; bed dink; bed

Consonant f f f

Pronun. [f] [f] [f]

Example Fakt feit feit

Consonant g g g

Pronun. [ɡ]; [k] [x]; [ʒ] [x]

Example Gold; Berg goud; logies goud

Consonant h h h

Pronun. [h]; Ø (silent) [h] [h]

Example Haus; Floh huis huis

Consonant j j j

Pronun. [j]; [ʒ] [j]; [ʒ] [j]; [ʒ]

Example Jahr; Journalist jaar; journalist jaar; joernalis

Consonant k k k

Pronun. [k] [k] [k]

Example Katze kat kat

Consonant l l l

Pronun. [l] [l] [l]

Example Licht licht lig

Consonant m m m

Pronun. [m] [m] [m]

Example Mond maan maan

Consonant n n n

Pronun. [n]; [ŋ] [n]; [ŋ] [n]; [ŋ]

Example Name; Sänger naam; zanger naam; sanger

3

 INTRODUCTION: ALPHABET

German Dutch Afrikaans

Consonant p p p

Pronun. [p] [p] [p]

Example Lippe lip lip

Consonant r r r

Pronun. [ʁ] [ʁ] or [r] [r]

Example Ratte rat rot

Consonant s s s

Pronun. [s]; [z] [s] [s]

Example Glas; Sohn glas glas

Consonant t t t

Pronun. [t] [t] [t]

Example Topf pot pot

Consonant v v v

Pronun. [f]; [v] [v] [f]; [v]

Example Vater; Veteran vader vader; veteraan

Consonant w w w

Pronun. [v] [v] [v]

Example Wasser water water

Consonant x x x

Pronun. [ks] [ks] [ks]

Example Xylophon xylofoon xilofoon

Consonant y y __

Pronun. [y] [i] __

Example typisch typisch __

Consonant z z __

Pronun. [ts] [z] __

Example Zone zone __

4

 INTRODUCTION: ALPHABET

Consonant Sound Rules

To help you with pronunciation even more, we will explain the rules for consonant sounds in
more detail below including more examples of these consonant sounds and their English approximations,
as many consonants have complex rules that require more attention. Pay attention to the consonants in
bold, these are the ones that we are talking about in each example.

• The consonant b is pronounced as [b] elsewhere (similar to the fully voiced English [b] as in about or
bar), for example:

Ger. Bein [baɪ ̯n]

Did you know?
Dut. been [beːn]
German is the official language in
Germany, Switzerland, Austria, Belgium, Afr. been [beːn]
Luxembourg, and Liechtenstein.
– bone.

NOTE:
In German, Dutch and Afrikaans, the consonant b is voiceless at the end of a
word and is pronounced as [p] (same as the English [p] in pit), for example:

Ger. Gelb [ɡɛlp]

- yellow.

Dut. rib [rɪp]

Afr. rib [rɪp]
- rib.

C
• In Dutch, the consonant c is pronounced as [k] (similar to the English consonants c or k as in can or
king) before consonants or the vowels a, o, u. In German and Dutch, the consonant k is used in this
case (See Consonant Kk p. 9). To illustrate:

Ger. Klient [kliˈɛnt]

Dut. cliënt [kliˈɛnt]

Afr. kliënt [kliˈɛnt]

– client.

5
 INTRODUCTION: ALPHABET

• The consonant c is also pronounced as [s] (as in sit) before vowels e, i in Dutch and as [ts] (as in cats)
in German. In Afrikaans, the consonant s is used in this case (See Consonant S p. 10). Study the
following:

Ger. Cent [tsɛnt]

Dut. cent [sɛnt]

Afr. sent [sɛnt]

– cent.

D
• The consonant d is pronounced as [d] (same as the English [d]). For instance:

Ger. denken [ˈdɛŋkən]

Dut. denken [ˈdɛŋkə(n)]

Afr. dink [ˈdiŋk]

– to think.

NOTE:
In German, Dutch and Afrikaans, the consonant d is voiceless at the end of a word
and is pronounced as [t] (same as the English [t] in top), for example:

Ger. Hand [hant]

Dut. hand [hant]
Afr. hand [hant]
- hand.

F
• The consonant f is pronounced as [f] (similar to the English consonant f as in foot). For instance:

Did you know? Ger. Fakt [fakt]

Dutch is a West Germanic language Dut. feit [fɛit]

that originated in the Early Middle
Ages. Nowadays it is spoken by over 25 million Afr. feit [fɛit]
people as a first language and about 5 million
as a second language. – fact.

6
 INTRODUCTION: ALPHABET

Gg
• The consonant g is pronounced as [g] in German and as [x] in Dutch and Afrikaans. The German [g] is
pronounced similar to the English consonant g as in gap. The Dutch and Afrikaans [x] is pronounced
like ch in Scottish loch) Study the following:

Ger. Gold [gɔlt]

Dut. goud [xɑut]

Afr. goud [xœut]

– gold.

NOTE:
In German, the consonant g is voiceless at the end of a word and is pronounced
as [k], for example:

Ger. Berg [bɛrk]

- mountain

In Dutch and Afrikaans, however, the consonant g is still pronounced as [x] at

the end of a word, e.g.:

Dut. berg [bɛrx]

Afr. berg [bɛrx]
- mountain

• In Dutch, the consonant g can also be pronounced as [ʒ] in words borrowed from French. It is
pronounced similar to the English sound of the “s” as in “measure”. Observe the following:

Dut. logies [loːˈʒis]

– lodging.

H
• In German, Dutch and Afrikaans, the consonant h at the beginning of a words is pronounced as in
English. For instance:

Ger. Haus [haus]

Dut. huis [hœys]

Afr. huis [hœis]

– house.

7
 INTRODUCTION: ALPHABET

NOTE:
In German, the consonant h is not pronounced after a vowel but simply shows
that the vowel is long, for example:

Ger. Floh [floː]

- flea.

J
• The consonant j is pronounced as [j] (like y in English yes). Study the following:

Ger. Jahr [jaːʁ]

Dut. jaar [jaːr]

Afr. jaar [jaːr]

- year.

• In German and Dutch, the consonant j is also pronounced as [ʒ] in words borrowed from French. It is
pronounced like the English “s” in “leisure”. Observe the following:

Ger. Journalist [ʒuʁnaˈlɪst]

Dut. journalist [ʒurnaˈlɪst]

- journalist.

NOTE:
In Afrikaans, however, the consonant j is pronounced as [j] (like y in English
yes) in this case, for instance:

Afr. joernalis [jurnaˈlɪs]

- journalist.

K
• The consonant k is pronounced similar to certain instances of English k or c in scan without the puff of
air that accompanies English [k] at the beginning of a word (as in English cat). Observe the following:

Ger. Katze [ˈkatsə]

Dut. kat [kɑt]

Afr. kat [kɑt]

– cat.

8
 INTRODUCTION: ALPHABET

L
• The consonants l is pronounced as [l] everywhere, which is similar to the typical English l (as in letter).
For instance:

Ge. Licht [lɪçt]

Dut. licht [lɪxt]

Afr. lig [ləx]

– light.

M
• The consonant m is pronounced as [m] everywhere (same as the typical English m in mother), for
example:

Ger. Mond [moːnt]

Dut. maan [maːn]

Afr. maan [maːn]

– moon.

N
• The consonant n is pronounced as [n] everywhere (same as the typical English n in nickel), for
example:

Ger. Name [ˈnaːmə]

Dut. naam [naːm]

Afr. naam [naːm]

– name.

• The consonant n is also pronounced as [ŋ] (as in English sink or sing) before a velar consonant (a
consonant that is pronounced with the back part of the tongue against the back part of the roof of the
mouth), e.g. -ng, which occurs medially or finally in German, Dutch and Afrikaans. Observe the
following:

Ger. Sänger [ˈzɛŋɐ]

Dut. zanger [ˈzɑŋər]

Afr. sanger [ˈsɑŋər]

– singer.

9

 INTRODUCTION: ALPHABET

• The consonant p is pronounced as [p] everywhere in West Germanic languages. It is pronounced the
same as certain instances of English p, e.g. span or spot but without the puff of air that accompanies
English [p] sound at the beginning of words as in piano or pine. For instance:

Did you know? Ger. Lippe [ˈlɪpə]

Pretoria, South Africa, is often referred Dut. lip [lɪp]

to as the “Jacaranda City” because of the
thousands of purple-flowered jacaranda trees Afr. lip [ləp]
planted along its streets, parks and gardens.
– lip.

• In German and Dutch (heard in the north of the Netherlands, especially in the cities), the consonant r is
pronounced as [ʁ] (a voiced, uvular sound produced in the back of the throat) everywhere. This sound is
close to the as in French “Paris” or “restaurant”.

However, in Afrikaans and in Dutch (in much of the Netherlands and through Flanders), the
consonant r is pronounced as [r] (the tongue tip trill is heard as the “Spanish “r”). Study the following:

Ger. Ratte [ˈʁatə]

Dut. rat [rɑt]

Afr. rot [rot]

– rat.

S
• In German (mainly at the end of a word), in Dutch and Afrikaans, the consonant s is always pronounced
as unvoiced [s] (as in English sit), for instance:

Ger. Glas [ɡlaːs]

Dut. glas [xlɑs]

Afr. glas [xlɑs]

– glass.

• In German, however, at the beginning and in the middle of a word the consonant s is also pronounced
as voiced [z] (as in zebra) between vowels. To illustrate:

10
 INTRODUCTION: ALPHABET

Ger. Sohn [zoːn]

– son.

NOTE:
In German, the combination ss is pronounced as [s] too, for example:

Ger. Flüsse [ˈflʏsə]

- rivers.

T
• In German, Dutch and Afrikaans, the consonant t is pronounced similar to the English [t] as in “stand”,
but less aspirated (without the puff of air that accompanies English [t] at the beginning of a word as in
tape). To illustrate:

Ger. Topf [tɔpf]

Did you know?

Germany is known to be one of the Dut. pot [pɔt]

world’s leading book nations.
Afr. pot [pɔt]
Publishing around 93,600 book titles per year.
– pot (jar).

• The consonant v is pronounced as [v] (same as the English consonant as in vision) in Dutch. However,
in German and Afrikaans, the consonant v is always pronounced as [f]. Study the following:

Ger. Vater [ˈfaːtər]

Dut. vader [ˈvaː.dər]

Afr. vader [ˈfɑːdər]

– father.

NOTE:
In German and Afrikaans, at the beginning of loanwords the consonant v is
pronounced as [v] like in English and Dutch, for example:

Ger. Veteran [veteˈʁaːn]

Dut. veteraan [veː.tə.ˈraːn]
Afr. veteraan [veː.tə.ˈraːn]
- veteran.

11
 INTRODUCTION: ALPHABET

• Unlike in English, in German, Dutch and Afrikaans the consonant w is pronounced as [v]. Study the
following:

Did you know? Ger. Wasser [ˈva.səʁ]

Dutch is the only official language of the Dut. water [ˈvaːtər]
Netherlands. Dutch is also spoken in
Aruba, Bonaire, Belgium, Curaçao, Saba, Sint Afr. water [ˈvaːtər]
Eustatius, Sint Maarten and Suriname.
– water.

NOTE:
In Dutch (especially in Flanders) the consonant v is usually pronounced similar to
the English [w].

• The consonant x is rare in German, Dutch and Afrikaans and appears in many foreign words and
loanwords. It is pronounced as [ks] (same as the English [x] in taxi, or six). For example:

Ger. Xylophon [ksyloˈfoːn]

Dut. xylofoon [ksiloːˈfoːn]

Afr. xilofoon [ksiloːˈfoːn]

– xylophone.

• The consonant y is pronounced as [y] (as long ü) in German and as [i] in Dutch. For example:

Ger. typisch [ˈtyːpɪʃ]

Dut. typisch [ˈtipis]

Afr. tipies [ˈtipis]

– typical.

12
 INTRODUCTION: ALPHABET

• The consonant z is pronounced as [ts] (as in cats) in German and as [z] (as in zebra) in Dutch. For
example:

Ger. Zone [ˈtsoːnə]

Dut. zone [ˈzɔːnə]

Afr. sone [ˈsɔːnə]

– zone.

Vowels
All vowels in West Germanic languages are generally shorter, clearer, and purer which means that
they do not have rounded endings, unlike in English. There are five vowel letters in Spanish, Portuguese,
Italian and French.

The following table demonstrates all the vowels, their respective pronunciation and examples
in West Germanic languages.

German Dutch Afrikaans

Consonant a a, aa a, aa

Pronun. [a], [a:] [a], [a:] [a], [a:]

Example Hand, Vater hand, kaas hand, kaas

Consonant ä __ __

Pronun. [ɛ], [ɛː] __ __

Example Männer, Väter __ __

Consonant e e, ee e, ee, ê

Pronun. [ɛ], [eː] [ɛ], [eː] [ɛ], [eː]

Example Bett, Planet bed, planeet bed, planeet

Consonant i i i

Pronun. [ɪ], [iː] [ɪ] [ɪ]

Example bitter, wider bitter bitter

Consonant ie ie ie

Pronun. [iː] [ɪ], [iː] [ɪ], [iː]

Example sie ziek, hier siek, hier

13

 INTRODUCTION: ALPHABET

German Dutch Afrikaans

Consonant o o, oo o, oo

Pronun. [ɔ], [oː] [ɔ], [oː] [ɔ], [oː]

Example Schloss, rot slot, rood slot, rooi

Consonant ö eu eu

Pronun. [œ], [øː] [œ] [œ]

Example zwölf, Flöte neus neus

Consonant u u, uu u, uu

Pronun. [ʊ], [uː] [ʏ], [yː] [œ], [yː]

Example Punkt, pur punt, puur punt, puur

Consonant __ oe oe

Pronun. __ [u], [uː] [u], [uː]

Example __ boek, boer boek, boer

Consonant ü __ __

Pronun. [ʏ], [yː] __ __

Example fünf, Füße __ __

Vowel Sound Rules

To help you to pronounce words correctly, we will explain the rules for vowel sounds in more
detail below, as they do not always make the same sound as in English.

You will notice there are multiple sounds, as some vowels are open, closed or even muted,
depending on the word being enunciated in some West Germanic languages. Pay attention to the vowels
in bold, these are the ones that we are talking about in our examples, and try practising them out loud.

• The vowel a makes a similar sound to a in the English art or car. Study the following:

Ger. Hand [hant]

Dut. hand [ɦant]

14

 INTRODUCTION: ALPHABET

Afr. hand [ɦant]

– hand.

NOTE:
The German vowel a is also pronounced as long [aː] (similar to the English father),
e.g.:

Ger. Vater [ˈfaːtɐ]

– father.

In Dutch and Afrikaans, aa is used to indicate that the vowel is long [aː]. To
compare:

Dut. kaas [kaːs]

Afr. kaas [kaːs]
– cheese.

German Ä

• In German, the vowel ä is pronounced as short [ɛ] (as in bed). Study the following:

Ger. Männer [ˈmɛnɐ]

– men.

• The German vowel ä can also be pronounced as long [ɛː] (as in hair). Observe the following:

Ger. Väter [ˈfɛːtɐ]

– fathers.

• The vowel e is pronounced as closed [ɛ] (a closed sound as in English make, or as in café, but shorter
and pure without the ending [ɪ]) in German, Dutch and Afrikaans. To illustrate:

Ger. Bett [bɛt]

Dut. bed [bɛt]

Afr. bed [bɛt]

– bed.

15
 INTRODUCTION: ALPHABET

NOTE:
The German vowel e can also be pronounced as long [eː] (as in tray, but pure
without the ending [ɪ]). Observe the following:

Ger. Planet [plaˈneːt]

– planet.

In Dutch and Afrikaans, ee is used to show the vowel is long [eː]. Compare the same
example:

Dut. planeet [plaːˈneːt]

Afr. planeet [plaːˈneːt]
– planet.

• The vowel i is pronounced as [ɪ] (a similar sound to the English ea as in speak, or ee as in meet but
shorter in length) in West Germanic languages. For instance:

Did you know? Ger. bitter [ˈbɪtɐ]

According to the 2011 census, the three Dut. bitter [ˈbɪtər]

most spoken first languages in the
Republic of South Africa are Zulu (22.7%), Afr. bitter [ˈbɪtər]
Xhosa (16.0%), and Afrikaans (13.5%).
– bitter.

NOTE:
In German, in a few words, the vowel i is also pronounced as long [iː], e.g.:

Ger. wider [ˈviːdɐ]

– against.

IE

• The vowel ie is always pronounced as long [iː] (a similar sound to the English ee as in fee) in German.
Observe the following:

Ger. sie [ziː]

– she.

16
 INTRODUCTION: ALPHABET

• In Dutch and Afrikaans, however, this sound is pronounced as short [i] (roughly like in English seek but
shorter). Observe the following:

Dut. ziek [zik]

Afr. siek [sik]

– sick.

NOTE:
In Dutch and Afrikaans, the vowel ie can also be pronounced as long [iː] when
stressed and followed by r, for example:

Dut. hier [ɦiːr]

Afr. hier [ɦiːr]
– here.

• The vowel o is pronounced as the close-mid back rounded vowel [ɔ] (similar to the English code or go
but shorter and pure, with no [ʊ] ending) in West Germanic languages. Observe the following:

Ger. Schloss [ʃlɔs]

Dut. slot [slɔt]

Afr. slot [slɔt]

– lock.

NOTE:
The German vowel o is also pronounced as long [oː] (similar to the English post but
pure, with no [ʊ] ending). Observe the following:

Ger. rot [roːt]

– red.

In Dutch and Afrikaans, oo is used to show that the vowel is long [oː]. Compare the
same example:

Dut. rood [roːt]

Afr. rooi [roːi]
– red.

17
 INTRODUCTION: ALPHABET

It should be mentioned that in German, in some words, the vowels a, e and o are also doubled to
show they are long, for example:

Ger. Saal [zaːl]; Beet [beːt ]; Boot [boːt]

– hall; bed (for plants); boat

Otherwise a single consonant following the vowels a, e and o usually shows that those vowels are
long, for instance:

Ger. Vater [faːtɐ]; Gen [geːn ]; Ton [toːn]

– father; gene; clay

Ö (German), EU (Dutch and Afrikaans)

• The vowel Ger. ö (in German) and the vowel eu (in Dutch and Afrikaans) are pronounced as [œ] and
[øː] respectively (as in bird). Study the following:

Ger. zwölf [tsvœlf]

Did you know?
– twelve.
Belgium, a country in Western Europe,
has three official languages. People
speak Dutch, French and German in different
regions of the country. Dut. neus [nøːs]

Afr. neus [nɪøs]

– nose.

• The German vowel ö can also be pronounced as long [øː] (as in bird but with the rounded lips):

Ger. Flöte [ˈfløːtə]

– flute.

• The vowel u is pronounced as [ʊ] (similar to the English put or roof, but shorter) in German. Note that,
in Dutch, this sound is pronounced as [ʏ] (roughly like in English few). In Afrikaans, however, this
vowel is pronounced as [œ]. Observe the following:

Ger. Punkt [pʊŋ(k)t]

Dut. punt [pʏnt]

Afr. punt [pœnt]

18
 INTRODUCTION: ALPHABET

– point.

NOTE:
The German vowel u is also pronounced as long [uː] (similar to the English
food but with less rounded lips). Observe the following:

Ger. pur [puːr]

– pure.

In Dutch and Afrikaans, uu is used to show that the vowel is long [yː]. Compare
the following example:

Dut. puur [pyːr]

Afr. puur [pyːr]
– pure.

OE (Dutch and Afrikaans)

• In Dutch and Afrikaans, the vowel oe is pronounced as short [u] (similar to the English put or boot, but
shorter). For instance:

Dut. boek [buk]

Afr. boek [buk]

– book.

NOTE:
In Dutch and Afrikaans, the vowel oe can also be pronounced as long [uː] if stressed
and followed by r, for example:

Dut. boer [buːr]

Afr. boer [buːr]
– farmer.

Ü (German)

• In German, the vowel ü is pronounced as short [ʏ] (as in too but shorter with more rounded and
tightened lips, as if trying to whistle). Study the following:

Ger. fünf [fʏnf]

– twelve.

19
 INTRODUCTION: ALPHABET

• The German vowel ü can also be pronounced as long [yː] (as in food but longer with more rounded lips,
as if trying to whistle):

Ger. Füße [ˈfyːsə]

– feet.

Digraphs

The West Germanic languages use digraphs. Digraphs are pairs of letters that symbolize a single
sound and are usually not included in the alphabet.

Study the following digraphs that exist in German, Dutch and Afrikaans:

German Dutch Afrikaans

Grapheme ch ch ch

Pronun. [ʃ]; [x]; [k] [ʃ]; [x] [ʃ]; [x]; [k]

Example Chirurg [ʃiˈrʊrk]; chirurg [ʃiˈrʏrx]; chirurg [ʃiˈroerx];
Buch [buːx]; chaos [ˈxaː.ɔs] chaos [xa:os];
Chaos [ˈkaːɔs] cholesterol [kɔ'lɛstərɔl];
Grapheme ck __ __

Pronun. [k] __ __

Example lecker [ˈlɛkɐ] __ __

Grapheme __ __ gh

Pronun. __ __ [g]

Example __ __ gholf [gɔlf]

Grapheme ng ng ng

Pronun. [ŋ] [ŋ] [ŋ]

Example Zunge [ˈtsʊŋə] tong [tɔŋ] tong [tɔŋ]

Grapheme ph

Pronun. [f] __ __

Example Photograph __ __
[fotoˈɡʁaːf]
Grapheme ps ps ps

20

 INTRODUCTION: ALPHABET

German Dutch Afrikaans

Pronun. [ps] [ps] [ps] or [s]

Example psychisch [ˈpsyːçɪʃ] psychisch [ˈpsixis] psigies [psixis]/[sixis]

Grapheme sch sch __

Pronun. [ʃ] [sx]; [s] __

Example Schiff [ʃɪf] schip [sxɪp]; __

praktisch [ˈprɑk.tis]
Grapheme __ sj sj

Pronun. __ [ʃ] [ʃ]

Example __ sjiek [ʃik] sjiek [ʃik]

Grapheme sp, st sp, st sp, st

Pronun. [ʃp], [ʃt] [sp], [st] [sp], [st]

Example Sport [ʃpɔrt], sport [spɔrt], sport [spɔrt],

Stadt [ʃtat] stad [stɑt] stad [stat]
Grapheme tsch tj tj

Pronun. [tʃ] [tʃ] [tʃ]

Example Deutsch [dɔɪ ̯tʃ] tjap [tʃɑp] tjap [tʃap]

Diphthongs

Diphthong is a combination of two different vowels sounds within the same syllable, for example:
ow [əu] -> low. Knowing diphthongs will help learners with pronunciation and spelling.

The table below demonstrates diphthongs used in the West Germanic languages:

German Dutch Afrikaans

Diphthong ai aai ai, aai

Pronun. /aɪ/ /aːi/ /aj/, /aːi/

Example Mai /maɪ/ haai /ɦaːi/ baie /bajə/;
haai /ɦaːi/
Diphthong au au __

Pronun. /au/ /au/ __

Example Auto /auto/ blauw /blau/ __

21

 INTRODUCTION: ALPHABET

German Dutch Afrikaans

Diphthong ei ei, ij ei, y

Pronun. /aɪ/ /ɛi/ /əi/

Example Stein /ʃtaɪn/ trein /trɛin/; dijk /dɛik/ trein /trəin/; ly /ləi/

Diphthong eu eeu eeu

Pronun. /ɔʏ/ /eːu/ /iːu/ or /eːu/

Example heute /hɔʏtə/ leeuw /leːu/ leeu /liːu/ or /leːu/
Diphthong äu ooi oi, ooi

Pronun. /ɔʏ/ /oːi/ /ɔi/, /oːi/

Example enttäuschen /ɛn(t)ˈtɔʏʃən/ rooi /roːi/ toiings /tɔiəŋs/; rooi /roːi/
Diphthong ie ieu ieu

Pronun. /iː/ /iu/ /iu/

Example viel /fiːl/ nieuw /niu/ hernieu /ɦɛrniu/

Diphthong __ oei oei

Pronun. __ /ui/ /ui/

Example __ groei /xrui/ groei /xrui/

Diphthong __ ou ou

Pronun. __ /ɔu/ /œu/

Example __ koud /kɔut/ koud/kœut/

Diphthong __ ui ui

Pronun. __ /œy/ /œi/

Example __ huis /ɦœys/ huis /ɦœis/

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 CHAPTER 1: NOUNS

CHAPTER 1: NOUNS
A noun is a word that names a living being, different things or ideas, for instance, man,
prosperity, shop.

Gender of Nouns

In German and standard Dutch nouns have retained the three specific grammatical genders:
masculine, feminine, neuter that, like Afrikaans or English, other less conservative Germanic languages
have lost in part or in whole.

It should be stressed that in many parts of the Netherlands the grammatical distinction between
masculine and feminine nouns has disappeared over the years, creating a common gender in the Dutch
language. Thus, there is only a distinction between common and neuter.

NOTE:
In Dutch, the distinction between masculine and feminine nouns is still
maintained in formal or written standard Dutch. However, in informal speech
many speakers use the common gender instead.

Therefore, in Dutch, it is not really important to know if a noun is feminine or masculine.

Masculine and feminine or common nouns should generally be accompanied with the definite
article de in Dutch. In German, masculine and feminine nouns are used with the definite articles der and
die respectively. German das and Dutch het are used as the definite article of a neuter noun (See
Articles p. 218).

NOTE:
Nouns in Afrikaans, however, like in English and unlike in modern German and
Dutch, do not have grammatical gender. All the nouns are accompanied with
the definite article die.

Nouns in German, Dutch and Afrikaans referring to a man, such as brother, son, father, etc., are
normally masculine. Those that were associated with a woman, such as sister, daughter, mother, etc., are
generally feminine. For example:

Did you know? Ger. der Bruder (masc.); die Schwester (fem.)

German remains the language that Dut. de broer (masc.); de zus (fem.)
has the most native speakers in Afr. die broer (masc.); die suster (fem.)
Europe (around 95 million people).
- the brother; the sister

23
 CHAPTER 1: NOUNS

However, in German and Dutch, the diminutive forms that end in Ger. -chen or -lein; Dut. -je
are grammatically neuter (See Diminutives in German and Dutch p. 72). For example:

NOTE:
In Afrikaans, the diminutive form -ie is used.

Ger. das Mädchen (neut.)

Dut. het meisje (neut.)

Afr. die meisie

- the girl

Did you know? Ger. das Fräulein (neut.)

The Netherlands has the highest Dut. het vrouwtje (neut.)

population density in the European Afr. die wyfie
Union.
- young lady, darling wife, miss.

NOTE:
In German, all nouns must be capitalized. In Dutch and Afrikaans, however,
only proper nouns are capitalized. For example:

Ger. John hat ein Haus.

Dut. John heeft een huis.

Afr. John het 'n huis.

- John has a house.

It is worth remembering that gender is not clearly marked on nouns in German and Dutch. Thus,
to learn gender effectively one should memorize German and Dutch nouns along with their accompanying
definite article.

However, in German and Dutch, there is a general rule helping to identify the gender of nouns, as
they are classified into gender groups in accordance with their endings. This will allow one to recognize a
considerable portion of noun genders.

Below is the table demonstrating masculine, feminine and neuter noun endings in German
and Dutch. It is not exhaustive, and considers only cases that follow some recognizable pattern:

German Dutch

masc. -er, -ant, -ast, -ich, -ig, -ismus, -el, -en, -er, -ant, -aar, -aard, -erd, -eur, -el, -ling,
-ling, -or, -us -ing, -or, -us

24
 CHAPTER 1: NOUNS

German Dutch

fem. -a, -anz, -ei, -e, enz, -heit, -ie, -ik, -in, -a, -at, -e, -ie, -ege/-egge, -es, -in, -ster, -de,
-keit, -schaft, -sion, -tät, -tion, -ung, -ur -erij, -heid, -ij, -ing, -nis, -schap, -st, -te,
-tuur
neut. -chen, -lein, ge- (prefix), -ma, -ment, -sel, -je, ge- (prefix), ge- (prefix) -te (suffix), -isme,
-tel, -tum, -um, -eau -ma, -ment, -sel, -um, -eau

Observe the following examples:

German Dutch English

masc. der Händler de handelaar merchant

der Teich de vijver pond

der Zwilling de tweeling twin

der Honig de honing honey

der Elefant de olifant elephant

der Schlüssel de sleutel key

fem. die Polizei de politie police
die Freiheit de vrijheid freedom

die Höflichkeit de beleefdheid politeness

die Göttin de godin goddess

die Freundschaft de vriendschap friendship

die Nation de natie nation

die Kultur de cultuur culture

die Katze de kat cat

neut. das Märchen het sprookje fairytale
das Element het element element
das Ultimatum het ultimatum ultimatum
das Niveau het niveau level
das Thema het thema theme
das Geschlecht het geslacht gender, sex

Nevertheless, this rule has a number of exceptions.

25

 CHAPTER 1: NOUNS

Exceptions of Masculine Nouns

German

1. In German, several nouns ending in -us, -or, -ich, -ig, -är are neuter:

German English

das Genus gender

das Korpus collection of texts

das Tempus tense

das Virus (colloquial der Virus) virus

das Labor laboratory

das Tor gate

das Dekor decoration

das Reich kingdom

das Reisig brushwood

das Militär military

Did you know? 2. Around 60% of nouns ending in -el and -er are
masculine, while the rest are either neuter or feminine
College education in Germany is
in German. For example:
free for everyone (even for
internationals). Tuition fees for bachelor’s
degrees in public universities was
abolished in 2014. Ger. die Schachtel - box is feminine.

3. Several German nouns that end in -e are neuter nouns and must be learnt by heart. Study the
following:

German English

das Auge eye

das Ende end

das Interesse interest

26
 CHAPTER 1: NOUNS

4. It is worth mentioning that nouns formed from the stem of the verbs without their suffix are generally
masculine. Study the following:

German English

verb noun

schlagen der Schlag punch

schlafen der Schlaf sleep

tanzen der Tanz dance

5. It should be mentioned that about 80% of nouns ending in -en are masculine. However, nouns which
stem from verb infinitives in -en are neuter in German (See Infinitive p.). Observe the following:

German English

das Kochen cooking

das Leben life

das Essen food

das Lachen laugh

Below we will consider the exceptions of masculine nouns in Dutch.

Dutch

1. In Dutch, a few nouns ending in -er are neuter. For instance:

Dut. offer - sacrifice.

2. It should be remembered that abstract deverbal nouns (nouns derived from verbs, but used
grammatically as nouns, not as verbs) are usually masculine in Dutch. Observe the following:

Dutch English

verb noun

groeien de groei growth

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 CHAPTER 1: NOUNS

Dutch English

slapen de slaap sleep

dansen de dans dance

NOTE:
In Dutch, even though new abstract nouns that are formed in this way are
normally masculine, existing ones may be feminine, especially if they are older
words.

Exceptions of Feminine Nouns

German
1. A few nouns ending in -a, -ie, -ik, -ur may be masculine or neuter. Study the following:

A. Masculine nouns: der Atlantik - Atlantic, der Pazifik - Pacific, der Amateur - amateur, der Ingenieur
- engineer.

B. Neuter nouns: das Sofa - sofa, das Genie - genius, das Abitur - diploma from secondary school, das
Futur - future.

Did you know? 2.It should be remembered that chemical terms ending
in -in are neuter in German. For example:
The Netherlands is the sixth
happiest country in the world,
according to the 2020 World Happiness
Report. Ger. das Benzin - petrol, das Protein - protein.

3. Around 90% of nouns ending in -e are feminine. However, there are nouns that are masculine or
neuter. Study the following:

A. Masculine nouns: der Charme - charm, der Käse - cheese, der Friede - peace, der Funke - spark, der
Gedanke - thought, der Glaube - beliefe, der Haufe - heap, der Name - name, der Wille - will.

NOTE:
In German, the weak nouns that represent names of male persons and animals
are masculine. For example: der Löwe - lion, der Junge - boy.

B. Neuter nouns: das Auge - eye, das Ende - end, das Finale - final, das Image - image, das Interesse -
interest, das Prestige - prestige, das Regime - regime.

28
 CHAPTER 1: NOUNS

Dutch

1. In Dutch, there are a few nouns that end with the following suffixes may be masculine or neuter: -st,
-nis, -schap. For instance:

C. Masculine nouns: dienst - service.

D. Neuter nouns: vonnis - verdict, gereedschap - tool, landschap - landscape, ouderschap -

parenthood.

2. It should be mentioned that the following suffixes borrowed from Latin or Greek often keep their
feminine gender in Dutch: -ade, -age, -ica, -ide, -ie, -iek, -ine, -logie, -ode, -se, -sis, -suur, -teit,
-theek, -tis, -tuur, -ude, -xis.

Observe the following:

Dutch English

logica logic

filosofie philosophy

muziek music

discipline discipline

periode period

crisis crisis

kwaliteit quality

bibliotheek library

syntaxis syntax

However, there are a few exceptions. The following nouns are masculine or neuter:

A. Masculine nouns: kanarie - canary.

B. Neuter nouns: ministerie - ministry.

Exceptions of Neuter Nouns

German

1. It is worth saying that nouns with the ending -chen, that are not diminutives, are usually masculine.
For instance:

Ger. der Kuchen - cake, der Knochen - bone, der Rochen - ray.

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 CHAPTER 1: NOUNS

Did you know? 2.In German, several nouns ending in -ma, -tum, -um
are masculine or feminine:
Switzerland, a mountainous
Central European country, has 4 A.Masculine nouns: der Irrtum - error, der Reichtum -
national languages, which are German wealth, der Konsum - consumption.
(62.8%), French (22.9%), Italian (8.2%), B.Feminine nouns: die Firma - company.
and Romansh (0.5%) REF.

3. In German, about 90% of the nouns with the prefix -ge are neuter. However, there is a large number of
nouns that are masculine or feminine. Observe the following:

A. Masculine nouns: der Gebrauch - use, der Gedanke - thought, der Gefallen - favor, der Gehalt -
content, der Gehorsam - obedience, der Genuss - enjoyment, der Geruch - smell, der Gesang -
singing, der Geschmack - taste, der Gewinn - profit.

NOTE:
In German, Gefallen and Gehalt are neuter if they mean pleasure and salary,
respectively.

B. Feminine nouns: die Gebärde - gesture, die Gebühr - fee, die Geburt - birth, die Geduld - patience,
die Gefahr - danger, die Gemeinde - community, die Geschichte - history, die Gestalt - shape, die
Gewähr - guarantee, die Gewalt - violence.

It should be remembered that nouns with the prefix -Ge that designate categories of humans may
be masculine or feminine. Study the following:

German English

masc. fem.

der Gehilfe die Gehilfin assistant

4. It should be mentioned that most nouns ending in -al, -an, -ar, -är, -at, -ent, -ett, -ier, -iv, -o and
-on, which are of foreign origin, are neuter, provided that they mean things in German. If they
designate persons, they are masculine. Nevertheless, there are still irregularities. Observe the following:

A. Masculine nouns: der Altar - altar, der Apparat - apparatus, der Automat - automat, der Kanal -
channel, der Kanton - canton, der Kommentar - comment, der Salat - salad, der Senat - senate, der
Skandal - scandal.

B. Feminine nouns: die Manier - manner, die Moral - moral, die Person - person.

5. In German, some nouns can be formed out of adjectives (See Adjectival Nouns p. 100). These
nouns are usually neuter. To form adjectival nouns, one should take the radical of the adjective and
simply add -e to the end of the word. For instance:

30
 CHAPTER 1: NOUNS

German English

Adjective Substantivized Adjective

gut das Gute good - the good

schön das Schöne beautiful - the beauty

wichtig das Wichtige important - the important

6. In German, infinitives (the “to” form of verbs) that are used as nouns are neuter (See Infinitive p.
578). To illustrate:

Ger. das Schwimmen - swimming, das Spielen - playing.

Dutch

1. In Dutch, collective nouns prefixed with ge- and suffixed with -te are neuter. However, nouns prefixed
with ge- and suffixed with -te are feminine if they are abstract concepts, for example:

Dut. de gedachte - thought.

2. It is worth saying that the following suffixes that are borrowed from Latin or Greek are neuter: -isme,
-ma, -um. Observe the following:

Dutch English

het kapitalisme capitalism

het thema theme

het museum museum

However, there is one important exception. The following noun is masculine:

Dut. de datum - date.

3. Like in German, in Dutch infinitives that are used as nouns are neuter and take the article het. For
example:

Dut. het zwemmen - swimming, het spelen - playing.

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 CHAPTER 1: NOUNS

Special Cases of Grammatical Gender in German

• Nouns with 2 genders

In German, some nouns can vary in gender depending on regional or individual choice. Here are
some examples:

Did you know? der or das virus - virus

The German name for Austria, der or das Keks - cookie

Österreich, derives from an ancient high
German word Ostarrîchi, which meant “Eastern der or das Bonbon - candy
realm”.
der or das Joghurt - yogurt

• Nouns with identical spellings but different meanings

In German, these nouns are spelled the same but have different genders and meanings and are
often considered to be unrelated words. For instance:

German

der Golf (masc.) - gulf das Golf (neut.) - golf

der Kiefer (masc.) - jaw die Kiefer (fem.) - pine tree

der Leiter (masc.) - leader die Leiter (fem.) - ladder

der Schild (masc.) - shield das Schild (neut.) - sign

der See (masc.) - lake die See (fem.) - sea

die Steuer (fem.) - tax das Steuer (neut.) - steering-wheel

der Tor (masc.) - fool das Tor (neut.) - gate

der Weise (masc.) - wise man die Weise (fem.) - way, manner

der Verdienst (masc.) - earnings das Verdienst (neut.) - merit

• Abbreviations

In German, abbreviations have the same gender as the base word. Take one example:

German English

abbreviation base word

die BRD die Bundesrepublik Deutschland the Federal Republic of Germany

32
 CHAPTER 1: NOUNS

Making Masculine Nouns Feminine

In German, Dutch and Afrikaans, many masculine nouns can be made feminine by adding
suffixes to the nouns.

Below is a table showing all the suffixes to form feminine nouns in German, Dutch and
Afrikaans.

German Dutch Afrikaans

-in -in, -ster, -es, -se, -esse, -a, -e, -trice -in, -ster, -es, -esse, -e, trise

For example:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

masculine der Freund de vriend die vriend male friend

feminine die Freundin de vriendin die vriendin female friend

It is worth saying that all of the above-mentioned suffixes are also used to create nationalities and
feminine job titles (See Inhabitants of Countries p. 106, Masculine and Feminine Job Titles
for Some Common Professions p. 35).

NOTE:
In Dutch and Afrikaans, suffixes -e, -es, -in are added to the consonant.

Dut. and Afr. prins (m.) - prinses (f.)

- prince - princess.

The suffix -er in masculine nouns changes into - ster in the feminine.

Dut. leider - leidster

Afr. leier - leister
- (male) leader - (female) leader.

In Dutch, the suffix -a is used only in masculine nouns of Latin origin ending in
-us:

Dut. chemicus - chemica

- (male) chemist - (female) chemist.

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 CHAPTER 1: NOUNS

In Dutch and Afrikaans, the suffix -esse is only added to nouns whose
masculine form ends in -aris, for example:

Dut. secretaris - secretaresse

Afr. sekretaris - sekretaresse
- (male) secretary - (female) secretary.

Below are more examples demonstrating this rule in German, Dutch and Afrikaans:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

m. der Gott de god die god god

f. die Göttin de godin die godin goddess

m. der Tänzer de danser die danser (male) dancer

f. die Tänzerin de danseres die danseres (female) dancer

m. der Spieler de speler die speler (male) player

f. die Spielerin de speelster die speelster (female) player

m. der Engländer de Engelsman die Engelsman Englishman

f. die Engländerin de Engelse die Engelse Englishwoman

m. der Politiker de politicus die politikus (male) politician

f. die Politikerin de politica die politikus* (female) politician

m. der Pilot de piloot die vlieënier (male) pilot

f. die Pilotin de pilote die vlieënier* (female) pilot

m. der Schauspieler de acteur die akteur actor

f. die Schauspielerin de actrice die aktrise actress

NOTE:
In Afrikaans, the nouns Afr. die politikus and die vlieënier do not change in
the feminine

To give an example:

Ger. Die Engländerin lebt in Berlin.

Dut. De Engelse woont in Berlijn.

34
 CHAPTER 1: NOUNS

Afr. Die Engelse woon in Berlyn.

- The Englishwoman lives in Berlin.

NOTE:
In Dutch and Afrikaans, unlike all other suffixes discussed here, the suffix -in is
also used to denote the female of several common species of animals, for
example:
Dutch Afrikaans English

de leeuw die leeu lion

de leeuwin die leeuin lioness

de wolf die wolf (male) wolf

de wolvin die wolvin (female) wolf

Let us have a look at some other common German, Dutch and Afrikaans professions and trades
list below, and learn these professions vocabulary in order to use it in your conversation in any of these
West Germanic languages.

Masculine and Feminine Job Titles for Some Common Professions

In the table below, there are some other common must-know job titles and trades in West
Germanic languages:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

m. der Anwalt de advocaat die advokaat lawyer

f. die Anwältin de advocate die advokaat lawyer

m. der Architekt de architect die argitek architect

f. die Architektin de architecte die argitek architect

m. der Kellner de kelner die kelner waiter

f. die Kellnerin de kelnerin/serveerster die kelnerin waitress

m. der Sänger de zanger die sanger singer

f. die Sängerin de zangeres die sangeres singer

m. der Arzt de dokter/arts die dokter/arts doctor

f. die Ärztin de doktores/artse die dokter/arts doctor

35
 CHAPTER 1: NOUNS

German Dutch Afrikaans English

m. der Krankenpfleger de verpleger die verpleër nurse

f. die Krankenpflegerin de verpleegster die verpleegster nurse

m. der Friseur de kapper de kapper hairdresser

f. die Friseurin de kapster de kapster hairdresser

m. der Lehrer de leraar die onderwyser teacher

f. die Lehrerin de lerares die onderwyseres teacher

m. der Psychologe de psycholoog die sielkundige psychologist

f. die Psychologin de psychologe die sielkundige psychologist

m. der Schriftsteller de schrijver die skrywer writer

f. die Schriftstellerin de schrijfster die skryfster writer

m. der Bäcker de bakker die bakker baker

f. die Bäckerin de bakster/bakkerin die bakster baker

Observe the following:

Did you know? Ger. Was ist dein Beruf? - Ich bin ein Anwalt.
The national animal of South Africa is Dut. Wat is uw beroep? - Ik ben een advocaat.
the Springbok. It is the only southern
African gazelle. The common name "springbok", Afr. - Wat is jou beroep? - Ek is 'n advokaat.
comes from the Afrikaans words spring (jump)
and bok (antelope or goat). - What is your profession? - I am a lawyer.

As you can see in the list above, even if German, Dutch and Afrikaans occupations normally
change depending on their genders (masculine or feminine), there are some names of professions that do
not change, especially in Afrikaans.

Pairs of Nouns Denoting Males and Females

In German, Dutch and Afrikaans, there are also pairs of two different words denoting men and
women, and male and female animals and insects, just like in English:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

der Man de man die man man

36
 CHAPTER 1: NOUNS

German Dutch Afrikaans English

die Frau de vrouw die vrou woman

der Bräutigam de bruidegom die bruidegom groom

die Braut de bruid die bruid bride

der Vater de vader die vader father

die Mutter de moeder die moeder mother

der Mönch de monnik die monnik monk

Die Nonne de non die non nun

der Hengst de hengst die perd horse

die Stute de merrie die merrie mare

der Stier de stier die bul bull

die Kuh de koe die koei cow

der Hammel de ram die ram ram

die Schaf de ooi die ooi ewe

der Hahn de haan die haan cockerel, rooster

die Huhn de hen die hen hen

NOTE:
In German, Dutch and Afrikaans, some adjectives can be used as feminine
nouns (See Adjectival Nouns p. 100).

In addition to the pairs of two different nouns designating male and female forms presented
above, there are also nouns with different meanings in masculine and feminine forms in German. Below
we will consider these nouns that German language has.

Plural Forms of Nouns

The plural noun is used to describe more than one object, person, animal, event, place or idea, for
instance, women, possibilities, cats, shops.

Although in English, plural forms are normally formed by adding -s, or -es to a noun (except for
irregular nouns), German, Dutch and Afrikaans have a quite limited number of nouns that form their
plural by using an -s suffix. Study the following:

In German, Dutch and Afrikaans, the -s plural suffix is added to:

37
 CHAPTER 1: NOUNS

• last (family) names of people:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

der Johnson - de Johnson - die Johnson - Johnson - Johnsons

die Johnsons de Johnsons die Johnsons

• modern words originally of foreign origin, often ending in -a, -i, -o, and -u. For instance:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

die Firma - die Firmas de firma - de firma’s die firma - die firmas firma - firmas

das Taxi - die Taxis de taxi - de taxi’s die taxi - die taxi’s taxi -taxis

das Foto- die Fotos de foto - de foto’s die foto - die foto’s photo - photos

das Menü - die Menüs het menu - de menu’s die menu - die menu’s menu - menus

• English loanwords ending in -y:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

das Baby - die Babys de baby - de baby’s die baba - die babas baby - babies

das Hobby - die Hobbys de hobby -de hobby’s die stokperdjie - die hobby -hobbies
stokperdjies

NOTE:
In Dutch and Afrikaans, when words ending in -a, -i, -o, -u or -y, one should
use -’s (with an apostrophe) in the plural.
However, in Afrikaans, if the ending -a is not stressed, the -s without an
apostrophe is added to form the plural (see p. 57).
Also, in Afrikaans, the nouns die baba - “baby” and die stokperdjie - “hobby”
do not end in -y but still take the ending -s in the plural.

• Other English and French loanwords:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

das Restaurant - die het restaurant - de die restaurant - die restaurant - restaurants
Restaurants restaurants restaurants
das Hotel - die Hotels het hotel - de hotels die hotel - die hotelle* hotel - hotels

der Computer - die de computer - de die rekenaar - die computer - computers

Computer* computers rekenaars

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 CHAPTER 1: NOUNS

German Dutch Afrikaans English

der Park - die Parks de park - de parken* die park - die parke* park - parks

der Scheck – die Schecks de cheque - de cheques die tjek - die tjeks cheque - cheques

der Club - die Clubs de club - de clubs die klub - die klubs club - clubs

NOTE:
In German, the noun Computer does not change its ending in the plural:
Computer.
In Dutch and Afrikaans, the noun park forms its plural by adding -en and -e:
parken and parke respectively. Also, in Afrikaans, the noun die hotel forms
its plural by adding -e: die hotelle.

• abbreviations used as nouns:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

die DVD - die DVDs de DVD - de DVD’s die DVD - die DVD’s DVD - DVDs
die CD - die CDs de CD -de CD’s die CD - die CD’s CD - CDs

NOTE:
In Dutch, the suffix -en may also be added to form the plural of abbreviations.

• Nouns ending in stressed -on (i.e. French loanwords) an take -e or -s to form the plural, but the former
is more usual:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

der Balkon - het balkon - de balkons die balkon - balcony - balconies

die Balkone/Balkons die balkonne/balkons
der Plafond - het plafond - de die plafon - ceiling - ceilings
die Plafonds plafonds die plafonne/plafons
der Perron - die Perrons het perron - de perrons die perron - train platform - train
die perronne/perrons platforms

NOTE:
In German, the noun “ceiling" can mean die Decke in the singular and die
Decken in the plural.
Also, the German noun “train platform” can be translated as der Bahnsteig in
the singular and die Bahnsteige in the plural.

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 CHAPTER 1: NOUNS

As you can see from the last example, besides the rules presented above, German and Dutch also
have other ways of forming the plural.

In German, for example, plurals can be formed with an umlaut (ä,ö,ü), -n, -en, -s (other cases),
-e or an umlaut and an -e, -er or an umlaut and -er. There are also some plurals that remain the same as
their singular forms.

In Dutch, the plural of nouns is formed by adding an -en, -s, -’s (other cases), -eren and other
plural endings. Also, many short vowels in singular nouns become a long vowel in the plural in Dutch. In
Afrikaans, there are mainly two ways of forming the plural
of a noun: 1) by adding -s, 2) by adding -e.
Did you know?
As we can see, each of these considered
About 70% of the highways in Germanic languages has its special ways of forming the
Germany (Autobahn) have no plural, which require particular consideration, as this
speed limit. phenomenon significantly distinguishes one from the
other without leaving any possibility of simultaneous
comparison.

It must be noted that it is somewhat difficult to decide on which of the endings to use to pluralize
nouns in German, Dutch and Afrikaans, as there are many exceptions. However, some general rules will
be given below.

Special Cases of Forming the Plural Nouns

German

In most cases, the way we form the plural of a noun depends on its gender, which means that
certain gender takes certain plural endings in German. Study the following:

• Monosyllabic masculine nouns take an umlaut (ä,ö,ü) and an -e to form their plural. For example:

German English

singular plural singular plural

der Koch die Köche chef chefs

der Fluss die Flüsse river rivers

NOTE:
In German, however, some masculine nouns add just -e to form the plural. For
example:

Ger. der Schuh - die Schuhe - shoe - shoes

40
 CHAPTER 1: NOUNS

• Feminine nouns form the plural by adding -en. Observe the following:

German English

singular plural singular plural

die Tür die Türen door doors

die Bäckerei die Bäckereien bakery bakeries

NOTE:
In German, some feminine nouns take an umlaut (ä,ö,ü) and an -e to form their
plural. For example:

Ger. die Maus - die Mäuse - mouse - mice

• Monosyllabic neuter nouns take an umlaut (ä,ö,ü) and an -er in the plural. For instance:

German English

singular plural singular plural

das Haus die Häuser house houses

das Dorf die Dörfer village villages

NOTE:
In German, although, some neuter nouns add the plural ending -e For example:

Ger. das Jahr - die Jahre - year - years

Broadly speaking, all German nouns can be divided into the following five groups of
transformation from the singular to the plural. Study the following:

GROUP 1

• No plural ending

Here is a list of noun endings that do not change in the plural in German:

1. Almost all masculine and neuter nouns that end in -er, -en, and -el:

41
 CHAPTER 1: NOUNS

der Wagen - die Wagen - cart - carts

der Gürtel - die Gürtel - belt - belts

das Fenster - die Fenster - window - windows

NOTE:
In German, the following masculine nouns ending in -el and -er take the
ending -n in the plural, e.g.

der Muskel - die Muskeln - muscle - muscles

der Bauer - die Bauern - farmer - farmers

2. Neuter nouns ending in -chen, -lein (See Diminutives in German, Dutch and Afrikaans p. 72):

Did you know? das Brötchen - die Brötchen - bun - buns

The Schengen Agreement, which allows das Büchlein - die Büchlein - booklet - booklets
Europeans to travel freely across
European borders, was signed on 14 June 1985
in Luxembourg.

3. Collective neuter nouns beginning with Ge- and ending in -e:

das Gebäude - die Gebäude - building - buildings

das Gebirge - die Gebirge - mountain range - mountains

• Add an Umlaut

1. It should be noted that some masculine nouns ending in -er, -en, and -el take an Umlaut (ä,ö,ü) on the
radical in the plural.

Below is a list of some common masculine nouns that simply add an Umlaut in the plural in
German.

German English German English

der Apfel - die Äpfel apple - apples der Laden - die Läden store - stores

der Bogen - die Bögen arc -arcs der Mantel - die Mäntel coat - coats

der Bruder - die Brüder brother - brothers der Nagel - die Nägel nail - nails

der Garten - die Gärten garden - gardens der Ofen - die Öfen oven - ovens

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 CHAPTER 1: NOUNS

German English German English

der Graben - die Gräben ditch - ditches der Vater - die Väter father - fathers

der Hafen - die Häfen port - ports der Vogel - die Vögel bird - birds

der Hammer - die Hämmer hammer - hammers

NOTE:
In German, the following neuter and feminine nouns also take an Umlaut
(ä,ö,ü) in the plural:

das Kloster - die Klöster (neut.) - monastery - monasteries

die Mutter - die Mütter (fem.) - mother - mothers
die Tochter - die Töchter (fem.) - daughter - daughters

GROUP 2

• Add -e or an Umlaut (ä,ö,ü) + -e

Here is a list of rules, definitions of the nouns that form the plural with -e or an Umlaut (ä,ö,ü)
and -e, and common exceptions to the rule in German:

1. Around 90% of monosyllabic masculine nouns (and a few bisyllabic nouns) form the plural with an
Umlaut (ä,ö,ü) and an -e. For example:

der Arzt - die Ärzte - doctor - doctors

der Baum - die Bäume - tree - trees

der Stuhl - die Stühle - chair - chairs

It is worth mentioning that German masculine nouns often form their plural by adding the
Umlaut (ä,ö,ü) and -e, but not always. Some nouns do not add an Umlaut in the plural.

Below is a list of some common masculine nouns that add only -e ending to form the plural in
German.

German English German English

der Besuch - die Besuche visit - visits der Punkt - die Punkte point - points

der Hund - die Hunde dog - dogs der Schuh - die Schuhe shoe - shoes

der Monat - die Monate month - months der Tag - die Tage nail - nails

43
 CHAPTER 1: NOUNS

German English German English

der Mond - die Monde moon - moons der Triumph - die Triumphe triumph - triumphs

der Ort - die Orte place - places der Wal - die Wale whale - whales

der Pfad - die Pfade path - paths

2. German neuter nouns with more than one syllable form their plural by adding just -e ending. For
instance:

das Telefon - die Telefone - telephone - telephones

das Problem - die Probleme - problem - problems

das Dokument - die Dokumente - document - documents

NOTE:
In German, the following neuter noun das Gesicht adds -er in the plural (See
Group 3 p. 46). For example:

das Gesicht - die Gesichter - face - faces

It should be remembered that some monosyllabic neuter nouns also add only -e and rarely take
the Umlaut in the plural.

Below is a table showing some common monosyllabic neuter nouns that do not take an
Umlaut in German.

German English German English

das Bein - die Beine leg - legs das Schiff - die Schiffe ship - ships

das Boot - die Boote boat - boats das Schwein - die Schweine pig - pigs

das Ding - die Dinge thing - things das Spiel - die Spiele game - games

das Haar - die Haare hair das Stück - die Stücke piece - pieces

das Jahr - die Jahre year - years das Tier - die Tiere animal - animals

das Pferd - die Pferde horse - horses das Tor - die Tore gate - gates

das Schaf - die Schafe sheep - sheep (pl.)

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 CHAPTER 1: NOUNS

NOTE:
In German, the monosyllabic neuter noun das Floß adds an Umlaut (ä,ö,ü) in
the plural:

das Floß - die Flöße - raft - rafts

3. Neuter nouns that begin with the prefix Ge- and end in a stressed syllable take the plural suffix -e.
Study the following:

das Gebet - die Gebete - prayer - prayers

das Geschenk - die Geschenke - gift - gifts

das Gespräch - die Gespräche - conversion - conversions

NOTE:
In German, some neuter nouns beginning with -Ge and ending in a stressed
vowel add -er or an Umlaut and -er in the plural. To illustrate:

das Gesicht - die Gesichter - face - faces

das Gespenst - die Gespenster - spook - spooks
das Gehalt - die Gehälter - salary - salaries

4. Masculine and neuter nouns with the endings -eur, -ich, -ig, -ier, -ling, -nis, -sal, -ör form their
plural by adding just -e ending:

der König - die Könige - king - kings

der Friseur - die Friseure - hairdresser - hairdressers

das Papier - die Papiere - paper - papers

NOTE:
In German, nouns ending in -nis take another -s before the -e suffix in the
plural:

das Gefängnis - die Gefängnisse - jail - jails

5. Some monosyllabic feminine nouns (and a few bisyllabic nouns) take an Umlaut (ä,ö,ü) and -e to form
the plural.

45
 CHAPTER 1: NOUNS

Below is a list of the most common German monosyllabic feminine nouns that add -e in the
plural.

German English German English

die Angst - die Ängste fear - fears die Kunst - die Künste art - arts

die Ankunft - die Ankünfte arrival - arrivals die Luft - die Lüfte air

die Axt - die Äxte axe - axes die Macht - die Mächte power - powers

die Bank - die Bänke bench - benches die Maus - die Mäuse mouse - mice

die Braut - die Bräute bride - brides die Nacht - die Nächte night - nights

die Brust - die Brüste breast - breasts die Naht - die Nähte seam - seams

die Faust - die Fäuste fist - fists die Not - die Nöte hardship - hardships

die Frucht - die Früchte fruit - fruits die Nuss - die Nüsse nut - nuts

die Gans - die Gänse goose - geese die Stadt - die Städte city - cities

die Hand - die Hände hand - hands die Sucht - die Süchte addiction - addictions

die Haut - die Häute skin - skins die Wand - die Wände wall - walls

die Kraft - die Kräfte force - forces die Werkstatt - die workshop - workshops
Werkstätte
die Kuh - die Kühe cow - cows die Wurst - die Würste sausage - sausages

GROUP 3

• Add -er or an Umlaut (ä,ö,ü) + -er

Here is a list of rules, definitions of the nouns forming the plural with -er or an Umlaut (ä,ö,ü)
and -er, as well as common exceptions to the rule in German:

1. There is a handful of masculine nouns that end in Umlaut (ä,ö,ü) + -er in the plural. They must be
learned by heart.

Below is a table showing some common masculine nouns ending in Umlaut + -er in German.

German English German English

der Gott - die Götter god - gods der Strauch - die Sträucher shrub - shrubs

der Mann - die Männer man - men der Wald - die Wälder forest - forests

der Mund - die Münder mouth - mouths der Wurm - die Würmer worm - worms

der Rand - die Ränder border - borders

46

 CHAPTER 1: NOUNS

NOTE:
In German, if the vowel is not umlautable (e, i), masculine nouns add just -er to
form their plural in this case. For example:

der Geist - die Geister - ghost - ghosts

der Leib - die Leiber - body - bodies

2. Neuter nouns with one syllable (and a few bisyllabic nouns) often form their plural by adding the
Umlaut (ä,ö,ü) and -er.

Below is a list of some common monosyllabic and bisyllabic neuter nouns that take Umlaut +
-er in the plural in German.

German English German English

das Bad - die Bäder bath - baths das Kalb - die Kälber calf - calves

das Band - die Bänder tape - tapes das Lamm - die Lämmer lamb - lambs

das Buch - die Bücher book - books das Land - die Länder country - countries

das Dach - die Dächer roof - roofs das Loch - die Löcher hole - holes

das Dorf - die Dörfer village - villages das Rad - die Räder wheel - wheels

das Gehalt - die Gehälter salary - salaries das Schloss - die Schlösser lock - locks

das Glas - die Gläser jar - jars das Tal - die Täler valley - valleys

das Grab - die Gräber grave - graves das Volk - die Völker people

das Haus - die Häuser house - houses das Wort - die Wörter word - words

das Huhn - die Hühner chicken - chickens das Kalb - die Kälber calf - calves

It is worth mentioning that in German, if the vowels are not umlautable (e, i), monosyllabic and
bisyllabic neuter nouns take just -er ending to form the plural.

Below is a table demonstrating some common monosyllabic and bisyllabic neuter nouns that
add just -er in the plural.

German English German English

das Bild - die Bilder image - images das Glied - die Glieder limb - limbs

das Ei - die Eier egg - eggs das Kind - die Kinder child - children

47
 CHAPTER 1: NOUNS

German English German English

das Feld - die Felder field - fields das Licht - die Lichter light - lights

das Geld - die Gelder money das Lied - die Lieder song - songs

das Gesicht - die Gesichter face - faces das Nest - die Nester nest - nest

das Gespenst - die Gespenster ghost - ghosts

3. Masculine and neuter nouns with the ending -tum form their plural by adding the Umlaut (ä,ö,ü) and
-er. Observe the following:

der Reichtum - die Reichtümer - wealth

das Altertum - die Altertümer - antiquity - antiquities

das Eigentum - die Eigentümer - property - properties

GROUP 4

• Add -n or -en

Here is a list of rules, definitions of the nouns that form the plural by adding -n or -en, and
common exceptions to the rule in German:

1. All feminine nouns that end in -ei, -heit, -keit, -schaft, and -ung or a consonant form the plural with
-en. Observe the following:

die Forschung - die Forschungen - research - researches

die Ähnlichkeit - die Ähnlichkeiten - similarity - similarities

die Leidenschaft - die Leidenschaften - passion - passions

die Bäckerei - die Bäckereien - bakery - bakeries

NOTE:
In German, feminine nouns ending in -in (professions, nationalities, feminine
animals) take -nen to form the plural. For example:

die Lehrerin - die Lehrerinnen - teacher - teachers

die Schweizerin - die Schweizerinnen - Swiss woman - Swiss women
die Löwin - die Löwinnen - lioness - lionesses

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 CHAPTER 1: NOUNS

2. Feminine nouns with the endings -er or -el form the plural by adding only -n:

die Schwester - die Schwestern - sister - sisters

die Feder - die Federn - feather - feathers

die Schachtel - die Schachteln - box - boxes

NOTE:
In German, however, the feminine nouns die Mutter and die Tochter add an
Umlaut (ä,ö,ü) in the plural:

die Mutter - die Mütter - mother - mothers

die Tochter - die Töchter - daughter - daughters

3. Feminine nouns ending in -e also add -n in the plural. For example:

die Blume - die Blumen - flower - flowers

die Tasche - die Taschen - bag - bags

die Frage - die Fragen - question - questions

4. Weak masculine nouns belonging to the so-called n-nouns (all those ending in -e) just add -n in the
plural. Observe the following:

der Name - die Namen - name - names

der Neffe - die Neffen - nephew - nephews

der Löwe - die Löwen - lion - lions

NOTE:
In German, the masculine noun der Käse does not change in the plural:

der Käse - die Käse - cheese - cheeses

It should be pointed out that weak masculine nouns usually end in -e, but not always. If weak
nouns do not end in -e, they add -en to form the plural.

49
 CHAPTER 1: NOUNS

Below is a list of some common weak masculine nouns that do not end in -e and add -en in
the plural in German.

German English German English

der Bär - die Bären bear - bears der Polizist - die Polizisten police officer - police
officers
der Elefant - die elephant - elephants der Präsident - die president -
Elefanten Präsidenten presidents
der Fink - die Finken finch - finches der Soldat - die Soldaten soldier - soldiers

der Fürst - die Fürsten prince - princes der Spatz - die Spatzen sparrow - sparrows

der Held - die Helden hero - heroes der Student - die Studenten student - students

der Herr - die Herren gentleman - gentlemen der Vorfahr - die Vorfahren ancestor - ancestors

der Mensch - die human - humans der Polizist - die Polizisten police officer - police
Menschen officers

NOTE:
In German, although the following weak masculine nouns do not end in -e, they
still take -n in the plural:

der Bauer - die Bauern - farmer/peasant - farmers/peasants

der Nachbar - die Nachbarn - neighbour - neighbours

5. A handful of neuter nouns form the plural by adding -en or -n (if the noun ends in -e).

Below is a table illustrating some neuter nouns that add -en or -n in the plural.

German English German English

das Auge - die Augen eye - eyes das Herz - die Herzen heart - hearts

das Bett - die Betten bed - beds das Insekt - die Insekten insect - insects

das Ende - die Enden end - ends das Interesse - die Interessen interest - interests

das Hemd - die Hemden shirt - shirts das Ohr - die Ohren ear - ears

6. Most nouns ending in the Latin suffix -um or -us change to -en in the plural in German. Study the
following:

50
 CHAPTER 1: NOUNS

das Datum - die Daten - datum - data

das Museum - die Museen - museum - museums

das Virus - die die Viren - virus - viruses

NOTE:
In German, however, other Latin-derived nouns maintain the Latin suffix
changing -um or -us to -a or -i in the plural:

das Antibiotikum - die Antibiotika - antibiotic - antibiotics

das Visum - die Visa - visa - visas
das Tempus - die Tempora - tense - tenses
der Modus - die Modi - mode - modes

GROUP 5

• Add -s

Unlike in Dutch, in German, it is not typical to form the plural with -s. (See Plural Forms of
Nouns p. 37)

Dutch

The Dutch language also has a number of ways of forming the plural of nouns. In Dutch, the
plural of nouns can be divided into the following three groups:

GROUP 1

• Add -en

Here is a list of rules, definitions of the nouns that form the plural by adding -en in Dutch:

1. Most nouns with one syllable add -en at the ending to form the plural:

het bord - de borden - plate - plates

de krant - de kranten - newspaper - newspapers

het woord - de woorden - word - words

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 CHAPTER 1: NOUNS

However, the following spelling rules must be considered when forming the plural nouns with -en
in Dutch:

• If the single-syllable nouns end in consonants such as -k, -d or -s, they must be doubled in the plural.
For example:

de mok - de mokken - mug - mugs

het bed - de bedden - bed - beds

de fles - de flessen - bottle - bottles

• The double vowel from the last syllable disappears in order to keep the single vowel in open syllable
while forming the plural with -en:

de boot - de boten - boat - boats

de heer - de heren - sir - sirs

de fotograaf - de fotografen - photographer - photographers

• If a noun ends in -s or -f, these endings change to -z or -v in the plural. For instance:

de prijs - de prijzen - price - prices

de brief - de brieven - letter - letters

• A short vowel in the singular changes to a long vowel in the plural.

Below is a list of some frequently used nouns in which a short vowel in the singular becomes
a long a vowel while forming the plural in Dutch.

Dutch English Dutch English

het bad - de baden bath - baths de oorlog - de oorlogen war - wars

de dag - de dagen day - days de god - de goden god - gods

het dak - de daken roof - roofs het bedrag - de bedragen amount - amounts

het gebed - de gebeden prayer - prayers het verdrag - de verdragen treaty - treaties

het glas - de glazen glass - glasses het lot - de loten fate - fates

de weg - de wegen way - ways

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 CHAPTER 1: NOUNS

• In a few cases, a vowel can be replaced when forming the plural by adding -en. The vowel change occurs
from short vowel in the singular to long vowel in the plural. For instance:

het schip - de schepen - ship - ships

de stad - de steden - ship - ships

het lid - de leden - member - members

• Most nouns that end in -or add -en in the plural and shift the stress. For instance:

de professor - de professoren - professor - professors

NOTE:
In Dutch, many nouns ending in -or may also form the plural with -s (e.g. de
professor - de professors)

GROUP 2

• Add -eren

Here is another group that forms the plural with -eren in Dutch:

1. Some neuter nouns always add -eren at the ending to form the plural.

Below is a list of the most commonly used nouns which form their plural with -eren in Dutch.

Dutch English Dutch English

het blad - de bladeren leaf - leaves het lied - de liederen song - songs

het ei - de eieren egg - eggs het volk - de volkeren people (peoples)

het kind - de kinderen child - children

NOTE:
In Dutch, the noun het kind may also form the plural with -s (e.g. het kind - de
kinders)

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 CHAPTER 1: NOUNS

GROUP 3

• Add -s

In Dutch, it is a common way to form the plural by adding -s. It is used with a large number of
nouns and noun endings: (See Plural Forms of Nouns p. 37)

1. Most nouns that end in unstressed -el, -em, -en, -er, -aar, -erd, and -e form the plural with -s.

Below is a list of some common nouns of this group that form the plural with -s in Dutch.

Dutch English Dutch English

de tafel - de tafels table - tables de bakker - de bakkers baker - bakers

de bezem - de bezems broom - brooms de leraar - de leraars teacher - teachers

het deken - de dekens blanket - blankets de tante - de tantes aunt - aunts

NOTE:
In Dutch, the noun de leraar can also add -en in the plural:

de leraar - de leraren - teacher - teachers

2. All diminutives (nouns ending in -je) also form the plural with -s (See Diminutives p. 72). For
instance:

het meisje - de meisjes - girl - girls

het huisje - de huisjes - little house - little houses

NOTE:
In German, diminutives (nouns ending in -chen, -lein) do not change in the
plural:

das Mädchen - die Mädchen - girl - girls

3. Many Dutch nouns of foreign origin that end in a long vowel add -s in the plural. It should be
remembered that if the vowel is -a, -i, -o, -u or -y, an apostrophe must be added -’s when forming the
plural. Observe the following:

de pinda - de pinda’s - peanut - peanuts

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 CHAPTER 1: NOUNS

de auto - de auto’s - car - cars

de paraplu - de paraplu’s - umbrella - umbrellas

NOTE:
In Dutch, however, three common native nouns also add -s to form the plural:

Dutch English

de oom - de ooms uncle - uncles

de broer - de broers brother - brothers

de dochter - de dochters daughter - daughters

de zoon - de zoons* son - sons

* The plural suffix -en can also be used to form the plural of the noun zoon (e.g.
zoon - zonen - son - sons). However, zonen is an older form and is still used
for company names (e.g. Kipp & Zonen BV)

It should be recalled that last names of people, acronyms and English and French loanwords also
form their plural by adding -s in Dutch (See Plural Forms of Nouns p. 37).

Other Plurals in Dutch

The Dutch language also has other forms while forming noun plurals. It is necessary to consider
them as it prevents the learners from spelling and grammatical mistakes.

• Add -a or -i

1. Nouns ending in the Latin suffix -um or -us change to -a or -i respectively to form their plural in
Dutch. Study the following:

het museum - de musea - museum - museums

de historicus - de historici - historian - historians

NOTE:
In Dutch, the noun het museum can also add -s in the plural. To illustrate:

het museum - de museums.

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 CHAPTER 1: NOUNS

• Add -heid

2. Nouns ending in -heid in the single add -heden in the plural. Below are the examples demonstrating
this rule:

de minderheid - de minderheden - minority - minorities

de kwetsbaarheid - de kwetsbaarheden - vulnerability - vulnerabilities

de vrijheid - de vrijheden - freedom - freedoms

Afrikaans

In Afrikaans, the plural of nouns can be divided into the following two groups:

GROUP 1

• Add -s

Here is a list of rules, definitions of the nouns that form the plural by adding -s in Afrikaans:

1. All nouns ending in -a, -aar, -aard, -e, -eeu, -el, -em, -en, -er, -erd, -ie, -ier, -lm and -rm, add -s to
form the plural:

Below is a list of some common nouns of this group that form the plural with -s in Afrikaans.

Afrikaans English Afrikaans English

die kamera - die kameras camera - cameras die elektrisiën - die electrician -
elektrisiëns electricians
die padda - die paddas frog - frogs die laken - die lakens sheet - sheets

die eienaar - die eienaars owner - owners die leuen - die leuens lie - lies

die leraar - die leraars minister (of religion) - die dogter - die dogters daughter - daughters
ministers (of religion)
die rekenaar - die computer - computers die eier - die eiers egg - eggs
rekenaars
die lafaard - die lafaards coward - cowards die hoender - die hoenders chicken - chickens

die bydrae - die bydraes contribution - die leër - die leërs army - armies
contributions
die dame - die dames lady - ladies die luiperd - die luiperds leopard - leopards

die metode - die metodes method - methods die emosie - die emosies emotion - emotions

die perske - die perskes peach - peaches die familie - die families family - families

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Afrikaans English Afrikaans English

die siekte - die siektes disease - diseases die storie - die stories story - stories

die tipe - die tipes type - types die juwelier - die juweliers jeweller - jewellers

die leeu - die leeus lion - lions die passasier - die passenger -
passasiers passengers
die bottel - die bottels bottle - bottles die dwelm - die dwelms drug - drugs

die nael - die naels nail nails die film - die films film - films

die reël - die reëls rule - rules die helm - die helms helmet - helmets

die tafel - die tafels table - tables die arm - die arms arm - arms

die voël - die voëls bird - birds die skerm - die skerms screen - screens

die besem - die besems broom - brooms die storm - die storms storm - storms

die Moslem - die Moslems Muslim - Muslims die wurm - die wurms worm - worms

NOTE:
In Afrikaans, nouns ending in stressed -a, take apostrophe -s in the plural, for
example:
Afrikaans English

die ma - die ma’s mother - mothers

die pa - die pa’s father - fathers

die skoonma - die skoonma’s mother-in-law - mothers-in-law

The exceptions are: die ouma - die oumas - “grandmother - grandmothers”,

die oupa - die oupas - “grandfather - grandfathers”.

However, in Afrikaans, the rule does not apply to nouns where the above-mentioned endings
form part of the root. Such nouns form the plural with -e instead as they are monosyllabic, for example:

Afrikaans English Afrikaans English

die haar - die hare hair - hairs die boer - die boere farmer - farmers

die baard - die baarde beard - beards die perd - die perde horse - horses

die eeu - die eeue century - centuries die wingerd - die wingerde vineyard - vineyards

die engel - die engele angel - angels die leer - die lere ladder - ladders

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Afrikaans English Afrikaans English

die wiel - die wiele wheel - wheels die dier - die diere animal - animals

die kiem - die kieme germ - germs die offisier - die offisiere officer - officers

die Christen - die Christene Christian - die rivier - die riviere river - rivers
Christians
die skoen - die skoene shoe - shoes

2. Nouns that designate certain people also add -s to form the plural:

Below are some common nouns referring to people take -s in the plural:

Afrikaans English Afrikaans English

die broer - die broers brother - brothers die oom - die ooms uncle - uncles

die maat - die maats mate - mates die seun - die seuns son - sons

die neef - die neefs nephew - nephews

3. Some foreign nouns form their plural by adding -s:

The following foreign nouns take -s in the plural:

Afrikaans English Afrikaans English

die enjin - die enjins engine - engines die generaal - die generaals general - generals

die film - die films film - films die sjef - die sjefs chef - chefs

die kostuum - die kostuums costume - costumes die trem - die trems tram - trams

die piesang - die piesangs banana - bananas

GROUP 2

• Add -e

Here is a list of rules, definitions of the nouns that form the plural by adding -e in Afrikaans:

1. All nouns that are not covered by all of the above-mentioned rules are presented in this larger group
that add -e to form the plural:

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Below is a list of some common nouns of this group that form the plural with -e in Afrikaans:

Afrikaans English Afrikaans English

die battery - die batterye battery - batteries die huis - die huise house - houses

die berg - die berge mountain - mountains die koei - die koeie cow - cows

die boek - die boeke book - books die kursus - die kursusse course - courses

die hand - die hande hand - hands die laai - die laaie drawer - drawers

This group also contains many loanwords which are stressed on the final syllable:

Afrikaans English Afrikaans English

die biblioteek - die library - libraries die permit - die permitte permit - permits
biblioteke
die diamant - die diamante diamond - diamonds die program - die programme -
programme programmes
die fakulteit - die fakulteite faculty - faculties die restaurant - die restaurant -
restaurante restaurants
die gordyn - die gordyne curtain - curtains die sigaret - die sigarette cigarette - cigarettes

die kasset - die kassette cassette - cassettes die student - die studente student -students

die kitaar - die kitare guitar - guitars die telefoon - die telefone telephone - telephones

die klavier - die klaviere piano - pianos

2. Nouns that contain a short vowel and end in a single consonant b, k, l, m, n, p, r, s, t, double the
consonant to preserve a short vowel in a closed syllable and add -e to form the plural:

Afrikaans English Afrikaans English

die rob - die robbe seal - seals die pop - die poppe doll - dolls

die slak - die slakke snail - snails die kar - die karre car - cars

die kol - die kolle spot - spots die mes - die messe knife - knifes

die rem - die remme brake - brakes die rot - die rotte rat - rats

die pen - die penne pen - pens

NOTE:
Nouns that contain a short vowel and end in the voiced f, change it to w, double
it and add -e according to the above rule:

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Afrikaans English

die rif - die riwwe reef - reefs

die stof - die stowwe fabric - fabrics

It is worth mentioning that the consonant is only doubled if the the preceding syllable is stressed
in Afrikaans. Compare the following:

die hawik - die hawike - hawk - hawks

but: die model - die modelle - model - models

3. Nouns that contain the long vowels aa, ee, oo and uu in a closed syllable, drop one vowel letter and
add -e in the plural according to the rules for the spelling of long vowels in open syllables (See p. ):

Afrikaans English Afrikaans English

die haar - die hare hair - hairs die boom - die bome tree - trees

die peer - die pere pear - pears die muur - die mure wall - walls

4. Nouns containing a long vowel or diphthong and ending in -f, change the -f to -w and add -e to form
the plural:

Afrikaans English Afrikaans English

die brief- die briewe letter - letters die skyf - die skywe disk - disks

die duif - die duiwe pigeon - pigeons die wolf - die wolwe wolf - wolves

NOTE:
If the nouns contain the long vowels mentioned above, both spelling changes
apply:
Afrikaans English

die raaf - die rawe raven - ravens

die teef - die tewe fabric - fabrics

die fotograaf - die fotograwe photographer - photographers

die filosoof - die filosowe philosopher - philosophers

5. Nouns that end in stressed -ie add -ë in the plural:

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Afrikaans English Afrikaans English

die industrie - die industrieë industry - industries die melodie - die melodieë melody - melodies

die knie - die knieë knee - knees die teorie - die teorieë theory - theories

NOTE:
Noun ending in stressed -ie take -s in the plural (See p. 56).

6. Loanwords that end in ee + a consonant drop one e, add a diaeresis to the remaining e (ë) and add the
plural suffix -e:

Afrikaans English

ie dieet - die diëte diet - diets

7. Nouns containing a long vowel or diphthong plus the consonants d or rg, drop these consonants and
add -e to form the plural:

Afrikaans English Afrikaans English

die tyd - die tye time - times die vlieg - die vlieë fly - flies

die vraag - die vrae question - questions die voertuig - die voertuie vehicle - vehicles

die oog - die oë eye - eyes

However, there are some exceptions in which one does not drop the consonant d when forming
the plural. Study the following:

Afrikaans English

die hoed - die hoede hat - hats

NOTE:
It should be noted that unlike the consonant d, one must always drop the
consonant g in the plural:
Afrikaans English

die sosioloog - die sosioloë sociologist - sociologists

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8. The following nouns contain a short vowel in the singular but a long vowel in the plural, mainly because
the plural suffix -e is added:

Afrikaans English Afrikaans English

die bedrag - die bedrae amount - amounts die oorlog - die oorloë war - wars

die dag - die dae day - days die pad - die paaie road - roads

die gat - die gate hole - holes die skilpad - die skilpaaie turtle - turtles

die gebed - die gebede prayer - prayers die spel -die spele game - games

die glas - die glase glass - glasses die vat - die vate barrel - barrels

die god - die gode god - gods die vlag - die vlae flag - flags

die hof - die howe court - courts die weg - die weë way - ways

9. The following nouns contain a short vowel in the singular and a long vowel in the plural that becomes a
different vowel:

Afrikaans English Afrikaans English

die lid - die lede member - members die smid - die smede smith - smiths

die skip - die skepe ship - ships die stad - die stede city - cities

NOTE:
There are also some nouns that are formed with the suffix -heid “-ness”. These
nouns change -heid to -hede in the plural:
Afrikaans English

die vryheid - die vryhede freedom - freedoms

die waarheid - die waarhede truth - truths

10. Nouns that contain a short vowel in the singular and end in -g, lengthen the vowel, drop the -g and
add the suffix -e in the plural. Note that the new long vowels must take a circumflex (See p. ):

Afrikaans English Afrikaans English

die brug - die brûe bridge - bridges die rug - die rûe back - backs

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Nouns with both -e and -s in the plural

• Nouns ending in stressed -on

In Afrikaans, nouns that end in stressed -on (i. e. French loanwords) can take the suffix -e or -s in the
plural, but the former is more usual:

Afrikaans English

die balkon - die balkonne/balkons balcony - balconies

die perron - die perronne/perrons railway platform - railway platforms

die plafon - die plafonne/plafons ceiling - ceilings

• Nouns ending in stressed -ee

Nouns ending in stressed -ee become -eë in the plural. If nouns end in unstressed -ee, they add -s (-ees)
to form the plural:

Afrikaans English Afrikaans English

die idee - die ideë (also idees) idea - ideas die senuwee - die senuwees nerve - nerves

die see - die seë sea - seas die skaduwee - die skaduwees shadow - shadows

NOTE:
The exception is kafee - kafees - “café” even though the ending is stressed.

• Foreign nouns with dual plural forms

The following foreign nouns add both an -e and an -s in the plural:

Afrikaans English

die hotel - die hotelle/hotels hotel - hotels

die sambreel - die sambrele/sambreels umbrella - umbrellas

die vorm - die vorme/vorms form - forms

die direkteur - die direkteure/direkteurs director - directors

die lektor- die lektore/lektors lecturer - lecturers

die professor - die professore/professors professor - professors

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Afrikaans English

die kommentator - die kommentatore/ commentator - commentators

kommentators

Other Plurals in Afrikaans

The Afrikaans language also has other forms while forming noun plurals. It is necessary to
consider them as it prevents the learners from spelling and grammatical mistakes.

• Add -de or -te

1. In Afrikaans, this group of nouns is an important subdivision of nouns that form their plural in -e.
Historically, if the final [t] (pronounced as t or d) was preceded by a voiceless consonant, it was
dropped. However, it returns in derivatives, where it no longer stands in final position. This
phenomenon occurs in various grammatical situations, including the plural formation of nouns in
Afrikaans.

Below are some common nouns that take -de/-te in the plural:

Afrikaans English Afrikaans English

die voog - die voogde guardian - guardians die insek - die insekte insect - insects

die smarag - die smaragde emerald - emeralds die konflik - die konflikte conflict - conflicts

die tydskrif - die tydskrifte magazine - magazines die kontak - die kontakte contact - contacts

die aanklag - die aanklagte charge - charges die kontrak - die kontrakte contract - contracts

die gedig - die gedigte poem - poems die produk - die produkte product - products

die gerug - die gerugte rumour - rumours die projek - die projekte project - projects

die gesig - die gesigte face - faces die konsep - die konsepte concept - concepts

die geveg - die gevegte fight - fights die resep - die resepte recipe - recipes

die gewig - die gewigte weight - weights die diens - die dienste service - services

die jag - die jagte hunt - hunts die fees - die feeste party - parties

die krag - die kragte power - powers die gas - die gaste guest - guests

die lig - die ligte light - lights die guns - die gunste favor - favors

die nag - die nagte night - nights die kas - die kaste cupboard - cupboards

die plig - die pligte duty - duties die kontras - die kontraste contrast - contrasts

die vlug - die vlugte flight - flights die kuns - die kunste art - arts

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Afrikaans English Afrikaans English

die vrag - die vragte load - loads die kus - die kuste coast - coasts

die vrug - die vrugte fruit - fruits die lys - die lyste list - lists

die argitek - die argitekte architect - architects die orkes - die orkeste orchestra - orchestras

die aspek - die aspekte aspect - aspects die teks - die tekste text - texts

die distrik - die distrikte district - districts

NOTE:
All the nouns with the stress on -is(te) belong to this group too. For example:

Afrikaans English

die aktivis - die aktiviste activist - activists

die kapitalis - die kapitaliste capitalist - capitalists

• Add -ens

Below are some common nouns that take -ens in the plural:

Afrikaans English Afrikaans English

die bad - die baddens bath - baths die wa - die waens wagon - wagons

die bed - die beddens bed - beds die vermoë - die vermoëns ability - abilities

die gevoel - die gevoelens feeling - feelings die wese - die wesens being - beings

die jong - die jongens boy - boys die hawe - die hawens harbour - harbours

• Add -ers or -ere

Below are some nouns that take -ers or -ere in the plural:

Afrikaans English

die kind - die kinders child - children

die lied - die liedere* song - songs

die volk - die volkere* people (nation) - peoples

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NOTE:
The noun liedere - “songs” is usually replaced by the diminutive plural,
liedjies, in everyday language.
The noun volkere - “peoples” (i.e. peoples of the world) is a formal variant of
the more common volke.

• Add -a or -i

Just like in Dutch, nouns ending in the Latin suffix -um or -us change to -a or -i respectively to
form their plural in Afrikaans:

die museum - die musea - museum - museums

die historikus - die historici - historian - historians

NOTE:
In Afrikaans, the noun die museum can also add -s in the plural. To illustrate:
die museum - die museums.

Nouns which are Singular in English but Plural in German, Dutch and
Afrikaans

Despite the fact that German, Dutch and Afrikaans have a number of divergent ways of forming
the plural of nouns, they still combine convergent ways of using nouns.

In German, Dutch and Afrikaans, there are some nouns that are used in the plural, whereas in
English those same nouns are used in the singular form. Below are some examples:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

die Flitterwochen de huwelijksreizen* die wittebrood* honeymoon

die Haare de haren* die hare hair

die Schicksale het lot* die lotgevalle destiny, fate

NOTE:
In Dutch, the nouns de huwelijksreizen and de haren can also be used in the
singular de huwelijksreis and de haar respectively. Also, the Dutch noun
het lot is only used in the singular.
In Afrikaans, the noun die wittebrood is used in the plural.

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Ger. Er hat graue Haare.

Dut. Hij heeft grijs haar (or Hij heeft grijze haren).

Afr. Hy het grys hare.

- He has gray hair.

Also, in English, some animals have the same form in the singular and plural, while in German,
Dutch and Afrikaans both forms are used. Compare the following:

Singular Plural

German Dieser Elch ist groß. Gibt es viele Elche in diesem Wald.

Dutch Deze eland is groot. Er zijn veel elanden in dit bos.

Afrikaans Hierdie eland is groot. Daar is baie elande in hierdie woud.

English - This moose is big. - There are a lot of moose in this forest.

Below are some common animals that belong to this group:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

das Schaf - die Schafe het schaap - de schapen die skape - die skape* sheep - sheep

der Fisch - die Fische de vis - de vissen die vis - die visse fish - fish
die Antilope - die Antilopen de antilope - de antilopen die bok - die bokke antelope - antelope

der Hirsch - die Hirsche het hert - de herten die hert - die herten deer - deer

der Bison - die Bisons de bizon - de bizons die bison - die bisons bison - bison

NOTE:
Just like in English, in Afrikaans, the noun die skape - “sheep" has the same
form in the singular and in the plural.

Nouns which are Plural in English but Singular in German, Dutch and
Afrikaans

However, it is worth saying that there are some nouns that are plural in English, but singular in
German, Dutch and Afrikaans. Study the following:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

die Brille de bril die bril glasses, spectacles

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German Dutch Afrikaans English

die Schere de schaar die skêr scissors

die Hose de broek die broek trousers

das Gemüse de groente die groente vegetables

das Feuerwerk het vuurwerk die vuurwerk fireworks

das Fernglas de verrekijker die verkyker binoculars

der Lohn het loon die loon wages

die Politik de politiek die politiek politics

der Pyjama de pyjama die pyjama pyjamas

die Zange de tang die tang tongs

die Niederlande* Nederland Nederland the Netherlands

NOTE:
In German, the word die Niederlande is used in the plural.

Ger. Ich lebe in den Niederlanden.

Dut. Ik woon in Nederland.

Afr. Ek woon in Nederland.

- I live in the Netherlands.

Furthermore, nouns ending in Ger. -ik, Dut. -iek/ica, Afr. -ika which designate English plurals
in -ics are used in the singular in German, Dutch and Afrikaans. Observer the following:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

die Elektronik de elektronica die elektronika electronics

die Dynamik de dynamiek die dinamika dynamics

die Physik de natuurkunde* die fisika physics

das Mechanik de mechanica die meganika mechanics

die Optik de optiek die optika optics

die Genetik de genetica die genetika genetics

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NOTE:
In Dutch, even though the noun natuurkunde has a different ending, it is also
used in the singular.

Did you know? Ger. Sie studiert Genetik.

With over 230 million German Dut. Ze studeert genetica.

speakers worldwide, there are around Afr. Sy studeer genetika.
250 dialects of the German language.
- She studies genetics.

Nouns which are usually Singular

There is also a range of nouns that are normally used in the singular in German, Dutch and
Afrikaans. Observe the following:

A. Proper names: Andreas, Eva, Bayern, Schweiz.

B. Corners of the earth and things that are the only ones in their way:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

der Süden het zuiden die suid south

der Norden het noorden die noorde north

der Westen het westen die weste west

der Osten het oosten die ooste east

der Horizont de horizon die horison horizon

die Sonne de zon die son sun

der Mond de maan die maan moon

C. Matters, substances, materials and precious metal:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

das Gold het goud die goud gold

das Silber het zilver die silwer silver

die Milch de melk die melk milk

das Wasser het water die water water

das Brot* het brood* die brood* bread

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German Dutch Afrikaans English

das Fleisch het vlees die vleis meat

die Kohle* de steenkool* die steenkool* coal

die Wolle de wol die wol wool

NOTE:
In German, Dutch and Afrikaans, the nouns “bread” and “coal” are also used in
the plural:
German Dutch Afrikaans

s. das Brot het brood die brood

pl. die Brote de broden die brode

s. die Kohle de steenkool die steenkool

pl. die Kohlen de steenkolen die steenkole

D. Abstract conceptions, human qualities:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

die Liebe de liefde die liefde love

die Existenz het bestaan die bestaan existence

die Freude* de vreugde* die vreugde* joy

der Stolz de trots die trots pride

die Kälte de kou die koue cold

die Wärme de warmte* die warmte warmth

NOTE:
In German, Dutch and Afrikaans, the noun “joy” can be used in the plural:

German Dutch Afrikaans

s. die Freude de vreugde die vreugde

pl. die Freuden de vreugden/vreugdes die vreugdes

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In Dutch, the noun “warmth” can also be used in the plural: de warmte - de
warmtes

E. Collective nouns:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

das Gemüse de groente* die groente* vegetables

das Obst het fruit/ de vrucht* die vrug* fruits

das Gepäck de bagage die bagasie luggage

die Jugend de jeugd die jeug youth

das Geld het geld die geld money

NOTE:
In German, the word das Geld is die Gelder in plural, which means “funds” in
English.
In Dutch and Afrikaans, the nouns “vegetables” and “fruits"can also be used in
the plural.
Dutch Afrikaans

s. de groente die groente

pl. de groenten/de groentes die groentes

s. de vrucht die vrug

pl. de vruchten die vrugte

F. Some nouns that usually have the suffix Ger. -ismus, Dut. -isme, Afr. -isme meaning
scientific, political, social, literary concepts, names of sciences and religions:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

der Impressionismus het impressionisme die impressionisme impressionism

der Faschismus het fascisme die fascisme fascism

der Buddhismus het boeddhisme die boeddhisme buddhism

der Humanismus het humanisme die humanisme humanism

der Feminismus het feminisme die feminisme feminism

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Diminutives in German, Dutch and Afrikaans

A diminutive is a noun that is derived from another word (usually a noun). It has a special ending
and is usually used to convey the smallness of the object named, or to designate a sense of love, intimacy
or endearment. The diminutive is usually an informal way of expression.

Forms of the Diminutive

In German, Dutch and Afrikaans, the diminutives consist of adding Ger. -chen or -lein; Dut. -je;
and Afr. -jie/ie to a noun. The gender of diminutives is always neuter in German and Dutch. Many words
just add these endings without any change.

Below is the basic formula for the diminutive.

German Dutch Afrikaans

noun + -chen or -lein noun + -je noun + -jie or -ie

Study the following examples:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

das Kind - das Kindchen het kind - het kindje die kind - die kindjie child - little child

das Haus - das Häuslein het huis - het huisje die huis - die huisie house - little house

NOTE:
In German, the ending -lein is considered to be archaic these days. In practice
-chen is more commonly used instead.
Also, the vowels a, o, or u are changed into an Umlaut (ä, ö, ü) in the
diminutive in German, for example:
German English

die Katze - das Kätzchen cat - little, cute cat

die Tasse - das Tässchen cup - little cup

In Dutch, if -s and -j are adjacent, they form a sh-like sound (like in ship), for
example:

Dut. huis /ɦœʏs/ - huisje/ɦœʏʃə/

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Use of the Diminutive

In German, Dutch and Afrikaans, diminutives are an essential expressive element of the language
and are frequently used by native German, Dutch and Afrikaans speakers. The diminutives are generally
used:

• To describe something small, young or cute. For example:

Did you know? Ger. Er hat ein süßes Hündchen.

The Münster astronomical clock in St.- Dut. Hij heeft een schattig hondje.
Paulus-Dom in Münster, Germany, is
one of the most important monumental clocks Afr. Hy het 'n oulike hondjie.
in the German-speaking world. It was built - He has a cute puppy dog.
between 1540 and 1542.

NOTE:
In German, Dutch and Afrikaans, it is advised to use diminutives that already
exist, even though it is possible to make diminutive any noun.

It should be mentioned that when using a diminutive, it is also possible to use an adjective like
Ger. klein, Dut. klein, Afr. klein - “small” with the noun if one wants to emphasize how little or
compact something is. For example:

Ger. Sie hat ein kleines Haus in Barcelona gekauft.

Dut. Ze heeft een klein huis gekocht in Barcelona.

Afr. Sy het 'n klein huis in Barcelona gekoop.

- She has bought a small house in Barcelona.

• Diminutive forms are also used in titles of fairytales in German, Dutch and Afrikaans. For instance:

Ger. Rotkäppchen

Dut. Roodkapje

Afr. Rooikappie

- Little Red Riding Hood

Ger. Schneewittchen

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Dut. Sneeuwwitje

Afr. Sneeuwitjie

- Snow White

• It is also worth saying that in German, Dutch and Afrikaans, the names of several plants, particularly
flowers, are used in the diminutive form:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

das Gänseblümchen het madeliefje die madeliefie daisy

das Veilchen het viooltje die viooltjie violet

das Schneeglöckchen het sneeuwklokje die sneeuklokkie snowdrop

Besides the rules presented above, German, Dutch and Afrikaans also have various peculiarities
and exceptions while forming the diminutive. It is important to consider them to prevent the learners
from making spelling and grammatical mistakes.

Special Cases of Forming the Diminutives

German
• Even though a diminutized noun, in most of the cases, is used to express a smaller, cuter or younger
example of a word, there is a number of diminutive forms that represents a new meaning of a noun. For
example:

Fräulein means an unmarried woman, not a small Frau.

Mädchen is the usual word for girl, the diminutive of archaic die Maid - maiden.

Brötchen means a bread roll, not a tiny loaf of bread.

It is worth mentioning that male and female of animals are conveyed by the words Männchen
and Weibchen, which can also mean little man and little woman.

The one thing that should be borne in mind is that the diminutive Weibchen can have different
meanings as well. It can mean either the little woman (the wife) or a dumb broad.

It is a good example of the added semantic connotation that can happen when a noun is in its
diminutive form and why one should be careful while forming diminutives.

NOTE:
In southern German the endings -l, -el, -erl and -ele are used to form the

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diminutive, e.g. das Mäde(r)l - little girl.

In Switzerland, the ending -li is used in spoken German to diminutize nouns,
e.g. das Maidli - little girl.

Dutch
It should be remembered that diminutives do not always add the suffix -je but rather -tje, -etje,
-pje, or -kje depending on the phonetics of the noun in Dutch. Study the following:

• Add -tje

1. Nouns ending in a vowel (-a, -e, -i, -o, -u, -y, -ij) or w add -tje:

Dutch English

de trui - het truitje sweater - little sweater

het ei - het eitje egg - little egg

de mouw - het mouwtje sleeve - little sleeve

NOTE:
In Dutch, if -t and -j are adjacent, they form a ch-like sound (like in cheer), for
example:

Dut. trui /trœʏ/ - truitje/trœʏcə/

However, there are some exception to this rule. For example:

• Nouns that end in a single a, i, o, or or u double the vowel and add -tje in the diminutive to keep the
vowel long in Dutch:

Dutch English

de auto - het autootje car - little car

de oma - het omaatje grandma - little grandma

de taxi - het taxietje taxi - little taxi

het menu - het menuutje menu - little menu

• Nouns that end in a single -y (usually English loanwords) take an apostrophe before -tje in order to
keep the vowel long. For instance:

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de baby - het baby’tje - baby - little baby

de lobby - het lobby’tje - lobby - little lobby

NOTE:
In Dutch, the noun tiramisu also takes an apostrophe + -tje in the diminutive:

de tiramisu - het tiramisu’tje

2. Nouns ending in a long vowel or diphthong followed by -l, -n, or -r get -tje:

Dutch English

de deur - het deurtje door - little door

de gitaar - het gitaartje guitar - little guitar

de schoen - het schoentje shoe - little shoe

de banaan - het banaantje banana - little banana

het wiel - het wieltje wheel - little wheel

de stoel - het stoeltje chair - little chair

de schotel - het schoteltje dish, saucer - little dish, saucer

3. Nouns that end in unstressed -el, -en, -er or -or also add -tje:

Dutch English

de tafel - het tafeltje table - little table

het deken - het dekentje blanket - little blanket

het laken - die lakentje sheet - little sheet

de motor - het motortje motor - little motor

NOTE:
In Dutch, the noun jongen is an exception. It looses its ending when forming
the diminutive:

jongen - jongetje
- boy - little boy

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• Add -etje

1. Nouns ending a short vowel followed by a single -l, -r, -m, -n, or -ng add -etje:

Dutch English

de bal - het balletje ball - little ball

de bel - het belletje bell - little bell

de ster - het sterretje star - little star

de kar - het karretje cart, car - little cart, car

de kam - het kammetje comb - little comb

de stem -het stemmetje voice - little voice

de man - het mannetje man - little man

het ding - het dingetje thing - little thing

de ring - het ringetje ring - little ring

NOTE:
In Dutch, the final consonant of the noun must be doubled to keep the vowel
short, except for nouns ending in -ng as the vowel remains short after taking
-etje.

• Add -pje

1. Nouns ending in a long vowel followed by -m add -pje:

Dutch English

de oom - het oompje uncle - little uncle

de boom - het boompje tree - little tree

de duim - het duimpje thumb - little thumb

het lichaam - het lichaampje body - small body

het probleem - die probleempje problem - little problem

2. Nouns that end in -lm or -rm also add -pje:

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Dutch English

de film - het filmpje film - little film

de zalm - het zalmpje salmon - small salmon

de arm - het armpje arm - little arm

de worm - het wormpje worm - small worm

3. Nouns ending in unstressed -em or -um take -pje

Dutch English

de bezem - het bezempje broom - little broom

het museum - het museumpje museum - small museum

NOTE:
In Dutch, the noun bloem - “flower” is bloempje in the diminutive. However,
many Dutch speakers say bloemmetje instead.

• Add -kje

1. Nouns ending in unstressed -ing get -kje. It should be mentioned that the last consonant of the noun
-g is dropped. Study the following:

Dutch English

de verrassing - het verrassinkje surprise - little surprise

de woning - het woninkje residence - little residence

de koning - het koninkje king - young king

NOTE:
In Dutch, the diminutive suffixes -ke(n) (from which the Standard Dutch form
-tje has derived), -eke(n), -ske(n), -kie, and -pie are still used in different
dialects, for example:
Dutch English

manneke(n) little man, little fellow

makkie easy job, piece of cake

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Dutch English

koppiekoppie smart thinking

It is worth noting that the suffix -ke(n) is still present in many women's names,
e.g. Anneke, Marieke, Janneke Tineke.

• Irregular diminutives

1. Nouns with a short vowel in the singular and a long vowel in the plural usually take the long vowel
(double the vowel) when forming the diminutive with -je. For example:

Dutch English

singular plural diminutive singular plural diminutive

het blad de bladen het blaadje page pages little page

het gat de gaten het gaatje hole holes little hole

het glas de glazen het glaasje glass glasses little glass

het pad de paden het paadje path paths little path

het vat de vaten het vaatje barrel barrels little barrel

het schip de schepen het scheepje ship ships little ship

NOTE:
In Dutch, the noun handvat is regular and does not get the long vowel in the
diminutive. For example:

het handvat - het handvatje

- handle - little handle

Additionally, not all nouns which contain a short vowel in the singular and a long vowel in the
plural take a long vowel in the diminutive in Dutch, for example:

Dutch English

singular plural diminutive singular plural diminutive

de oorlog de oorlogen het oorlogje war wars little war

de weg de wegen het wegje or weggetje way ways little way

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2. Nouns that end in -cht, -ft or -st add -je and drop the t in the pronunciation:

de lijst - het lijstje

- list - little list

In the above-mentioned example, the diminutive lijstje is pronounced as [lijsje].

3. In Dutch, the meaning of nouns sometimes changes when they are used in the diminutive. Observe the
following:

Dutch
noun diminutive

het brood - bread het broodje - roll (bread roll)

de lepel - spoon het lepeltje - teaspoon

de lucht - air het luchtje - scent, odor

het ijs - ice het ijsje - icecream

de schotel - dish het schoteltje - saucer

de kaart - card, map het kaartje - ticket

de koek - cake het koekje - cookie

de koop - purchase het koopje - bargain

NOTE:
In Dutch, however, a few nouns are only used in the diminutive. Study the
following:
Dutch English

het meisje* girl

het etentje dinner party

de poffertjes Dutch mini pancakes

het toetje dessert

het beetje small amount (little bit)

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Dutch English

het sprookje fairy tale

In Dutch, the word het meisje also has an interchangeable non diminutive
form, which is de meid.

Afrikaans
Just like in Dutch, in Afrikaans, diminutives do not always add the suffix -jie or -ie but rather
-tjie, -jie, -etjie, -kie, or -pie, depending on the final sound in the noun. Study the following:

• Add -tjie

1. Nouns ending in a long vowel or diphthong followed by -l, -n, or -r get -tjie:

Afrikaans English

die deur - die deurtjie door - little door

die kitaar - het kitaartjie guitar - little guitar

die vloer - die vloertjie floor - little floor

die eier - die eiertjie egg - little egg

die skoen - die skoentjie shoe - little shoe

die seun - die seuntjie boy - little boy

die wiel - die wieltjie wheel - little wheel

die stoel - die stoeltjie chair - little chair

NOTE:
In Afrikaans, the noun poel is an exception. It adds -e when forming the
diminutive:

poel - poeletjie
- pool - small pool, puddle

2. Nouns that end in unstressed -el, -en, -er or -or also add -tjie:

Afrikaans English

die bottel - het botteltjie bottle - little bottle

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Afrikaans English

die tafel - die tafeltjie table - little table

die laken - die lakentjie sheet - little sheet

die motor - die motortjie motor - little motor

3. Nouns ending in a vowel (-a, -e, -i, -o, -u, -y) add -tjie:

Afrikaans English

die baba - die babatjie baby - little baby

die padda - die paddatjie frog - little frog

die vrou - die vroutjie wife - darling wife

de mou - het moutjie sleeve - little sleeve

de trui - het truitjie sweater - little sweater

However, there are some exception to this rule. For example:

• Nouns ending in a vowel that take -s in the plural (usually English or French loanwords) take an
apostrophe before -tjie in the diminutive:

die foto - die foto’tjie - photo - little photo

die parvenu - die parvenu’tjie - parvenu - little parvenu

NOTE:
In Afrikaans, the following nouns which, although historically already
diminutives, are no longer considered as such and can thus add -tjie to the
existing -ie ending:
Afrikaans English

die meisie - die meisietjie girl - little girl

die baadjie - baadjietjie coat - little coat

die ertjie - die ertjietjie pea - little pea

die kappie - die kappietjie sunbonnet - little sunbonnet

die koppie - die koppietjie cup - little cup

die mandjie - die mandjietjie basket - little basket

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Afrikaans English

die mossie - die mossietjie sparrow - little sparrow

die niggie - die niggietjie niece - little niece

• Add -etjie

1. Monosyllabic nouns ending a short vowel followed by a single -b, -l, -r, -m, -n, or -ng add -etjie:

Afrikaans English

die rib - die ribbetjie rib - little rib

die bal - die balletjie ball - little ball

die bel - die belletjie bell - little bell

die ster - die sterretjie star - little star

die kar - die karretjie cart, car - little cart, car

die blom - die blommetjie flower - little flower

die kam - die kammetjie comb - little comb

de stem - die stemmetjie voice - little voice

de man - die mannetjie man - little man

het ding - die dingetjie thing - little thing

die ring - die ringetjie ring - little ring

NOTE:
In Afrikaans, the final consonant of the noun must be doubled to keep the vowel
short, except for nouns ending in -ng as the vowel remains short after taking
-etjie.

• Add -pie

1. Nouns ending in a long vowel followed by -m add -pie:

Afrikaans English

die boom - die boompie tree - little tree

die duim - die duimpie thumb - little thumb

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Afrikaans English

die liggaam - die liggaampie body - small body

die probleem - die probleempie problem - little problem

2. Nouns that end in -lm or -rm also add -pie:

Afrikaans English

die film - die filmpie film - little film

die salm - die salmpie salmon - small salmon

die arm - die armpie arm - little arm

die wurm - die wurmpie worm - small worm

3. Nouns ending in unstressed -em or -um take -pie

Afrikaans English

die besem - die besempie broom - little broom

die museum - die museumpie museum - small museum

NOTE:
In Afrikaans, the noun oom - "uncle, man" has two forms in the diminutive:
oompie and omie.

• Add -kie

1. Nouns ending in unstressed -ing drop the -g and add -kie. Study the following:

Afrikaans English

die doring - die dorinkie thorn - little thorn

die verrassing - die verrassinkie surprise - little surprise

die woning - die woninkie residence - little residence

die koning - die koninkie king - young king

die piering - die pierinkie saucer - little saucer

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NOTE:
In Afrikaans, the noun piesang - "banana" is piesankie in the diminutive.

• Add -ie

1. All nouns that are not covered by the above add -ie, for instance:

Afrikaans English

die oog - die ogie eye - little eye

die boek - die boekie book - little book

die duif - die duifie dove - little dove

die huis - die huisie house - little house

• Irregular diminutives

1. Nouns with a short vowel in the singular and a long vowel in the plural usually take the long vowel
(double the vowel) also when forming the diminutive with -jie, -ie or -etjie. For example:

Afrikaans English

singular plural diminutive singular plural diminutive

die blad die blaaie die blaadjie page pages little page

die gat die gate die gaatjie hole holes little hole

die glas de glase die glasie glass glasses little glass

die pad die paaie die paadjie path paths little path

die spel die spele die speletje game games little game

die vat die vate die vaatjie barrel barrels little barrel

die skip die skepe die skepie or skippie ship ships little ship

However, in Afrikaans, not all nouns which contain a short vowel in the singular and a long vowel
in the plural take a long vowel in the diminutive, for example:

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Afrikaans English

singular plural diminutive singular plural diminutive

die brug die brûe die bruggie bridge bridges little bridge

die dag die dae die daggie day days little day

die oorlog die oorloë die oorloggie war wars little war

die rug die rûe die ruggie back backs little back

die vlag die vlae die vlaggie flag flags little flag

die weg die weë die weggie way ways little way

2. It is worth mentioning that monosyllabic nouns ending in -t and -d (both pronounced [t]) add -jie
(pronounced [ci] like in english chin) and drop the -t/-d in the pronunciation, for example:

Did you know? die bed [bɛt] - die bedjie [bɛici]

German is a minority language - bed - little bed

in such countries as Slovakia,
Poland, Italy, Russia, Kazakhstan,
Brazil, and Denmark. die prent [prɛnt] - die prentjie [prəiŋci]

- picture - little picture

NOTE:
In Afrikaans, in those nouns ending in -nd or -nt when -jie is added the n is
pronounced as [ɲ] (like in English canyon), for example:

die hond [ɦɔnt] - die hondjie [ɦɔɲci]

- dog - little god

3. Nouns that add the diminutive suffix -ie, undergo the same spelling changes that apply when nouns are
pluralized (See p. 62):

• Nouns that contain a short vowel double the consonant when the diminutive suffix -ie is added:

Afrikaans English

die sug - die suggie sigh - little sigh

die bok - die bokkie goat - little goat

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Afrikaans English

die sus - die sussie sister - little sister

• Nouns containing the long vowels aa, ee, or oo are written with one vowel letter if it stands in an open
syllable, for example:

Afrikaans English

die saag - die sagie saw - little saw

die bees - die besie cow - little cow

die boog - die bogie bow - little bow

• Nouns ending in f that change it to ww (after short vowels) or w (after long vowels) in the plural,
preserve the f in the diminutive (See also p. 59-60). Study the following:

Afrikaans English

singular plural diminutive singular plural diminutive

die rif die riwwe die riffie reef reefs little reef

die stof die stowwe die stoffie material materials little material

die brief die briewe die briefie letter letters little letter

die duif die duiwe die duifie pigeon pigeons little pigeon

die skyf die skywe die skyfie disk disks little disk

die wolf die wolwe die wolfie wolf wolves little wolf

• Nouns that contain a short vowel and end in -g, drop the -g in the plural, but preserve the g in the
diminutive (See also p. 62):

Afrikaans English

singular plural diminutive singular plural diminutive

die brug die brûe die bruggie bridge bridges little bridge

die rug die rûe die ruggie back backs little back

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• Nouns ending in d or g containing a long vowel or diphthong where these consonants d or g are
omitted in the plural, are preserved in the diminutive (See also p. 61):

Afrikaans English

singular plural diminutive singular plural diminutive

die tyd die tye die tydjie time times little time

die vraag die vrae die vragie question questions little question

die oog die oë die ogie eye eyes little eye

die vlieg die vlieë die vliegie fly flies little fly

NOTE:
The rule mentioned above also includes nouns like pad - paaie - paadjie -
“road - roads - little road” in Afrikaans (See p. 62)

4. In Afrikaans, the meaning of nouns sometimes changes when they are used in the diminutive. Observe
the following:

Afrikaans
noun diminutive

die brood - bread die broodjie - roll (bread roll)

die kaart - map, card die kaartjie - ticket

die koek - cake die koekie - biscuit

die lem - knife blade die lemmetjie - razor blade

NOTE:
In Afrikaans, however, some words are only used in the diminutive. Study the
following:
Afrikaans English

die bessie berry

die beursie purse

die beskuitjie biscuit

’n bietjie a little bit

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Afrikaans English

die deuntjie tune

die kersie cherry

die ouma-/oupagrootjie great-grandfather/-mother

die pinkie little finger

die sokkie sock

die sprokie fairy tale

die stokperdjie hobby(-horse)

die sypaadjie sidewalk

Plural Diminutives in German, Dutch and Afrikaans

In German, the plural of diminutives do not have any ending, while in Dutch and Afrikaans, the
plural diminutive is formed by adding an -s. Study the following examples:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

das Kindchen - die het kindje - de kindjes die kindjie - die kindjies little child - little
Kindchen children
das Häuslein - die het huisje - de huisjes die huisie - die huisies little house - little houses
Häuslein

Augmentatives in Germanic Languages

In German, Dutch and Afrikaans, augmentatives show that something or someone is strong or
large. Augmentative forms can also augment a word’s meaning or intensity.

In the English language, the most common augmentatives are created by adding the prefixes such
as -mega, -ultra, -super, -over and -grand: “megastore”, “supersize”, “grandparents”,
“overqualified”.

The use of augmentatives in German, Dutch and Afrikaans is quite similar to that in English and
in some cases they even have similar prefixes.

The augmentative prefixes in German and Dutch are: Ger. Über-, Groß-, Super-, Mega-;
Dut. over-, groot-, super-, mega-, Afr. oor-, groot-, super-, mega-.

The table shows the ways of forming the augmentatives in these West Germanic languages:

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German Dutch Afrikaans

Über- over- oor-

Groß- groot- groot-

Super- super- super-

Mega- mega- mega-

Observe the following:

Ger. das Gewicht - das Übergewicht

Dut. het gewicht - het overgewicht

Afr. die gewig - die oorgewig

- weight - overweight

Did you know? Ger. der Handel - der Großhandel

Kruger National Park is a South Dut. de handel - de groothandel

African National Park and is one
of the largest game reserves in Africa. Afr. die handel - die groothandel

It is located in the provinces of Limpopo - trade, commerce - wholesale

and Mpumalanga.

Its high density of wild animals includes Ger. der Markt - Der Megamarkt
lions, leopards, rhinos, elephants and
buffalos. Dut. de markt - de megamarkt

Afr. die mark - die megamark

- market - mega market

NOTE:
In German, Dutch and Afrikaans, adjectives also use augmentatives. The table
below shows some prefixes of forming the augmentatives of adjectives (See
also Adjectives p. 140):
German Dutch Afrikaans

stink- steen- skat-

stein- kei- klip-

Study the following examples:

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Ger. reich - stinkreich

Dut. rijk - steenrijk

Afr. ryk - skatryk

- rich - filthy rich

Ger. hart - steinhart

Dut. hard - keihard

Afr. hard - kliphard

- hard - rock hard

Compound Nouns

A compound noun is a noun that consists of two or more words connected into a single word, e.g.
motor + cycle = motorcycle.

Gender and Forms of Compound Nouns

In German, Dutch and Afrikaans, compound nouns always carry the gender of their last word. It
should be mentioned that the combined words are not only nouns, but also adjectives, adverbs, verb
stems, and prepositions. However, the last word of the compound must be a noun:

• Two nouns

noun noun compound noun

German das Haupt + die Stadt = die Hauptstadt

Dutch het hoofd + de stad = de hoofdstad

Afrikaans die hoof + die stad = die hoofstad

English head + city = capital city

• Adjective + noun

adjective noun compound noun

German groß + der Meister = der Großmeister

Dutch groot + de meester = de grootmeester

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Afrikaans groot + die meester = die

grootmeester
English grand (large) + master = grandmaster

• Adverb / preposition + noun

adverb/preposition noun compound noun

German hinter + die Tür = die Hintertür

Dutch achter + de deur = de achterdeur

Afrikaans agter + die deur = die agterdeur

English behind (at the back) + door = backdoor

• Verb + noun

verb noun compound noun

German denk(en) + die Weise = die Denkweise

Dutch denk(en) + de wijze = de denkwijze

Afrikaans dink + die wyse = die denkwyse

English to think + way = the way of thinking

In German, Dutch and Afrikaans, some compound nouns require connecting elements to bridge a
gap between the words and make them sound more natural. This connection can have various forms:

Below is a table showing all the linking elements to form compound nouns in German, Dutch
and Afrikaans.

German Dutch and Afrkiaans

n-, -en-, -s- or -es- -e-, -en- or -s-

Observe the following:

noun connection noun compound noun

German der Krieg + -s- + das Museum = das Kriegsmuseum

Dutch de oorlog + -s- + het museum = het oorlogsmuseum

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Afrikaans die oorlog + -s- + die museum = die oorlogsmuseum

English war + NA + museum = war museum

Observe one more example:

noun connection noun compound noun

German der Student + -en- + das Leben = das Studentenleben

Dutch de student + -en- + het leven = het studentenleven

Afrikaans die student + -e- + die lewe = die studentelewe

English student + NA + life = student life

It must be noted that it is somewhat difficult to decide on which of the connecting elements to use
to create compound nouns in German, Dutch and Afrikaans, as there are many exceptions that distinguish
one West Germanic language from another.

Thus, we will discuss these exceptions as well as special cases of forming the compounds in
German, Dutch and Afrikaans separately below.

Special Cases of Forming the Compounds

German
In German, there is no general rule concerning when these linking sounds are inserted in such
compound words so one should try to memorize those combinations. Nevertheless, some general rules
will be given below.

• Connecting -n-

1. If the first word of the compound noun ends in -e, it will add the linking -n- when the second word is
joined to it. For example:

Ger. der Küchentisch

- kitchen table

• Connecting -en-

1. The linking -en- is inserted if the first word of the compound noun adds -en as a plural suffix. Since a
lot of German nouns end in -en in the plural, the linking -en- is one of the most frequent connectors:

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Ger. das Studentenleben

- student life

• Connecting -s-

1. If a noun ends in -heit, -keit or -ung, the linking -s- must be added. For instance:

Ger. Gelegenheitsarbeit

- casual work

NOTE:
In German, the linking -es- can also be inserted between the combined words.
For example:

Ger. Jahreszeit
- season

• Connecting -er-

1. The linking -er- is used for nouns that end in -er in the plural. For instance:

Ger. der Bilderrahmen

- picture frame

• Connecting -e-

1. The linking -e- is added in such compound nouns as:

Ger. die Mausefalle

- mousetrap

Ger. der Pferdestall

- horse stable

• Connecting -ens-

1. The linking -ens- is also used in the following compound nouns:

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Ger. die Herzensgüte

- goodness of heart

Ger. das Schmerzensgeld

- compensation for pain and suffering

• No connection

1. In German, if the first word of the compound ends in a vowel, no connectors are used. For instance:

Ger. die Polizeiagent

- police agent

Dutch
Like in German, in Dutch, the parts of a compound also need a connecting element. Study the
following:

• Connecting -e-

1. The linking -e- is added if the first word of the compound noun is a person or an object of which there
is clearly only one:

Dut. (de) Koninginnedag

- Queen’s Day

Dut. de maneschijn

- moonshine

2. If the first word is not a noun, the linking -e- is also connected:

Dut. de rodekool

- red cabbage

• Connecting -en-

1. The linking -en- is inserted if the first word of the compound noun adds -en as a plural suffix. Since the
majority of Dutch nouns end in -en in the plural, the linking -en- is the most frequent connector:

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Did you know? Dut. de gebarentaal

West Frisian, or simply Frisian - sign language

(Dutch: Fries, pronounced as “frees”)
is the only regionally-specific official
language of the Netherlands. Dut. het studentenleven

- student life

Dut. het receptenboek

- recipe book

• Connecting -s-

1. If verb-based nouns end in unstressed -ing, -er or -teit, the linking -s- must be inserted. To illustrate:

Dut. het begrotingstekort

- budget deficit

Dut. de ondernemerszin

- entrepreneurial spirit

Dut. de universiteitsbibliotheek

- university library

2. The linking -s- is added if the first word of the compound noun is diminutive. For instance:

Dut. de meisjeskleding

- girls clothes

• Connecting -er-

1. The linking -er- is used for nouns that end in -eren in the plural. For instance:

Dut. de kinderbibliotheek

- children's library

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NOTE:
In Dutch, however, the linking -er- is quite uncommon. Even words that get
-eren as a plural suffix, usually add the linking -e-, -en-, -s-.

• No connection

1. Just like in German, in Dutch, if the first word of the compound ends in a vowel, no connectors are
used. For instance:

Dut. de politieagent

- police agent

NOTE:
In Dutch, if the first word of the compound is diminutive, the linking -s- must be
added in this case.

2. If the first word of the compound ends in unstressed -en, -el, or -em. For example:

Dut. de kussensloop

- pillow case

3. If the first word of the compound is not a noun. The first part of the compound could be an adjective, an
adverb, a verb or a preposition. Study the following:

preposition noun compound noun

Dutch uit + de gang = de uitgang

English from + corridor, hallway = exit

Afrikaans
Like in German and Dutch, in Afrikaans, the parts of a compound also require a linking element.
And like in other West Germanic languages, in Afrikaans, there is no general rule concerning when these
linking sounds are required in such compound words so one should simply memorize those combinations.

Observe the following:

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• Connecting -s-

1. The only more or less firm rule that can be given for the use of the linking -s- is that it is always used
when the first word of a compound ends in -heid, -ing, -skap or -teit, To illustrate:

Afr. die begrotingstekort

- budget deficit

Afr. die universiteitsbiblioteek

- university library

Afr. die leierskapsrol

- leadership role

NOTE:
In Afrikaans, however, in all other cases use of a linking -s- has to be learnt by
heart, e.g.:
Afrikaans English

die arbeidsmark employment market

die vredesplan peace plan

die liefdesbrief love letter

• Connecting -e-

1. The linking -e- is inserted if the first word of the compound noun adds -e as a plural suffix. Since the
majority of Afrikaans nouns end in -e in the plural, the linking -e- is the most common connector:

Did you know? Afr. die gebaretaal

South Africa has three capital - sign language

cities. Pretoria is the
administrative capital. Cape Town is the
legislative capital. Bloemfontein is the Afr. die studentelewe
judicial capital
- student life

Afr. die resepteboek

- recipe book

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2. Like in Dutch, in Afrikaans, the linking -e- is added if the first word of the compound noun is a person:

Afr. (de) Koninginnedag

- Queen’s Day

• Connecting -en-

1. Unlike in Dutch, in Afrikaans, in just a few words the linking -en- is inserted, for example:

Afr. die waenhuis

- coach-house

Afr. die voetenent

- foot-end

• Connecting -er-

1. The linking -er- is used for nouns that end in -ers or -ns in the plural. For instance:

Afr. de kinderbibliotheek

- children's library

NOTE:
In Afrikaans, however, the linking -er- is quite uncommon. Even words that get
-ers or -ns as a plural suffix, usually add the linking -e-, -s-, or no connection
at all, for example:

Afr. die lewensversekering

- life insurance

• No connection

1. Just like in German and Dutch, in Afrikaans, if the first word of the compound ends in a vowel, no
connectors are used. For instance:

Afr. die polisieagent

- police agent

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NOTE:
In Afrikaans, if the first word of the compound is diminutive, the linking -s-
must be added in this case.

2. If the first word of the compound is not a noun. The first part of the compound could be an adjective, an
adverb, a verb or a preposition. Study the following:

preposition noun compound noun

Afrikaans uit + die gang = die uitgang

English from + passageway, alley = exit

Adjectival Nouns

An adjectival noun is a noun that is formed from an adjective, e.g. old (adj.) —> the old (noun).

Gender and Forms of Adjectival Nouns

In German, Dutch, adjectival nouns function like adjectives, which means that the endings of
adjectival nouns change according to gender, the article used with it, and case (in German) (Adjectives
p. 140). Remember that in Afrikaans, there is no gender, article and case distinction and, therefore,
adjectival nouns do not change.

In German, Dutch and Afrikaans, all adjectives take the ending-e and are used with articles,
demonstratives and possessives when forming an adjectival noun (See also Demonstratives p. 313
and Possessives p. 288)

Observe the following:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

adjective reich rijk ryk rich

noun (m.) der Reiche de rijke die ryke the rich man

noun (f.) die Reiche de rijke die ryke the rich lady

NOTE:
In German, adjectival nouns are capitalized.

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It should be mentioned that even though it is possible to create any adjectival nouns
spontaneously, adjectival nouns are generally formed from adjectives referring to male and female beings.
To illustrate:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

adjective alt oud oud old

noun (m./f.) der/die Alte de oude die ou* the old man/lady

adjective arm arm arm poor

noun (m./f.) der/die Arme de arme die arme the poor man/lady

adjective bekannt bekend bekend acquainted

noun (m./f.) der/die Bekannte de bekende die bekende the male/female

acquaintance
adjective krank ziek siek sick

noun (m./f.) der/die Kranke de zieke die sieke the sick man/lady
(patient)
adjective schuldig schuldig skuldig guilty

noun (m./f.) der/die Schuldige de schuldige die skuldige the guilty man/lady

adjective verwandt verwant verwant related

noun (m./f.) der/die Verwandte de verwante die verwante the male/female relative

adjective gelehrt geleerd geleerd educated

noun (m./f.) der/die Gelehrte de geleerde die geleerde the scholar

For example:

Ger. Er ist der berühmteste Gelehrte in dieser Stadt.

Dut. Hij is de beroemdste geleerde in deze stad.

Afr. Hy is die bekendste geleerde in hierdie stad.

- He is the most famous scholar in this city.

In German and Dutch, if you are describing a concept or something more abstract, the neuter
definite article Ger. das and Dut. het are used.

However, since nouns in Afrikaans have no grammatical gender, the only definite article Afr. die
is used in this case (See Articles p. 218).

Study the following:

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German Dutch Afrikaans English

adjective best best beste best

noun (neut.) das Beste het beste die beste the best

adjective ganze geheel geheel whole

noun (neut.) das ganze het geheel die geheel the whole (thing)
adjective wichtig belangrijk belangrik important

noun (neut.) das Wichtige het belangrijke die belangrike the important (thing)

adjective gut goed goed good

noun (neut.) das gute het goede/goeie die goeie the good (thing)

adjective schlecht slecht sleg bad

noun (neut.) das Schlechte het slechte die slegte the bad (thing)

adjective richtig juist juis right

noun (neut.) das Richtige het juiste die juiste the right (thing)

For example:

Ger. Mit ihr zu sprechen ist das Richtige.

Dut. Met haar praten is het juiste.

Afr. Met haar praat is die juiste.

- To speak with her is the right thing.

It is worth noting that such neuter adjectival nouns can be used with the following impersonal
pronouns (See Indefinite Adjectives and Pronouns p. 352):

German Dutch Afrikans English

alles al, alles al, alles everything, all

etwas iets iets something, some

jemand iemand iemand someone

nichts niets niks nothing

niemand niemand niemand no one

viel veel veel, baie a lot (of)

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German Dutch Afrikans English

wenig weinig min little

In German, if neutral adjectival nouns follow such impersonal pronouns as Ger. etwas, nichts,
viel and wenig, they take the strong adjective endings. (See Declension of Adjectival Endings p.
142).

In Dutch and Afrikaans, if the adjectival nouns are used mainly after Dut. iets, niets, veel,
iemand and Afr.. iets, niks, baie, iemand they add the ending -s.

However, in Afrikaans, the ending -s is these days commonly omitted, especially in speech, but
omission of this ending is considered non-standard by many. Study the following:

Ger. Ich habe heute etwas Interessantes gehört.

Dut. Ik heb vandaag iets interessants gehoord.

Afr. Ek het vandag iets interessants gehoor.

- I heard something interesting today.

NOTE:
In German, if the adjectival nouns follow the declinable pronoun alles, they
must take weak adjective endings, e.g.:

Ger. Sie haben alles Mögliche versucht.

- They have tried everything possible.

It is worth mentioning that this adjective declension in German and this -s ending added to
adjectival nouns in Dutch and Afrikaans when used with the impersonal pronouns mentioned above
applies to comparatives too (See Comparative Adjectives p. 198):

German Dutch Afrikaans English

adjective klein klein klein small

comparative form kleiner kleiner kleiner smaller

used with impersonal etwas kleineres iets kleiners iets kleiners something smaller
pronoun
adjective schön leuk lekker nice

comparative form schöner leuker lekkerder nicer

used with impersonal nichts Schöneres niets leukers niks lekkerder(s) nothing nicer
pronoun

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For example:

Ger. Es gibt nichts Schöneres, als im Meer zu schwimmen.

Dut. Er is niets leukers dan zwemmen in de zee.

Afr. Daar is niks lekkerder(s) as swem in die see nie.

- There is nothing nicer (more pleasant) than swimming in the sea.

NOTE:
In Afrikaans, even after iets and niks the -s ending is now often omitted from
comparatives.

Plural Forms of Adjectival Nouns

In German, Dutch and Afrikaans, the plural form of adjectival nouns is formed by adding -n (in
German and Dutch) or -s (in Afrikaans) to the end of the word.

Also, in German, when forming the plural one must change the definite article to Ger. die (See
Articles p. 218).

NOTE:
Unlike in other West Germanic languages, in English, adjectival nouns are only
used in the plural and usually denote a collective group of people, i.e. the ugly,
the living.

Study the following:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

adjective arm arm arm poor

noun (plural) die Armen de armen die armes the poor (people)

For example:

Ger. Die Verletzten sind im örtlichen Krankenhaus.

Dut. De gewonden zijn in het plaatselijke ziekenhuis.

Afr. Die beseerdes is in die plaaslike hospitaal.

- The injured people are in the local hospital.

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Nouns in Apposition
Apposition is when one noun phrase modifies another and they both refer to the same person or
thing. The second noun phrase gives us an additional information about the first noun phrase. The
reversion of the elements is also possible.

Noun phrases are normally separated by commas. It happens when the second noun phrase gives
extra information, which is not necessary to identify the person or thing. Study the following sentence:

Ger. Mein Bruder, der Lehrer dieser Schule, hat eine Auszeichnung erhalten.

Dut. Mijn broer, de leraar van deze school, heeft een onderscheiding ontvangen.

Afr. My broer, die onderwyser van hierdie skool, het 'n toekenning ontvang.

- My brother, this school's teacher, has received an award.

The expressions Ger. “der Lehrer dieser Schule”, Dut. “de leraar van deze school”, Afr. “die
onderwyser van hierdie skool” stand in apposition to Ger. “Mein Bruder”, Dut. “Mijn broer”, Afr. “My
broer”, which means that they offer, between commas, additional information about the noun that
precede them.

NOTE:
In German, remember that a noun standing in apposition to another must be in
the same case as the noun to which it refers (See Case in German p. 112):

Nominative
Ger. Mein Bruder, der Lehrer, arbeitet hier.
- My brother, the teacher, works here.

Genitive
Ger. Das ist die Auszeichnung meines Bruders, des Lehrers.
- This is the award of my brother, the teacher.

Accusative
Ger. Sie kennt meinen Bruder, den Lehrer.
- She knows my brother, the teacher.

Dative
Ger. Er war mit meinem Bruder, dem Lehrer.
- He was with my brother, the teacher.

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It is worth mentioning that in measurements, the object that is measured is usually in apposition
to the noun denoting the measure in German, Dutch and Afrikaans. Observe the following:

Did you know? Ger. ein Glas Wasser.

There are over 100 nature parks in Dut. een glas water.
Germany, the largest of which is the
Southern Black Forest Nature Park (Ger.: Afr. ’n glas water
Naturpark Südschwarzwald) covering an area
of 394,000 hectares. - a glass of water.

Ger. eine Tasse Tee.

Dut. een kopje thee.

Afr. ’n koppie tee

- a cup of tea.

NOTE:
The English word "of" is not translated in German, Dutch and Afrikaans.

Inhabitants of Countries

Like in English, in German, Dutch and Afrikaans, nouns of nationalities are derived from the
names of countries, for example: South Africa - the South African, Austria - the Austrian.

In general, all German, Dutch and Afrikaans nationality nouns are formed by adding the endings
-er to the name of a country. Remember that nationality nouns are used with the articles as normal nouns
(See Articles p. 218). Study the following:

German Dutch Afrikaans

Holland - der Holländer Holland - de Hollander Holland - die Hollander

Japan - der Japaner Japan - de Japanner Japan - die Japanner

However, there is no firm rule of forming nouns nationalities in English, German, Dutch and
Afrikaans. So one should simply memorize these words. Observe the following:

German Dutch Afrikaans

die Schweiz - der Schweizer Zwitserland - de Zwitser Switserland - die Switser

Zypern - der Zypriot Cyprus - de Cyprioot Ciprus - die Ciprioot

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German Dutch Afrikaans

Schweden - der Schwede Zweden - de Zweed Swede - die Sweed

Dänemark - der Däne Denemarken - de Deen Denemarke - die Deen

Polen - der Pole Polen - de Pool Pole - die Pool

NOTE:
In German, Dutch and Afrikaans, apart from nationality nouns, there are also
nationality adjectives. Nationality adjectives are used to name things that have
origin from a particular country or nation. (See Adjectives p. 140 and
Nationality Adjectives p. 179).
One more thing to bare in mind is that nationality nouns and adjectives can
differ from each other: the Briton (noun) - British (adj.). Such cases should be
memorized. To compare:
German Dutch Afrikaans

der Brite (noun) de Brit (noun) die Brit (noun)

britisch (adj.) Brits (adj.) Brits (adj.)

Forming the Feminine and Plural Forms of Noun Nationalities

German
Note that in German, nationality nouns ending in -er that refer to a male do not change the
ending in plural form. Nationality nouns that refer to a female add -in in singular and have -innen in
plural form. Study the following:

German English

masc. s. der Schweizer Swiss man

masc. pl. die Schweizer Swiss men

fem. s. die Schweizerin Swiss woman

fem. pl. die Schweizerinnen Swiss women

Let’s study one more example demonstrating this rule:

German English

masc. s. der Belgier Belgian man

masc. pl. die Belgier Belgian men

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German English

fem. s. die Belgierin Belgian woman

fem. pl. die Belgierinnen Belgian women

Nationality nouns ending in -e that refer to a male add -n in the plural. Nationality nouns that
refer to a female drop -e and add -in in singular and -innen in plural form. Observe the following:

German English

masc. s. der Ire Irish man

masc. pl. die Iren Irish men/people

fem. s. die Irin Irish woman

fem. pl. die Irinnen Irish women

Let’s take one more example:

German English

masc. s. der Schwede Swede man

masc. pl. die Schweden Swede men/people

fem. s. die Schwedin Swede woman

fem. pl. die Schwedinnen Swede women

NOTE:
It is worth reminding that nationality nouns should be capitalized due to the
fact that these words are derived from country names i.e proper nouns.

Dutch
In Dutch, many nationality nouns with one syllable add -en at the ending to form the plural:

German English

singular de Ier Irish person

plural de Ieren Irish people

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However, the following spelling rules must be considered when forming the plural nationality
nouns with -en in Dutch:

• If the single-syllable nationality nouns end in consonants such as -n, -k, -t, -d or -s, they must be
doubled in the plural. For example:

German English

singular de Fin Finn

plural de Finnen Finns

• Nationality nouns that have the double vowel drop the last vowel in order to keep the single vowel in
open syllable while forming the plural with -en:

German English

singular de Pool Pole

plural de Polen Poles

Let’s take one more example:

Dutch English

singular de Noor Norwegian

plural de Noren Norwegians

• If a noun ends in -s or -f, these endings change to -z or -v in the plural. For instance:

German English

singular de Portugees Portuguese

plural de Portugezen Portugueses

In Dutch, it is also a common way to form the plural of nationality nouns by adding -s:

• Most nationality nouns that end in unstressed -er form the plural with -s. For example:

Dutch English

singular de Duitser German

plural de Duitsers Germans

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Observe one more example:

Dutch English

singular de Nederlander Dutch person

plural de Nederlanders Dutch people

Note that like in German, in Dutch, nationality nouns that refer to a female add -in in singular
and have -innen in plural form. Study the following:

Dutch English

masc. s. de Rus Russian man

masc. pl. de Russen Russian men

fem. s. de Russin Russian woman

fem. pl. de Russinnen Russian women

Furthermore, the ending -e is also used to create feminine nationality nouns in the singular and
the ending -n is added in the plural in Dutch. Study the following:

Dutch English

masc. s. de Portugees Portuguese man

masc. pl. de Portugezen Portuguese men

fem. s. de Portugese Portuguese woman

fem. pl. de Portugesen Portuguese women

Afrikaans
In Afrikaans, many nationality nouns with one syllable add -e at the ending to form the plural:

Afrikaans English

singular die Ier Irish person

plural die Iere Irish people

However, the following spelling rules must be considered when forming the plural nationality
nouns with -e in Afrikaans:

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• If the single-syllable nationality nouns end in consonants such as -n, -k, -t, -d or -s, they must be
doubled in the plural. For example:

Afrikaans English

singular die Fin Finn

plural die Finne Finns

• Like in Dutch, in Afrikaans, nationality nouns that have the double vowel drop the last vowel in order to
keep the single vowel in open syllable while forming the plural with -e:

Afrikaans English

singular die Pool Pole

plural die Pole Poles

Let’s study one more example:

Afrikaans English

singular de Noor Norwegian

plural de Nore Norwegians

In Afrikaans, it is also a common way to form the plural of nationality nouns by adding -s:

• Most nationality nouns that end in unstressed -er form the plural with -s. For example:

Afrikaans English

singular die Duitser German

plural die Duitsers Germans

Observe one more example:

Afrikaans English

singular de Nederlander Dutch person

plural de Nederlanders Dutch people

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Case in German
Overview
German is an inflectional language. Inflections are grammatical endings or suffixes. For example,
the plural endings of nouns (houses, children) are examples of inflectional endings that English, German,
Dutch and Afrikaans share.

Case, however, is another form of inflection. The case of a particular noun tells us
what grammatical function or simply role the noun plays in the context of a particular clause or sentence.
In other words, the case is the contrast between the subject (the nominative case), the direct object (the
accusative case) and the indirect object (the dative case) in the sentence. Study the following example:

Ger. Der Mann (nom.) hat seiner Frau (dat.) den Schlüssel (acc.) gegeben.

Dut. De man (nom.) heeft de sleutel (acc.) aan zijn vrouw (dat.) gegeven.

Afr. Die man (nom.) het die sleutel (acc.) vir sy vrou (dat.) gegee.

- The husband (nom.) gave the key (acc.) to his wife (dat.).

So, in German, in the above example, the sentence shows case that is applied to nouns, the
definite article der, the possessive determiner seiner and the definite article den that are the indicators
not only of the gender of their respective nouns, but also of their case.

NOTE:
In English, Dutch and Afrikaans, however, case is mainly indicated by
prepositions or a noun's position in a sentence (word order), not by word
endings, like in German (See Cases in Dutch and Afrikaans p. 133). Study
one more example:

Ger. Seiner Frau (dat.) hat der Mann (nom.) den Schlüssel (acc.) gegeben.

Did you know? This phrase designates the same thing as the
former although the meaning is a bit different: “It was
South Africa is home to six record- his wife he gave the key to” and not anyone else.
breaking animals: the largest land
mammal (elephant), the largest bird Note that the forms seiner and der and den
(ostrich), the tallest animal (giraffe), the clearly show who is giving (the subject or nominative)
largest fish (whale shark), the fastest land and who the key is being given to (the indirect object
mammal (cheetah) and the largest or dative) and what is being given to his wife (the
antelope (eland). direct object or accusative).

Furthermore, unlike English, Dutch and Afrikaans, which have lost almost all forms of declension
of nouns and adjectives, German inflects nouns (See Declension of Proper Nouns p. 136), adjectives

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(See Adjectives p. 140), articles (See Articles p. 218) and possessive determiners (See Pronouns p.
241) into four grammatical cases.

The German cases are the nominative (Nominativ), accusative (Akkusativ), dative (Dativ) and
genitive (Genitiv).

Basically, case divides the functions of nouns in a sentence: the subject (the nominative case), the
direct object (the accusative case), the indirect object (the dative case, i.e. “to”, “with”) and to indicate
possession (the genitive case, i.e. “of”). Observe the Following:

Nominative
Did you know? Ger. Mein Bruder arbeitet hier.
The world’s largest gem-quality - My brother works here.
rough diamond was found in the
Premier Mine in Pretoria, South Africa
on 25 January 1905.
Accusative
It weighted 3,106 carats (621.20 grams/
1.33 pounds) and was called the Cullinan Ger. Sie kennt meinen Bruder.
after the owner of the mine.
- She knows my brother.

Dative

Ger. Er war mit meinem Bruder.

- He was with my brother.

Genitive

Ger. Das ist die Auszeichnung meines Bruders.

- This is the award of my brother.

In German, as you can see from above examples, verbs and prepositions can require that the
determiners (articles and possessives) and nouns that follow them take either the accusative, dative or
genitive case. Below we will discuss the German cases in greater detail:

The Four German Cases

The Nominative Case (Der Nominativ/Der Werfall)

The term nominative comes from Latin and designates “to name”. The term der Werfall
translates literally as "the who case”, which means that the question word in the nominative is wer? -
who? and/or was? - what?. A noun or pronoun that is in the nominative case performs the following
functions in a sentence:

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1) Subject

• The nominative case - in German, as well as in English, Dutch and Afrikaans - is the subject of a
sentence (the person, thing or idea that performs the action or carrying out the meaning of the verb).
For example:

Ger. Der Architekt (nom.) entwirft den Gebäude.

- The architect designs the building;

Ger. Das Auto (nom.) ist wunderschön.

- The car is beautiful.

In the first sentence, “the architect” is doing the action of designing the building and is therefore
the subject of the sentence.

In the second sentence, “the car” is doing the action of being beautiful the building and is
therefore the subject.

2) Predicate noun

• A predicate noun or predicate nominative is a noun that restates the subject in German. A predicate
noun can only be used with the following verbs:

German English German English

bleiben to remain, to stay sein to be

heißen to be called, to be werden to become

named
scheinen to seem, to appear

Note that the nominative case is used both before and after these verbs:

Ger. Mein Freund (nom.) ist Ingenieur (nom.).

- My friend is an engineer.

Ger. Meine Schwester (nom.) wird Schauspielerin (nom.).

- My sister is becoming an actress.

Ger. Mein Onkel (nom.) heißt Mark (nom.).

- My uncle's name is Mark.

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As seen from the first sentence, “my friend” and “engineer” refer to the same person. “My friend”
is the subject and “engineer” is the predicate noun. In the third sentence, the subject “my uncle” and the
predicate nominative “Mark” are the same person.

To identify a predicate noun, one can try to replace the verb in the sentence with an equal sign
(=). If the equation remains true - that is to say, if the subject and the verbal complement are both
referring to the same person or thing - then one have found a predicate noun.

3) Other Cases of Using the Nominative

• If a noun is used in isolation (not as part of a sentence), it is normally used in the nominative case, for
example:

Ger. Eine schöne Idee (nom.), finden Sie nicht?

- A nice idea, don't you think?

NOTE:
In German, if an isolated noun is the object of an unexpressed sentence, for
example in abbreviated answers to questions, the accusative or dative case may
be used (See The Dative Case p. 121 and The Accusative Case p. 125). For
example:

Ger. Was guckst du? - Einen Film (acc.).

- What are you watching? - A film.

Ger. Wem gibst du den Schlüssel? - Der Frau (dat.).

- Who are you giving the key? - The wife.

• Note that people are addressed in the nominative case, for instance:

Ger. Wie geht es dir, mein Freund (nom.)?

- How are you, my friend?

The Genitive Case (Der Genitiv/Der Wesfall)

The genitive case has the following functions in German:

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1) Possession

• The genitive case shows belonging or possession and is usually expressed by the possessive “of” or an
apostrophe with an “s" (’s) in English. Thus, the question word in the genitive is wessen? - whose?:

Ger. Das Telefon meines Freundes (gen.) ist rot.

- The phone of my friend is red. (My friend’s phone is red)

Ger. Die Katze meiner Mutter (gen.) ist süß.

- My mother's cat is cute.

In the first sentence, the genitive specifies that a quality - the color - “of my friend’s phone" is
being discussed.

In the second sentence, the genitive “my mother’s" indicates whose cat is being discussed.

NOTE:
In German, the genitive is often used in formal language. In spoken, everyday
German, von + the dative usually replaces the genitive (See Informal
Possession with Von in German p. 308):

Ger. Die Brille von meinem Vater (dat.);

- My father's glasses.

• One can tell that a noun is used in the genitive case by the articles (the/a), which change to des/eines
(for masculine and neuter) or der/einer (for feminine and plural) (See Articles p. 218). As the
genitive case only has two forms (des or der), one only needs to learn those two.

The table shows the declension of the German definite and indefinite articles in the
nominative and in the genitive case:

Definite article Indefinite article

Masc. Fem. Neut. Pl. Masc. Fem. Neut. Pl.

Nominative der die das die ein eine ein —

Genitive des der des der eines einer eines —

Observe more examples:

Ger. Das Auto des Bruders* (der Bruder)

- The brother's car (the brother)

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Ger. Das Kleid der Frau (die Frau)

- The wife's dress (the wife)

NOTE:
In German, in the masculine and neuter, there is an additional noun ending
-e(s).
However, feminine and plural nouns do not add the ending -(e)s in the genitive
(See also Case Forms of Nouns in German p. 130).

Like the articles, the possessive pronouns can also tell us that a noun is used in the genitive case.
The possessive pronoun, for example Ger. mein - “my” change to meines (for masculine and neuter) or
meiner (for feminine and plural) (For all the Possessive Adjectives and Pronouns See p. 288)

The table shows the declension of the German possessive pronoun mein - “my” in the
nominative and in the genitive case:

Declension of mein

Masc. Fem. Neut. Pl.

Nominative mein meine mein meine

Genitive meines meiner meines meiner

Study the following examples:

Ger. Das Auto meines Bruders (mein Bruder)

- My brother's car (my brother)

Ger. Das Kleid meiner Frau (meine Frau)

- My wife's dress (my wife)

• Like in English, in German, the -s ending occurs too as a sign of possession. However, in German, it is
limited to personal names and no apostrophe is used with it (See also Declension of Proper Nouns
in German p. 136). For example:

Ger. Marias altes Haus

- Maria’s old house

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NOTE:
In German, if the name already ends in -s, just an apostrophe must be added,
for instance:

Ger. Hans' Auto

- Hans’ old house

2) Object of a genitive preposition

• There are some prepositions that take the genitive case in German (See Prepositions with Genitive
p. 748 ).

Below are some of the more common genitive prepositions:

German English German English

(an)statt instead of innerhalb within

anlässlich on the occasion of laut according to

anstelle in place of seitens on the part of

aufgrund on the basis of trotz despite, in spite of

außerhalb outside of während during

bezüglich with regard to wegen because of

Ger. Sie lebt außerhalb des Dorfes. (das Dorf)

- She lives outside the village.

In this first sentence,"the village" is the object of the genitive preposition außerhalb.

NOTE:
In spoken German, some of these prepositions (e.g. wegen, während, trotz,
laut) are often used with the dative. Remember, however, that the genitive and
dative forms of feminine nouns are identical (See the Dative Case p. 121).

3) Object of a genitive verb or genitive construction

• In German, a certain number of verbs and expressions require a genitive object.

Below are some common verbs and expression that are used with the genitive case:

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German English German English

sich etw. (gen) bedienen to make use of sth. gedenken jds./etw.(gen) to think of sb./sth.

bedürfen etw. (gen) to be in need of sich etw. (gen) rühmen to boast of sth.

sich etw. (gen) to take control of sth. sich etw. (gen) to make certain of sth.
bemächtigen vergewissern
sich etw. (gen) enthalten to refrain/to abstain
from sth.

Ger. Ich gedenke meiner Heimatstadt. (meine Heimatstadt)

- I am thinking of my hometown.

In this sentence,"my hometown" is the genitive object of of the verb gedenken.

NOTE:
In German, verbs in the genitive are normally used in more formal writing
(literature) or informal expressions.

• Furthermore, there is a number of adjectives and other phrases that are used with genitive objects in
German.

Here are some common adjectives and phrases that are used the genitive case in German:

German English German English

bedürftig in need sicher certain

bewusst conscious verdächtig suspicious

gewiß certain wert worth

schuldig guilty würdig worthy

Ger. Er ist des Verbrechens schuldig (das Verbrechen)

- He is guilty of the crime

In this sentence, “(of) the crime” is the genitive object of the adjective “guilty”.

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NOTE:
In German, the genitive objects that accompany these adjectives are often
translated in English with an accompanying “of".
One does not need to add any additional prepositions to the German phrase, as
these meanings are implied when the noun is declined in the genitive case.

4) Expressions of indefinite time

• The following adverbial expressions of indefinite time take the genitive case (See also Adverbs of
Time p. 184):

Below are some expressions of time that take the genitive case in German:

German English German English

eines Tages one day, someday nachmittags in the afternoon

eines Montags one Monday abends in the evening

eines Nachts one night nachts at night

irgendwann sometime, at some point tagsüber during the day

manchmal sometimes sonntags, montags, on Sundays, Mondays,

dienstags, mittwochs Tuesdays, Wednesdays
morgens in the morning donnerstags, freitags on Thursdays, Fridays

frühmorgens early in the morning samstags, sonnabends on Sarurdays

vormittags before noon, in the

morning

Study the examples below:

Did you know? Ger. Er arbeitet nachts.

There are 12 provinces of the - He works at night.

Netherlands. The most populous
province is South Holland, with around 3.8
million inhabitants, while the province Zeeland Ger. Eines Tages besuche ich Berlin.
has the smallest population (around 383,000
inhabitants). - Someday I’ll visit Berlin.

NOTE:
In German, since many of these adverbial expressions of time mentioned above
have been derived from genitive forms, they are no longer seen as such.

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The Dative Case (Der Dativ/Der Wemfall)

The dative case has the following functions in German:

1) Indirect Object

• The dative case is the indirect object (it is the noun that receives something from the direct object - the
accusative case). The dative case answers the question wem? - to or for whom?.

Ger. Der Lehrer (nom.) gibt dem Schüler (dat.) das Lehrbuch (acc.)

- The teacher gives the textbook to the student.

Ger. Der Reiseführer (nom.) zeigt den Touristen (dat.) den Tempel (acc.)

- The tourist guide shows the temple to the tourists.

In the first sentence, “the student” answers to whom the subject “the teacher” is giving the
textbook.

In the second sentence, “the tourists” answers to whom the subject “the tourist guide” is showing
the temple.

NOTE:
In German, the dative case, when it designates an indirect object in the sentence,
can often be identified by adding the preposition “to” or “for” in the English
translation, such as “the teacher gives the textbook to the student.”

It is worth mentioning that a sentence cannot have an indirect object unless it first has a direct
object in German. The indirect object is by definition to or for whom the subject does something to a
direct object:

Ger. Der Reiseführer (nominative or subject) zeigt den Touristen (dative or indirect object) den
Tempel (accusative or direct object)

- The tourist guide (nominative or subject) shows the temple (accusative or direct object) to the
tourists (dative or indirect object).

• Note that the term, der Wemfall, which is the German word for the dative case, reflects the der-to-
dem change.

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Thus, we can tell that a noun is used in the dative by the articles (the/a), which change to dem/
einem (for masculine and neuter), der/einer (for feminine) or den (for plural) respectively (See
Articles p. 218).

The table shows the declension of the German definite and indefinite articles in the
nominative and in the dative case:

Definite article Indefinite article

Masc. Fem. Neut. Pl. Masc. Fem. Neut. Pl.

Nominative der die das die ein eine ein —

Dative dem der dem den einem einer einem —

Observe more examples:

Ger. Ich gebe dem Freund die Schlüssel (der Freund).

- I give the keys to the friend (the friend)

Ger. Ich arbeite mit den Computern* (der Computer).

- The brother's car (the brother)

NOTE:
In German, unlike the accusative, which only changes with the masculine
gender, the dative changes in all genders and in the plural. In particular, the
nouns of all three genders add an -n in the dative plural (See Declension of
Proper Nouns in German p. 136).

2) Object of Dative Verbs or Adjectives

• A certain number of dative verbs take an indirect object - dative object in German. In English, however,
the same verbs take a direct object.

Below are some other common verbs that take a dative object in German:

German English German English

ähneln jdm. (dat) to resemble sb. glauben jdm. (dat) to believe sb.
antworten jdm. (dat) to answer sb. gleichen jdm./etw. (dat) to resemble sb./sth.

befehlen jdm./etw. (dat) to command sb./sth. gratulieren jdm. (dat) to congratulate sb.

begegnen jdm./etw. (dat) to come across sb./ helfen jdm./etw. (dat) to help sb./sth.
sth.

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German English German English

beiwohnen etw. (dat) to attend sth. nachlaufen jdm./etw. to run after sb./sth.
(dat)
danken jdm. (dat) to thank sb. schaden jdm./etw. (dat) to damage sb./sth.

dienen jdm. (dat) to serve sb. schmeicheln jdm. (dat) to flatter sb.

drohen jdm. (dat) to threaten sb. vertrauen jdm./etw. (dat) to trust in sb./sth.

fehlen etw. (dat) to lack sth. verzeihen jdm. (dat) to forgive sb.

folgen jdm./etw. (dat) to follow sb./sth. weh tun jdm. (dat) to hurt sb.

geben jdm./etw. (dat) to give sb./sth. widersprechen jdm./ to contradict sb./sth.

etw. (dat)
gefallen jdm. (dat) to please sb. winken jdm. (dat) to wave sb.

gehorchen jdm. (dat) to obey sb. zuhören jdm./etw. (dat) to listen to sb./sth.

gehören jdm./etw. (dat) to belong to sb./sth. zustimmen jdm./etw. to agree with sb./sth.
(dat)

Observe the following:

Ger. Sie danken Ihnen (dative).

- They thank you.

Ger. Der Lehrer hilft dem Schüler. (dative).

- The teacher helps the student.

In the first sentence, “you” is the object of the dative verb danken. In the second sentence, “the
student” is the object of the dative verb helfen.

• Furthermore, there is a number of adjectives and other phrases that are normally used with dative
objects in German.

Here are some common adjectives and phrases that are used the dative case in German:

German English German English

ähnlich similar gleich same

angenehm pleasant leicht easy

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German English German English

begreiflich understandable nützlich useful

behilflich helpful peinlich embarrassing

bekannt known schädlich damaging

bequem comfortable teuer expensive

dankbar thankful verwandt related

fremd foreign willkommen welcome

Ger. Dieses Auto ist mir (dat.) zu teuer.

- This car is too expensive for me.

In this sentence, “(for) me” is the dative object of the adjective “expensive”.

NOTE:
In German, the dative objects that accompany these adjectives are often
translated in English with an accompanying “to” or “of”.
One does not need to add any additional prepositions to the German phrase, as
these meanings are implied when the noun is declined in the dative case.

3) Object of a Dative Preposition

• In German, the object of dative prepositions must be in the dative case. These are the prepositions
whose noun objects are always used in the dative case (See also Prepositions with Dative p. 739):

Below are the prepositions whose noun objects must be in the dative case in German:

German English German English

ab away, off nach to, after, according to, for

aus out of, from seit since, for (with time period)

außer except for, besides von from, by, off, of

bei at, with zu to, towards, by, in, on, at, for

mit with, by means of

For instance:

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Ger. Ich fahre mit dem Zug in die Stadt. (Der Zug)

- I go to the city by train. (the train)

Ger. Wir essen nach dem Konzert. (Das Konzert)

- We are eating after the concert. (the concert)

In the first sentence, “the train” is the object of the dative preposition mit. In the second
sentence, “the concert” is the object of the dative preposition nach.

• Verbs with Accusative Prepositions and Nouns (See Common Verbs Used with Dative Case p.
743 and Common Verbs Used with Accusative/Dative Case p. 747).

Ger. Sie träumt von der Reise (dative). (die Reise nominative)

- She dreams of the trip.

The Accusative Case (Der Akkusativ/Der Wenfall)

The accusative case has the following functions in German:

1) Direct Object

• The accusative case is known as the direct object (the direct object functions as the receiver of the
action). In other words, it is the person, thing, or idea that is acted upon by the subject. The accusative
case answers the question wen? - who/whom?.

Ger. Die Katze trifft den Besitzer (acc.).

- The cat meets the owner.

Ger. Sie sieht den Film (acc.).

- She is watching the movie.

In the first sentence, “the owner” is the direct object. It is what the subject “the cat” is meeting. In
there words, “the owner” is acted upon by “the cat”, so he receives the action of the subject (the cat).

In the second sentence, “the film” is the direct object. It is what the subject “she” is watching.

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NOTE:
Remember that the order of the words can be different, as long as you have the
proper accusative articles, the meaning remains clear in German. Compare the
following:

Die Katze trifft den Besitzer.

- The cat meets the owner.

Did you know? Den Besitzer trifft die Katze.

Belgium is a federal state and is divided - The cat meets the owner.
into three regions: Flanders, Wallonia
and Brussels-Capital Region, three
communities: Dutch-speaking, French-speaking
and German-speaking, and four language Trifft die Katze den Besitzer?
areas: Dutch, French, German, and bilingual
- Is the cat meeting the owner?
Dutch/French in the capital.

Trifft den Besitzer die Katze?

- Is the cat meeting the owner?

• Note that, in German, the masculine singular articles der and ein change to den and einen in the
accusative case. The feminine, neuter and plural articles do not change.

The table shows the declension of the German definite and indefinite articles in the
nominative and in the accusative case:

Definite article Indefinite article

Masc. Fem. Neut. Pl. Masc. Fem. Neut. Pl.

Nominative der die das die ein eine ein —

Accusative den die das die einen eine ein —

Observe more examples:

Ger. Der Hund begrüßt den Mann. (Der Mann)

- The dog greets the man.

2) Object of Accusative verbs

• A certain number of accusative verbs take a direct object - accusative object (a noun or pronoun) in
German.

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Below are some common verbs that take an accusative object in German:

German English German English

abschließen etw. (acc) to lock sth. holen etw. (acc) to fetch sth.

anhalten etw. (acc) to stop sth. hören jdn./etw. (acc) to hear sb./sth.

anrufen jdn. (acc) to call sb. kennen jdn./etw. (acc) to know sb./sth.

anschauen etw. (acc) to look at/watch sth. legen etw. (acc) to put sth.

aufmachen etw. (acc) to open sth. lernen etw. (acc) to learn sth.

backen etw. (acc) to bake etw. (acc.) liegen lassen to leave sth.

bekommen etw. (acc) to receive sth. machen etw. (acc) to do/to make sth.

beneiden jdn. (acc.) to envy sb. mögen jdn./etw. (acc) to like sb./sth.

beraten jdn./etw. (acc) to advise sb. sth nehmen etw. (acc) to take sth.

besuchen jdn./etw. (acc.) to visit sb./sth. schätzen jdn./etw. (acc) to appreciate sb./sth.

beschränken etw. (acc.) to restrict sth. sehen jdn./etw. (acc) to see sb./sth.

bezahlen jdn./etw. (acc.) to pay sb./sth. sprechen etw. (acc) to speak sth.

brauchen etw. (acc) to need sth. suchen jdn./etw. (acc) to to search/look for sth.

diskutieren etw. (acc.) to discuss sth. trinken etw. (acc) to drink sth.

einladen jdn. (acc) to invite sb. öffnen etw. (acc) to open sth.

erfinden etw. (acc) to invent sth. unterrichten jdn. (acc) to teach sb./sth.

ersetzen jdn./etw. (acc) to replace sth. unterscheiden etw. to distinguish sth.

(acc)
essen etw. (acc) to eat sth. üben etw. (acc) to practice/exercise sth.

finden etw. (acc) to find sth. überreden (acc.) to persuade sb.

fragen jdn./etw. (acc) to ask sb./sth. verhandeln etw. (acc.) to negotiate sth.

haben etw. (acc) to have sth. verstehen jdn./etw. to understand sb./sth.

(acc)
heiraten jdn. (acc.) to marry sb. wählen jdn./etw. (acc) to choose sb./sth.

Study the following example:

Ger. Ich zahle die Steuer. (accusative)

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- I am paying the tax.

Ger. Sie backt den Kuchen. (accusative)

- She is baking the cake.

Ger. Wir lernen die deutsche Sprache. (accusative)

- We are learning the German language.

3) Object of an Accusative Preposition

• Furthermore, the object of an accusative preposition must be in the accusative case. There are several
prepositions that require noun objects that follow them to be used in the accusative case in German
(See Prepositions with Accusative p. 735).

Ger. Das ist das Geschenk für den Lehrer. (Der Lehrer)

- This is the gift for the teacher. (the teacher)

Ger. Ich gehe ohne meinen Hund spazieren. (Der Hund)

- I am going for a walk without my dog. (the dog)

In the first sentence, “the teacher” is the object of the accusative preposition für. In the second
sentence, “my dog” is the object of the accusative preposition ohne.

• Verbs with Accusative Prepositions and Nouns (See Common Verbs Used with Accusative Case
p. 738 and Common Verbs Used with Accusative/Dative Case p. 747).

Ger. Ich warte auf den Bus. (accusative)

- I am waiting for the bus.

4) Expressions of Definite Time

• The accusative case is used in some definite time expressions that are not governed by a preposition
(See also Adverbs of Time p. 184).

Below are some speci c time expressions that take the accusative case in German:

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German English German English

den ganzen Tag all day jeden Freitag every Friday

nächsten Montag till next Monday seit letztem Jahr since last year

am Donnerstag on Thursday

Study the example below:

Ger. Ich arbeite den ganzen Tag.

- I work all day.

Ger. Wir gehen jeden Samstag ins Kino.

- We go to the cinema every Saturday.

In the first sentence, “all day” is an expression of definite time that does not use a preposition. In
the second sentence, “every Saturday” is also an expression of definite time that is not used with a
preposition.

The table below sums up the declension of the de nite and inde nite articles in the
nominative, genitive, dative and accusative:

Definite article Indefinite article

Masc. Fem. Neut. Pl. Masc. Fem. Neut. Pl.

Nominative der die das die ein eine ein —

Genitive des der des der eines einer eines —

Dative dem der dem den einem einer einem —

Accusative den die das die einen eine ein —

Note that the underlined articles indicate a change in form from the nominative (See also
Articles p. 218).

The table sums up the declension of the German possessive pronoun mein - my in the
nominative, genitive, dative and accusative

Declension of mein

Masculine Feminine Neuter Plural

Nominative mein meine mein meine

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Declension of mein

Genitive meines meiner meines meiner

Dative meinem meiner meinem meinen

Accusative meinen meine mein meine

Note that the underlined endings indicate a change in form from the nominative (See also
Possessive Adjectives and Pronouns p. 288).

Case Forms of Nouns in German

It is worth reminding that, in German, the nouns can also add case endings, not only the
determiners, such as indefinite and definite articles, possessives, etc. that are put in front of them as
illustrated above.

All of the case forms of nouns in the nominative, genitive, dative and accusative will be mentioned
below.

Nouns in the Nominative Case

Remember that the basic sentence that could be formed consists of a subject and a verb, for
example: Ich spreche - I speak; or Das Kind spielt - The child is playing.

Since every sentence has a subject, every sentence will contain at least one noun (or pronoun)
used in the nominative case. Note that in the nominative case, the nouns do not add any endings in
German.

The table shows the declension of nouns in the nominative:

German

Masculine Feminine Neuter Plural

der Vater - the father die Mutter - the mother das Kind - the child die Bücher - the books

Nouns in the Genitive Case

Below are some examples of noun forms in the genitive case:

• Most masculine and all neuter nouns add an -(e)s ending in the genitive case in the singular. Note that
monosyllabic nouns can take -es ending rather than -s in more formal language. However, it would be
still correct you if you simply add -s.

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Did you know? Ger. der Name des Bruders.

South Africa has the world’s most - the brother’s name

luxurious trains. Rovos Rail, established
in 1989, is one of South Africa's finest and most
luxurious trains. The Royal Suites have full- Ger. die Tür des Zimmers
sized bathrooms, separate shower, permanent
double bed and two armchairs. - the door of the room

NOTE:
In German, if nouns end in -s, -sch, -ss, -ß, -st, -tz, -x, -z, the ending -es must
be added:

Ger. die Tiefe des Flusses

- the depth of the river

Ger. die Größe des Hauses

- the size of the house

• It is worth mentioning that unlike masculine and neuter, feminine and plural nouns do not add the
ending -(e)s in the genitive, for example:

Ger. das Spielzeug der Katze

- the toy of the cat

The table shows the declension of nouns in the genitive case:

German

Masculine Feminine Neuter Plural

des Vaters der Mutter des Kinds der Bücher

Note that the underlined words and endings indicate a change in form from the nominative.

Nouns in the Dative Case

Below are some examples of noun forms in the dative case:

• In several standard expressions masculine and neuter nouns add an -e ending in the dative case in the
singular, for example:

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German English

zu Hause at home

im Laufe der Zeit in the course of time

im Grunde genommen essentially

• Nouns of all three genders add an -n in the dative plural:

Did you know? Ger. in den Zimmern (pl. die Zimmer)

The people of Luxembourg are typically - in the rooms

trilingual. Luxembourgish, the national
language, is used mainly for day-to-day life in
informal settings. Standard German and Ger. unter den Bäumen (pl. die Bäume)
French are used in formal settings.
- the door of the room

NOTE:
In German, if the nouns already end in -n in the plural, no ending is added in
the dative plural:

Ger. von den Studenten (pl. die Studenten)

- from the students

Ger. mit den Mädchen (pl. die Mädchen)

- with the students

The table below shows the declension of nouns in the dative case in German:

German

Masculine Feminine Neuter Plural

dem Vater der Mutter dem Kind den Büchern

Note that the underlined words and endings indicate a change in form from the nominative.

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Nouns in the Accusative Case

The table shows the declension of nouns in the accusative case in German:

German

Masculine Feminine Neuter Plural

den Vater die Mutter das Kind die Bücher

Note that the underlined words and endings indicate a change in form from the nominative.

The table below sums up the declension of nouns in the nominative, genitive, dative and
accusative:

German

Masculine Feminine Neuter Plural

Nominative der Vater die Mutter das Kind die Bücher

Genitive des Vaters der Mutter des Kinds der Bücher

Dative dem Vater der Mutter dem Kind den Büchern

Accusative den Vater die Mutter das Kind die Bücher

Cases in Dutch and Afrikaans

Overview
Unlike in German, cases in modern Dutch, as in Afrikaans, have largely fallen out of use, as have
the endings that were used for them.

The former Dutch and Afrikaans case system was similar to that of modern German, and had four
cases: nominative (subject), genitive (possession), dative (indirect object, object of preposition) and
accusative (direct object, object of preposition).

The Nominative Case

The nominative case is still used - in German, as well as in English, Dutch and Afrikaans - and
presents the subject of a sentence (the person, thing or idea that performs the action or carrying out the
meaning of the verb). For instance:

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Ger. Der Architekt (nom.) entwirft den Gebäude.

Dut. De architect (nom.) ontwerpt het gebouw.

Afr. Die argitek (nom.) ontwerp die gebou.

- The architect designs the building.

Did you know? Ger. Das Auto (nom.) ist wunderschön.

Flanders is the Dutch-speaking Dut. De auto (nom.) is prachtig.

northern portion of the Kingdom of
Afr. Die kar (nom.) is pragtig.
Belgium. The capital of Flanders is Brussels.
- The car is beautiful.

In the first sentence, “the architect” is doing the action of designing the building and is therefore
the subject of the sentence. In the second sentence, “the car” is doing the action of being beautiful the
building and is therefore the subject.

The Genitive Case

Like the nominative, the genitive is also still in use in Dutch and Afrikaans. However, unlike in
German, in Dutch, the genitive is rarely used and only surviving in several in fixed expressions.

NOTE:
In Afrikaans, the genitive case is not used at all. It is completely replaced with
the preposition van - “of” instead.

The table below shows two examples of the genitive case in fixed expressions:

Dutch Afrikaans English

Genitive Case

Het Koninkrijk der Nederlanden Die Koninkryk van die Nederlande The Kingdom of the Netherlands

De dag des oordeels Die Oordeelsdag Day of Judgment

Just like in Afrikaans, in modern Dutch, the genitive case is substituted with the preposition van
- “of” to demonstrate possession. In German, however, the genitive case is used. Observe the following:

Ger. Das Auto meines Bruders (gen.).

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Dut. De auto van mijn broer.

Afr. Die kar van my broer.

- My brother’s car.

NOTE:
In every day German, the preposition von - “of” + the dative case also
replaces the genitive:

Ger. Das Auto von meinem Bruder (dat.).

- My brother’s car.

The Dative and Accusative Cases

Furthermore, in modern Dutch and Afrikaans, the cases are determined by prepositions and word
order, not by noun and determiner endings, like in German. For instance, the distinction between direct
and indirect object is now made by putting the indirect object (dative) before the direct object (accusative)
in Dutch and Afrikaans. Study the following example:

Ger. Der Lehrer (nom.) gibt dem Schüler (dat.) das Buch (acc.).

Dut. De leraar (nom.) geeft de student (dat.) het boek (acc).

Afr. Die onderwyser (nom.) gee die student (dat.) die boek (acc).

- The teacher gives the student the textbook.

The distinction between direct and indirect object can also be made by using the preposition met
- “with”, aan - “to” with the indirect object in Dutch and Afrikaans. For example:

Ger. Der Lehrer (nom.) gibt dem Schüler (dat.) das Buch (acc.).

Dut. De leraar (nom.) geeft het boek (acc.) aan de student. (dat.).

Afr. Die onderwyser (nom.) gee die boek (acc.) aan die student (dat.).

- The teacher gives the textbook to the student.

The use of cases with prepositions has also disappeared in Dutch and Afrikaans.

It is worth reminding that in German, however, the nouns and their determiners (articles,
possessives etc.) can be used in the accusative case if they are the object of an accusative preposition, or in
the dative case if they are the object of dative prepositions.

Compare the following:

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Did you know? Ger. Wir essen nach dem Konzert.

Luxembourg is home to the restaurant Dut. We eten na het concert.

with the largest wine lists in the world. Afr. Ons eet na die konsert.
There are more than 1700 different wines at the
Chiggeri restaurant in Luxembourg City. - We are eating after the concert.

In the sentence above, in German, the noun with its article dem Konzert - “the concert” is used
in the dative case (the neuter singular article das changes to dem in the dative: das Konzert -> dem
Konzert), since it is the object of the dative preposition nach - “after” (See also Case in German p.
112).

In Dutch and Afrikaans, however, the noun with its article Dut. het concert and Afr. die
konsert - “the concert” do not change after the preposition na - “after” because, as we mentioned before,
the cases with prepositions have fallen out of use. Study one more example:

Ger. Ger. Das ist das Geschenk für den Lehrer.

Dut. Dit is het geschenk voor de leraar.

Afr. Dit is die geskenk vir die onderwyser.

- This is the gift for the teacher.

In this sentence, the noun with its article den Lehrer - “the teacher” is used in the accusative
case (the masculine singular article der changes to den in the accusative: der Lehrer -> den Lehrer),
because it is the object of the accusative preposition für - “for” in German.

Unlike in German, in Dutch and Afrikaans, the noun with its article Dut. de leraar and Afr. die
onderwyser - “the teacher” do not change after the preposition Dut. voor, Afr. vir - “after” since the
cases with prepositions are no longer in use.

Declension of Proper Nouns in German, Dutch and Afrikaans

Proper nouns, such as Anna, Kate, Paul, Germany, are not usually used with an article. Therefore,
they are generally indeclinable. Study the following:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

Nominative Paul ist hier Paul is hier Paul is hier Paul is here

Genitive Das Haus von Paul Het huis van Paul is Die huis van Paul is Paul’s house is big
ist groß groot groot
Dative Ich gebe Paul den Ik geef de pen aan Ek gee die pen aan I give the pen to Paul
Stift Paul Paul
Accusative Ich sehe Paul Ik zie Paul Ek sien Paul I see Paul

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As seen from the table above, the declension of the proper nouns can be done without an article
or any ending in German, Dutch and Afrikaans.

NOTE:
However, it is very common in the South of Germany, and less so in the North,
to use the definite article before a given name. It is used as a colloquial way of
referring to someone, for example:

Ger. Weiß jemand, wo der Martin ist?

- Does anyone know where Martin is?

Genitive with Proper Nouns

In German and Dutch, the genitive case (possession) can be expressed with the ending -s added
to the proper noun. In Afrikaans, the particle se is used and is put after the proper noun. In English, it is
usually expressed with ’s, e.g. “Paul’s bicycle”.

Below is the formula to show the genitive (possession) with proper nouns in West Germanic
languages:

German and Dutch Afrikaans English

-s se 's

Study the following:

Ger. Pauls Stift.

Dut. Pauls pen.

Afr. Paul se pen.

- Paul’s pen.

Did you know? Ger. Toms Buch.

German is the most common native Dut. Toms boek.
language in Europe with over 95
million speakers. Also, it is the 12th most Afr. Tom se boek.
widely-spoken languages in the world with
more than 175 million speakers. - Tom's book

It is worth reminding that genitive case (possession) can also be replaced with the following
preposition in German, Dutch and Afrikaans:

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German Dutch and Afrikaans English

von van of

Compare the following examples:

Ger. Berns Straßen = die Straßen von Bern

Dut. Berns straten = de straten van Bern

Afr. Bern se strate = die strate van Bern

- Bern streets = Streets of Bern

NOTE:
In colloquial German and Dutch, in order to show ownership a possessive
pronoun is also used after the possessor's name.
It is only used with the third person singular and plural (See Possessive
Pronouns p. 241).
Below are the possessive pronouns used to show possession in Dutch:
German Dutch English

sein zijn his

ihr haar her

ihre hun their

For example:

Ger. Das ist Tom sein Buch.

Dut. Dat is Tom zijn boek.
- That is Tom's (his) book.

Ger. Fleur ihre Tasche.

Dut. Fleur haar tas.
- Fleur's (her) bag.

In Afrikaans, the particle s'n may also be used to express possession, for
example:

Afr. Die boek is Paul s'n.

- The book is Paul's.

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Special Rules of Genitive with Proper Nouns in German and Dutch

• Like in English, in German and Dutch, an apostrophe is used instead of the -s ending if the proper noun
already ends in -s, -z, -x (or -ß in German):

Ger. Das ist Lars' Auto.

Dut. Dit is Lars' auto.

- This is Lars' car.

NOTE:
In Dutch, if the proper noun ends in a long vowel, in order to keep the vowel
long, we add an apostrophe before adding -s, for example:

Dut. Oma's huis.

- Grandma's house.

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CHAPTER 2: ADJECTIVES
An adjective is a word that describes a person or thing, such as their size, shape, appearance,
colour and other qualities, for instance, big, round, beautiful, red.

Inflection of Adjectives

Did you know? In German, Dutch and Afrikaans, adjectives are

usually used both predicatively (uninflected form) and
In Namibia, a country in attributively (inflected form).
Southern Africa, the Afrikaans
language is spoken by over 10% of the A predicative adjective is one that stands after a
population.
noun, while attributive adjective is put before a noun.

For example, “His house is beautiful” (beautiful is a predicate adjective in this sentence), but “his
beautiful house” (in this phrase beautiful is an attributive adjective).

It should be remembered that in German, Dutch and Afrikaans, predicative adjectives are invariable,
which means they do not take endings, for instance:

Ger. Sein Haus ist schön.

Dut. Zijn huis is mooi.

Afr. Sy huis is pragtig.

- His house is beautiful

NOTE:
Like in English, in German, Dutch and Afrikaans, when predicative adjectives
follow the noun, this means they are also put after the verb “to be”.

Below is the formula of adjectives that are used predicatively in West Germanic languages:

noun + to be (Ger. sein, Dut. zijn, Afr. wees) + adjective

(See also Conjugation of the Verb To Be in the Present Tense p. 422)

Study below some frequently used German, Dutch and Afrikaans adjectives that are used
“predicatively”:

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German Dutch Afrikaans English

ich bin glücklich ik ben gelukkig ek is gelukkig I am happy

wir sind traurig we zijn treurig (or ons is treurig (or we are sad
verdrietig) hartseer)
das Auto ist schnell de auto is snel die kar is vinnig the car is fast

der Bus ist langsam de bus is traag (or die bus is stadig the bus is slow
langzaam)
sie ist hübsch zij is mooi sy is mooi she is pretty

er ist laut hij is luidruchtig hy is raserig he is noisy

das Haus ist groß het huis is groot die huis is groot the house is big

der Tisch ist klein de tafel is klein die tafel is klein the table is small

es ist schlecht/gut het is slecht/goed dit is sleg/goed it is bad/good

ich bin groß (or lang) ik ben lang Ek is lank I am tall

er ist klein hij is kort Hy is kort he is short

However, unlike in English, in German, Dutch and Afrikaans, attributive adjectives must agree in
gender, number and case (in German) with the noun they precede. Study the following:

Did you know? Ger. Sein schönes Haus.

Cape Town is South Africa’s oldest city. Dut. Zijn mooie huis.
It is also the most popular city with
gorgeous coastline and stunning beaches. Afr. Sy pragtige huis

- His beautiful house.

In German, Dutch and Afrikaans, as we can see from the example above, adjectives that are used
attributively require an ending.

Below we will discuss the declension of these adjectival endings in German, Dutch and Afrikaans
in greater detail:

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Declension of Adjectival Endings

German
To make it easier to master German adjective endings we should memorize the three paradigms in
order to know exactly what the correct ending is for an attributive adjective placed in front of a German
noun.

There are:

1. Weak inflection

The endings are used after:

• definite article (der, die, das)

• dies- (this), jen- (that), jeglich- (any), jed- (every), which decline similarly to the definite article

• manch- (some), solch- (such), welch- (which), which decline similarly to the definite article

• derselb- (the same), derjenig- (the one)

• alle (all)

• beide (both)

2. Mixed inflection

The endings are used after:

• indefinite article ein/eine/ein

• kein- (no, not any, none, nobody)

• possessive determiners mein- (my), dein- (your), sein- (his)/ihr- (her)/sein- (its), unser-
(our), euer- (your meaning “you guys"), Ihr- (your formal), ihr- (their)

3. Strong inflection

The endings are used after:

• When no article is used

• When a quantity is indicated by etwas (some, somewhat), mehr (more)

• wenig- (few), viel- (much, many), mehrer- (several, many), einig- (some)

• a number (greater than one), without a definite article before it

• non-inflectable phrases: ein paar (a couple, a few), ein bisschen (a bit, a little bit)

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Rules for Inflection in German

1. Weak inflection
Below is the table demonstrating the endings of adjectives and some examples supporting
the rule.

Masc. Neut. Fem. Pl.

N -e -e -e -en

A -en -e -e -en

D -en -en -en -en

G -en -en -en -en

As it is seen from the table this set of endings is quite simple and consists of merely an -e or an -en.
This is because they are used after definite articles der/die/das and other determiners that take the
same endings as the definite articles themselves, such as dies- (this), jen- (that), jeglich- (any), jed-
(everyone), solch- (such), welch- (which, that), derselb- (the same) etc. (See Articles p. )

Therefore, as the determiners themselves have endings that clearly indicate gender, number and
case, there is no need for the adjectives that follow them to repeat this information.

Study the following:

Masc. Neut. Fem. Pl.

N -e -e -e -en

Der/Dieser reiche Das/Jedes kluge Die/Jene junge Die/Diese glücklichen

Mann Kind Frau Menschen

(The/This rich man) (The/Every smart (The/That young (The/These happy

child) woman) people)
A -en -e -e -en

Den/Diesen Das/Jedes kluge Die/Jene junge Die/Diese glücklichen

reichen Mann Kind Frau Menschen
D -en -en -en -en

Dem/Diesem Dem/Jedem klugen Der/Jener jungen Den/Diesen

reichen Mann Kind Frau glücklichen Menschen
G -en -en -en -en

Des/Dieses reichen Des/Jedes klugen Der/Jener jungen Der/Dieser

Mannes Kindes Frau glücklichen Menschen

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2. Mixed inflection
Below is the table demonstrating the endings of adjectives and some examples supporting
the rule.

Masc. Neut. Fem. Pl.

N -er -es -e -en

A -en -es -e -en

D -en -en -en -en

G -en -en -en -en

The adjective endings in this paradigm are used after indefinite articles ein/eine/ein and after all
the possessive determiners, for example: mein- (my), dein- (your), sein- (his)/ihr- (her)/sein- (its),
unser- (our), euer- (your meaning “you guys"), Ihr- (your formal), ihr- (their) as well as after kein-
(no, not any, none, nobody). Since it is impossible to use a plural noun after the article ein, one can use it
after all the other determiners in this group.

Remember that we should also use an appropriate possessive adjective ending when a person’s name
with a gen. -s ending is put before the adjective (ex. Marks neues IPhone - Mark’s new IPhone).

Masc. Neut. Fem. Pl.

N -er -es -e -en

Ein reicher Mann Ein kluges Kind Eine junge Frau Meine/Keine
glücklichen Menschen
(A rich man) (A smart child) (A young woman) (My/No happy people)
A -en -es -e -en

Einen reichen Ein kluges Kind Eine junge Frau Meine/Keine

Mann glücklichen Menschen
D -en -en -en -en

Einem reichen Einem klugen Kind Einer jungen Meinen/Keinen

Mann Frau glücklichen Menschen
G -en -en -en -en

Eines reichen Eines klugen Einer jungen Meiner/Keiner

Mannes Kindes Frau glücklichen Menschen

It is worth saying that the black lines drawn is meant to emphasize that beyond these lines,
including the plural, all of the endings are identical.

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3. Strong inflection
Below is the table demonstrating the endings of adjectives and some examples supporting
the rule.

Masc. Neut. Fem. Pl.

N -er -es -e -e

A -en -es -e -e

D -em -em -er -en

G -en -en -er -er

The adjective endings in this paradigm are similar to the definite article endings, except for the
adjectival ending -en in the masculine and neuter genitive singular.

In strong inflection the endings are used when nothing (no determiner) precedes the noun, or if the
noun is preceded by a non-inflectable word or phrase such as ein bisschen, etwas or viel (a little,
some, a lot of/much).

It is also used when the adjective is preceded merely by another regular (i.e. non-article) adjective
and thus only the adjective indicates the gender, number and case.

Study the following:

Masc. Neut. Fem. Pl.

N -er -es -e -e

Reicher Mann Kluges Kind Junge Frau Glückliche

Menschen
(Rich man) (Smart child) (Young woman) (Happy people)
A -en -es -e -e

Reichen Mann Kluges Kind Junge Frau Glückliche

Menschen
D -em -em -er -en

Reichem Mann Klugem Kind Junger Frau Glücklichen

Menschen
G -en -en -er -er

Reichen Mannes Klugen Kindes Junger Frau Glücklicher

Menschen

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Dutch
Like in German, in Dutch, when an adjective is used attributively before a noun, it can take
different forms. Remember the general rule that says:

The adjective ends in -e when in front of the noun.

Example:

Dut. Hij bouwde het grote huis.

- He built the big house.

Nevertheless, many adjectives require spelling changes while adding the ending -e in Dutch. Below,
we will consider all the exceptions and spelling rules for the inflection of adjectives:

Spelling Rules for Inflection in Dutch

1. Adjectives of more than one syllable

• Adjectives that contain more than one syllable with the long vowels aa, ee and oo in a closed syllable,
drop one vowel letter and add -e according to the rules for the spelling of long vowels in open syllables:

Dutch English

actueel- actuele current, present

dankbaar - dankbare thankful, grateful

gemeen - gemene mean, hurtful, intense

officieel - officiële official

privaat - private private

2.Spelling changes to monosyllabic adjectives

Adjectives ending in -f
• Adjectives containing a short vowel and ending in -f, double the -f and add -e. Note that -f must be
doubled to preserve the short vowel in the preceding syllable:

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Dutch English

dof- doffe dull

laf - laffe cowardly

NOTE:
If adjectives contain a long vowel or diphthong, or if a consonant precedes the
-f, the -f becomes -v and -e is added:
Dutch English

doof - dove deaf

exclusief - exclusieve exclusive

gaaf - gave cool, awesome (inf.)

stijf - stijve stiff, rigid

half - halve half

Adjectives ending in a long vowel

• The double vowel (aa, ee, oo) from the last syllable disappears in order to keep the single vowel in open
syllable while adding -e:

Dutch English

breed - brede broad, wide

dood - dode dead

droog - droge dry

hoog - hoge high

laag - lage low

leeg - lege empty, hollow

wreed - wrede cruel

Adjectives ending in -g

• In Dutch, if the adjectives contain a short vowel, double the final -g in order to preserve the short vowel:

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Dutch English

stug - stugge stiff, resistant, inflexible

vlug - vlugge quick

Adjectives ending in -d

• Adjectives containing a short vowel and end in a single consonant d, double this consonant to preserve a
short vowel in a closed syllable and add -e:

Dutch English

glad - gladde smooth

• Adjectives ending in a consonant + -d, add the ending -e without any spelling changes:

Dutch English

blind - blinde blind

hard - harde hard

vreemd - vreemde strange, odd

wild - wilde wild

Afrikaans
Like in Dutch, in Afrikaans, when used attributively, many adjectives take an -e ending, for
example:

Afr. die vinnige motor

- the fast car

There are two main rules for the adjectives that take the ending -e:

• adjectives of more than one syllable;

• monosyllabic adjectives that end in d, f, g and s.

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However, like in Dutch, in Afrikaans, many adjectives require spelling changes while taking the
ending -e. Below, we will consider all the exceptions and spelling rules for the inflection of adjectives:

Spelling Rules for Inflection in Afrikaans

1. Adjectives of more than one syllable

• Adjectives that contain more than one syllable with the long vowels aa, ee and oo in a closed syllable,
drop one vowel letter and add -e according to the rules for the spelling of long vowels in open syllables:

Afrikaans English

aktueel- aktuele current, present

dankbaar - dankbare thankful, grateful

gemeen - gemene common, mean, hurtful

offisieel - offisiële official

privaat - private private

NOTE:
Adjectives that end in -er, even though they contain more than one syllable, do
not change:
Afrikaans English

ander - ander other

bitter - bitter bitter

dapper - dapper brave, courageous

donker - donker dark

lekker - lekker tasty, delicious

skugter - skugter shy

Also, some adjectives that end in -el, do not change:

Afrikaans English

dubbel - dubbel double, twofold

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Afrikaans English

trippel - trippel triple

ydel - ydel conceited

2.Spelling changes to monosyllabic adjectives

Adjectives ending in -f

• Adjectives containing a short vowel and ending in -f, change the -f to -w and add -e. Note that -w must
be doubled to preserve the short vowel in the preceding syllable:

Afrikaans English

dof- dowwe dull

laf - lawwe cowardly, silly

NOTE:
If adjectives contain a long vowel or diphthong, or a consonant precedes the -f,
the same spelling changes apply but only one -w is added:
Afrikaans English

doof - dowe deaf

eksklusief - eksklusiewe exclusive

gaaf - gawe good, cool

styf - stywe stiff

half - halwe half

Adjectives ending in -g

• Adjectives containing a long vowel or diphthong plus the consonants g, drop the consonant g and add
-e and a diaeresis is also added to the ending where necessary to preserve the distinction between
syllables:

Afrikaans English

droog - droë dry

hoog - hoë high

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Afrikaans English

laag - lae low

leeg - leë empty

moeg - moeë tired

ruig - ruie rugged

• In Afrikaans, if the adjectives contain a short vowel, either add the ending -te or double the final -g in
order to preserve the short vowel:

Afrikaans English

eg - egte real

lig - ligte light

reg - regte right

sleg - slegte bad

stug - stugge headstrong, inflexible

vlug - vlugge quick

NOTE:
Adjectives that end in -ig are polysyllabic. Thus, they always add -e without
dropping or doubling the -g, for example:
Afrikaans English

stadig - stadige slow

Also, adjectives that end in -ng add -e without any spelling changes:
Afrikaans English

streng - strenge strict

Adjectives ending in -d

• Adjectives ending in a consonant + -d, add the ending -e without any spelling changes:

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Afrikaans English

blind - blinde blind

hard - harde hard

vreemd - vreemde strange, odd

wild - wilde wild

• Adjectives containing a short vowel and end in a single consonant d, double this consonant to preserve a
short vowel in a closed syllable and add -e:

Afrikaans English

glad - gladde smooth

NOTE:
However, adjectives containing a long vowel or diphthong, drop the consonant
d and add -e. A diaeresis is also added where necessary to preserve the
distinction between syllables:
Afrikaans English

breed - breë broad, wide

dood - dooie dead

goed - goeie good

koud - koue cold

Exception

wreed - wrede cruel

Adjectives ending in -s

• Historically, adjectives which ended in -st, but now end in -s, add -te:

Afrikaans English

bewus - bewuste conscious

juis - juiste correct, right

vas - vaste firm, tight

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• Adjectives ending in a consonant + -s, add the ending -e:

Afrikaans English

fluks - flukse smart

slaafs - slaafse slavish, obsequious

snaaks - snaakse funny

Below, we will consider special rules for the inflection of adjectives that are used after indefinite
pronouns in German, Dutch and Afrikaans.

Adjectival Endings After Indefinite Pronouns

German
In German, the following indefinite pronouns can be put in front of plural nouns with an adjective
between the two:

German English

einige some

mehrere several

verschiedene various

alle all

viele a lot of

wenige few

Note that the endings that are required after alle are the same as for the plural of der/die/das (See
Articles p. 218)

The endings that are used after other indefinite pronouns are the same as for unpreceded adjectives,
which means that the ending on the pronouns is identical to the ending on the adjective.

Study the following example:

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Plural

N -e -e -en

viele glückliche Menschen alle glücklichen Menschen

(many happy people) (all happy people)
A -e -e -en

viele glückliche Menschen alle glücklichen Menschen

D -en -en

vielen glücklichen Menschen allen glücklichen Menschen

G -er -er -en

vieler glücklicher Menschen aller glücklichen Menschen

The distinction in endings between alle and the other pronouns is because alle refers to a definite
number and the others to an indefinite number.

Dutch and Afrikaans

In Dutch and Afrikaans, the ending -s is commonly added when the adjectives are used after the
following indefinite pronouns:

Dutch Afrikaans English

iets iets something

iemand iemand someone

niets niks nothing

niemand niemand no-one

veel baie a lot of

weinig min few

minder minder less

meer meer more

genoeg genoeg enough

wat heelwat what, something

wat voor watter what kind

Study the following:

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Dut. Ze ziet niets slechts in deze situatie.

Afr. Sy sien niks interessants in hierdie situasie nie.

- She sees nothing interesting in this situation.

Did you know? Dut. We doen iets goeds.

Berlin, the capital and largest Afr. Ons doen iets goeds.
city of Germany, has more
waterways than Amsterdam, Stockholm - We are doing something good.
and Venice together.

NOTE:
In Afrikaans, the -s ending of partitive adjectives is usually found after iets and
niks but is now rarely used after all other indefinite pronouns, e.g.:

Afr. Sy wil iemand spesiaal(s) ontmoet.

- She wants to meet someone special.

It is worth mentioning that In Dutch and Afrikaans, the ending -s applies to comparatives as well
when used after the indefinite pronouns (See also Comparative Adjectives p. 198). Observe the
following:

Dut. iets kleiners

Afr. iets kleiner(s)

- something smaller

NOTE:
In Afrikaans, however, even after iets and niks the -s is now normally omitted
from comparatives:

Afr. iets kleiner

- something smaller

In German, Dutch and Afrikaans, the following adjectives do not usually take any endings:

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Indeclinable Adjectives

German
There are several adjectives borrowed from other languages that do not take any endings in
German. For example, beige, purpur (purple), orange etc.

Remember that if these adjectives are used before a noun they often add -farben, which can take
the usual endings. Observe the following:

Ger. Seine Hose ist beige. Seine beige/beigefarbene Hose.

- His trousers are beige. His beige trousers.

Dutch
1. In Dutch, an attributive adjective does not take an -e ending when used before a neuter singular noun
(het-noun), that is used with the article een or no article. Observe the following:

Dut. Een groot huis.

- A big house.

In the example above the Dutch noun huis (house) is neuter and is used in the singular form
without any determiners and thus the adjective groot (big) gets no -e ending.

Compare the following:

Dut. Een grote tafel

- A big table.

In the second example the Dutch noun tafel (table) is feminine and thus the adjective groot
(big) gets the ending -e.

2. Attributive adjectives ending in -en are used without -e ending.

• These adjectives normally describe materials from which the noun is made, e.g.:

Dutch English

gouden golden

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Dutch English

zilveren silver

houten wooden

katoenen cotton

wollen woolen

stoffen fabrics

Dut. De zilveren ring.

- The silver ring.

Dut. Het houten huis.

- The wooden house.

• Past participles ending in -en used as adjectives, e.g.:

Dutch English

gesloten closed

dronken drunk

gebakken fried

bevroren frozen

verboden forbidden

For instance:

Dut. De dronken man.

- The drunk man.

3. Other adjectives that end in -en do not take an -e ending:

Dutch English

eigen own

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Dutch English

dempen mute

open open

verlegen shy

verkouden cold

volwassen mature

For example:

Dut. De verlegen jongen.

- The shy boy.

4. Adjectives of foreign origin such as aluminium, plastic, beige etc. do not get an -e ending. Study the
following:

Dut. Een plastic stoel.

- A plastic chair.

5. When indefinite words elk - “each”, ieder - “every”, welk - “which” precede an adjective + neuter
singular noun, they and the adjective do not add any ending:

Elk, ieder, welk + adjective + neuter singular noun

Study the following:

Dut. Elk mooi huis.

- Any beautiful house.

Dut. Elk duur restaurant.

- Every expensive restaurant.

NOTE:
If the noun is not a neuter singular noun, then elk, ieder, welk as well as the
adjective get the -e ending. Observe the following:

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Dut. Elke mooie auto.

- Any beautiful car.

Dut. Elke dure winkel.

- Every expensive shop.

6. Such words as linker- (left) and rechter- (right) in a combination with another word do not take an
-e ending. For example:

Did you know? Dut. Linkervleugel.

There are more bridges in - Left wing.
Berlin, Germany than in Venice,
Italy (around 2,000).

The most famous one is the Dut. Rechter zijde.

Oberbaumbrücke, a double-deck bridge
crossing the Spree (the main river of - Right side.
Berlin).

7. Some set expressions do not take an -e ending in Dutch. Observe the following:

Dutch English

het Centraal Station the Central Station

openbaar vervoer public transport (as an entity)

voortgezet onderwijs secondary education

het Burgerlijk Wetboek the civil code

NOTE:
In Dutch, the form het openbare vervoer is also used to mean the transport
that is public and it could be any transport.

8. Some attributive adjectives may add the -e ending or not depending on the meaning. Compare the
following:

Een groot schrijver Een grote schrijver

- A great writer - A tall writer

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Afrikaans
1. In Afrikaans, monosyllabic adjectives ending in k, p, t, m, n, l and r do not take any endings. Observe
the following:

Afrikaans English

sterk strong

ryp ripe

groot big

dom stupid

groen green

koel cool

swaar heavy

For example:

Afr. 'n groot huis.

- a big house.

Afr. 'n groen motor.

- a green car.

NOTE:
In Afrikaans, if the indefinite pronouns elk - “every”, welk - “which” and sulk -
“such” precede an adjective, they always get the -e ending:

Afr. Elke groot huis

- Every big house.

Furthermore, the following adjectives add the ending -e, even though
theoretically they require no ending:
Afrikaans English

dor - dorre dry

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Afrikaans English

guur - gure chilling, cold

raar - rare strange, odd

star - starre stiff, rigid

Afr. 'n rare dier

- a strange animal.

2. Adjectives ending in a vowel or diphthong, such as: blou (blue), mooi (pretty), rooi (red). Observe
the following:

Afr. Die blou dak.

- the blue roof.

NOTE:
However, adjectives that end in -u change the spelling and add the ending -e in
Afrikaans:
Afrikaans English

ru - ruwe rough

slu - sluwe sly, cunning

sku - skuwe/sku shy

3. Adjectives that denote materials such as aluminium (aluminium), plastiek (plastic), etc. do not get
an any ending, but are written together with the noun they qualify. Study the following:

Afr. 'n plastiekstoel.

- a plastic chair.

4. In Afrikaans, there are some adjectives which, even though they do not add the ending -e, change in
form when used attributively:

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Afrikaans English

jonk - jong young

lank - lang long, tall

oud - ou old

nuut - nuwe new

To compare:

Afr. Die huis is oud. Die ou huis.

- The house is old. The old house.

Afr. Die kar is nuut. Die nuwe kar.

- The car is new. The new car.

NOTE:
In the following compound adjectives, the historical ending has been retained:

Afrikaans English

lewenslank - lewenslange lifelong

jarelank - jarelange lasting for years

dagoud - dagoue day-old

oeroud - oeroue ancient

Afr. die lewenslange leer.

- the lifelong learning.

Furthermore, in Afrikaans, the following proper nouns preserve a Dutch form:

Afrikaans English

Nieu-Seeland New Zealand

Nieu-Guinea New Guinea

Nieu-Grieks Modern Greek

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5. In Afrikaans, many adjectives that do not usually add the ending -e may add it when used figuratively
or affectively, for example:

Afrikaans English

bitter - bittere bitter times

bloot - blote sheer, bare

diep - diepe deep

donker - donkere dark

duur - dure expensive

klein - kleine little , insignificant

naar - nare scary, nasty

nou - noue close, narrow

ryk - ryke rich

seker - sekere certain

heel - hele whole

Compare the following:

Afr. die ryk man - die ryke tradisie

- the rich man - the rich tradition

Afr. die diep see - die diepe tevredenheid

- the deep ocean - the deep satisfaction

Afr. 'n duur motor - 'n dure les

- an expensive car - an expensive lesson

6. Some adjectives also take the ending -e when used in standard expressions in Afrikaans, for example:

Afrikaans English

op die lang(e) duur in the long run

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Afrikaans English

die oorgrote meerderheid the overwhelming majority

uit die ou(d)e doos old-fashioned

die verre verlede the distant past

in die verre noorde in the far north

die Verre Ooste the Far East

in my vrye tyd in my free time

ware gasvryheid true hospitality

Prefixed Adjectives in West Germanic Languages

Unlike in Dutch, in German and Afrikaans, there is a number of compound nouns where the
adjectives are attached to the noun.

One should try to memorize those combination as there is no general rule concerning the
formation of compound nouns with prefixed adjectives.

Below is the list of some compound combinations of adjectives and nouns in German and
Afrikaans:

German Afrikaans English

Rotwein Rooiwyn Red wine

die Grundschule die Laerskool Primary school

NOTE:
In Dutch, the adjectives are not joined to the nouns in this case. Observe the
following:
Dutch English

Rode wijn Red wine

de lagere school Primary school

Note that the word basisschool - “Primary school” is more common in Dutch.

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Adjective-forming Suffixes in West Germanic Languages

In German, Dutch and Afrikaans, there is a number of words that can be converted into adjectives
by adding suffixes.

Below are German, Dutch and Afrikaans suf xes that are used to form adjectives from other
words:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

-bar -baar -baar —

(fruchtbar, dankbar) (vruchtbaar, dankbaar) (vrugbaar, dankbaar) (fruitful, thankful)
-en, -n -en — -en
(golden, hölzern) (gouden, houten) (goue, hout) (golden, wooden)
-fach, -fältig -voudig -voudig -fold
(dreifach) (drievoudig) (drievoudig) (threefold)
-ig -ig -ig -y
(sandig, sonnig) (zanderig, zonnig) (sanderig, sonnig) (sandy, sunny)
-isch -isch, -achtig -iese, -agtig -ic, -ish
(demokratisch, kindisch) (democratisch, (demokratiese, (democratic, childish)
kinderachtig) kinderagtig)
-iv -ief -ief -ive
(aggressiv, intuitiv) (agressief, intuïtief) (aggressief, intuïtief) (aggressive, intuitive)
-lich -lijk -lik —
(gefährlich) (gevaarlijk) (gevaarlik) (dangerous)
-los -loos -loos -less
(hoffnungslos, sprachlos) (hopeloos, sprakeloos) (hopeloos, sprakeloos) (hopeless, speechless)
-frei -vrij -vry free
(eisfrei) (ijsvrij) (ysvry) (ice free)
-reich, -voll -rijk -rik -full
(sinnvoll) (belangrijk) (belangrik) (meaningfull)
-sam -zaam -saam —
(gehorsam) (gehoorzaam) (gehoorsaam) (obedient)
-würdig -waardig -waardig —
(glaubwürdig) (geloofwaardig) (geloofwaardig) (believable)

Remember that the suffixes used in the mentioned above examples do not always cognate in all
Germanic languages when forming adjectives.

It is often that an adjective has different suffixes in English, German, Dutch and Afrikaans. For
example:

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German Dutch Afrikaans English

friedlich vredig/vreedzaam vreedsaam peaceful

Thus, it would be better to directly memorize suffixes with appropriate adjectives.

NOTE:
In German, the suffix -isch can also designate the adjectival form of a city,
region, nationality, people or country.
In Dutch and Afrikaans, the suffix -s is added in this case. (See Nationality
Adjectives p. 179):
German Dutch/Afrikaans English

Amerikanisch Amerikaans American

Französisch Frans French

Spanisch Spaans Spanish

Italienisch Italiaans Italian

Adjectives Used with Intensifiers

Most adjectives can get a modifying word or intensifier, such as Ger. sehr, Dut. heel/erg, Afr.
baie - “very”, or Ger. so, Dut. zo, Afr. so - “so” put before them in German, Dutch and Afrikaans.

These modifying words or intensifiers are used to intensify the meaning of adjectives or
sometimes both adjectives and nouns (See also Adverbs of Intensity p. 190), for example:

Ger. Es ist sehr heiß heute.

Dut. Het is erg heet vandaag.

Afr. Dit is baie warm vandag.

- It is very hot today.

Did you know? Ger. Er ist so groß.

Schönbrunn Palace was the main Dut. Hij is zo lang.
summer residence of the
Habsburg rulers, situated in Austria, Afr. Hy is so lank.
Vienna. The Baroque palace has more
than 1,400 rooms. - He is so tall.

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Below is the list of some other commonly used intensi ers:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

ziemlich best, nogal nogal quite, pretty

wirklich, echt werkelijk, echt waarlik, eg really, truly

besonders vooral, in het bijzonder veral especially, above all

vollständig, volledig, helemaal heeltemal completely

vollkommen

Ger. Dieser Film ist ziemlich gut.

Dut. Deze film is best goed.

Afr. Hierdie film is nogal goed.

- This film is pretty good.

Making Adjectives from Verbs

The Present Participle as an Adjective

In German, Dutch and Afrikaans (just as in English), the verb’s present participles can be used as
adjectives, known as “participial adjectives.” (See also the Present Participle p. 586).

However, unlike other adjectives, present participles as adjectives are only used attributively
(inflected form) in West Germanic languages (See Use of the Present Participle as an Adjective p.
168).

Formation of the Present Participle as an Adjective

In English, participial adjectives from present participles are formed by adding to a verb the
ending -ing, e.g. working, speaking etc.

In German and Dutch and Afrikaans, participial adjectives from present participles are formed as
follows:

German and Dutch Afrikaans

infinitive + d infinitive + ende

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Study the following:

Adjectives from Present Participles

German arbeiten -> arbeitend

Dutch werken -> werkend

Afrikaans werk -> werkende

English to work -> working

Use of The Present Participle as an Adjective

In German, Dutch and Afrikaans, the present participle as an adjective is used in the following
ways:

1. It is used as an attributive adjective that is formed from the present participle. An attributive adjective
is put before a noun. Compare the following examples:

Example 1

Did you know? Ger. Der Mann arbeitet viel.

Rotterdam (lit. “The Dam on the Dut. Een man werkt veel.
River Rotte”) is the second-
largest city in the Netherlands and has Afr.'n Man werk baie.
the largest seaport in Europe.
- A man works a lot.

Example 2

Ger. Ein arbeitender Mann ist produktiv.

Dut. Een werkende man is productief.

Afr. 'n Werkende man is produktief.

- A working man is productive.

The first example shows that Ger. arbeitet, Dut. werkt, Afr. werk - “works” is the 3rd person
singular of the verb Ger. arbeiten, Dut. werken, Afr. werk - “work” .

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In the second example, Ger. arbeitender, Dut. werkende, Afr. werkende - “working” is the
present participle used as an adjective and formed from the verb Ger. arbeiten, Dut. werken, Afr. werk
- “work”.

NOTE:
In German, Dutch and Afrikaans, when the present participle is used as an
attributive adjective, it follows the rules of adjectives (See Declension of
Adjectival Endings p. 142)

2. In German, Dutch and Afrikaans, it is frequently used as an adverb of manner, in which case it often
has a direct parallel in English (See also Adverbs of Manner p. 181):

Ger. Das Kind kommt lächelnd zurück.

Dut. Het kind komt glimlachend terug.

Afr. Die kind kom glimlaggende terug.

- The child is returning smiling.

3. It may also be used to form adjectival nouns (See also Adjectival Nouns p. 100):

Ger. ein Überlebender (Überleben)

Dut. een overlevende (overleven)

Afr.'n oorlewende (oorleef)

- a survivor (to survive)

The Past Participle as an Adjective

In German, Dutch and Afrikaans, in addition to its verbal functions in forming the perfect tenses
of verbs, the past participles of verbs are also quite frequently used as adjectives in much the same way as
it is in English (See The Past Participle p. 439).

The past participles in all Germanic languages can be divided into two major groups according to
whether:

1. the past participle is formed by the addition of a prefix and/or suffix to the stem. This group of verbs is
called “weak verbs”. For example:

German arbeiten gearbeitet

Dutch werken gewerkt

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Afrikaans werk gewerk

English to work worked

Below is the formula for the formation of the past participle of weak verbs in West Germanic
languages:

Infinitive Prefix Stem Ending Past Part.

German tanzen + ge- + tanz- + t= getanzt

Dutch dansen + ge- + dans- + t/d = gedanst

Afrikaans dans + ge- + dans- + N/A = gedans

English to dance + N/A + dance + d/ed = danced

2. the past participle is formed by the addition of a prefix and/or suffix to the stem and a vowel change in
the stem itself. This category of verbs is called “strong verbs”. For instance:

German singen gesungen

Dutch zingen gezongen

Afrikaans sing gesing*

English to sing sung

Below is the formula for the formation of the past participle of strong verbs in West Germanic
languages:

Infinitive Prefix Stem Ending Past Part.

German sprechen + ge- + sproch- + en = gesprochen

Dutch spreken + ge- + sprok- + en = gesproken

Afrikaans praat + ge- + praat- + N/A = gepraat

English to speak + N/A + spok- + en = spoken

NOTE:
Afrikaans comes from 18th century Dutch, where verbs, like in English and
German, had strong forms. For example: sing -> sang, take -> took, etc. So,
Afrikaans eliminated the strong form for verbs.

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Use of The Past Participle as an Adjective

In German, Dutch and Afrikaans, the past participle as an adjective is used in the following ways:

1. It is used as a attributive adjective. An attributive adjective is put before a noun. For example:

Ger. Der gebackene Kuchen.

Dut. De gebakken taart.

Afr. Die gebakte koek.

- The baked cake.

In the example above “the baked cake”, the word “baked” is the past participle used as an
attributive adjective.

2. It is also used as a predicative adjective. A predicative adjective is put after a noun. Study the following
example:

Did you know? Ger. Der Kuchen ist gebacken.

Windhoek is the capital and Dut. De taart is gebakken.

largest city of Namibia. Many
believe that the capital's name is derived Afr. Die koek is gebak.
from the Afrikaans word wind-hoek
(wind corner). - The cake is baked.

In the phrase “the cake is baked”, the form “baked” is the past participle used as a predicate
adjective in this sentence.

Note that in German, Dutch and Afrikaans, the past participle as a predicative adjective is followed
by the verb Ger. sein, Dut. zijn, Afr. wees - “to be” and is invariable, which means it does not take
endings.

However, the past participle used as an attributive adjective must inflect, which means that it must
agree in gender, number, or/and case (in German), or other conditions with the noun it precedes.

To compare:

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Did you know? Example 1

Since Switzerland has four official Ger. Das Haus ist verkauft.
languages: German, French, Italian
and Romansh, it is known by multiple names: Dut. Het huis is verkocht.
Schweiz (German), Suisse (French), Svizzera
(Italian), and Svizra (Romansh). Afr. Die huis is verkoop

- The house is sold.

Example 2

Ger. Das verkaufte Haus.

Dut. Het verkochte huis.

Afr. Die verkoopte huis.

- The sold house.

Spelling Changes and Rules for Inflection of Past Participle as an Adjective

In German, Dutch and Afrikaans, past participles used as an attributive adjective change the
spelling and take endings and follow the same rules as all normal adjectives do. To learn more about
spelling changes and the inflexion of past participles as attributive adjectives in West Germanic
languages:

(See Declension of Adjectival Endings p. 142 and Verb Spelling Changes of Regular
Verbs in The Past Participle p. 443).

Predicate Adjectives Followed by a Fixed Preposition

Like in English, in German, Dutch and in Afrikaans, there is a considerable number of adjectives
used predicatively that are followed by a fixed preposition. However, the prepositions are often different
in these Germanic languages and thus it is advisable to memorize them by heart.

Remember that predicate adjectives are normally used with the auxiliary verb Ger. sein Dut. zijn.,
Afr. wees - “to be”. For example:

Ger. Sie ist gut in Sprachen.

Dut. Ze is goed in talen.

Afr. Sy is goed in tale.

- She is good at languages

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NOTE:
In German, adjectives followed by a preposition require grammatical cases. To
compare:

Ger. Er ist auf die Arbeit vorbereitet. (accusative)

- He is prepared for the work.

Ger. Er ist mit der Arbeit beschäftigt. (dative)

- He is busy with the work.

The required grammatical case will be given after the prepositions in the
following list of adjectives.

Some of the following adjectives are derived from the past participle of weak and formerly strong
verbs (the latter now existing only as adjectives in Dutch and Afrikaans).

These adjectives can take two positions in a sentence regarding the prepositional phrase
dependent on them:

1. They precede a noun (like true adjectives, i.e. Ger. reich an, Dut. rijk aan, Afr. ryk aan - “rich in”)
Study the following example:

Ger. Südafrika ist reich an Diamanten.

Dut. Zuid-Afrika is rijk aan diamanten.

Afr. Suid-Afrika is ryk aan diamante.

- South Afrika is rich in diamonds.

2. or can take either position: precede or follow a noun, then being put at the end of the clause and thus
resembling more the past participle from which they are derived. Compare the following:

Example 1 (an adjective precedes a noun)

Ger. Das Kind ist abhängig von der Mutter.

Dut. Het kind is afhankelijk van de moeder.

Afr. Die kind is afhanklik van die ma.

- The child is dependent on the mother.

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Example 2 (an adjective follows a noun)

Ger. Das Kind ist von der Mutter abhängig.

Dut. Het kind is van de moeder afhankelijk.

Afr. Die kind is van die ma afhanklik.

- The child is dependent on the mother.

Note that the adjectives which can take up either position are marked with an asterisk (*).

NOTE:
In Dutch and Afrikaans, it is more usual for all such adjectives to precede nouns.
Learners is unlikely to be wrong if they stick to this word order with all the
adjectives below.

Below is a list of the most common predicate adjectives used with a fixed preposition in
German, Dutch and Afrikaans:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

zugänglich für (+acc.) toegankelijk voor toeganklik vir accessible to

begleitet von* (+dat.) vergezeld van* vergesel deur/van* accompanied by

angepasst an* (+acc.) aangepast aan* aangepas by* adapted to

süchtig nach (+dat.) verslaafd aan verslaaf aan addicted to

haben Angst vor (+acc.) bang voor bang vir afraid of

allergisch gegen (+acc.) allergisch voor allergies vir allergic to

erstaunt über* (+acc.); verbaasd over* verstom oor* amazed at, amazed by
begeistert von* (+dat.)
böse auf (+acc.) boos op kwaad vir angry with, mad at

angehängt an* (+acc.) gehecht aan* geheg aan* attached to

bewusst* (+gen.); bewust van* bewus van* aware of

aufmerksam auf (+acc.)
schlecht in (+dat.) slecht in sleg in bad at

blind für (+acc.) blind voor blind vir blind to

blau vor (Kälte) blauw van (de kou) blou van (koue) blue with (cold)

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German Dutch Afrikaans English

beschäftigt mit* (+dat.) bezig met, druk met besig met, druk met busy with

charakteristisch für kenmerkend voor kenmerkend van characteristic of

(+acc.)
vergleichbar mit (+dat.) vergelijkbaar met vergelykbaar met comparable with

verglichen mit* (+dat.) vergeleken met* vergeleke met* compared to/with

besorgt um* (+acc.) bezorgd over* besorg oor* concerned about, for

verbunden mit* (+dat.) verbonden aan* verbonde aan* connected with

überzeugt von* (+dat.) overtuigd van* oortuig van* convinced of

bedeckt mit* (+dat.) bedekt met* bedek met* covered in/with

verrückt nach (+dat.) gek op gek na crazy about

neugierig auf (+acc.) nieuwsgierig naar nuuskierig na curious about

taub gegenüber (+dat.) doof voor doof vir deaf to

angewiesen auf* (+acc.) aangewezen op*, aangewese op*, dependent on, reliant
abhängig von* (+dat.) afhankelijk van* afhanklik van* on
verzweifelt nach (+dat.) wanhopig voor wanhopig vir desperate for

bestimmt für* (+acc.) bestemd voor* bestemd vir* destined for

entschlossen zu*(+dat.) vastbesloten om* vasbeslote om* determined to

anders als anders dan anders(te/ter) as different from

enttäuscht von* (+dat.) teleurgesteld in* teleurgesteld in* disappointed in

(someone)
begierig nach (+dat.) begerig naar begerig na eager for, desirous of

begeistert von/über* enthousiast over entoesiasties oor enthusiastic about

(+acc.)
berechtigt zu* (+dat.) gerechtigd tot* geregtig op* entitled to

eifersüchtig auf (+acc.), jaloers op jaloers op jealous of, envious of

neidisch auf (+acc.)
aufgeregt über* (+acc.), opgewonden over* opgewonde oor* excited about
gespannt auf* (+acc.)
erfahren in* (+dat.) ervaren in* ervare in* experienced at

berühmt für (+acc.) beroemd om beroemd vir famous for

konzentriert* auf gefocust op* gefokus op* focused on

(+acc.)

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German Dutch Afrikaans English

freundlich zu/ vriendelijk tegen vriendelik teenoor friendly towards

gegenüber (+dat.)
voll (+gen.), vol met vol full of
voll (mit/von) (+dat.)
wütend auf (+acc.) woedend op woedend vir furious with

gut in (+dat.) goed in goed in good at

gut zu (+dat.) goed voor goed vir good, nice to

gut mit (+dat.) goed met goed met good with

dankbar für (+acc.) dankbaar voor dankbaar vir grateful for

gierig nach (+dat.) hebzuchtig naar gierig vir greedy for

schuldig (+gen.) schuldig aan skuldig aan guilty of

glücklich über (+acc.) blij met bly oor happy about

identisch mit (+dat.) identiek aan/ met identies aan/met identical to

verliebt in* (+acc.) verliefd op* verlief op* in love with

unabhängig von (+dat.) onafhankelijk van* onafhanklik van* independent of

gleichgültig gegenüber onverschillig onverskillig teenoor indifferent to

(+dat.) tegenover
empört über (+acc.) verontwaardigd over verontwaardig oor indignant about

interessiert an* (+dat.) geïnteresseerd in* geïnteresseerd in* interested in

eifersüchtig auf (+acc.) jaloers op jaloers op jealous of

bekannt für* (+acc.) bekend om* bekend vir* (well-)known for

verheiratet mit* (+dat.) getrouwd met* getroud met* married to

gedacht für* (+acc.) bedoeld voor* bedoel vir* meant for

besessen von (+dat.) bezeten van, behep met obsessed with, by

geobsedeerd door
optimistisch über optimistisch over optimisties oor optimistic about
(+acc.)
überwuchert mit* begroeid met*, begroei met* overgrown with
(+dat.) overgroeid met*
pessimistisch über pessimistisch over pessimisties oor pessimistic about
(+acc.)
zufrieden mit* (+dat.) tevreden met tevrede met pleased/satisfied with

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German Dutch Afrikaans English

arm an (+dat.) arm aan arm aan poor in

vorbereitet auf * (+acc.) voorbereid op* voorbereid vir* prepared for

stolz auf (+acc.) trots op, gesteld op* trots op, gesteld op* proud of

bereit zu (+dat.) klaar voor, klaar voor, ready for

gereed voor gereed vir
verwandt mit* (+dat.) verwant met* verwant met* related to

genesen von* (+dat.) hersteld van* herstel van* recovered from

beständig gegen*(+acc.) bestand tegen* bestand teen* resistant to

verantwortlich für* aansprakelijk voor*, aanspreeklik vir*, responsible for

(+acc.) verantwoordelijk verantwoordelik
voor* vir*
reich an (+dat.) rijk aan ryk aan rich in

traurig über (+acc.) verdrietig over hartseer oor sad about

sicher vor (+acc.) veilig voor veilig teen safe from

skeptisch gegenüber sceptisch over skepties oor sceptical about

(+dat.)
empfindlich gegen gevoelig voor gevoelig vir sensitive to
(+acc.)
getrennt von* (+dat.) gescheiden van geskei van* separated from

spezialisiert auf (+acc.) gespecialiseerd op gespesialiseerd op specialized on

geeignet zu* (+dat.) geschikt voor* geskik vir* suited to

verwundert über* verrast door* verbaas oor* surprised by, amazed

(+acc.) by
sympathisch sympathiek simpatiek teenoor sympathetic towards
gegenüber (+dat.) tegenover
umgeben von* (+dat.) omringd door* omring deur* surrounded by

typisch für (+acc.) typerend voor tipies van typical of

empört über (+acc.) boos over ontsteld oor upset about

gewöhnt an (+acc.) gewend aan gewoond aan used to

besorgt über* (+acc.) bezorgd over* bekommerd oor* worried about

schwach in (+dat.) zwak in swak in weak at

Study the following example:

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Ger. Sie ist stolz auf seinen Erfolg. (accusative)

Dut. Ze is trots op zijn succes.

Afr. Sy is trots op sy sukses.

- She is proud of his success.

NOTE:
In German and Afrikaans, the adjective Ger. voll and Afr. vol - “full of” adds no
preposition.
In Dutch, however, the adjective vol takes the preposition met when used with
the verb zijn - “to be”:

Ger. Das Glas ist voll Honigs.

Dut. De pot is vol met honing.
Afr. Die fles is vol heuning.
- The jar is full of honey.

In German, voll may also take the form voller:

Ger. Das Glas ist voller Honig.

Moreover, the preposition mit can be used in the literal sense of a filled
container, and von can be used in figurative senses in German. To compare:

Ger. voll mit Honig. - voll von Glück.

- full of honey. - full of happiness

Like in German and Afrikaans, in Dutch, the adjective vol without preposition
is common with other verbs or in phrases without a verb:

Ger. ein Pullover voller Löcher

Dut. een trui vol gaten.
Afr.'n trui vol gate.
- a sweater full of holes.

Furthermore, unlike in Dutch and Afrikaans, in German, the expression Ger. haben Angst vor -
“afraid of” is used with a noun Angst - “fear” and the verb haben - “to have”, and not as adjectives with
the verb “to be” like in other West Germanic languages. Compare the following:

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Did you know? Ger. Er hat Angst vor Hunden.

Afrikaans, a West Germanic language, is Dut. Hij is bang voor honden.

spoken in South Africa, Namibia,
Botswana, Zambia and Zimbabwe. The number Afr. Hy is bang vir honde.
of Afrikaans speakers range between 15 and 23
- He is afraid of dogs.
million.

Nationality Adjectives

Nationality adjectives are used to describe people or things that have origin from a particular
continent, country or nation, for example: African, Austrian, Dutch etc.

In general, German, Dutch and Afrikaans nationality adjectives are formed by adding particular
suffixes to the names of continents or countries.

Below is a table showing the suffixes that are used to form nationality adjectives in German,
Dutch and Afrikaans.

German Dutch Afrikaans

-sch -s(e), -sch -s(e)

Remember that unlike nationality nouns, nationality adjectives are not used with the articles (See
also Inhabitants of Countries p. 106). Study the following:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

niederländisch Nederlands Nederlands Dutch

deutsch Duits Duits German

Observe the following:

Ger. Das ist ein deutsches Auto.

Dut. Dit is een Duitse auto.

Afr. Dit is 'n Duitse motor.

- This is a German car.

NOTE:
In German, Dutch and Afrikaans, when nationality adjectives are used as an
attributive adjective, they change the spelling and take endings and follow the
same rules as all adjectives do (See Declension of Adjectival Endings p.
142).

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CHAPTER 3: ADVERBS
An adverb is a word that can be used with verbs, adjectives or other adverbs giving more
information about where, when, how, or in what circumstances something happens, for instance, there,
yesterday, suddenly, excellently. So mastering adverbs will significantly expand learner’s vocabulary.

Use of Adverbs
Generally speaking, adverbs are used with:

• verbs (run quickly, speak loudly, laugh happily),

• adjectives (rather boring, gravely ill, immensely glad),

• other adverbs (too slowly, very well, really fast)

Forming Adverbs

In English, adverbs are usually formed by adding –ly to the end of the adjective (happy –
happily).

However, in German, Dutch and Afrikaans, adverbs and adjectives are identical, which means
that adverbs add no endings and have the same form as the uninflected adjectives.

Below is the table demonstrating the examples of adverb forming from adjectives in English,
German and Dutch.

German Dutch Afrikaans English

langsam (adj.) = langzaam (adj.) = stadig (adj.) = stadig slow (adj.) =

langsam (adv.) langzaam (adv.) (adv.) slowly (adv.)
schnell (adj.) = snel (adj.) = vinnig (adj.) = quick (adj.) =
schnell (adv.) snel (adv.) vinnig (adv.) quickly (adv.)

Study the following:

Ger. Er ist sehr schnell. -> Er rennt schnell.

Dut. Hij is erg (heel) snel. -> Hij rent snel

Afr. Hy is baie vinnig. -> Hy hardloop vinnig.

- He is very quick. -> He runs quickly.

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Remember that in German, Dutch and Afrikaans, adverbs, unlike adjectives, do not inflect, which
is why in the following sentence the adverbs Ger. äußerst, Dut. uiterst and Afr. uiters - “extremely”
have no ending but the adjective interessant - “interesting” takes the ending (See also Declension of
Adjectival Endings p. 142):

Did you know? Ger. ein äußerst interessanter Film.

Etosha National Park is one of the Dut. een uiterst interessante film.
largest national parks in Africa. It is
located in northwestern Namibia. It is home Afr. 'n uiters interessante film.
to hundreds of species of mammals, birds and
reptiles, including black rhinoceros. - an extremely interesting film.

NOTE:
In Dutch, especially in speech, the adverb heel - “very” usually takes the ending
-e along with an inflected adjective when it occurs in front of one:

Dut. Hele mooie bloemen.

- Very beautiful flowers.

However, in formal writing, the form heel is likely to be used with an inflected
adjective:

Dut. Heel mooie bloemen.

- Very beautiful flowers.

Other Adverbs
Adverbs of manner

There are some common adverbs of manner which tell us how something is done.

Below is a list of some common adverbs of manner in German, Dutch and Afrikaans.

German Dutch Afrikaans English

schlecht slecht sleg badly/poorly

besser beter beter better

ruhig rustig rustig calmly, quietly

deutlich duidelijk duidelik clearly

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German Dutch Afrikaans English

vorsichtig voorzichtig versigtig carefully

gefährlich gevaarlijk gevaarlik dangerously

zum Glück gelukkig gelukkig luckily

laut luid luid loudly

schnell snel vinnig quickly

geduldig geduldig geduldig patiently

traurig treurig, verdrietig hartseer sadly

langsam langzaam stadig slowly

spontan spontaan spontaan spontaneously

so zo so so, thus, like that

gut goed goed well

schlechter slechter slegter worse

For example:

Did you know? Ger. Sie warten geduldig.

Munich (German: München), Dut. Ze wachten geduldig.

Bavaria’s capital, is the third-
largest city in Germany (after Berlin and Afr. Hulle wag geduldig.
Hamburg) with a population of over 1,5
million inhabitants. - They are waiting patiently.

Adverbs of place

Adverbs of place designate a place or a direction.

Below is a list of some common adverbs of place in German, Dutch and Afrikaans.

German Dutch Afrikaans English

oben boven bo above, upstairs

im Ausland in het buitenland in die buiteland abroad

weg weg weg away

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German Dutch Afrikaans English

hinter achter agter behind

unten beneden onder below, downstairs

überall overal oral(s) everywhere

weit ver ver far

auf halbem Weg halverwege halfpad halfway

hier hier hier here

hier und da hier en daar; her en der hier en daar; her en der here and there

innen, drinnen binnen, in binne inside, in

vor, voran voor, vooraan voor, vooraan ahead, in front

nah, nahe dichtbij, nabij naby near, nearby

nirgendwo nergens nêrens nowhere

links links links on the left

rechts rechts regs on the right

außen, draußen buiten, uit buite, uit outside, out

über over oor over

irgendwo ergens iewers, êrens somewhere

dort, da daar daar there

unter onder onder under

wo waar waar where

For instance:

Did you know? Ger. Er ist hier.

Munich (German: München), Dut. Hij is hier.
Bavaria’s capital, is the third-
largest city in Germany (after Berlin and Afr. Hy is hier.
Hamburg) with a population of over 1,5
million inhabitants. - He is here.

Ger. Siehst du das Kino links?

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Dut. Zie je de bioscoop links?

Afr. Sien jy die bioskoop links?

- Do you see the cinema on the left?

Adverbs of time

Time adverbs tell us when something happened, as well as frequency of occurrence.

Below is a list of some common adverbs of time in German, Dutch and Afrikaans.

German Dutch Afrikaans English

vor geleden gelede ago

nach na na after

nachher, danach daarna daarna afterwards

wieder weer, opnieuw weer again

bereits, schon al, reeds al, reeds already

immer altijd altyd always

so bald wie möglich zo spoedig mogelijk so spoedig moontlik as soon as possible

endlich eindelijk uiteindelik at last, finally

vor voor voor before

früh vroeg vroeg early

fortan, von nun an voortaan, van nu af aan voortaan, van nou af henceforth, from now on

sofort onmiddellijk onmiddellik immediately

(zu) spät (te) laat (te) laat (too) late

in letzter Zeit de laatste/afgelopen tijd die afgelope tyd lately, of late

mittlerweile, inzwischen intussen, ondertussen intussen, onderwyl meanwhile, in the

meantime
niemals, nie nooit nooit never

noch nicht nog niet nog nie not yet

jetzt, nun nu, nou nou now

ab und zu, dann und nu en dan, af en toe nou en dan, af en toe now and then
wann

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German Dutch Afrikaans English

oft, häufig vaak, dikwijls dikwels often

selten zelden selde rarely, seldom

kürzlich onlangs onlangs recently

seitdem sindsdien sindien since, since then

bis jetzt, bisher tot nu toe, tot dusver, tot nou toe, tot dusver so far, until now, as yet

manchmal soms soms, somtyds sometimes

bald binnenkort binnekort soon

früher oder später vroeg of laat vroeër of later sooner or later

plötzlich plotseling skielik suddenly

vorübergehend tijdelijk tydelik temporarily

damals toen, destijds, indertijd toe, destyds, indertyd then, at that time (in the
past)
heute vandaag vandag today

morgen morgen môre tomorrow

gewöhnlich gewoonlijk gewoonlik usually

gestern gisteren gister yesterday

noch, immer noch nog , nog steeds nog, nog altyd/steeds yet, still

wann wanneer wanneer when

For example:

Did you know? Ger. Ich gehe morgen nach Paris.

South Luangwa National Park, Dut. Ik ga morgen naar Parijs.
known as "the South Park”, is
located in eastern Zambia. It is home to Afr. Ek gaan môre Parys toe.
large populations of Thornicroft's giraffe,
elephants and Cape buffaloes. - I go to Paris tomorrow.

Ger. Ich bin noch nicht fertig.

Dut. Ik ben nog niet klaar.

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Afr. Ek is nog nie gereed nie.

- I am not ready yet.

Interrogative Adverbs

Interrogative adverbs introduce questions asking when, where, how and why etc. (See also
Interrogative Pronouns and Adverbs p. 322).

Below is a list of interrogative adverbs in German, Dutch and Afrikaans.

German Dutch Afrikaans English

wie hoe hoe how

wann wanneer wanneer when

warum waarom hoekom why

wo waar waar where

wohin waarheen waarheen where (to)

woher waar vandaan waar vandaan where from

NOTE:
Remember that in German, Dutch and Afrikaans, if interrogative adverbs are used
to ask questions, the positions of subject and verb are inverted (See also Asking
Questions p. 514) For example:

Ger. Wann kommt der Bus?

Dut. Wanneer komt de bus?

Afr. Wanneer kom die bus?

- When does the bus arrive?

Did you know? Ger. Warum fragst du das?

The Cologne Cathedral (Kölner Dom) Dut. Waarom vraag je dat?

is a cathedral in Cologne, Germany.
It is the largest medieval Catholic church in Afr. Hoekom vra jy dit?
Northern Europe and one of the most famous
Gothic cathedrals in the world. - Why do you ask that?

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• It is worth mentioning that in German, the interrogative adverb wie sometimes means ‘what’. Study the
following:

Ger. Wie ist Ihr Name? or Wie heißen Sie?

- What is your name?

NOTE:
Unlike in German, in English, Dutch and Afrikaans, the interrogative pronoun
wat - “what” is used in this case:

Dut. Wat is uw naam?

Afr. Wat is u naam?
- What is your name?

In Dutch, however, the interrogative adverb hoe can also be used to mean
“what”:

Dut. Hoe heet je?

- What is your name?

Otherwise, Ger. wie, Dut., Afr. hoe means ‘how’ and is followed by other adverbs, like English
‘how’.

Below is a list of the interrogative adverb “how” followed by other adverbs in German, Dutch
and Afrikaans.

German Dutch Afrikaans English

wie lange hoe lang hoe lank how long

wie viel hoeveel hoeveel how much

wie viele hoeveel hoeveel how many

wie oft hoe vaak hoe gereeld how often

wie weit hoe ver hoe ver how far

For example:

Ger. Wie viel kostet das?

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Dut. Hoeveel kost dat?

Afr. Hoeveel kos dit?

- How much does that cost?

• When Ger. wo, Dut., and Afr. waar are used in a question with a verb of motion meaning direction to
or from a place, German, Dutch and Afrikaans must use the compounds Ger. wohin/woher, Dut. and
Afr. waarheen/waar vandaan respectively. Compare the following:

Example 1 (where)
Did you know?

Bruges, the capital of Dutch

speaking West Flanders in Ger. Wo wohnst du?
Belgium, is a major tourism destination.
Dut. Waar woon je?
The medieval town architecture in Bruges
is one of the best-preserved in Europe. The Afr. Waar woon jy?
historic city centre is a World Heritage Site
of UNESCO. - Where do you live?

Example 2 (where to)

Ger. Wo gehst du hin? or Wohin gehst du?

Dut. Waar ga je heen?

Afr. Waar gaan jy heen?

- Where are you going?

Example 3 (where from)

Ger. Wo kommst du her? or Woher kommst du?

Dut. Waar kom je vandaan?

Afr. Waar kom jy vandaan?

- Where do you come from?

NOTE:
In German, as it is seen from the example 2 (where to) and the example 3
(where from), two word orders are possible.

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Adverbs Ger. hin/her and Dut., Afr. heen/van

• In German, Dutch, and Afrikaans, the adverbs Ger. hin/her; Dut., Afr. heen/van denote direction
towards and away from the speaker. These adverbs can be used together with other adverbs to indicate
movement:

Below are some examples of the adverbs Ger. hin/her; Dut., Afr. heen/van used with other
adverbs in West Germanic languages:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

dorthin daarheen daarheen to there (to that place)

dorther daarvan daarvan from there

Study the following:

Ger. Ich gehe dorthin.

Dut. Ik ga daarheen.

Afr. Ek gaan daarheen.

- I am going there.

NOTE:
In Dutch and Afrikaans, the adverb vandaan - “from” is generally used in
combination with verbs of motion like komen - “to come”, e.g.:

Dut. Waar kom je vandaan?

Afr. Waar kom jy vandaan?
- Where are you from? (Where do you come from?)

Instead, the adverb Dut., and Afr. van - “from” is used together with
prepositions to show movement.

• In German, however, the adverbs Ger. hin/her are also frequently used together with prepositions to
form separable prefixes of separable verbs to express movement (See also Separable Verbal
Prefixes p. 596):

Below are some examples of the adverbs hin/her used with prepositions to emphasize
movement in German:

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German English

herauf up (to the own location upwards)

hinunter down (from the own location downwards)

Observe the following:

Ger. Ich gehe die Treppe hinunter.

- I am going down the stairs.

NOTE:
In Dutch and Afrikaans, the prepositions op - “up” and af - “down” are usually
used in this case:

Dut. Ik ga de trap af.

Afr. Ek gaan die trappe af.
- I am going down the stairs.

Adverbs of intensity

In English, German and Dutch, there is a number of intensifying adverbs, which are used to
intensify other adverbs and adjectives.

The following adverbs are quite commonly used to qualify adjectives and adverbs in these
Germanic languages:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

Maximizer

absolut, unbedingt absoluut absoluut absolutely

total totaal totaal totally

vollkommen, völlig volkomen, helemaal volkome, heeltemal completely

perfekt perfect perfek perfectly

vollständig geheel geheel entirely, fully

Booster

unglaublich ongelooflijk ongelooflik incredibly

äußerst uiterst uiters extremely

sehr zeer, heel, erg baie very

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German Dutch Afrikaans English

Moderator

ziemlich, ganz redelijk, vrij, behoorlijk, redelik quite, rather, fairly,

tamelijk pretty
relativ relatief relatief relatively

Approximator

fast, nahezu, beinahe, bijna, haast, vrijwel byna, amper, vrywel almost
bald
etwa ongeveer ongeveer approximately

Diminisher

ein wenig, ein bisschen een beetje n bietjie a little

leicht, etwas lichtelijk, lichtjes effens slightly

etwas ietwat ietwat somewhat

Study the following:

Did you know? Ger. Es ist ziemlich spät.

Antwerp Province (Dutch: Provincie Dut. Het is vrij laat.

Antwerpen) is the northernmost
province both of the Flemish Region and of Afr. Dit is redelik laat.
Belgium. The official language of the
- It is quite late.
Antwerp province is Dutch.

Ger. Sie ist sehr glücklich.

Dut. Ze is erg gelukkig.

Afr. Sy is baie gelukkig.

- She is very happy.

Ger. sehr, Dut. zeer, heel, erg, Afr. baie, seer - “very” are one of the most common adverbs of
intensity used in sentences, but below is the list of other adverbs which can definitely help you enrich
your language.

German Dutch Afrikaans English

enorm enorm enorm enormously

übermäßig buitensporig, excessief buitensporig, excessief excessively

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German Dutch Afrikaans English

außerordentlich, uitzonderlijk, uitsonderlik, extraordinarily,

außergewöhnlich buitengewoon buitengewoon exceptionally
schrecklich, entsetzlich verschrikkelijk, ontzettend verskriklik horribly, terribly

endlos eindeloos eindeloos endlessly

wahnsinnig waanzinnig waansinnig madly, crazily

Adverbs of doubt

German Dutch Afrikaans English

vielleicht misschien, wellicht miskien, dalk perhaps, maybe

zufällig toevallig toevallig by chance

möglich, möglicherweise mogelijk, mogelijkerwijs moontlik possibly

wahrscheinlich waarschijnlijk waarskynlik probably

Ger. Hast du vielleicht einen Dollar?

Dut. Heb jij misschien een dollar?

Afr. Het jy dalk 'n dollar?

- Do you maybe have a dollar?

Adverbs expressing affirmation

German Dutch Afrikaans English

scheinbar schijnbaar, blijkbaar skynbaar, blykbaar seemingly, apparently

sicherlich, sicher zekerlijk, zeker sekerlik, seker certainly, surely

wirklich, echt, tatsächlich werkelijk, echt, heus werklik, eg really, indeed

genau precies presies precisely

wahrhaftig waarlijk waarlik truly

Ger. Das ist wirklich gut.

Dut. Dat is werkelijk goed.

Afr. Dit is werklik goed.

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- That is really good.

Adverbs expressing exclusion

German Dutch Afrikaans English

nur, allein maar, alleen, slechts maar, net, alleen, slegs only, just

einfach gewoon gewoon simply

kaum nauwelijks, amper skaars, nouliks hardly, barely

Ger. Ich habe nur einen Apfel.

Dut. Ik heb maar één appel.

Afr. Ek het maar een appel.

- I have only one apple.

Did you know? Ger. Ich kenne ihn kaum.

Victoria Falls, the Lozi language Dut. Ik ken hem nauwelijks.

name is Mosi-oa-Tunya -
"Thundering Smoke", is one of the world's Afr. Ek ken hom skaars.
largest waterfalls, with a width of 1,708 m
(5,604 ft). It is situated on the border - I hardly know him.
between Zambia and Zimbabwe.

Adverbs composed of several words

Adverbs can also consist of more than one word, for example:

Ger. ohne Zweifel;

Dut. zonder twijfel;

Afr. sonder twyfel;

– without a doubt.

Adverbial phrases

There are some fixed phrases which have an adverbial function. Below are some common ones:

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German Dutch Afrikaans English

im Dunkeln in het donker in die donker in the dark, blindly

zu Fuß te voet te voet on foot

zur Hand bij de hand byderhand by/at hand

im Geheimen in het geheim in die geheim in secret, on the sly

It is also possible to build such phrases by using the following constructions:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

mit (dat.) + abstract noun met + abstract noun met + abstract noun with + abstract noun

in einer + adjective op een + adjective + op ’n + adjective + in a + adjective +

(dat.) + (Art und) Weise wijze/manier wyse/manier manner/way

Examples:

Ger. Er tut es mit Freude.

Dut. Hij doet het met vreugde.

Afr. Hy doen dit met vreugde.

- He does it with joy.

Ger. Sie spricht in einer förmlichen Art und Weise.

Dut. Ze spreekt op een formele manier (wijze).

Afr. Sy praat op 'n formele manier. (wyse).

- She speaks in a formal manner.

Word Order with Adverbs

In German, Dutch and Afrikaans, adverbs can be put in different places in a sentence, but as a
rule they are normally placed close to the word to which they refer.

Below we will consider the word order of adverbs of time, place and manner:

• Word order with adverbs of time

Adverbs of time can take two positions in a sentence:

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1. In German, Dutch and Afrikaans, adverbs of time can come after the verb, while in English, they are
usually put at the end of a sentence:

Did you know? Ger. Ich gehe heute ins Kino.

Bremen, Germany, is a major Dut. Ik ga vandaag naar de bioscoop.
cultural hub of Northern Germany.
The Bremen City Hall and the Bremen Afr. Ek gaan vandag die bioskoop toe.
Roland located in the market square
(Rathausplatz) are part of the UNESCO - I am going to the cinema today. (lit. I am going
world heritage.
today to the cinema)

2. Adverbs of time are often placed at the beginning of a sentence in all West Germanic languages. Note
that unlike in English, in German, Dutch and Afrikaans if we begin the phrase with an adverb of time,
we must inverse the subject and the verb:

Ger. Heute gehe ich ins Kino.

Dut. Vandaag ga ik naar de bioscoop.

Afr. Vandag gaan ek die bioskoop toe.

- Today, I am going to the cinema. (lit. Today am going I to the cinema)

NOTE:
However, remember that only statements can begin with adverbs of time. In
questions the verb should be in first position in German, Dutch and Afrikaans
(See also Asking Questions p. 514):

Ger. Gehst du heute ins Kino?

Dut. Ga jij vandaag naar de bioscoop?
Afr. Gaan jy vandag bioskoop toe?
- Are you going to the cinema today?

• Word order with adverbs of place

Adverbs of time can also take two positions in a sentence:

1. In German, Dutch and Afrikaans, adverbs of place usually come after the verb, while in English, they
are usually put at the end of a sentence:

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Ger. Ich arbeite dort.

Dut. Ik werk daar.

Afr. Ek werk daar.

- I work there.

NOTE:
Remember that in tenses which are formed by using Ger. haben, Dut. hebben,
Afr. hê + the past participle of the main verb, adverbs of place are put before
the past participle in German, Dutch and Afrikaans (See The Present Perfect
p. 467):

Ger. Ich habe dort gearbeitet.

Dut. Ik heb daar gewerkt.
Afr. Ek het daar gewerk.
- I have worked there.

2. Adverbs of place can also be placed at the beginning of a sentence to provide emphasis. Like with
adverbs of time, when we start the phrase with an adverb of place, we should inverse the subject and
the verb:

Ger. Dort arbeite ich.

Dut. Daar werk ik.

Afr. Daar werk ek.

- I work there. (lit. There work I)

• Word order with adverbs of manner

Adverbs of manner can take the following positions in a phrase:

1. In German, Dutch and Afrikaans, adverbs of manner are likely to be placed after the verb to which they
refer, for example:

Ger. Sie singt fantastisch.

Dut. Ze zingt fantastisch.

Afr. Sy sing fantasties.

- She sings fantastically.

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NOTE:
In German, Dutch and Afrikaans, in compound tenses which are made up of
Ger. haben, Dut. hebben, Afr. hê + the past participle of the main verb,
adverbs of manner are also placed before the past participle (See See The
Present Perfect p. 467):

Ger. Sie hat fantastisch gesungen.

Dut. Ze heeft fantastisch gezongen.
Afr. Sy het fantasties gesing.
- She has sung fantastically.

However, when there is more than one adverb in a sentence, we should remember the following
order:

• In English, adverbs are usually put in the following order in a sentence: Place -> Manner -> Time
(PMT),

• German, Dutch and Afrikaans, insist on the order: Time -> Manner -> Place (TMP).

Observe the following example:

Ger. Sie singt jeden Tag (time) fantastisch (manner) dort (place).

Dut. Ze zingt elke dag (time) fantastisch (manner) daar (place).

Afr. Sy sing elke dag (time) fantasties (manner) daar (place).

- She sings there (place) fantastically (manner) every day (time).

NOTE:
In West Germanic languages, if there is a pronoun object (it, me, him, them,
etc.) in a phrase, it is put before all adverbs (See Direct and Indirect Object
Pronouns p. 263-274):

Ger. Er kauft es (pron. obj.) jeden Sonntag (time) günstig (manner).

Dut. Hij koopt het (pron. obj.) elke zondag (time) goedkoop (manner).

Afr. Hy koop dit (pron. obj.) elke Sondag (time) goedkoop (manner).

- He buys it (pron. obj.) cheaply (manner) every Sunday (time).

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Comparative and Superlative of Adjectives and Adverbs

As German, Dutch and Afrikaans do not differentiate between adjectives and adverbs in
predicative position, what is explained here concerning adjectives applies equally to adverbs.

Comparative constructions are mainly used to convey

Did you know? inequality or equality, i.e. when stating that something is
Frankfurt, a central German “taller or shorter”, etc. than something else.
city, is a major financial hub. The Comparative forms of adjectives and adverbs in German,
Frankfurt Stock Exchange is the 12th Dutch and Afrikaans as in English usually use the -er
largest stock exchange in the world by form, where it is added to the end of the adverb or
market capitalization and is located in adjective.
the district of Innenstadt.
The superlative of adjectives and adverbs in German,
Dutch and Afrikaans is formed by adding the ending
-st(e) and is preceded by the definite article Ger. der/das/die, Dut. de/het, Afr. die to distinguish one
particular thing from all others.

Study the following examples:

Ger. klein -> kleiner -> der kleinste

Dut. klein -> kleiner -> de kleinste

Afr. klein -> kleiner -> die kleinste

- small -> smaller -> the smallest

Note that in English, when an adjective/adverb contains two or more than two syllables, its
comparative and superlative is formed by using “more/the most” or “less/the least” respectively rather
than adding “-er/-est”. Observe the following:

Eng. attractive -> more attractive -> the most attractive

However, in German, Dutch and Afrikaans, no matter now long the word is, one should add -er/-
st(e) to the end of it. For example:

Ger. attraktiv -> attraktiver -> der attraktivste

Dut. aantrekkelijk -> aantrekkelijker -> de aantrekkelijkste

Afr. aantreklik -> aantrekliker -> die aantreklikste

- attractive -> more attractive -> the most attractive

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NOTE:
It is worth mentioning that like in English, in Dutch and Afrikaans, the
comparative and superlative can also be formed by using meer/de (het)
meest - “more/the most” and minder/de (het minst) - “less/the least”, but
this is much rarer than in English.
These Dutch and Afrikaans forms can be used when the word is very long or
hard to pronounce or they can be used with past and present participles used as
adjectives (See Use of “more” and “most” in Dutch and Afrikaans p.
211).

Below is the table that shows comparative constructions of West Germanic languages:

The Comparative

German (nicht) so…wie -er…als weniger…als

Ich bin (nicht) so groß wie er. Ich bin größer als er. Ich bin weniger groß als er.
Dutch (niet) zo…als -er…dan minder…dan

Ik ben (niet) zo groot als hij. Ik ben groter dan hij. Ik ben minder groot dan hij.
Afrikaans (nie) so…soos (nie) -er…as minder…as

Ek is (nie) so groot soos hy. Ek is groter as hy. Ek is minder groot as hy.

English (not) as…as -er/more…than less…than

I am (not) as tall as him. I am taller than him. I am less tall than him.

Below is the table that displays superlative constructions of West Germanic languages:

The Superlative

German der/die/das -(s)t(e) am wenigsten

Ich bin der Größte. Ich bin am wenigsten groß.

Dutch de/het -st(e) de/het minst

Ik ben de grootste. Ik ben de minst grote.

Afrikaans die -ste die minste

Ek is die grootste. Ek is die minste groot.

English the -est/the most the least

I am the tallest. I am the least tall.

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Other Structures Associated with Comparatives

• It should mentioned that, in German, Dutch and Afrikaans, in order to express “the… the…”, the
following construction is used:

German Dutch and Afrikaans English

je... desto... hoe... hoe… the… the…

For example:

Did you know? Ger. je größer desto besser.

The Hague (Dutch: Den Haag), a Dut. hoe groter hoe beter.
city on the North Sea coast of the
Netherlands, is the capital of the province Afr. hoe groter hoe beter.
of South Holland. It is home to both the
U.N.’s International Court of Justice and - the taller the better.
the International Criminal Court.

• To express “more and more (ever) + comparative”, the following word is used in German, Dutch and
Afrikaans:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

immer + comparative steeds + comparative steeds / al hoe + more and more (ever)
comparative

Ger. Du wirst immer schöner.

Dut. Je wordt steeds mooier.

Afr. Jy word al hoe mooier.

- You are getting more and more beautiful.

Superlative of Adverbs in German, Dutch and Afrikaans

German

In German, the superlative of the adverb differs from that of the adjective. It is formed as follows:

am… -sten

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For example:

schnell -> am schnellsten

- fast -> fastest

To distinguish if an English superlative is the superlative of the adjective or the adverb in

German, try to omit “the” before the superlative. It the phrase is still sounds correct, you are dealing with
the superlative of the adverb and an am…-sten form must be used.

If the article “the” can’t be omitted, it is the superlative of the adjective and thus the definite
article der/die/das and the ending -st(e) must be used. Compare two sentences:

The Superlative of the Adverb The Superlative of the Adjective

am… -sten der/die/das… -st(e)

Wer rennt am schnellsten? Wer ist der schnellste Läufer?

- Who runs (the) fastest? - Who is the fastest runner?

NOTE:
In German, however, the am … -sten form is often used as the superlative of
the adjective, as well as of the adverb, for example:

Ger. Wer ist der Schnellste? or Wer ist am Schnellsten?

- Who is the fastest?

Dutch

In Dutch, in the superlative of the adverb either the ending -st or -ste can be used, without any
difference in meaning. However, in the spoken language, the ending -ste is more often used.

Also, the superlative of the adverb is always preceded by the neuter article het, unlike in English
where this is optional:

het… -st(e)

For example:

snel -> het snelst or het snelste

- fast -> (the) fastest

Remember that when the superlative is used as a noun, it gets the ending -ste and is preceded by
the definite article de or het. Compare two phrases:

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The Superlative Used as an Adverb The Superlative Used as a Noun

het… -st(e) de or het… -ste

Hij loopt het snelst(e). Deze loper is de snelste.

- He runs the fastest. - This runner is the fastest.

Afrikaans

In Afrikaans, in the superlative of the adverb is formed by adding the ending -ste. Note that the
superlative of the adverb is always preceded by the article die, unlike in English where this is optional:

die… -ste

For example:

vinnig -> die vinnigste

- fast -> (the) fastest

Spelling Changes in Comparative and Superlative of Adjectives and Adverbs

In German, Dutch and Afrikaans, there are spelling changes while adding the comparative and
superlative suffixes -er/-st(e).

German:

1. When adding the suffix -er, such vowels of the adjective as a, o or u are usually umlauted (ä, ö, ü):

Below is a list of some adjectives that follow thus rule.

German English

groß - größer big - bigger

klug - klüger clever - cleverer

warm - wärmer warm - warmer

NOTE:
In German, however, adjectives that contain au do not umlaut. Observe the
following:

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German English

schlau - schlauer smart - smarter

grau - grauer grey - greyer

2. Below is a list of some common adjectives that do not umlaut in spite of having an umlautable vowel in
German:

German English

brav – braver obedient - more obedient

bunt – bunter colorful - more colorful

dunkel - dunkler dark - darker

froh – froher happy - happier

kahl – kahler empty -emptier

klar – klarer clear -clearer

knapp – knapper tight -tighter

platt – platter flat -flatter

plump – plumper clumsy -clumsier

rasch – rascher quick -quicker

roh – roher rude -ruder

sanft – sanfter soft -softer

schlank – schlanker slim -slimmer

stolz – stolzer proud - prouder

toll – toller nice - nicer

voll – voller full - fuller

3. Adjectives ending in -e simply add -r to form the comparative:

German English

müde – müder tired - more tired

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4. Adjectives that end in unstressed -el and -er drop e before adding the -er ending to form the
comparative. For example:

German English

dunkel – dunkler dark - darker

teuer – teurer expensive - more expensive

5. When an adjective ends in -d/t or -s/-ß/sch/-x/-z, one must insert an e before adding -st(e) to form
the superlative. Study the following:

German English

hübsch - hübscheste pretty - the prettiest

NOTE:
It is worth noting that in German the same applies to the adjective neu - “new”,
for example:
German English

neu - der neueste or neu - am neuesten new - the newest

Dutch:

Many adjectives and adverbs require spelling changes while adding the comparative and
superlative endings -er/-st(e) in Dutch. Below, we will consider all the exceptions and spelling rules:

Comparative forms

• If an adjective ends in -r, one must insert -d- before adding -er to form the comparative:

Below is a list of some adjectives of this group in Dutch:

Dutch English

bitter - bitterder bitter - more bitter

dankbaar - dankbaarder thankful - more thankful

dapper - dapperder brave - braver

donker - donkerder dark - darker

duur - duurder expensive - more expensive

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Dutch English

eetbaar - eetbaarder edible - more edible

lekker - lekkerder tasty - tastier

mager - magerder lean - leaner

ver - verder far - further

zwaar - zwaarder heavy - heavier

• Adjectives containing long vowels (aa, ee, oo), drop one vowel letter in order to keep the single vowel
in open syllable and add the suffix -er:

Dutch English

actueel- actueler current - more current

breed - breder wide - wider

droog - droger dry - dryer

gemeen - gemener mean - meaner

hoog - hoger high - higher

laag - lager low - lower

leeg - leger empty - emptier

officieel - officiëler official - more official

wreed - wreder cruel - more cruel

• Adjectives containing a short vowel and ending in -f, double the -f and add -er. Note that -f must be
doubled to preserve the short vowel in the preceding syllable:

Dutch English

dof- doffer dull - duller

laf - laffer cowardly - more cowardly

NOTE:
If adjectives contain a long vowel or diphthong, or if a consonant precedes the
-f, the -f becomes -v and -er is added:

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Dutch English

doof - dover deaf - deafer

exclusief - exclusiever exclusive - more exclusive

gaaf - gaver cool - cooler (informal)

stijf - stijver stiff - stiffer

• In Dutch, adjectives containing a short vowel and ending in -g, double the final -g in order to preserve
the short vowel and add -er:

Dutch English

stug - stugger stiff - stiffer

vlug - vlugger quick - quicker

• Adjectives containing a short vowel and ending in a single consonant d, double this consonant to
preserve a short vowel in a closed syllable and add -er:

Dutch English

glad - gladder smooth - smoother

• Adjectives containing a short vowel and end in a single consonant s, double this consonant to preserve a
short vowel in a closed syllable and add -er:

Afrikaans English

fris - frisser cool (chilly) - cooler

los - losser loose - looser

• Adjectives ending in a consonant + -d, add the ending -er without any spelling changes:

Dutch English

blind - blinder blind - blinder

hard - harder hard - harder

vreemd - vreemder strange - stranger

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Dutch English

wild - wilder wild - wilder

Superlative forms

• When the adjective ends in -s or -sch, one should just add -t(e) to the superlative but these forms are
quite rarely used, and the form with de/het meest/minst (the most/least) are preferred:

Dutch English

vies - de/het viest or meest vies dirty - the dirtiest

fris - de/het frist or meest fris fresh - the freshest

grijs - de/he grijst or meest grijs grey - the greyest/most grey

snaaks - de/he snaakst or meest snaaks funny - the funniest

Afrikaans:

In Afrikaans, many adjectives also require spelling changes while taking the endings -er/-ste.
Below, we will consider these spelling changes:

Comparative forms

• Like in Dutch, in Afrikaans, if an adjective ends in -r, one must insert -d- before adding -er to form the
comparative:

Below is a list of some adjectives of this group in Afrikaans.

Afrikaans English

bitter - bitterder bitter - more bitter

dankbaar - dankbaarder thankful - more thankful

dapper - dapperder brave - braver

donker - donkerder dark - darker

duur - duurder expensive - more expensive

eetbaar - eetbaarder edible - more edible

lekker - lekkerder tasty - tastier

maer - maerder lean - leaner

skugter - skugterder timid - timider

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Afrikaans English

ver - verder far - further

zwaar - zwaarder heavy - heavier

• Adjectives containing a short vowel and ending in -f, change the -f to -w and add -er. Note that -w must
be doubled to preserve the short vowel in the preceding syllable:

Afrikaans English

dof- dowwer dull - duller

laf - lawwer cowardly - more cowardly

NOTE:
If adjectives contain a long vowel or diphthong, or a consonant precedes the -f,
the same spelling changes apply but only one -w is added:
Afrikaans English

doof - dower deaf - deafer

eksklusief - eksklusiewer exclusive - more exclusive

gaaf - gawer cool - cooler (informal)

styf - stywer stiff - stiffer

• Adjectives containing a long vowel or diphthong plus the consonants g, drop the consonant g and add
-er. Note that a diaeresis is also added to the ending (-ër) where necessary to preserve the distinction
between syllables:

Afrikaans English

droog - droër dry - dryer

hoog - hoër high - higher

laag - laer low - lower

leeg - leër empty - emptier

moeg - moeër tired - more tired

ruig - ruier rough - rougher

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• In Afrikaans, if an adjective contains a short vowel, either insert -t- or double the final -g in order to
preserve the short vowel and add -er:

Afrikaans English

eg - egter real - more real

lig - ligter light - lighter

sleg - slegter bad

stug - stugger headstrong - more headstrong

vlug - vlugger quick - quicker

NOTE:
Adjectives that end in -ig are polysyllabic. Thus, they always add -er without
dropping or doubling the -g. Study the following:
Afrikaans English

stadig - stadiger slow - slower

Also, adjectives that end in -ng add -er without any spelling changes:
Afrikaans English

streng - strenger strict - stricter

• Adjectives ending in a consonant + -d, add the ending -er without any spelling changes:

Afrikaans English

blind - blinder blind - blinder

hard - harder hard - harder

vreemd - vreemder strange - stranger

wild - wilder wild - wilder

• Adjectives containing a short vowel and end in a single consonant d, double this consonant to preserve a
short vowel in a closed syllable and add -er:

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Afrikaans English

glad - gladder smooth - smoother

NOTE:
However, adjectives containing a long vowel or diphthong, drop the consonant
d and add -er. A diaeresis (-ër) is also added where necessary to preserve the
distinction between syllables:
Afrikaans English

breed - breër wide - wider

koud - kouer cold - colder

Exception

wreed - wreder cruel - more cruel

• Adjectives containing a short vowel and end in a single consonant s, double this consonant to preserve a
short vowel in a closed syllable and add -er:

Afrikaans English

fris - frisser cool (chilly) - cooler

los - losser loose - looser

• Historically, adjectives which ended in -st, but now end in -s, insert -t- and add -er:

Afrikaans English

bewus - bewuster conscious - more conscious

vas - vaster firm - firmer

• Adjectives ending in a consonant + -s, add the ending -er:

Afrikaans English

fluks - flukser smart - smarter

slaafs - slaafser slavish - more slavish

snaaks - snaakser funny - funnier

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Afrikaans English

vars - varser fresh - fresher

Superlative forms

• Note that the addition of the suffix -ste to form the superlative causes no changes in spelling and there
are no exceptions to the rule. Unlike in Dutch, in Afrikaans, even when an adjective already ends in -s,
the -s is doubled when -ste is added, for example:

Afrikaans English

vas - die vasste firm - the firmest

fris - die frisste fresh - the freshest

grys - die grysste grey - the greyest/most grey

snaaks - die snaaksste funny - the funniest

Use of more and most in Dutch and Afrikaans

Dutch:

Like in English, in Dutch, the comparative and superlative may also be formed by using the
following comparative and superlative forms:

Dutch English

meer more

de/het meest the most

Note that in Dutch these forms are used much rarer than in English. They are used in the
following ways:

• When the word would become very long, or when it would become quite hard to pronounce (especially
in the superlative), for example:

Dut. Het meest interessante boek.

- The most interesting book.

In Dutch, however, the comparative and superlative suffixes -er/-st(e) are more preferred:

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Dut. Het interessantste boek.

- The most interesting book.

NOTE:
In Dutch, the use of repetitive comparative and superlative forms also happen
in colloquial speech:

Dut. meer waardevoller - meest waardevolste

- more valuable - the most valuable

• A certain number of strong past participles used as adjective may also form the comparative and
superlative with meer and de/het meest (See The Past Participle as an Adjective p. 169):

Dutch English

meer gespannen - de/het meest gespannen tenser - the tensest

meer verlaten - de/het meest verlaten more abandoned - the most abandoned

• Adjectives formed from weak past participles can also be used with meer and meest:

Dutch English

meer geïllustreerd(e) - de/het meest more illustrated - the most illustrated

geïllustreerd(e)

• Adjectives formed from present participles ending in -end may also be used with meer and die meest
(See The Present Participle as an Adjective p. 167):

Dutch English

meer winstgevend(e) - de/het meest more profitable - the most profitable

winstgevend(e)

For example:

Dut. Dit is het meest winstgevende bedrijf.

- This is the most profitable company.

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Afrikaans:

Like in English and Dutch, In Afrikaans, the comparative and superlative can also be formed by
using the following comparative and superlative forms:

Afrikaans English

meer more

die mees the most

However, in Afrikaans these forms are used more frequently than in Dutch.

They are used in the following ways:

• Polysyllabic adjectives that end in -e form their comparative and superlative with meer and mees, for
example:

Afrikaans English

meer tevrede - die mees tevrede more satisfied - the most satisfied

meer beskeie - die mees beskeie more humble - the most humble

meer verleë - die mees verleë more shy - the most shy

NOTE:
In Afrikaans, comparative and superlative suffixes -ner/-nste are also
commonly used with these adjectives:

Afr. tevredener - tevredenste

- more satisfied - the most satisfied

• A certain number of strong past participles used as adjective also form their comparative and
superlative with meer and mees, for instance:

Afrikaans English

meer gespanne - die mees gespanne tenser - the tensest

meer verlate - die mees verlate more deserted - the most deserted

NOTE:
It should be said that comparative and superlative suffixes -ner/-nste are also
occasionally used with these adjectives in Afrikaans:

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Afr. gespannener - gespannenste

- tenser - the tensest

• Adjectives formed from weak past participles are also used with meer and mees, but they can never
take the endings -(n)er and -(n)ste:

Afrikaans English

meer geïllustreerd(e) - die mees geïllustreerd(e) more illustrated - the most illustrated

NOTE:
The exception is the adjective gewild - “wanted” which always takes -ste in the
superlative:

Afr. gewild - gewildste

- wanted - the most wanted

• Adjectives formed from present participles ending in -end are usually used with meer and die mees
(See The Present Participle as an Adjective p. 167):

Afrikaans English

meer winsgewend(e) - die mees winsgewend(e) more profitable - the most profitable

For example:

Dut. Dit is die mees winsgewende maatskappy.

- This is the most profitable company.

• It is worth mentioning that if adjectives consist of two or more syllables, you are likely to hear them used
with meer and mees, while grammar requires the use of -er/-ste.

Afrikaans English

meer/mees aggressief/aggressiewer more aggressive

meer volledig/vollediger more complete

meer effektief/effektiewer more effective

meer korrek/korrekter more correct

meer belangrik/belangriker more important

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Afrikaans English

meer interessant/interessanter more interesting

meer suksesvol/suksesvoller more successful

meer waardevol/waardevoller more valuable

NOTE:
The adverb onlangs - “recently”, however, always forms its comparative and
superlative with meer and mees:

Afr. meer onlangs - mees onlangs

- more recently - most recently

In Afrikaans, the use of repetitive comparative and superlative forms also

happen in speech:

Afr. meer waardevoller - die mees waardevolste

- more valuable - the most valuable

Irregular Comparatives and Superlatives

There are some adjectives and adverbs which have irregular forms for the comparative and
superlative. Below is the table presenting the most common of them:

Forms German Dutch Afrikaans English

positive gut goed goed good

comparative besser beter beter better

superlative am besten de/het best(e) die beste the best

positive viel veel baie/veel much/many

comparative mehr meer meer more

superlative am meisten de/het meest(e) die meeste the most

positive wenig (regular) weinig weinig/min little/few

comparative weniger minder minder less

superlative am wenigsten de/het minst(e) die minste the least

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Forms German Dutch Afrikaans English

positive gern(e) graag graag gladly

comparative lieber liever liewer(s) more preferably

superlative am liebsten de/het liefst(e) die graagste most preferably

NOTE:
In German, the adjective nah - “close”, and the adverb hoch - “high” have
irregular forms:
Forms German English

positive nah close

comparative näher closer

superlative am nächsten the newest

positive hoch high

comparative höher higher

superlative am höchsten the highest

In Afrikaans, the adjective nuut - “new” is also irregular. Study the following:
Forms Afrikaans English

positive nuut new

comparative nuwer newer

superlative die nuutste the newest

Note that in German, Dutch and Afrikaans, the adverbs Ger. gern, Dut. and Afr. graag are used
as follows:

Ger. Wir spielen gerne Klavier.

Dut. Wij spelen graag piano.

Afr. Ons speel graag klavier.

- We like to play the piano. (lit. We play the piano gladly).

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Did you know? Ger. Ich spiele lieber Gitarre.

Windhoek is the social, economic, Dut. Ik speel liever gitaar.

political, and cultural centre of
Namibia. It was first settled in 1840 by Afr. Ek speel liewers kitaar.
Jonker Afrikaner who established an Orlam
settlement at Windhoek. - I prefer playing the guitar.
(lit. I play the guitar more gladly)

Ger. Welches Musikinstrument spielst du am liebsten?

Dut. Welk muziekinstrument bespeel je het liefst?

Afr. Watter musiekinstrument speel jy die graagste?

- Which musical instrument do you like playing most? (lit. most gladly).

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CHAPTER 4: ARTICLES

An article is a word (the, a, and an) which is placed in front of a noun.

Types of Article in English

1. The definite article the is normally used to identify a certain person or thing: I’m going to the
cinema.

2. The indefinite article a or an is usually used to indicate something unfamiliar or unspecific: He has a
car.

3. The partitive articles some or any (or no word) are used while talking about quantities or amounts:
We have some milk.

Definite and Indefinite Articles. Gender.

West Germanic languages have two articles, the definite and the indefinite. Unlike in English and
Afrikaans, the articles in German and Dutch languages vary according to the gender of the noun they
modify.

For example, the articles can be masculine, feminine (in German), or common gender (in Dutch),
neuter (German and Dutch) and plural forms (in all the West Germanic languages) - the complete
paradigms are shown below.

Being a non-autonomous word, the article has a

Did you know? distinct position. Like in English, the indefinite article
in German, Dutch and Afrikaans is placed in front of a
Germany is home to some of the noun.
most beautiful castles in the world.
There are around 25,000 castles which The definite article in these three West Germanic
makes Germany somewhat of a favourite languages also functions on the whole the same way as
destination among castle-loving travellers. the English definite article.

Below is the table demonstrating the forms of the definite and indefinite articles in West
Germanic languages.

German Dutch Afrikaans English

masc., fem., neut. com., neut. — —

Singular

Definite der, die, das de, het die the

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German Dutch Afrikaans English

Indefinite ein, eine, ein een 'n a, an

Plural

Definite die de die the

Indefinite* — — — —

* Note that, as in English, there is no plural indefinite articles in other West Germanic languages.

NOTE:
German
In German, articles are also declined according to the case of their nouns. (See
Case p. 112 and Article Declension in German p. 234).
Dutch
In Dutch, de is used as the singular definite article with over two-thirds of
Dutch nouns, which are of “common” gender, including masculine and feminine
genders. Het is the singular definite article used with the remaining nouns. It is
neuter in gender.
Afrikaans
In Afrikaans, grammatical gender of articles has died out, just as it has in
English. The definite article for all nouns is die - “the”.

Observe the following example:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

Singular Definite

der Mann (masc.) de man (com.) die man the man

die Kuh (fem.) de koe (com.) die koei the cow
das Haus (neut.) het huis (neut.) die huis the house

Singular Indefinite

ein Mann (masc.) een man 'n man a man

eine Kuh (fem.) een koe 'n koei a cow
ein Haus (neut.) een huis 'n huis a house

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German Dutch Afrikaans English

Plural Definite

die Männer de mannen die manne the men

die Kühe de koeien die koeie the cows
die Häuser de huizen die huise the houses

Plural Indefinite

— — — —

It should be noted that the gender of nouns in German and Dutch must be learned by memorizing
the definite articles with the noun.

NOTE:
In Dutch, the unstressed form of het is ’t. It is used mainly in informal writing,
for example:

Dut. het huis -> ’t huis

Observe one more example:

Definite article Indefinite article

Singular
German Die Stadt (fem.) ist groß Eine Stadt (fem.) ist groß

Dutch De stad (com.) is groot Een stad (com.) is groot

Afrikaans Die stad is groot ’n Stad is groot

English - The city is big - A city is big

Plural
German Die Städte sind groß Städte sind groß

Dutch De steden zijn groot Steden zijn groot

Afrikaans Die stede is groot Stede is groot

English - The cities are big - Cities are big

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NOTE:
In Afrikaans, the indefinite article 'n is never capitalized. When it occurs at the
beginning of a phrase the first letter of the next word must capitalized instead.
It should also be noted that the indefinite article ’n is widely pronounced as [ə]
in Afrikaans.

Use of the Article

In German, Dutch and Afrikaans, articles are used similarly to the English articles. In general
terms, the article in West Germanic languages has common ways of use.

General Use of the Indefinite Article

• It is used as numeral “one” to express only one thing a person has (See also Numbers p. 638):

Did you know? Ger. Ich habe ein Kind.

Neuschwanstein Castle (German: Dut. Ik heb één kind.*

Schloss Neuschwanstein) is one of the
most visited castles in Germany. It is a Afr. Ek het een kind.*
beautiful 19th-century palace and is located in
Bavaria near the town of Fussen. – I have one child.

NOTE:
In German, if followed by a noun ein also takes all the above endings. The
distinction in meaning between ‘one’ and ‘a/an’ is usually made by stressing the
former.
The ending is decided by the gender and case of the noun (See Case in
German p. 112). Compare the following:

Ger. Ich habe nur eine (stressed) Tochter. -> Ich habe eine Tochter.

- I have only one daughter. -> I have a daughter.

In Dutch, when the word een is used as a numeral meaning "one", it is stressed
and spelled as één.
In Afrikaans, however, the numeral “one” and the indefinite article “a/an” have
different forms. The numeral “one” is een and the indefinite article is 'n.

• It is used to refer to someone or something not yet known or not specifically identified:

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Ger. Meine Mutter spricht mit einer Frau.

Dut. Mijn moeder praat met een vrouw.

Afr. My ma praat met 'n vrou.

– My mother is talking to a woman.

Ger. Das ist ein Buch.

Dut. Dit is een boek.

Afr. Dit is 'n boek.

– This is a book.

General Use of the Definite Article

• Generally speaking, the definite article is used to refer to someone or something specific in a particular
situation:

Ger. Kannst du das Fenster schließen?

Dut. Kan je het raam dichtdoen?

Afr. Kan jy die venster toemaak?

– Can you close the window?

• It is used to refer to the object which is unique in its category:

Did you know? Ger. Die Sonne scheint.

Aruba is a constituent country of Dut. De zon schijnt.

the Kingdom of the Netherlands
which is located in the mid-south of the Afr. Die son skyn.
Caribbean Sea. Oranjestad is the capital – The sun is shining.
of Aruba.

• The definite article is put before a noun which is used to refer to an entire category of people or things in
general:

Ger. Der Löwe ist ein schnelles Tier.

Dut. De leeuw is een snel dier.

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Afr. Die leeu is 'n vinnige dier.

- The lion is a fast animal.

• It is used with a variety of abstract nouns when they have a general use:

Below is a table presenting some common abstract nouns:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

die Armut de armoede die armoede poverty

die Geschichte de geschiedenis die geskiedenis history

das Leben het leven die lewe life

die Liebe de liefde die liefde love

der Mut de moed die moed courage

die Natur de natuur die natuur nature

der Tod de dood die dood death

die Wahrheit de waarheid die waarheid truth

Ger. Wir müssen die Armut in unserem Land verringern.

Dut. We moeten de armoede in ons land terugdringen.

Afr. Ons moet die armoede in ons land verminder.

- We must reduce the poverty in our country.

Ger. Sie mag die Natur.

Dut. Ze houdt van de natuur.

Afr. Sy hou van die natuur.

- She likes nature.

• It is used to refer to an object that became certain as it had been mentioned earlier:

Ger. Er hat ein Auto. Das Auto ist neu.

Dut. Hij heeft een auto. De auto is nieuw.

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Afr. Hy het 'n kar. Die kar is nuut.

– He has a car. The car is new.

• It is used before a noun that has a definition specifying the object being discussed:

Ger. Nimm die Zeitung, die auf dem Tisch liegt.

Dut. Neem de krant die op de tafel ligt.

Afr. Neem die koerant dit op die tafel lê.

- Take the newspaper that is on the table.

• It is used for any noun that refers to a general idea, practice or phenomenon. This includes colours,
diseases, fields of activity and meals:

Did you know? Ger. Ich mag die Farbe Grün.

Botswana's Chobe National Park Dut. Ik hou van de kleur groen.

is the first and most biologically
diverse national park It is home to the Afr. Ek hou van die kleur groen.
densest elephant population in the world
- I like the color green.
(over 50,000).

• It is always used before seasons where it is often optional in English:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

der Frühling de lente die lente spring

der Sommer de zomer die somer summer

der Herbst de herfst die herfs autumn

der Winter de winter die winter winter

For instance:

Ger. Ich war im Winter in Berlin.

Dut. Ik was in de winter in Berlijn.

Afr. Ek was in die winter in Berlyn.

– I was in Berlin in winter.

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• It is used before names of towns, countries or regions when they are preceded/qualified by an adjective:

Did you know? Ger. Das schöne Amsterdam.

Berlin, Germany’s capital, has three Dut. Het prachtige Amsterdam.

world class opera houses. The
Deutsche Oper, the Staatsoper Unter den Afr. Die pragtige Amsterdam.
Linden and the Komische Oper. They can
accommodate more than 4,400 opera – Beautiful Amsterdam.
attendees, which is more than in any other
city in the world.

• It is used instead of the possessive adjective with parts of the body when preceded by a preposition:

Ger. Sie hat ein Muttermal auf der Schulter

Dut. Ze heeft een moedervlek op de schouder

Afr. Sy het 'n moesie op die skouer.

- She has a mole on her shoulder.

• It is also used with meals after prepositions:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

nach dem Frühstück na het ontbijt na die ontbyt after breakfast

vor dem Abendessen voor het avondeten voor die aandete before dinner

beim Mittagessen bij de lunch/middageten by die middagete at lunch

Ger. Nach dem Frühstück gehen wir in den Park.

Dut. Na het ontbijt gaan we naar het park.

Afr. Na die ontbyt gaan ons park toe.

– After breakfast we go to the park.

• It is used before the names of streets:

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Ger. Ich wohne in der Müllerstraße.

Dut. Ik woon in de Müllerstraat.

Afr. Ek woon in die Müllerstraat.

– I live on Müller Street.

NOTE:
In German, the names of a few countries also add the definite article. Study the
following:
German English

der Sudan (masc.) Sudan

die Schweiz (fem.) Switzerland

die Niederlande (pl.) The Netherlands

Remember to use the appropriate case of the definite article where a preposition
is used (See Case p. 112 and Article Declension in German p. 234):

Ger. Die Hauptstadt des Sudan.

- The capital of Sudan.

In Dutch and Afrikaans, there are a few countries that are also preceded by the
definite article. However, such cases correspond with English usage:

Dut. De hoofdstad van het Verenigd Koninkrijk.

Afr. Die hoofstad van die Verenigde Koninkryk.
- The capital of the United Kingdom.

• It is used in numerous adverbial expressions and idioms together with prepositions in German, Dutch
and Afrikaans where the article is not required in English.

Below is a table presenting some frequently used adverbial expressions and idioms:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

in die Stadt/in der Stadt in de stad in die stad in town

in die Kirche/in der Kirche in de kerk in die kerk in church

im Krankenhaus in het ziekenhuis in die hospitaal in hospital

im Gefängnis in de gevangenis in die tronk in prison

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German Dutch Afrikaans English

bei der Arbeit aan/op het werk by/op die werk at work

an der Universität op de universiteit op die universiteit at university

in der Hölle in de hel in die hel in hell

im Himmel in de hemel in die hemel in heaven

in der Praxis in de praktijk in die praktyk in practice

im Geheimen in het geheim in die geheim in secret

in der Öffentlichkeit in het openbaar in die openbaar in public

aus der Mode uit de mode uit die mode out of fashion

in der Zukunft in de toekomst in die toekoms in future

aus dem Deutschen uit het Duits vertalen uit die Duits vertaal to translate from
übersetzen German
ins Niederländische naar het Nederlands in die Nederlands to translate into Dutch
übersetzen vertalen vertaal
an die Macht kommen aan de macht komen aan die bewind kom to come to power

mit dem Auto/Zug met de auto/trein met die motor/trein by car/train

mit der Hand met de hand met die hand by hand

das nächste Mal de volgende keer die volgende keer next time

For instance:

Ger. Er ist jetzt bei der Arbeit.

Dut. Hij is nu op het werk.

Afr. Hy is nou by die werk.

– He is at work now.

Omission of the Indefinite Article

1. Unlike in English, the indefinite article is usually omitted in German, Dutch and Afrikaans before
names of professions, nationalities and religion after the following copula verbs:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

sein zijn wees to be

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German Dutch Afrikaans English

werden worden word to become

bleiben blijven bly to remain

For example:

Did you know? Ger. Er ist Lehrer.

Brussels (Dutch: Brussel), Dut. Hij is leraar.
Belgium, is the de facto
administrative centre of the European Afr. Hy is onderwyser.
Union, as it is home to a number of main
EU institutions. - He is a teacher.

NOTE:
It should be mentioned that it is never wrong to use the indefinite article in this
case:

Ger. Er ist ein Lehrer.

Dut. Hij is een leraar.
Afr. Hy is 'n onderwyser.
- He is a teacher.

However, the indefinite article must always be used when the profession, nationality and religion
is preceded/modified by an adjective:

Ger. Er ist ein berühmter Lehrer.

Dut. Hij is een beroemde leraar.

Afr. Hy is 'n beroemde onderwyser.

- He is a famous teacher.

2. The indefinite article is omitted in several standard expressions:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

Das ist schade Dat is jammer Dit is jammer That’s a pity

Kopfschmerzen haben hoofdpijn hebben hoofpyn hê to have a headache

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German Dutch Afrikaans English

Es ist Viertel vor/nach Het is kwart voor/over Dit is kwart voor/oor It is a quarter to /past
vier vier vier four

3. The indefinite article is usually omitted after the prepositions:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

als als as as

ohne zonder sonder without

Ger. Er arbeitet als Kellner.

Dut. Hij werkt als kelner.

Afr. Hy werk as kelner.

- He works as a waiter.

Ger. Er ist ohne Regenschirm spazieren gegangen.

Dut. Hij is zonder paraplu gaan wandelen.

Afr. Hy het sonder sambreel gaan stap.

- He has gone for a walk without an umbrella.

NOTE:
In English it is common to begin a sentence with “as a + profession”. However,
in German, Dutch and Afrikaans, it is best to omit the article in such cases:

Ger. Als Politiker weiß ich, dass...

Dut. Als politicus weet ik dat...
Afr. As politikus weet ek dat...
- As a politician I know that...

4. The indefinite article is omitted if there is a numeral or pronoun put before a noun.

Ger. Seine Flasche Wein.

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Dut. Zijn fles wijn.

Afr. Sy bottel wyn.

- His bottle of wine.

5. Unlike in German and Dutch, in Afrikaans, the definite article is omitted with post-positioned toe -
“to”. Study the following:

Did you know? Ger. Ich gehe zum Arzt.

Amsterdam, the Netherlands’ capital, Dut. Ik ga naar de dokter.
is home to the Rijksmuseum, which is
the largest art museum in the country. It has Afr. Ek gaan dokter toe.
around 8,000 objects of art and history,
including masterpieces by Rembrandt and - I'm going to the doctor.
Vermeer.

NOTE:
In German, zum is the contracted form of the preposition zu - “to” and the
definite article dem (masculine, dative) (See also Contraction of
Prepositions and Articles in German p. 238)

6. In German, Dutch and Afrikaans, the indefinite article is not required before nouns in apposition:

Ger. Mein Freund, Schriftsteller, hat ein Buch geschrieben.

Dut. Mijn vriend, schrijver, heeft een boek geschreven.

Afr. My vriend, skrywer, het 'n boek geskryf.

- My friend, a writer, has written a book.

NOTE:
In German, Dutch and Afrikaans, however, it is not incorrect to use the
indefinite article before nouns in apposition. To compare:

Ger. Mein Freund, ein Schriftsteller, hat ein Buch geschrieben.

Dut. Mijn vriend, een schrijver, heeft een boek geschreven.

Afr. My vriend, 'n skrywer, het 'n boek geskryf.

- My friend, a writer, has written a book.

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7. In German, Dutch and Afrikaans, the definite article is usually omitted in a few prepositional phrases
where the English equivalents require it:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

als Ergebnis (+gen.) als gevolg van as gevolg van as a result of

auf demokratische Weise op democratische wijze op demokratiese wyse in a democratic way

8. The definite article is also omitted in a certain number of expression consisting of a noun and a verb in
German, Dutch and Afrikaans:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

Mitglied sein (+gen.) lid zijn van lid wees van to be a member of

Schmerzen haben pijn hebben pyn hê to have a pain

For instance:

Ger. Er ist Mitglied dieses Clubs.

Dut. Hij is lid van deze club.

Afr. Hy is lid van hierdie klub.

- He is a member of this club.

Ger. Ich habe Schmerzen im Rücken.

Dut. Ik heb pijn in de rug.

Afr. Ek het pyn in die rug.

- I’ve got a pain in the back.

9. Note that unlike in English, in German, Dutch and Afrikaans, the indefinite article can be omitted
before such numbers as:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

hundert honderd honderd hundred

tausend duizend duisend thousand

Study the following:

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Ger. Es gibt mehr als tausend Studenten an der Universität.

Dut. Er zijn meer dan duizend studenten op de universiteit.

Afr. Daar is meer as duisend studente in die universiteit.

- There are more than a thousand students in the university.

Omission of the Definite Article

1. The definite article in German, Dutch and Afrikaans is also omitted before names of musical
instruments:

Did you know? Ger. Ich spiele Klavier.

Dortmund, Germany, has unique Dut. Ik speel piano.

traditional meals in the region, such as
Pfefferpotthast (a traditional German beef Afr. Ek speel klavier.
stew), black pudding with stewed apples mixed
with mashed potatoes) and Pumpernickel with - I play the piano.
Griebenschmalz (German lard with crispy
pieces of pork skin).

2. The definite article in West Germanic languages is usually omitted before names of cities and towns:

Ger. Amsterdam ist die Hauptstadt der Niederlande.

Dut. Amsterdam is de hoofdstad van Nederland.

Afr. Amsterdam is die hoofstad van Nederland.

- Amsterdam is the capital of the Netherlands.

However, the definite article must be used when the names of cities and towns are modified by an
adjective. Note that in German and Dutch, the neuter definite article Ger. das, Dut. het is used in this
case:

Ger. Ich möchte das schöne Amsterdam besuchen.

Dut. Ik wil graag het mooie Amsterdam bezoeken.

Afr. Ek wil graag die pragtige Amsterdam besoek.

- I would like to visit the beautiful city of Amsterdam.

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NOTE:
In German, the feminine definite article die and in Dutch the common (masc.
and fem.) definite article de is used if we add the word Ger. Stadt, Dut. stad -
“city” to the above sentence. To compare:

Ger. Ich möchte die schöne Stadt Amsterdam besuchen.

Dut. Ik wil graag de prachtige stad Amsterdam bezoeken.

Afr. Ek wil graag die pragtige stad Amsterdam besoek.

- I would like to visit the beautiful city of Amsterdam.

3. In German, Dutch and Afrikaans, the definite article is usually omitted before names of languages after
the verbs Ger. sprechen, Dut. spreken, Afr. praat - “to speak”:

Did you know? Ger. Sprichst du Deutsch?

The Okavango Delta (or Okavango Dut. Spreek jij Duits?

Grassland) in Botswana is the Afr. Praat jy Duits?
largest inland delta in the world. It is an
UNESCO World Heritage Site. - Do you speak German?

NOTE:
In German, Dutch and Afrikaans, the definite article is also omitted before
names of sciences after the verbs Ger. studieren, Dut. studeren, Afr. studeer
- “to learn”:

Ger. Ich studiere Astronomie.

Dut. Ik studeer astronomie.
Afr. Ek studeer astronomie.
- I study astronomy.

It should be mentioned that unlike in German and Afrikaans, in Dutch, the definite article Dut.
het must be used in names of languages after the preposition Dut. in - “in”. Compare the following:

Ger. Es ist in Afrikaans geschrieben.

Dut. Het is in het Afrikaans geschreven.

Afr. Dit is in Afrikaans geskryf.

- It is written in Afrikaans.

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4. In German, Dutch and Afrikaans, the definite article is usually omitted in certain adverbial phrases. In
English, however, the definite article is required in such adverbial phrases:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

in erster Instanz in eerste instantie in eerste instansie in the first instance

in letzter Instanz in laatste instantie in laaste instansie in the last instance

in kurzer Zeit, kurzfristig op korte termijn op kort termyn in the short time

in gleicher Weise op gelijke wijze op gelyke wyse in the same manner

Anfang letzten Monats begin vorige maand begin verlede maand at the beginning of last
month
Ende letzten Jahres eind vorig jaar einde verlede jaar at the end of last year

5. In German, Dutch and Afrikaans, the definite article is normally not used before nouns in apposition:

Ger. Berlin, Hauptstadt Deutschlands, ist eine große Stadt.

Dut. Berlijn, hoofdstad van Duitsland, is een grote stad.

Afr. Berlyn, hoofstad van Duitsland, is 'n groot stad.

- Berlin, the capital of Germany, is a big city.

NOTE:
In German, Dutch and Afrikaans, however, it is not incorrect to insert the
definite article before nouns in apposition. To compare:

Ger. Berlin, die Hauptstadt Deutschlands, ist eine große Stadt.

Dut. Berlijn, de hoofdstad van Duitsland, is een grote stad.

Afr. Berlyn, die hoofstad van Duitsland, is 'n groot stad.

- Berlin, the capital of Germany, is a big city.

Article Declension in German

In German, the definite articles are der (masculine), die (feminine or plural), and das (neuter).
The indefinite articles are ein (masculine, neuter) and eine (feminine). Study the following example:

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Ger. Es ist ein Kuchen. Der Kuchen ist frisch.

- It is a cake. The cake is fresh.

Unlike in other Germanic languages, in German, the articles change their form to indicate the
gender, number, or case of a noun.

Indefinite Article
Below is the table demonstrating the declension (endings) of inde nite articles in German.

Masculine Feminine Neuter Plural

Nominative ein eine ein __

Accusative einen eine ein __

Dative einem einer einem __

Genitive eines einer eines __

Note that in German the same endings must be used for the following negative indefinite article-
like words and possessive adjectives/determiners (See also Possessive Adjectives p. 288):

German English

kein- no, none

mein- my

dein- your

sein- his

ihr- her, their

unser- our

euer/eur- your (plural)

Ihr- your

Below is the table showing the endings of the possessive adjective mein - “my” in ected like
the inde nite article in German.

Masculine Feminine Neuter Plural

Nominative mein meine mein meine

mein Sohn meine Tochter mein Haus meine Autos

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fi
fi
fl
 CHAPTER 4: ARTICLES

Masculine Feminine Neuter Plural

Accusative meinen meine mein meine

meinen Sohn meine Tochter mein Haus meine Autos
Dative meinem meiner meinem -en
meinem Sohn meiner Tochter meinem Haus meinen Autos
Genitive meines meiner meines meiner
meines Sohnes meiner Tochter meines Hauses meiner Autos

For instance:

Ger. Ich gebe meinem (masc. dat.) Sohn den Schlüssel.

– I give the key to my son. (I give my son the key.)

Ger. Sie kennt meine (fem. acc.) Tochter.

– She knows my daughter.

NOTE:
In German, when followed by a plural noun the following indefinite pronouns
are also used as determiners and thus must be inflected for case (See also
Indefinite Pronouns p. 352):
German English

alle all

andere other

einige some

mehrere several

viele many

wenige few

verschiedene various

Below is the table showing the indefinite pronoun viele - “many” inflected for
case:
Plural

Nominative viele Autos

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Plural

Accusative viele Autos

Dative vielen Autos

Genitive vieler Autos

For instance:

Ger. Sie haben viele (acc.) Autos.

- They have many cars.

Ger. Er lebt in mehreren (dat.) Häusern.

- He lives in several houses.

Definite Article
Below is the table demonstrating the declension (endings) of the de nite article in German.

Masculine Feminine Neuter Plural

Nominative der die das die

Accusative den die das die

Dative dem der dem den

Genitive des der des der

It is worth saying that in German, there are other determiners, also called “der words”, that add
similar endings. They are demonstrative pronouns and relative pronouns (See Demonstrative
pronouns p. 318 and Relative pronouns p. 338).

German English

dies- this/that

welch- which

jed- every

manch- many

solch- such

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Below is the table showing the endings of the demonstrative pronoun dies- - “this” inflected
like the definite article in German.

Masculine Feminine Neuter Plural

Nominative dieser diese dieses diese

dieser Mann diese Frau dieses Haus diese Autos
Accusative diesen diese dieses diese
meinen Mann diese Frau dieses Haus diese Autos
Dative diesem dieser diesem diesen
diesem Mann dieser Frau diesem Haus diesen Autos
Genitive dieses dieser dieses dieser
dieses Mannes dieser Frau dieses Hauses dieser Autos

For instance:

Did you know? Ger. Ich wohne in diesem (neut. dat.) Haus.

The Berlin Television Tower, – I live in this house.

known as the Fernsehturm, is the
tallest structure in Germany, and the 3rd
tallest structure in the European Union. Ger. Ich kenne diesen (masc. acc.) Mann.
The tower stands at 368 metres (1207').
– I know this man.

As you can see from the above tables the German article is more complicated than that of other
Germanic languages.

Before choosing the correct article form, you need to ask yourself firstly if the following noun is
masculine, feminine, neuter or plural and secondly if that noun is the subject (nominative), direct object
(accusative), indirect object (dative) or shows possession (genitive).

Contraction of Prepositions and Articles in German

In German, definite articles and the most frequently used prepositions can be contracted or
blended. In English, this phenomenon exists in other grammatical forms, for example: do + not = don’t,
does + not = doesn’t, etc.

However, in German, this is only possible when the article is not stressed. The definite articles
that can be contracted are Ger. dem, das and der. All other definite articles are never contracted.

To form such contracted forms in German, we should retain the preposition and add the last
letter of the definite article to it, for example: für + das = fürs, zu + dem = zum, etc.

Note that if prepositions end with -n such as in, an and von, they must be combined with the
definite article dem.

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So, to obtain such forms in German, we omit the -n and change it to an -m, for instance: in +
dem = im, an + dem = am, etc.

The prepositions and articles can be contracted as follows:

German English

an + das = ans/an + dem = am on the; at the

auf + das = aufs on the

bei + dem = beim with the; at the

durch + das = durchs through the; because of the

für + das = fürs for the

hinter + das = hinters/hinter + dem = hinterm behind the

in + das = ins/in + dem = im in the

über + das = übers/über + dem = überm over the; about the

um + das = ums around the

unter + das = unters/unter + dem = unterm under the

von + dem = vom from the; of the

vor + das = vors/vor + dem = vorm in front of the; before the

zu + der = zur/zu + dem = zum to the; towards the

NOTE:
Unlike in German, in Dutch and Afrikaans, definite articles and prepositions are
never contracted.

Observe the following:

Ger. Er spielt im Park. (in + dem = im)

Dut. Hij speelt in het park.

Afr. Hy speel in die park.

- He is playing in the park.

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Below are some more examples, which will help us understand when to use a contracted form of a
preposition and a definite article and when not in German. Even though the articles and prepositions are
not contracted in Dutch and Afrikaans, the examples will also be added for the sake of comparison.

In the example 1, in German, the preposition and the definite article are contracted because the
definite article is unstressed.

In the example 2, the preposition and the definite article are not contracted because the definite
article is stressed in order to refer to a particular object in German. Compare the following:

Example 1

Did you know? Ger. Ich würde gerne im Büro arbeiten.

Essen is the ninth-largest city in Dut. Ik wil graag op kantoor werken.

Germany, with a population of around
600,000 people. It is a major economic hub Afr. Ek wil graag op kantoor werk.
located in the highly industrialized Ruhr region.
- I would like to work at the office.
The city is referred to as the country's “Energy
Capital”. Germany's largest electric utility and
renewable energy companies are headquartered
in Essen.

Example 2

Ger. Ich würde gerne in dem Büro neben dem Park arbeiten.

Dut. Ik wil graag op het kantoor naast het park werken.

Afr. Ek wil graag op die kantoor langs die park werk.

- I would like to work in the office (which is) next to the park.

NOTE:
In Dutch and Afrikaans, the definite article is omitted in the adverbial
expression op kantoor - “at the office”.
However, the definite article must be used if we want to refer to a particular
office in Dutch and Afrikaans (See Example 2 above).

From the table and examples above it is clear that German differs from Dutch and Afrikaans in
terms of grammatical system of contraction of the definite article with prepositions.

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CHAPTER 5: PRONOUNS
A pronoun is a word we use and which serves as a noun when we do not want or need to name
something or someone directly, for instance, I, you, it, him, her.

The following major subclasses of pronouns occur in German, Dutch and Afrikaans:

1. personal pronouns (e.g. Ger. ich; Dut. ik; Afr. ek - I);

2. possessive pronouns (e.g. Ger. mein; Dut. mijn; Afr. my - my);

3. reflexive pronouns (e.g. Ger. mich; Dut. me; Afr. my - myself);

4. demonstrative pronouns (e.g. Ger. dies; Dut. deze; Afr. hierdie - this);

5. relative pronouns (e.g. Ger. der Mann, der…; Dut. de man die…; Afr. die man wat… - the man
who/that);

6. interrogative pronouns (e.g. Ger. wer; Dut. wie; Afr. wie - who);

7. indefinite pronouns (e.g. Ger. jemand; Dut. iemand; Afr. iemand - someone).

Each category of pronouns is looked at individually in this chapter.

Personal Pronouns
There are four types of personal pronouns in Germanic languages:
• subject pronouns (nominative case);
• direct object pronouns (accusative case);
• indirect object pronouns (dative case);
• reflexive pronouns;

Below is the table showing all the types of personal pronouns:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

Subject (Nominative)

ich ik (‘k) ek I

du (inf.)/Sie (f.) jij (je) (inf.)/u (f.) jy (inf.)/u (f.) you

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German Dutch Afrikaans English

er hij (-ie) hy he

sie zij (ze) sy she

es het (’t) dit it

wir wij (we) ons we

ihr jullie (inf.)/u (f.) julle (inf.)/u (f.) you (pl. f.)

sie zij (ze) hulle they

Direct Object (Accusative)

mich mij (me) my me

dich jou (je) (inf.)/u (f.) jou (inf.)/u (f.) you

ihn hem (’m) hom him

sie haar (d’r/’r) haar her

es het (’t) dit it

uns ons ons us

euch jullie (inf.)/u (f.) julle you

sie (pl.)/Sie (f.) hen (ze)/hun (ze) hulle them

Indirect Object (Dative)

mir mij (me) my me

dir jou (je) (inf.)/u (f.) jou (inf.)/u (f.) you

ihm hem (’m) hom him

ihr haar (d’r/’r) haar her

ihm het (’t) dit it

uns ons ons us

euch jullie (inf.)/u (f.) julle you

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German Dutch Afrikaans English

ihnen (pl.)/ hen (ze)/hun (ze) hulle them

ihnen (f.)
Possessive (Genitive)

meiner (mein) mijn/mijne my/myne my (mine)

(van mij) (van my)
deiner (dein) jouw/jouwe (van jou) jou/joune (van jou) your (yours)
(inf.)/ (inf.)/
uw/uwe (van u)(f.) u/u s’n (van u) (f.)

seiner (sein) zijn (van hem) sy/syne his (his)

(van hom)
ihrer haar (van haar) haar/hare her (hers)
(van haar)
seiner (sein) zijn (van hem) sy/syne its (—)
(van hom)
unser ons/onze (van ons) ons/ons s’n our (ours)
(van ons)
euer jullie (van jullie) julle, jul/julle s’n your (yours)
(van julle)
ihrer (pl.)/ hun (van hun/hen) hulle, hul/hulle s’n their (theirs)
ihrer (f.) (van hon)

Subject Pronouns
Overview

A subject pronoun, such as I, he, we, they, is used to perform the action, which is presented by the
verb.

Generally, subject or personal pronouns replace a subject noun or name, and they can be
classified in several different ways: person (1st , 2nd or 3rd), number (singular or plural), gender (male or
female) and formality (formal or informal) in the West Germanic languages.

Below is the table showing all the forms of subject pronouns in German, Dutch and Afrikaans:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

ich ik (’k)* ek I

du (inf.)/Sie (f.) jij (je) (inf.)/u (f.) jy (inf.)/u (f.) you

er hij (-ie)* hy he

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German Dutch Afrikaans English

sie zij (ze)* sy she

es het (’t)* dit it

wir wij (we)* ons we

ihr jullie (inf.)/u (f.) julle (inf.)/u (f.) you (pl. f.)

sie (pl.) zij (ze)* hulle they

* It should be noted that in Dutch, the pronouns can occur in a stressed form and an unstressed
form, which will be described below.

Stressed and Unstressed Pronouns in Dutch

In Dutch, the stressed forms retain the original full vowel, and are usually used in writing. They
are also used in speaking if particular emphasis or contrast on the person is needed.

All unstressed forms except -ie normally replace the vowel with a schwa /ə/ (a short e sound),
and are used in speaking where the emphasis is normally not on the pronoun but on the following verb.
The unstressed forms are shown in brackets in the above table.

Note that the unstressed forms are also used in

Did you know? less formal writing. However, -ie (variant of he) is
almost never used in writing. The -ie can only be used
Basel is a city in northern in subordinate clauses or in questions.
Switzerland on the Rhine River,
very close to the country’s borders with It is normally marked with a dash to show that it
France and Germany. The official is not a typical pronoun. This construction is quite
language of Basel is (the Swiss variant of informal, for example:
Standard) German.

Gaat-ie weg?

- Is he leaving?

The unstressed pronouns ’k - I, ’t - it, tend to almost completely merge with the following word,
as in English “twas.”

Although stressed forms and unstressed forms are generally interchangeable, in order to avoid
any confusion or misuse of the unstressed forms, it is advisable to always use the stressed forms, as it is
always correct to use stressed forms, but not always correct to use the unstressed forms, for example:

Dutch English

- Wie heeft dat gezegd? - Who said that?

- ik. - I did.

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NOTE:
In Afrikaans and Dutch, there is a stressed variant of Dut. ik, Afr. ek, which is
Dut. ikke, Afr. ekke. It is not common but is sometimes heard in one word
retorts, for example:
Dutch Afrikaans English

- Wie zei dat? - ikke - Wie het dit gesê? - ekke. - Who said that? - I did.

General Use of Subject Pronouns

• Subject pronouns are used instead of nouns when it is clear who we talk about. Observe the following:

Ger. Andreas reist. Er hat viele Länder besucht.

Dut. Andreas reist. Hij heeft veel landen bezocht.

Afr. Andreas reis. Hy het baie lande besoek.

- Andreas is travelling. He has visited many countries.

As it is seen in the above example, the pronoun he substitutes the noun Andreas, to which it
refers back. Using the pronoun means that one can avoid repeating the noun.

• It should be noted that in comparatives the subject pronoun must be used in German, Dutch and
Afrikaans, never the object pronoun as in colloquial English. Study the following:

Ger. Er ist größer als ich/du/wir.

Dut. Hij is groter dan ik/jij/wij.

Afr. Hy is groter as ek/jy/ons.

- He is taller than me/you/us.

• Similar to the above, in English, object pronouns are colloquially used in the following expression, but
in German, Dutch and Afrikaans only subject pronouns must be used:

Ger. Wenn ich du/er/sie wäre...

Dut. Als ik jou/hem/haar was...

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Afr. As ek jy/hy/sy was...

- If I were you/him/her … ( = If I were he/she ...)

• Remember that in German, Dutch and Afrikaans, if a pronoun is expressed in isolation when
responding to a question, we should imagine the unsaid sentence of which it is theoretically part and
use the appropriate case form of the pronoun (nominative, accusative, dative).

Compare the following examples:

Did you know? Example 1

Maastricht is one of the oldest cities in Ger. Wer hat ihm das gesagt? - Ich.
the Netherlands, founded by the
Romans. It is mentioned in ancient documents Dut. - Wie heeft hem dat verteld? - Ik.
dating back to 575. Fragments of Roman
sculptures are displayed in the city's public Afr. - Wie het hom dit vertel? - Ek.
library - Centre Céramique.
- Who told him? - Me (I did)

Example 2

Ger. - Wem hat sie die Brieftasche gegeben? - Mir.

Dut. - Aan wie heeft ze de portemonnee gegeven? - Mij.

Afr. - Vir wie het sy die beursie gegee? - My.

- Who did she give the wallet to? - Me.

In the example 1, in German, Dutch and Afrikaans, the subject pronoun is used in response to a
question. In the example 2, however, the indirect object pronoun is used (See Indirect Object p. 272).

Use of The First Person Singular

Ger. ich, Dut. ik (’k), Afr. ek - “I” is referred to as the 1st person singular in the West Germanic
languages. For example:

Ger. Ich bin ein Student.

Dut. Ik ben een student.

Afr. Ek is 'n student.

- I am a student.

NOTE:
Remember that the English rule of putting the first person singular “I” last in

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the expression you and I also exists in German, Dutch and Afrikaans:

Ger. Du und ich.

Dut. Jij en ik.
Afr. Jy en ek.
- You and I.

Use of The Second Person Singular and Plural

In English, there is no formal distinction between singular you and plural you. To make the
reference explicitly plural, speakers can say, for example, both of you, you both, all of you, the two/three
of you, you people, you guys etc.

Unlike in English, In German, Dutch and Afrikaans, there are several ways to express you:

Familiar way of addressing people:

Singular Plural

German du ihr

Dutch jij jullie

Afrikaans jy julle

English you (both singular and plural)

The examples above are basically used to address people one knows very well: close friends,
relatives and children, i.e. people whom one usually dresses by their first name. Observe the following:

Ger Gehst du zum Kino?

Dut. Ga jij naar de bioscoop?

Afr. Gaan jy bioskoop toe?

- Are you going to the cinema?

Ger. Geht ihr ins Kino?

Dut. Gaan jullie naar de bioscoop?

Afr. Gaan julle bioskoop toe?

- Are you guys going to the cinema? (more than one person)

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NOTE:
The Flemish people often use ge (unstressed) or gij (stressed) instead of je/jij.
In Holland, however, this form is not used anymore.

Formal way of addressing people:

Singular and Plural

German Sie (naturally 2nd person plural, but grammatically 3rd person plural)

Dutch u (2nd person singular and plural)

Afrikaans u (2nd person singular and plural)

English you (2nd person singular and plural)

NOTE:
In German, Sie - “you" (polite) is derived from sie - “they” it is capitalized to
distinguish it from sie in writing.

These pronouns are used to address older people, strangers, acquaintances, people whom one
does not know very well or has never met before, or to show a relationship that is polite and respectful.
For instance:

Ger. Gehen Sie ins Kino, Herr (Frau) Müller?

Dut. Gaat u naar de bioscoop, meneer (mevrouw) Müller?

Afr. Gaan u bioskoop toe, meneer (mevrou) Müller?

- Are you going to the cinema, mister (madam) Müller?

NOTE:
In Afrikaans, it is common these days to use the informal pronoun jy to a
stranger while addressing the person with Meneer or Mevrou:

Afr. Gaan jy bioskoop toe, mevrou Müller?

Unlike in Afrikaans, in German and Dutch, the formal pronoun Ger. Sie, Dut. u
would be required here.

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Peculiarities of Use of The Second Person Plural

• In Dutch and Afrikaans, the second plural u is considered to be very formal and is rarely used (in
particularly formal situations, e.g. when addressing a crowd of people). The informal Dut. jullie and
Afr. julle are more commonly used (instead of the formal u).

Remember that in Dutch and Afrikaans, u is normally written in lowercase. U (with a capital
letter) is too formal and not very common anymore.

NOTE:
Unlike in Dutch and Afrikaans, in German, the second person plural Ger. Sie -
“you” (polite) is very common and is widely used in this case.

Study the following:

Ger. Beste gasten, kunnen jullie mij horen?

Dut. Liewe gaste, kan julle my hoor?

Afr. Liebe Gäste, können Sie mich hören?

- Dear guests, can you hear me?

NOTE:
In Afrikaans, even though it is never written, a compromise form between julle
and u is u-hulle:

Afr. Liewe gaste, kan u-julle my hoor?

- Dear guests, can you hear me?

In German, it is important to notice the distinction between the capitalized Sie, which are formal
“you”, and sie which mean “she” and “they”.

Also, it should be noted that German capitalized Sie always take the 3rd person plural form of the
verb, even though it is placed in the 2nd person in the table above. For instance:

Ger. Sie können Englisch sprechen.

- You, sir, can speak English.

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• It is worth saying that as an English speaker you may find it difficult to judge when the appropriate time
has come for you to change from the formal Sie to the familiar form du in German and from the formal
u to the familiar jij in Dutch and jy in Afrikaans.

So it is advisable to translate English “you” by Ger. Sie and Dut. u when addressing strangers and
acquaintances rather than using the familiar second person pronouns Ger. du, ihr and Dut. jij, jullie.

It is considered as the polite or non-familiar form of address. Leave it up to the German and
Dutch to make the move, especially if she or he is older than you. For example:

Ger. Was möchten Sie trinken, Herr Müller? - Bitte, nenn mich Ben.

Dut. Wat wilt u drinken, meneer Müller? - Noem me alsjeblieft Ben.

Afr. Wat wil u drink, meneer Müller? - Noem my asseblief Bill.

- What would you like to drink, Mr. Müller? - Please call me Bill.

Use of The Third Person Singular

A. With Inanimate Objects:

7. Since inanimate things have 3 genders (masculine, feminine and neuter) in German and 2 genders
(common, which includes masculine and feminine and neuter) in Dutch, the 3rd person singular
pronouns Ger. er -“he”, sie -“she”, es -“it” are used when relating back to a masculine, feminine and
neuter noun respectively; and Dut. het -“it” must be used for neuter nouns and hij -“he” for all others,
even though in English, the rule states that inanimate objects are not usually personalized and used
with the pronouns “he or “she”. In this case an English speaker would use the pronoun “it”.

NOTE:
Afrikaans
Unlike in German and Dutch, and just like in English, in Afrikaans, as there is
no longer any distinction in the gender of nouns, one would use the pronoun dit
- “it” when referring to all inanimate nouns.

Below is the table showing the 3rd person singular pronouns used with inanimate nouns in
German, Dutch and Afrikaans:

3rd Person Singular Pronouns

German er - “he” (with masc. gender nouns), sie - “she” (with fem. gender nouns), es - “it” (with neut.
gender nouns)
Dutch hij - “he” (with common gender nouns, which includes masc. and fem. nouns), het - “it” (with
neut. gender nouns)
Afrikaans dit - “it” (with all the nouns)

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Observe the following:

Ger. Wo ist mein Stift (masc.)? - Er ist auf dem Tisch.

Dut. Waar is mijn pen (common)? - Hij ligt op de tafel.

but: Afr. Waar is my pen? - Dit is op die tafel.

but: - Where is my pen? - It is on the table.

Study one more example:

Ger. Wo ist das Buch (neut.)? - Es ist auf dem Regal.

Dut. Waar is het boek (neut.)? - Het ligt op de plank.

but: Afr. Waar is die boek? - Dit is op die rak.

but: - Where is the book? - It is on the shelf.

8. Despite the rule presented above saying that pronouns Ger. er, sie or es; and Dut. het or hij used to
substitute an inanimate noun usually agree in gender with that inanimate noun in German and Dutch,
the pronouns Ger. es and Dut. het must be used when:

• the verb that follows is Ger. sein and Dut. zijn - “to be” and

• the predicate of the clause (i.e. the part which follows the verb) includes a noun or an adjective used as a
noun. Observe the following:

Ger. Er hat einen Computer gekauft. Es ist ein neuer Computer. Es ist ein neuer.
Dut. Hij heeft een computer gekocht. Het is een nieuwe computer. Het is een nieuwe.

- He has bought a computer. It is a new computer. It is a new one.

However, if the predicate of the clause contains only an adjective, then Ger. er, sie or es and Dut.
het or hij must be used, depending on the gender of the noun to which these pronouns refer. For
example:

Ger. Er hat einen Computer gekauft. Er ist neu.

Dut. Hij heeft een computer gekocht. Hij is nieuw.

- He has bought a computer. It is new.

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NOTE:
Just like in English, in Afrikaans, in both cases, the 3rd person singular pronoun
Afr. dit - “it” is used. Study the following examples:

Afr. Hy het 'n rekenaar gekoop. Dit is 'n nuwe rekenaar. Dit is 'n nuwe een.

- He has bought a computer. It is a new computer. It is a new one.

Afr. Hy het 'n rekenaar gekoop. Dit is nuut.

- He has bought a computer. It is new.

9. But further still, the use of the 3rd person singular pronouns Ger. es and Dut. het is not limited to the
above in German and Dutch. They are also used:

• with reference to plural antecedents and being followed by a plural form of the verb Ger. sein; Dut.
zijn - to be.

Ger. Sie mieten zwei Häuser in Berlin. Es sind sehr teuere Häuser.

Dut. Ze huren twee huizen in Berlijn. Het zijn hele dure huizen.

Afr. Hulle huur twee huise in Berlyn. Hulle is baie duur huise.

- They rent two houses in Berlin. They are quite expensive houses.

NOTE:
In Afrikaans and English, as you can see the 3rd person plural pronoun Afr.
hulle - “they” is used in this case.

Remember that if the predicate of the clause contains only an adjective (without a noun), then
just like in Afrikaans and English the 3rd person plural Ger. sie, Dut. zij (ze), Afr. hulle - “they” must be
used along with the plural form of the verb Ger. sein; Dut. zijn - “to be” in German and Dutch. Study the
following:

Ger. Sie sind teuer.

Dut. Ze zijn duur.

Afr. Hulle is duur.

- They are expensive.

• The 3rd person singular pronouns Ger. es and Dut. het are used in the introductory phrase meaning “it
is” or “they are” when the object(s) or person(s) have not been specifically named as yet, for example:

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Ger. Es ist mein Auto.

Dut. Het is mijn auto.

Afr. Dit is my kar.

- It is my car.

Similarly, Ger. dies/das, Dut. dit/dat - “this/that/these/those" can also be used in this case
(See also Demonstrative Adjectives and Pronouns p. 313).

NOTE:
In Afrikaans, the 3rd person singular Afr. dit - “it” is still used in this case.

Observe the following:

Ger. Das sind freundliche Hunde.

Dut. Dat zijn vriendelijke honden.

Afr. Dit is vriendelike honde.

- Those are friendly dogs.

B. With Animate Nouns:

In West Germanic languages, the 3rd person single pronouns Ger. er, sie, Dut. hij, zij, Afr. hy,
sy - “he”, “she” are used with animate masculine and feminine nouns (people, animals) respectively.

In this case the use of the 3rd person singular neuter noun Eng. it; Ger. es; Dut. het, Afr. dit
instead of the 3rd person masculine and feminine is optional. However, the use of Ger. er, sie; Dut. hij,
zij, Afr. hy, sy is more usual.

Below is the table showing the 3rd person singular pronouns used with animate nouns in
German, Dutch and Afrikaans:

3rd Person Singular Pronouns

German er - “he” (with masc. nouns), sie - “she” (with fem. nouns), es - “it” (optional with masc. and
fem. nouns)
Dutch hij - “he” (with masc. nouns), zij - “she” (with fem. nouns), het - “it” (optional with masc. and
fem. nouns)

Afrikaans hy - “he” (with masc. nouns), zy - “she” (with fem. nouns), dit - “it” (optional with masc. and
fem. nouns)

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Look at the following example:

Ger. Mein Freund ist Professor. Er/Es ist ein intelligenter Mann;

Dut. Mijn vriend is professor. Hij/Het is een intelligente man.

Afr. My vriend is professor. Hy/Dit is 'n intelligente man.

- My friend is a professor. He/It is an intelligent man;

Those who learn or know one or several Romance languages (Spanish, French etc.) this use of
Ger. es, Dut. het, Afr. dit - “it” presented here is identical to that of Sp. es; Fr. ce (c’est) versus Sp. él/ella;
Fr. il/elle.

C. With Expressions Relating to the Weather and to Time (See also Dates p. 662 and Time
p. 668):

The 3rd person singular neuter pronouns Ger. es, Dut. het and Afr. dit - “it” are also used in time
and weather expressions, for example:

Did you know? Ger. Es ist sehr heiß heute.

Dortmund is known for its Westfalen Dut. Het is erg heet vandaag.
Stadium, the largest football stadium in
Germany. It is home to the sports club Borussia Afr. Dit is baie warm vandag.
Dortmund, which is considered one of the most
- It is very hot today.
successful clubs in German football history.

Ger. Es ist fünf Uhr.

Dut. Het is vijf uur.Afr. Dit is vyfuur.

- It is five o’clock.

D. Use of German Es with Passive (See The Passive Voice p. 561).

Impersonal Pronoun Ger. Man, Dut. Men, Afr. (’n) Mens - “One”
Overview
In West Germanic languages, Ger. man, Dut. men, Afr. (’n) mens - “one” is an impersonal,
indefinite pronoun that carries a generic meaning corresponding to people in general. It is a 3rd person
singular pronoun, however it is sometimes used with the 1st or 2nd person reference.

Note that in German, and especially in Dutch and Afrikaans, it is a rather formal form. However,
it is still a more common every day word than its English equivalent “one”.

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Below is the table showing the 3rd person singular impersonal pronoun in German, Dutch
and Afrikaans:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

3rd Person Singular man men (’n) mens one

NOTE:
In German, do not confuse the impersonal pronoun “man” with the noun
“Mann”, which stands for an adult male.

Use of Ger. Man, Dut. Men, Afr. (’n) Mens - “One”

The impersonal pronoun Ger. man; Dut. men, Afr. mens - “one” is used:

• As the Subject (Nominative):

1. Ger. man; Dut. men, Afr. (’n) mens - “one” is mainly used as the subject of a verb. It occurs mostly in
general statements referring to any person, not to any specified person. Observe the following:

Ger. Man muss hart arbeiten.

Dut. Men moet hard werken.

Afr. Mens moet hard werk.

- One must work hard.

2. The pronoun Ger. man; Dut. men, Afr. (’n) mens may be used to render “you” but it does not directly
refer to the person you are talking to. For example:

Ger. Wenn man diszipliniert ist, wird man erfolgreich sein.

Dut. Als men gedisciplineerd is, zal men succesvol zijn.

- If you are disciplined, you will be successful.

NOTE:
In Afrikaans, if in the same sentence the impersonal pronoun (’n) mens - “one”
is used a second time as a subject pronoun, the personal pronoun jy is then
used, not (’n) mens, for example:

Afr. As mens gedissiplineerd is, sal jy suksesvol wees.

- If you are disciplined, you will be successful.

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Compare the following phrase that is directly addressed to someone (See also Alternative to
Ger. Man, Dut. Men, Afr. (’n) Mens - “One” p. 260):

Ger. Wenn du diszipliniert bist, wirst du erfolgreich sein

Dut. Als je gedisciplineerd bent, zul je succesvol zijn.

Afr. As jy gedissiplineerd is, sal jy suksesvol wees.

- If you are disciplined, you will be successful.

3. Ger. man; Dut. men, Afr. (’n) mens can also be used as “they” when it is not clear who “they” are.
Study the following:

Ger. Man will mehr Parks in der Stadt.

Dut. Men wil meer parken in de stad.

Afr. Mens wil meer parke in die stad.

- They want more parks in the city.

• As the Direct Object (Accusative):

Like in English, in Dutch, impersonal pronouns Dut. men - “one” do not change its form in the
direct object (accusative) position.

In German and Afrikaans, however, the impersonal pronoun Ger. man and Afr. (’n) mens
becomes Ger. einen and Afr. jou respectively in the direct object (accusative) (See Case in German p.
112 and Direct Object p. 263).

Below is the table showing the change of the impersonal pronoun Ger. man and Afr. (’n)
mens in the direct object (accusative) in German and Afrikaans.

German Afrikaans

Subject (Nominative) man (’n) mens

Direct Object (Accusative) einen jou

Study the following example:

Ger. Dieses Buch lehrt einen, glücklich zu sein. (accusative)

Dut. Dit boek leert je om gelukkig te zijn.

Afr. Hierdie boek leer jou om gelukkig te wees.

- This book teaches one to be happy.

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NOTE:
In German, Dutch and Afrikaans, the pronoun Ger. jemanden, Dut. and Afr.
iemand - “someone” can be used in this case:

Ger. Dieses Buch lehrt jemanden, glücklich zu sein.

Dut. Dit boek leert iemand gelukkig te zijn.
Afr. Hierdie boek leer iemand om gelukkig te wees.

• As the Indirect Object (Dative):

Just like in the direct object, English and Dutch impersonal pronouns Dut. men - “one” keep
their forms in the indirect object position.

Note that German and Afrikaans impersonal pronouns Ger. man and Afr. (’n) mens become
Ger. einem and Afr. jou respectively in the indirect object (dative) (See Case in German p. 112 and
Indirect Object p. 272).

Below is the table showing the change of the impersonal pronoun Ger. man and Afr. (’n)
mens in the indirect object (dative) in German and Afrikaans.

German Afrikaans

Subject (Nominative) man (’n) mens

Indirect Object (Dative) einem jou

Observe the following sentence:

Ger. Diese Arbeit gibt einem die Chance, erfolgreich zu sein. (dative)

Dut. Dit werk geeft men de kans om succesvol te zijn.

Afr. Hierdie werk gee jou die kans om suksesvol te wees.

- This job gives one the chance to be successful.

NOTE:
In German, Dutch and Afrikaans, the pronoun Ger. jemandem, Dut. and Afr.
iemand - “someone” can also be used in this case:

Ger. Diese Arbeit gibt jemandem die Chance, erfolgreich zu sein.

Dut. Dit werk geeft iemand de kans om succesvol te zijn.
Afr. Hierdie werk gee iemand die kans om suksesvol te wees.

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• In the Possessive Form (Genitive):

In English, the impersonal pronoun one also has a possessive (genitive form) one’s (e.g. One’s
hat). German, Dutch and Afrikaans, however, do not have a possessive form for Ger. man; Dut. men,
Afr. (’n) mens.

Instead, the possessive pronouns Ger. sein and Dut. zijn - “his” and Afr. jou - “your” is used to
form the possessive form (genitive). (See Case in German p. 112 and Possessive Adjectives and
Pronouns p. 288).

Below is the table showing the possessive form (genitive) of the impersonal pronoun Ger.
man, Dut. men, and Afr. (’n) mens in German, Dutch and Afrikaans respectively.

German Dutch Afrikaans

Subject (Nominative) man (one) men (one) (’n) mens (one)

Possessive Form (Genitive) sein (his) zijn (his) jou (your)

For instance:

Ger. Wenn man ein Theater besucht, muss man seinen Mantel ausziehen.

Dut. Wanneer men een theater bezoekt, moet men zijn jas uittrekken.

Afr. Wanneer 'n mens 'n teater besoek, moet jy jou jas uittrek.

- When one visits a theater, one has to remove one's coat.

Observe one more example:

Ger. Man muss seinem Herzen folgen.

Dut. Men moet zijn hart volgen.

Afr. 'n Mens moet jou hart volg.

- One must follow one’s heart.

NOTE:
In German, the possessive pronoun Ger. sein must be declined.
The table below shows the declension of sein:
German

Masculine Feminine Neuter Plural

Nominative sein seine sein seine

Genitive seines seiner seines seiner

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German

Dative seinem seiner seinem seinen

Accusative seinen seine sein seine

In German, Dutch and Afrikaans, the pronouns Ger. du, Dut. je and Afr. jy -
“you” could also be used in this case.
(See Alternative to Ger. Man, Dut. Men, Afr. (’n) Mens - “One” p. 260):

Ger. Du musst deinem Herz folgen.

Dut. Je moet je hart volgen.
Afr. Jy moet jou hart volg.
- You must follow your heart.

• In the Reflexive Form:

The impersonal pronoun Ger. man; Dut. men, Afr. (’n) mens - “one” also has a reflexive form,
which is Ger. sich, Dut. zich - “himself/herself/itself/oneself” (the same as that of the 3rd person
singular pronoun), and Afr. jou - “yourself” (the 2nd person singular pronoun) (See Reflexive
Pronouns p. 276)

The table below illustrates the reflexive form of the impersonal pronoun Ger. man, Dut. men,
and Afr. (’n) mens in German, Dutch and Afrikaans respectively.

German Dutch Afrikaans

Subject (Nominative) man (one) men (one) (’n) mens (one)

Reflexive Form sich (himself, herself, zich (himself, herself, jou (yourself)
itself, oneself) itself, oneself)

For example:

Ger. Man stellt sich vor, dass man am See wohnt.

Dut. Men stelt zich voor dat men aan het meer woont.

Afr. Mens verbeel jou dat jy by die meer woon.

- One imagines that one lives by the lake.

NOTE:
In German, Dutch and Afrikaans, we could also use the pronouns Ger. du, Dut.
je, Afr. jy to mean “you” instead of “one” in this case.
(See Alternative to Ger. Man, Dut. Men, Afr. (’n) Mens - “One” p. 260):

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Ger. Du stell dir vor, dass du am See lebst.

Dut. Je stelt je voor dat je aan het meer woont.
Afr. Jy verbeel jou dat jy by die meer woon.
- You imagine that you live by the lake.

Alternative to Ger. Man, Dut. Men, Afr. (’n) Mens - “One”

• Generic You:

Remember that spoken English prefers to use the generic “you” instead of “one”, because “one” is
considered to be very formal and is confined to formal written language.

Colloquially German, Dutch and Afrikaans can also use Ger. du/Sie, Dut. jij (je)/u, Afr. jy/u -
“you” in the same way:

Ger. Du musst hart arbeiten.

Dut. Je moet hard werken.

Afr. Jy moet hard werk.

- You must work hard.

• Generic They:

It is also possible to use the generic Ger. sie; Dut. ze, Afr. hulle - “they” in German, Dutch and
Afrikaans respectively. To illustrate:

Ger. In Deutschland arbeiten sie viel.

Dut. In Duitsland werken ze veel.

Afr. In Duitsland werk hulle baie.

- In Germany they work a lot.

• Other Alternatives:

You can equally use other alternatives that could be used to avoid the use of the generic Ger.
man, Dut. men, Afr. (’n) mens - “one” in contexts where it seems over-formal. These alternatives
include the use of:

• The passive voice (See The Passive Voice p. 561);

• Pluralization of the sentence using such words as:

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German Dutch Afrikaans English

Menschen mensen mense people

• Other generic nouns such as:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

eine Person een persoon 'n persoon a person

For Instance:

Ger. Menschen reisen oft.

Dut. Mensen reizen vaak.

Afr. Mense reis dikwels.

- People often travel.

Omission of Subject Pronouns

As you know, in Romance languages (except French), the use of the subject pronoun is
unnecessary because the verbal inflection indicates the person and number of the subject, thus the
referent of the null subject can be inferred from the grammatical inflection on the verb. This category of
languages is called pro-drop languages.

However, this is not possible in West Germanic languages. English, German, Dutch and Afrikaans
are generally considered to be non-pro-drop languages, which means that they do not allow deletion of
the subject pronoun.

NOTE:
Colloquial and dialectal German, unlike the standard language, is partially pro-
drop. It allows deletion of the subject pronoun in main clauses.

Nonetheless, like in English, in German, Dutch and Afrikaans, the subject pronoun can be
dropped in the following cases:

• Fixed Expressions:

In German, Dutch and Afrikaans, the subject omission is allowed in a number of fixed
expressions. For example:

Ger. Macht nichts.

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Dut. Maakt niet uit.

Afr. Maak nie saak nie.

- No worries/Never mind.

• Imperative Sentences (See The Imperative Mood p. 588):

If the imperative is used for the 2nd person singular, or the 2nd person plural, the subject is
usually omitted because the conjugated verb implies the subject of the sentence.

Ger. Komm her!

Dut. Kom hier!

Afr. Kom hier!

- Come here!

NOTE:
In German, the formal imperative, requires the addition of the subject pronoun
Ger. Sie because the formal imperative form of a verb is identical to the
infinitive (See The Infinitive p. 578).
In Dutch, if the situation is formal, the subject pronoun Dut. u is used and the
verb is used in the 3rd person singular. Study the following:

Ger. Kommen Sie herein!

Dut. Komt u binnen!
- Come in!

• Conversational Deletion:

In English, German and Dutch, the subject pronoun may be omitted in intimate conversational
spoken language, set phrases, as well as in other informal communication systems such as email and
texting that can work like speech. This phenomenon is called “Conversational deletion”.

In general the 1st or 2nd person subject in statements or in questions may be omitted. Note that
subject pronouns may be dropped together with the auxiliary verb (like in the 1st example in English), or
other verbs (like in the 2nd example) for instance:

Ger.(Ich) komme bald an.

Dut. (Ik) kom binnenkort aan.

Afr. (Ek) kom binnekort aan.

- (I am) arriving soon.

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Ger. (Ich habe) keine Ahnung.

Dut. (Ik heb) geen idee.

Afr. (Ek het) geen idee nie.

- (I have) no idea.

NOTE:
Remember that it is not formal written style. For example, if you write an
official letter, you should always write in full sentences including the subject
pronoun and the verb.
Moreover, since West Germanic languages are non-pro-drop languages, the
omission of the subject pronouns would be ambiguous to have a proper
conversation.

Direct Object (Accusative) Pronouns

Overview
Direct objects are nouns which receive the action of a verb in sentences. The direct object
pronouns (e.g. me, him, us and them) are used to replace that noun. Like subject pronouns, the direct
object pronouns also show grammatical gender.

In English, Dutch and Afrikaans, object pronouns (e.g. Dut. mij/me, Afr. my, Ger. mich - “me”)
are expressed by the accusative case and function as the direct objects in a sentence.

Below is the table that shows all the forms of direct object (accusative) pronouns in English,
Dutch, Afrikaans and German:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

mich mij (me) my me

dich jou (je) (inf.)/u (f.) jou (inf.)/ u (f.) you

ihn hem (’m)/die hom him

sie haar (d’r/’r)/die haar her

es het (’t)/dat dit it

uns ons ons us

euch jullie (je) (inf.)/u (f.) julle (inf.)/u (f.) you

sie (pl.)/Sie (f.) hen, hun (ze)/die hulle them

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Just like personal subject pronouns are used instead of subject nouns in sentences, direct object
pronouns (accusative case pronouns) replace the direct object noun in a sentence, which is a thing or a
person:

Ger. Wir lesen Bücher.

Dut. Wij lezen boeken.

Afr. Ons lees boeke.

- We’re reading books.

The noun Ger. Bücher, Dut. boeken, Afr. boeke - “books” receives the action of Ger. Wir
lesen, Dut. We lezen, Afr. Ons lees - “we’re reading”.

In this sentence, Ger. Bücher, Dut. boeken, Afr. boeke - “books” are the direct object. They are
the 3rd person plural, and therefore, we can replace them with the direct object pronouns (accusative case
pronoun) Ger. sie, Dut. ze, Afr. hulle - “them”.

Observe the following:

Ger. Wir lesen sie.

Dut. We lezen ze.

Afr. Ons lees hulle.

- We're reading them.

As we said, the direct object of a sentence can be a person as well. Study the following examples:

Did you know? Ger. Sie trifft mich im Park.

Bloemfontein, the capital city of the Free Dut. Ze ontmoet me in het park.
State province in South Africa, is known
as the “City of Roses”. Every year the city hosts Afr. Sy ontmoet my in die park.
the "Bloemfontein Rose Festival" showcasing
thousands of beautiful roses in bloom. - She is meeting me in the park.

Ger. Ich sehe ihn nicht.

Dut. Ik zie hem niet.

Afr. Ek sien hom nie.

- I do not see him.

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Use of Direct Object (Accusative) Pronouns

1. We use them to substitute nouns when it is clear what or who is being discussed, and also to avoid the
repetition of the noun. Note that direct object pronouns go after the main verb in a sentence.

Ger. Klaus liest eine Zeitung. Er liest sie.

Dut. Klaus leest een krant. Hij leest haar (or die).

Afr. Klaus lees 'n koerant. Hy lees dit

- Klaus reads a newspaper. He reads it.

2. Ger. es, Dut. het, Afr. dit - “it” are sometimes used to replace the entire information or idea that has
already been presented.

Ger. Sie hat ein neues Kleid gekauft. - Ich weiß es.

Dut. Ze heeft een nieuwe jurk gekocht. - Ik weet het.

Afr. Sy het 'n nuwe rok gekoop. - Ek weet dit.

– She has bought a new dress. - I know it.

However, in Dutch, there are some divergent peculiarities in direct object pronouns use that need
to be learnt and memorized. We will discuss these peculiarities below:

Peculiarities of Direct Object Pronouns Use in Dutch

In Dutch, just like personal subject pronouns, the direct object pronouns also have both stressed
and unstressed forms:
3. The stressed forms retain the original full vowel, and are usually used in writing, for example:

• mij - “me” is usually used as the written form.

Dut. Geef mij de sleutel.

- Give me the key.

They are also used in speaking or less formal writing for special emphasis or contrast on the
person or to stress familiarity, e.g.:

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• jou is normally used to put special emphasis or stress familiarity.

Dut. Hij wil jou zien.

- He wants to see you.

4. All unstressed forms are usually used in speaking where the emphasis is normally not on the pronoun
but on the following verb. The unstressed forms are shown in brackets in the above table.

• The unstressed pronouns ’m - “him”, d’r - “her”, ’t - “it”, tend to almost completely merge with the
following word, as in English “twas.” Study the following:

Dut. Heb je ’m gezien?

- Have you seen him?

Dut. Ik heb d’r gisteren ontmoet.

- I met her yesterday.

NOTE:
In Dutch speaking Belgium, the unstressed form d’r is usually not used. Ze
(when referring to a person) is heard more often instead. However, this is not
considered standard language.

5. Note that the object pronoun het - “it” cannot be used after prepositions because there are no
construction corresponding to “of it”, “for it”, “on it”.

For example, we can see such constructions as van het - “of the”, op het - “on the” or voor het
- “for the” only when the het is an article, not when it is a pronoun.

Instead, the word er is put before the preposition. It can replace singular and plural direct objects
(See also Prepositions p. 676):

preposition + het (pronoun) —> er + preposition

Below is the table showing the change of the object pronoun Dut. het when used after the
prepositions in Dutch:

Dutch

Prep. + Article het Prep. + Pronoun het —> er + Prep.

van het - “of the” —> er van/ervan - “of it”

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Dutch

op het - “on the” —> er op/erop - “on it”

voor het - “for the” —> er voor/ervoor - “for it”

For example:

Dut. Wat betaal je voor het huis. —> Wat betaal je ervoor?

- What do you pay for the house. —> What do you pay for it?

Dut. De sleutel ligt op het bureau. —> De sleutel ligt erop.

- The key is on the desk. —> The key is on it.

6. The object pronouns hen and hun - “them” are the stressed forms and can only refer to people. The
object pronoun die - “them”, however, can refer to anything other than people in Dutch.

Dut. Ik ga met hun/hen naar de bioscoop.

- I go to the cinema with them.

Dut. Ik heb die in de tas gestopt.

- I have put them in the bag.

• Remember that hen is used as a direct object and after prepositions, while hun is used as an indirect
object. However, nowadays, hen is used much less in spoken Dutch. Compare the following:

Dut. Ze geeft hun de boeken (hun is an indirect object).

- She gives them the books.

Dut. Ik zie hen (hen is a direct object).

- I see them.

Dut. Ze geeft de boeken aan hen. (hen is used after the preposition).

- She gives the books to them.

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NOTE:
In more familiar speech, the unstressed ze can be used in all these cases. Study
the following:

Dut. Ze geeft ze de boeken.

- She gives them the books.

Ik zie ze.
- I see them.

7. When the object pronouns in the third person singular are stressed, die - “him/her” is often used.
Compare the following:

Dut. Ik ken hem (’m) niet. —> Die ken ik niet.

- I don't know him. —> I don't know him.

The object pronoun die can also be used to designate inanimate objects that have the common
gender instead of haar - “her” and hem - “him”. Study the following:

Dut. Hij verkoopt de fiets. —> Hij verkoopt die.

- He is selling the bicycle. —> He is selling it.

Word Order of Direct Object Pronouns

• As it was said earlier the direct object is usually put after a verb:

Ger. Ich kenne ihn.

Dut. Ik ken hem.

Afr. Ek ken hom.

- I know him.

• In the perfect tense, which is formed with verbs Ger. haben, Dut. hebben, Afr. hê - “have" and the
past participle, English direct object pronoun is put after have and the past participle of the verb.

In German, Dutch and Afrikaans, however, the direct object pronoun goes after Ger. haben, Dut.
hebben, Afr. hê and before the past participle (See The Present Perfect p. 467):

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Ger. Sie hat mich gesehen.

Dut. Ze heeft mij gezien.

Afr. Sy het my gesien.

- She has seen me.

• The direct object pronoun can also be used with adverbs of time in order to emphasize when the action
happened. In this case, the adverb of time is put after the direct object pronoun and before the past
participle (See Adverbs p. 180 and Word Order with Adverbs p. 194):

Ger. Sie hat mich gestern gesehen.

Dut. Ze heeft mij gisteren gezien.

Afr. Sy het my gister gesien.

- She saw me yesterday.

• In West Germanic languages, you put the direct object pronouns after affirmative commands. In
negative commands, you place it after the negative word and the main verb in English. In German and
Dutch, you should put the direct object pronoun after the main verb and before the negative word (See
The Negative Imperative p. 592):

Did you know? Ger. Lies es!

The Düsseldorfer Radschläger (boy who Dut. Lees het!

does cartwheels) is the city's oldest Afr. Lees dit!
tradition. The symbols of cartwheeling children
can be found on souvenirs and various things in - Read it!
Düsseldorf.

You will even find a sculpture of cartwheeling

boys on a fountain in Burgplatz, called Ger. Lies es nicht!
Cartwheeler's Fountain. Dut. Lees het niet!

- Do not read it!

NOTE:
In Afrikaans, to form negative commands, you must add the word moenie to
the command and then added nie at the end of the sentence.
The direct object pronoun is placed after the word moenie and before the main
verb in this case:

Afr. Moenie dit lees nie!

- Do not read it!

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• When a verb is followed by another verb in the infinitive (the “to” form), the direct object pronoun is put
after the infinitive in English, for example:

Eng. He wants to see her.

However, in German, Dutch and Afrikaans, the direct object pronoun is placed after the first verb
and before the infinitive. Observe the same example:

Ger. Er will sie sehen;

Dut. Hij wil haar zien.

Afr. Hy wil haar sien.

• In questions, the direct object pronoun is put after the auxiliary verb and the main verb in English.
Although in German, Dutch and Afrikaans, the direct object pronoun must be placed after the auxiliary
verb and before the main verb (See Asking Questions p. 514):

Ger. Hast du sie gesehen?

Dut. Heb je haar gezien?

Afr. Het jy haar gesien?

- Did you see her?

The direct object pronouns take the same position in questions introduced by such interrogative
words as:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

wann? wanneer? wanneer? when?

woher? waar? waar? where?

wer? wie? wie? who?

welche? welke? watter? which?

For instance:

Ger. Wann hast du sie gesehen?

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Dut. Wanneer heb je haar gezien?

Afr. Wanneer het jy haar gesien?

- When did you see her?

• After subordinating conjunctions the direct object pronoun is put after the verb in the subordinate
clause in English. However, in German, Dutch and Afrikaans, the direct object pronoun precedes the
main verb because the main verb goes to the end of the subordinate clause. (See Subordinating
Conjunctions p. 756)

Below are some commonly used subordinating conjunctions in German, Dutch and Afrikaans:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

dass dat dat that

während terwijl terwyl while

bis tot tot until

wenn wanneer wanneer when

weil omdat omdat because

For example:

Ger. Ich glaube, dass er sie kennt.

Dut. Ik denk dat hij haar kent.

Afr. Ek dink dat hy haar ken.

- I think that he knows her.

Use of Accusative Case with Certain Prepositions in German

Accusative forms of the personal pronouns or nouns are used after certain prepositions in
German (See Prepositions with Accusative p. 735 and Prepositions with Accusative and
Dative p. 745).

Common Verbs Used with Accusative Case in German

Accusative forms of the personal pronouns or nouns are used after certain verbs in German (See
Common Verbs Used with Accusative Case p. 738 and Common Verbs Used with
Accusative/Dative Case p. 747).

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Indirect Object (Dative) Pronouns

An indirect object (dative) pronoun tells us “to whom” or “for whom” something is done. Just like
how direct object pronouns are used instead of direct objects, indirect object pronouns replace indirect
objects, which are personal nouns.

Remember that in English, Dutch and Afrikaans, the object pronouns do not change and are used
as direct objects as well as indirect objects. However, in German, the accusative case pronouns function
only as the direct object. The indirect object is expressed by German dative case pronouns.

Below is the table that shows all the forms of indirect object (dative) pronouns in English,
Dutch, Afrikaans and German:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

mir mij (me) my me

dir jou (je) (inf.)/u (f.) jou (inf.)/u (f.) you

ihm hem (’m) hom him

ihr haar (d’r/’r) haar her

ihm het (’t) dit it

uns ons ons us

euch jullie (je) (inf.)/u (f.) julle (inf.)/u (f.) you

ihnen (pl.)/ihnen (f.) hen, hun (ze) hulle them

Use of Indirect Object (Dative) Pronouns

Like direct, indirect object pronouns in West Germanic languages can be used only in conjugation
with verbs. In general, to indicate the indirect object phrase in a sentence, you should ask “to whom?”, for
example:

Ger. Er schreibt einen Brief an Sandra.

Dut. Hij schrijft een brief aan Sandra.

Afr. Hy skryf 'n brief aan Sandra.

- He is writing a letter to Sandra.

Sandra is the indirect object, and therefore, we can replace it with the indirect object pronoun
(dative case pronoun) Ger. ihr, Dut. haar, Afr. haar - “her”.

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Ger. Er schreibt ihr einen Brief.

Dut. Hij schrijft haar een brief.

Afr. Hy skryf (vir) haar 'n brief.

- He is writing a letter to her.

NOTE:
In colloquial Afrikaans, it is common to insert vir before indirect objects.

One more example:

Ger. Er gibt mir zehn Dollar.

Dut. Hij geeft me tien dollar.

Afr. Hy gee my tien dollar.

- He is giving me ten dollars.

“He is giving ten dollars to whom? To me”. Therefore, we should use the indirect object pronoun
(or the dative form of the appropriate pronoun in German) Ger. mir, Dut. mij, Afr. my - “me”.

Compare two more examples:

Indirect Object (Dative):

Ger. Sie hat mir eine Nachricht geschickt.

Dut. Ze heeft mij een bericht gestuurd.

Afr. Sy het vir my 'n boodskap gestuur.

- She has sent me a message. (She has sent a message to me).

Direct Object (Accusative):

Ger. Sie hat mich zu einer Konferenz geschickt.

Dut. Ze heeft mij naar een conferentie gestuurd.

Afr. Sy het my na 'n konferensie gestuur.

- She has sent me to a conference.

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Use of Dative Case with Certain Prepositions in German

Dative forms of the personal pronouns or nouns are used after certain prepositions in German
(See Prepositions with Dative p. 739 and Prepositions with Accusative and Dative p. 745).

Common Verbs Used with Dative Case in German

Dative forms of the personal pronouns or nouns are used after certain verbs in German (See
Common Verbs Used with Dative Case p. 743 and Common Verbs Used with Accusative/
Dative Case p. 747).

Word Order of Indirect Object Pronouns

Generally indirect object pronouns follow the same word order rules as direct object pronouns.
(See Word Order of Direct Object Pronouns p. 268)

Word Order with Direct and Indirect Objects in the Same

Sentence
In German, Dutch and Afrikaans, when we have both the direct (usually a thing) and indirect
(usually a person) objects in the same sentence, the sequence depends on whether they are pronouns or
nouns. Study the following examples:

• When an indirect (dative) noun object and a direct (accusative) object are used in the same sentence
and are next to each other, the indirect (dative) noun comes first:

Ger. Er schickt seiner Mutter einen Brief.

Dut. Hij stuurt zijn moeder een brief.

Afr. Hy stuur sy ma 'n brief.

- He sends his mother a letter.

In the above example, “his mother” is the indirect object and “a letter” is the direct object.

• If one object is a pronoun and the other is a noun, the pronoun usually precedes. Observe the following:

Ger. Er schickt ihr einen Brief.

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Dut. Hij stuurt haar een brief.

Afr. Hy stuur haar 'n brief.

- He sends her a letter.

• If the indirect object is preceded by a preposition, it follows the direct object. For example:

Ger. Er schickt einen Brief an seine Mutter.

Dut. Hij stuurt een brief aan zijn moeder.

Afr. Hy stuur 'n brief aan sy ma.

- He sends a letter to his mother.

• If the direct (accusative) object and indirect (dative) object are both pronouns, the direct object precedes
the indirect object. Study the following:

Did you know? Ger. Er gibt es ihr.

Dortmund is a city in Germany’s North Dut. Hij geeft het haar.

Rhine-Westphalia region. It calls itself
Sportstadt (City of Sports).The city is home of Afr. Hy gee dit (vir) haar.
numerous sports clubs, famous athletes and
- He gives it to her.
several world-renowned sporting events.

• In the perfect tense, which is formed with verbs Ger. haben, Dut. hebben, Afr. hê - “have" and the
past participle, German, Dutch and Afrikaans direct and indirect object pronouns must be placed after
Ger. haben, Dut. hebben, Afr. hê and before the past participle:

Ger. Ich habe es ihr gegeben.

Dut. Ik heb het haar gegeven.

Afr. Ek het dit vir haar gegee.

- I gave it to her. (I have given it to her)

• The direct and indirect object pronouns can also be used with adverbs of time in order to emphasize
when the action happened. In this case, the adverb of time is put after the indirect object pronoun and
before the past participle (See Adverbs p. 180 and Word Order with Adverbs p. 194):

Ger. Ich habe es ihr gestern gegeben.

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Dut. Ik heb het haar gisteren gegeven.

Afr. Ek het dit vir haar gister gegee.

- I gave it to her yesterday.

Reflexive Pronouns
Reflexive pronouns follow the reflexive verbs and agree with the subject in order to indicate that
a person performs the action toward or for himself or herself.

Below is the table that shows all the forms of re exive pronouns in German, Dutch and
Afrikaans:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

mich me my myself

dich je (inf.)/u (f.) jou (inf.)/u (f.) yourself

sich zich hom himself

sich zich haar herself

sich zich dit itself

uns ons ons ourselves

euch je (inf.)/u (f.) julle (inf.)/u (f.) yourselves

sich zich hulle themselves

As you can see from the above table, in German, Dutch and Afrikaans, all forms of reflexive
pronouns are similar to the object (accusative) pronouns except for the 3rd person singular and plural in
German and Dutch where Ger. sich and Dut. zich stand for himself, herself, itself, oneself and
themselves. Observe the following examples:

Ger. Ich stelle mich der Gruppe vor.

Dut. Ik stel me aan de groep voor.

Afr. Ek stel my aan die groep voor.

- I introduce myself to the group.

Ger. Ich wasche mich.

Dut. Ik was me.

Afr. Ek was my.

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- I wash (myself).

NOTE:
In English, in the above example “to wash (oneself)” the use of the reflexive
“oneself” is superfluous but obligatory in German, Dutch and Afrikaans.

Furthermore, in Dutch and Afrikaans, just like in English, the following verb can be used without
any reflexive pronoun at all (even if the meaning is reflexive), but in German, the use of reflexive pronoun
is still required:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

sich rasieren scheren skeer to shave

Compare the following example:

Ger. Ich werde mich rasieren.

Dut. Ik ga scheren.

Afr. Ek gaan skeer.

- I am going to shave.

Use of Reflexive Pronouns

1. Reflexive verbs require the use of reflexive pronouns in order to show that the direct object of the verb
is also the subject, that is to say the subject is performing the action on himself or herself.

Compare, for example, two sentences in these West Germanic languages where one sentence is
reflexive and another is not:

Ger. Ich wasche mich. —> Ich wasche mein Auto.

Dut. Ik was me. —> Ik was mijn auto.

Afr. Ek was my. —> Ek was my kar.

- I wash myself. —> I wash my car.

The given examples demonstrate that the verb “to wash myself” is reflexive (used with the
reflexive pronoun) and another “to wash” is not reflexive.

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Common Reflexive Verbs Used with Accusative Case in German

Below is the list of some frequently used re exive verbs that are used with a speci c
preposition and the accusative re exive pronouns or nouns after them in German:

German English

sich (acc) an jdn./etw. (acc) erinnern to remember sb./sth.

sich (acc) an jdn./etw. (acc) gewöhnen to become accustomed to sb./sth.

sich (acc) an jdn. (acc) wenden to contact sb.

sich (acc) auf etw. (acc) freuen to look forward to sth.

sich (acc) auf jdn./etw. (acc) konzentrieren to concentrate on sth./sb.

sich (acc) auf etw. (acc) spezialisieren to specialize in sth.

sich (acc) auf jdn. (acc) verlassen to depend on sb./to rely on sb.

sich (acc) auf etw. (acc) vorbereiten to prepare for sth.

sich (acc) für jdn./etw. (acc) eignen to suit sb./sth./to be suitable for sth.

sich (acc) für etw. (acc.) interessieren to be interested in sth.

sich (acc) für jdn./etw. (acc) entscheiden to decide upon sb./sth. /to opt for sth.

sich (acc) gegen jdn./etw. (acc.) wehren to fight/to defend oneself against sb./sth

sich (acc) in jdn. (acc) verlieben to fall for sb.

sich (acc) über jdn./etw. (acc.) aufregen to get upset about sb./sth.

sich (acc) über jdn./etw. (acc) ärgern to get exasperated with sb./sth.

sich (acc) über jdn./etw. (acc.) beklagen to complain about sb./sth.

sich (acc) über jdn./etw. (acc) beschweren to complain about sth./sb.

sich (acc) über etw. (acc) freuen to be pleased with sth.

sich (acc) um etw. (acc.) bemühen to strive for sth.

sich (acc) um etw. (acc.) handeln to involve sth.

sich (acc) um jdn./etw. (acc) kümmern to take care of sb./sth.

sich (acc) um etw. (acc) bewerben to apply for sth.

For example:

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Ger. Er erinnert sich (acc) an mich (acc).

- He remembers me.

Ger. Ich verliebe mich (acc) in dich (acc).

- I am falling in love with you.

NOTE:
It is worth mentioning that in German, above-mentioned reflexive verbs can
also be used with accusative nouns instead of pronouns (See also The
Accusative Case p. 125 and Nouns in the Accusative Case p. 133):

Ger. Er bewirbt sich (acc) um die Stelle (acc).

- He is applying for the job.

Below we will consider the pronominal suffix that can be added to the reflexive pronouns in order
to emphasize the reflexive idea in German, Dutch and Afrikaans.

Pronominal Suffix “Self”

In Dutch and Afrikaans, there is an emphatic form (pronominal suffix) of the reflexive pronoun,
which is Dut. -zelf, Afr. -self - “myself, yourself, himself etc.” that must be added to the pronoun in order
to stress the reflexive idea.

NOTE:
In German, the emphatic form Ger. selbst is use din this case. However, it is not
considered as a pronominal suffix as it is never attached to the personal
pronoun like in Dutch and Afrikaans.

Compare the following examples:

Ger. Er kümmert sich nur um sich selbst.

Dut. Hij geeft alleen om zichzelf.

Afr. Hy gee net om vir homself.

- He only cares about himself.

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Use of Pronominal Suffix “Self”

• Remember that these German, Dutch and Afrikaans emphatic forms are mainly used when a contrast is
made between acting on someone else and on yourself and only with verbs that are reflexive by nature.

Below is the table that shows the forms of reflexive pronouns used with the pronominal suffix
Ger. selbst, Dut. -zelf, Afr. -self:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

mich selbst mezelf myself myself

dich selbst jezelf/uzelf jouself/uself yourself

sich selbst zichzelf homself himself

sich selbst zichzelf haarself herself

sich selbst zichzelf ditself itself

uns selbst onszelf onsself ourselves

euch selbst jezelf/uzelf julleself (julself)/ yourselves

uself
sich selbst zichzelf hulleself/(hulself) themselves

Observe the following:

Ger. Ich wasche mich selbst, nicht meinen Sohn.

Dut. Ik was mezelf, niet mijn zoon.

Afr. Ek was myself, nie my seun nie.

- I wash myself, not my son.

NOTE:
In German, the emphatic form Ger. selber is used in informal spoken language.

• Note that in German, Dutch and Afrikaans, in the third person, the pronominal suffix Ger. selbst, Dut.
-zelf, Afr. -self can also added to the reflexive pronoun to remove any ambiguity, for example:

Ger. Dieser Mann redet zu viel über sich selbst.

Dut. Die man praat teveel over zichzelf.

Afr. Daardie man praat te veel oor homself.

- That man talks about himself too much.

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• Furthermore, whenever Dutch and Afrikaans verbs that take a prepositional object reflect back on the
subject, the use of a preposition in such cases requires the use of the reflexive pronoun along with the
pronominal suffixes Dut. -zelf, Afr. -self.

Below is the list of some verbs used with a preposition and the reflexive pronoun with the
pronominal suffix Dut. -zelf, Afr. -self:

Dutch Afrikaans English

in jezelf geloven in jouself glo to believe in yourself

voor jezelf zorgen vir jouself sorg to care for yourself

tegen jezelf zeggen aan/vir jouself sê to say to yourself

met jezelf spotten met jouself spot to mock yourself

om jezelf lachen vir jouself lag to laugh at yourself

Observe the following:

Dut. Ik geloof in mezelf.

Afr. Ek glo in myself.

- I believe in myself.

NOTE:
In German, unlike in Dutch and Afrikaans, the emphatic form Ger. selbst is
only used when a contrast is made between performing the action on someone
else and on yourself. To compare:

Ger. Ich glaube an mich. —> Ich glaube an mich selbst, nicht an ihn.

- I believe in myself. —> I believe in myself, not in him.

Independent “Self” in German, Dutch and Afrikaans

In English the reflexive form “myself, yourself” etc. is used also to emphasize that one did
something oneself. In German, Dutch and Afrikaans, the independent form (not attached to the reflexive
pronoun) Ger. selbst, Dut. zelf, Afr. self is used in this case.

NOTE:
Remember that in German, the reflexive form Ger. selbst is always
independent and is never attached to the personal pronoun, for example:

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Did you know? Ger. Ich habe es selbst gemacht.

Düsseldorf, capital of North Rhine- Dut. Ik heb het zelf gedaan.
Westphalia, is the third-largest center
for Japanese expatriates in Europe and the Afr. Ek het dit self gedoen.
largest in Germany (around 11,000 people).
- I did it myself.

Ger. Ich habe das Buch selbst geschrieben.

Dut. Ik heb het boek zelf geschreven.

Afr. Ek het die boek self geskryf.

- I wrote the book myself.

Reciprocal Pronoun “Each Other”

It is worth mentioning that in German, Dutch and Afrikaans, when there is a reciprocal meaning,
the pronouns Ger. einander, Dut. elkaar, Afr. mekaar - “each other (one another)” are used:

Ger. Wir respektieren einander.

Dut. Wij respecteren elkaar.

Afr. Ons respekteer mekaar.

- We respect each other (one another).

NOTE:
In German, you can also use the reflexive verbs and pronouns in the plural with
the meaning “each other” (uns, euch, sich).
However, in Dutch and Afrikaans, the words Dut. elkaar, Afr. mekaar - “each
other (one another)” are still used in this case:

Ger. Wir kennen uns.

But:
Dut. We kennen elkaar.
Afr. Ons ken mekaar.
- We know each other.

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Dative Reflexive Pronouns in German

In German, when a sentence contains another object besides the reflexive pronoun, then the
reflexive pronoun must be used in the dative case since the other object is in the accusative case. This is
when we use the dative reflexive pronouns instead of the accusative ones.

Below is the table illustrating the accusative and dative forms of re exive pronouns in
German:

German English

Accusative Dative

mich mir myself

dich dir yourself (familiar)

sich sich himself

sich sich herself

sich sich itself

uns uns ourselves

euch euch yourselves (plural)

sich sich themselves

As you can see, all forms of the dative reflexive pronouns are similar to accusative reflexive
pronouns except for the 1st and the 2nd person singular.

Thus, the 1st and the 2nd person singular accusative reflexive pronouns “mich” and “dich”
become “mir” and “dir” respectively in the dative. Compare the following examples:

Ger. Ich fühle mich unwohl. (accusative)

- I feel unwell.

Ger. Ich ziehe mir den Pullover aus. (dative)

- I am taking off the sweater.

Use of Dative Reflexive Pronouns in German

The dative forms are only used in the following cases:

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1. If a clause contains a direct (accusative) object, the dative form of the reflexive pronoun is used. The
direct (accusative) object will normally be a body part or item of clothing. Compare the following:

Accusative Dative

Ich wasche mich jeden Morgen. Ich putze mir zweimal am Tag die Zähne.
- I wash (myself) every morning. - I brush my teeth twice a day.

As you can see from the example, we use the dative reflexive mir because the word die Zähne -
the teeth is the accusative direct object and mir is the dative indirect object.
The main difference in the above-mentioned sentences between English and German is that in
English we would use the possessive “my teeth”, while in German the dative reflexive pronoun mir tells
us this information and therefore you should simply use the correct form of the article die Zähne - the
teeth.

Common Reflexive Verbs Used with Dative Case in German

Below is the list of several commonly used re exive verbs that are used with a speci c
preposition and the dative pronouns or nouns after them in German:

Geman English

sich (acc) an etw. (dat) beteiligen to participate in sth.

sich (acc) an etw. (dat) orientieren to be oriented towards sth.

sich (acc) bei jdm. (dat.) bedanken to thank sb.

sich (acc) bei jdm. (dat) entschuldigen to apologize to sb.

sich (acc) mit etw. (dat) befassen to deal with sth.

sich (acc) mit etw. (dat) begnügen to content oneself with sth.

sich (acc) mit jdm./etw. (dat) beschäftigen to deal with sb./sth.

sich (acc) mit jdm. (dat) unterhalten to talk to sb.

sich (acc) nach jdm./etw. (dat) erkundigen to inquire/ask about sb./sth.

sich (acc) nach jdm./etw. (dat) richten to go by sb./sth.

sich (acc) nach jdm./etw. (dat) sehnen to long for sb./sth.

sich (acc) von jdm. (dat) trennen to separate from sb.

sich (acc) von jdm. (dat) verabschieden to bid farewell to sb.

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Geman English

sich (acc) vor jdm./etw. (dat) fürchten to be afraid of sb./sth.

sich (acc) zu etw. (dat) eignen to qualify for sth.

Remember that in German, in German, all forms of reflexive pronouns (mich, dich, uns, euch)
are similar to the object (accusative) pronouns except for the 3rd person singular and plural Ger. sich -
“himself, herself, itself, oneself and themselves”. For example:

Ger. Ich unterhalte mich (acc) mit ihr (dat).

- I am talking to her.

Ger. Er fürchtet sich (acc) vor mir (dat).

- He is afraid of me.

NOTE:
In German, all of the above-mentioned reflexive verbs can also be used with
dative nouns instead of pronouns (See also The Dative Case p. 121 and
Nouns in the Dative Case p. 131):

Ger. Er fürchtet sich (acc) vor dem Meer (dat).

- He is afraid of the sea.

Ger. Ich unterhalte mich (acc) mit dem Freund (dat).

- I am talking to the friend.

Word Order of Reflexive Pronouns

• In West Germanic languages, in English, German, Dutch and Afrikaans in particular, reflexive pronouns
are usually put right after the verb if the only object of a reflexive verb in a sentence is its reflexive
pronoun. For instance:

Ger. Ich wasche mich.

Dut. Ik was me.

Afr. Ek was my.

- I wash (myself).

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• If the same sentence is put in the interrogative, the reflexive pronoun stands after the subject (See
Asking Questions p. 514):

Ger. Wäscht er sich?

Dut. Wast hij zich?

Afr. Was hy hom?

- Does he wash (himself)?

• However, in the case of compound verbs such as perfect tenses or verb + the infinitive etc., the reflexive
pronoun must be put after the infinitive or the past participle in English, and before the infinitive and
the past participle in German, Dutch and Afrikaans (See Reflexive Verbs p. 596).

For example:

Did you know? Ger. Ich muss mich waschen.

Swiss German (Standard German: Dut. Ik moet me wassen.
Schweizerdeutsch) is one of the dialects
spoken in the German-speaking part of Afr. Ek moet my was.
Switzerland, while Swiss Standard German
(German: Schweizer Standarddeutsch) is the - I need to wash (myself).
written form of one of four official languages in
Switzerland.

Unlike Swiss German, Swiss Standard German Ger. Er hat sich gewaschen.
is fully understandable to all speakers of
Dut. Hij heeft zich gewassen.
Standard German.
Afr.Hy het hom gewas.

- He has washed (himself).

• Similarly, if a reflexive verb takes a pronominal object in addition to its reflexive pronoun, that pronoun
is normally placed immediately after the finite verb (finite verb forms show tense, person and number),
whether that finite verb is the reflexive verb itself or a modal verb or an auxiliary verb:

Ger. Ich kann mir vorstellen, wie wichtig es ist.

Dut. Ik kan me voorstellen hoe belangrijk het is.

Afr. Ek kan my voorstel hoe belangrik dit is.

- I can imagine how important it is.

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NOTE:
Remember that in German, Dutch and Afrikaans, if the object is the pronoun
Ger. es, Dut. het, Afr. dit, the reflexive can be put after this pronoun:

Ger. Ich kann es mir vorstellen.

Dut. Ik kan het me voorstellen.
Afr. Ek kan dit my voorstel.
- I can imagine it.

• Note that negatives cannot be placed between the finite verb and the reflexive pronoun in West
Germanic languages, for example:

Ger. Ich kann mir nicht vorstellen, wie wichtig es ist.

Dut. Ik kan me niet voorstellen hoe belangrijk het is.

Afr. Ek kan my nie voorstel hoe belangrik dit is nie.

- I can't imagine how important it is.

• If a reflexive verb is used in a subordinate or relative clause and is put at the end of that clause, the
reflexive pronoun is placed right after the subject as the verb has been removed from second position in
German, Dutch and Afrikaans:

Ger. Ich weiß, dass er sich wäscht.

Dut. Ik weet dat hij zich wast.

Afr. Ek weet dat hy hom was.

- I know that he washes (himself).

• Unlike English, reflexive pronouns are can also be used in German, Dutch and Afrikaans after
prepositions when the pronoun “reflects back” to the subject of the sentence, for example:

Ger. Sie haben nicht genug Geld bei sich.

Dut. Ze hebben niet genoeg geld bij zich.

Afr. Hulle het nie genoeg geld op hulle nie.

- They do not have enough money on them.

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Possessive Adjectives and Pronouns

Possessive Adjectives

Possessive adjectives (e.g. English my, your, his, her, etc.) are used to indicate possession and
ownership. For example, “my car”, “his house”.

Below is a table presenting possessive adjectives in German, Dutch and Afrikaans:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

mein mijn my my

dein jouw/je (informal), jou (informal), your

uw (formal) u (formal)
sein zijn sy his

ihr haar/d’r haar her

sein zijn sy its

unser ons/onze ons our

euer/Ihr jullie/je (informal) julle, jul your

ihr hun hulle, hul their

For example:

Ger. Das ist mein Haus.

Dut. Dit is mijn huis.

Afr. Dit is my huis.

- This is my house.

Declension of Possessive Adjectives in German

Note that unlike in English, Dutch and Afrikaans, all possessive adjectives agree in case, number
and gender with the noun that they modify in German. Observe the following example:

Ger. meine Tasche.

Dut. mijn tas.

Afr. my sak.

- my bag.

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The word “bag” in German language is feminine, so we need to use possessive adjective which is
also feminine.

The declension of the possessive adjectives are the same as those for the indefinite articles ein.
The plural endings are identical to those of der/die/das articles in German (See Articles p. 218).

Below is a table demonstrating all the types of possessive adjectives that agree in case,
number and gender in German:

German English

Case masc. fem. neut. pl.

Nominative mein meine mein meine

Accusative meinen meine mein meine

my
Dative meinem meiner meinem meinen

Genitive meines meiner meines meiner

Nominative dein deine dein deine

Accusative deinen deine dein deine your

Dative deinem deiner deinem deinen

Genitive deines deiner deines deiner

Nominative sein seine sein seine

Accusative seinen seine sein seine

his
Dative seinem seiner seinem seinen

Genitive seines seiner seines seiner

Nominative ihr ihre ihr ihre

Accusative ihren ihre ihr ihre

her
Dative ihrem ihrer ihrem ihren

Genitive ihres ihrer ihres ihres

Nominative sein seine sein seine

Accusative seinen seine sein seine

its
Dative seinem seiner seinem seinen

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German English

Genitive seines seiner seines seiner

Nominative unser unsere unser unsere

Accusative unseren unsere unser unsere our

Dative unserem unserer unserem unseren

Genitive unseres unserer unseres unserer

Nominative euer eure euer eure

Accusative euren eure euer eure

your
Dative eurem eurer eurem euren

Genitive eures eurer eures eurer

Nominative Ihr Ihre Ihr Ihre

Accusative Ihren Ihre Ihr Ihre

your
Dative Ihrem Ihrer Ihrem Ihren

Genitive Ihres Ihrer Ihres Ihrer

Nominative ihr ihre ihr ihre

Accusative ihren ihre ihr ihre

their
Dative ihrem ihrer ihrem ihren

Genitive ihres ihrer ihres ihrer

Below will be demonstrated how the possessive adjective “my” agrees in case, gender and number
with a noun and how it is used in sentences.

We will take words “dog” (Ger. der Hund), which is masculine, “school” (Ger. die Schule),
which is feminine, “house” (Ger. das Haus) - neuter, and “children” (Ger. die Kinder) - a plural noun in
order to demonstrate the declension in German. Remember that you can replace the possessive pronoun
“my” or nouns used in the example with any other to make up your own phrases.

German

Case masculine feminine neuter plural

Nominative mein Hund meine Schule mein Haus meine Kinder

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German

Accusative meinen Hund meine Schule mein Haus meine Kinder

Dative meinem Hund meiner Schule meinem Haus meinen Kindern

Genitive meines Hundes meiner Schule meines Hauses meiner Kinder

NOTE:
As it was said before, in Dutch and Afrikaans, the possessive adjectives do not
agree in case, number and gender with nouns, e.g.:
Dutch Afrikaans English

mijn hond my hond my dog

mijn school my skool my school

mijn huis my huis my house

mijn kinderen my kinders my children

Compare the following examples:

Ger. Wo ist mein (dein, sein, etc.) Hund? (Nominative case, masc.)

Dut. Waar is mijn (je, zijn, etc.) hond?

Afr. Waar is my (jou, sy, etc.) hond?

- Where is my (your, his, etc) dog?

Ger. Ich kenne deine (ihre) Schwester nicht. (Accusative case, fem.)

Dut. Ik ken je (haar) zus niet.

Afr. Ek ken nie jou (haar) suster nie.

- I do not know your (her) sister.

Ger. Ich spiele mit meinem (ihrem) Kind (Dative case, neut.)

Dut. Ik speel met mijn (hun) kind.

Afr. Ek speel met my (hul) kind.

- I play with my (their) child.

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Peculiarities of Possessive Adjectives Use in Dutch

1. In Dutch, just like personal subject pronouns and the direct object pronouns, the possessive adjectives
also have both stressed and unstressed forms:

Dutch English

Stressed Unstressed

jouw je your (s.)

jullie je your (pl.)

The stressed forms retain the original full vowel, and are usually used in writing. However, they
are also used in speaking or less formal writing for special emphasis.

• Jouw/Je - “your”

For example, in order to to stress that the object is owned by you, we should use the stressed
jouw instead of the unstressed je. To compare:

Example 1 (Unstressed je)

Dut. Je telefoon gaat over.

- Your phone is ringing.

Example 2 (Stressed jouw)

Dut. Jouw telefoon (niet mijn telefoon) gaat over.

- Your phone (not my phone) is ringing.

• Jullie - “your” (plural)

For the stressed form, jullie is always used, for example:

Dut. Ik heb jullie (pl.) boeken gevonden.

- I have found your books.

NOTE:
The unstressed je can be used if the stressed form jullie has already been used
in the sentence in order to avoid two instances of jullie in a row:

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Dut. Hebben jullie je boeken gevonden?

(Not: Hebben jullie jullie boeken gevonden?)
- Have you (pl.) found your books?

• Haar/d’r - “her”

Furthermore, in Dutch, the unstressed form d’r is often heard instead of the stressed haar,
particularly in the Netherlands:

Dutch English

Stressed Unstressed
haar d’r her

For example:

Dut. Heb je d’r telefoon gezien?

- Have you seen her phone?

NOTE:
In Dutch speaking Belgium, the unstressed form d’r is usually not used. Instead,
the stressed haar is mainly used:

Dut. Heb je haar telefoon gezien?

- Have you seen her phone?

2. The use of ons/onze - “our” depends on the gender of the following noun: ons is used with neuter
singular nouns (het-nouns) and onze is used with common gender nouns (de-nouns), as well as all
plural nouns. Compare the following:

Example 1

Dut. het boek (neuter singular) —> ons boek.

- the book. —> our book.

Example 2

Dut. de auto (common singular) —> onze auto.

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- the car. —> our car.

NOTE:
Remember that, in Dutch, a plural noun is always a de-noun, regardless of
whether its singular form takes the article de or het. For example:

Dut. het boek —> ons boek.

- the book. —> our book.

But:
Dut. de boeken —> onze boeken.
- the books. —> our books.

The examples above show that the neuter singular noun “het huis” becomes
“ons huis”, while its plural form is “onze huizen”.

3. In Dutch, there is no translation for “its”. Instead, the form zijn - “his” is used. In this case, it does not
matter whether the noun is neuter (het-noun), or common (de-noun). Study the following:

Example 1

Dut. het huis en zijn dak.

- the house and its roof.

Example 2

Dut. de auto en zijn snelheid

- the car and its speed

Adjective Endings after Possessives in Dutch

Adjectives that modify a noun require an adjective ending when they are preceded by a possessive
adjective in Dutch.

A neuter singular noun preceded by a possessive has a modifying adjective with an ending -e.
Study the following:

Dut. Dit is mijn nieuwe huis.

- This is my new house.

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Remember that the possessive adjective ons has no ending when it precedes a neuter singular
noun with modifying adjective:

Dut. Ons grote huis.

- Our big house.

Independent Possessive Pronouns

In West Germanic languages, independent possessive pronouns do not precede a noun, as in “it is
my car”, but are used to replace a noun accompanied by a possessive adjective: “it is mine”. They can also
be used to shorten a phrase (my car – mine).

Like personal pronouns, possessive pronouns have gender-based contrasts (masculine, feminine
or non-personal) in the 3rd person singular.

Below is a table presenting possessive pronouns in Dutch and Afrikaans and nominative
masculine possessive pronouns in German:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

meiner de/het mijne myne mine

deiner de/het jouwe (informal) joune (informal) yours

de/het uwe (formal) u s’n (formal)
seiner de/het zijne syne his

ihrer de/het hare hare hers

seiner de/het zijne syne its

unserer de/het onze ons s’n ours

euerer/Ihrer jullie julle s’n yours

ihrer de/het hunne hulle s’n theirs

For instance:

Ger. Das ist mein Kaffee. —> Das ist meiner.

Dut. Dit is mijn koffie. —> Dit is de mijne.

Afr. Dit is my koffie. —> Dit is myne.

- This is my coffee. —> This is mine.

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As it is seen from the above example, the first sentence contains the possessive adjective “my” as
it is used in front of a noun to show possession: “my coffee”. In the second sentence the possessive
pronoun “mine” is used as unlike possessive adjective “my”, it does not proceed the noun “coffee”, but
replaces it.

NOTE:
In Dutch, independent possessive pronouns add the ending -e and are always
preceded by a definite article: de or het (except for jullie).
Which article we use, depends on whether the pronoun refers to common nouns
(de-nouns) or neuter nouns (het-nouns). To illustrate:

Dut. de auto —> mijn auto —> de mijne

- the car —> my car —> mine

Dut. het huis —> mijn huis —> het mijne

- the house —> my house —> mine

To express possession with jullie, one needs to use van jullie (meaning “of
you”) and the appropriate demonstrative. Note that other forms can also be
used with van. (See Informal Possession with Van in Dutch p. 305):

Dut. Het huis is van jullie.

- The house is yours (plural)

In Afrikaans, if the formal u as a subject and object pronoun is not frequently

used by many Afrikaans speakers, the formal possessive pronoun u s'n is even
less common.

Observe more examples:

Ger. Es ist ihr Hut. —> Es ist ihrs

Dut. Het is haar hoed. —> Het is de hare.

Afr. Dit is haar hoed. —> Dit is hare.

- It is her hat. —> It is hers.

Declension of Possessive Pronouns in German

The declension of the possessive pronouns are the same as those for the definite articles der/die/
das in German (See Articles p. 218).

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These endings agree with the gender and number of the noun that the possessive pronouns are
replacing, and which case the noun belongs to.

Below is a table presenting all of the types of possessive pronouns:

German English

Case masc. fem. neut. pl.

Nominative meiner meine mein(e)s meine

Accusative meinen meine mein(e)s meine

mine
Dative meinem meiner meinem meinen

Genitive meines meiner meines meiner

Nominative deiner deine deins deine

Accusative deinen deine deins deine

yours
Dative deinem deiner deinem deinen

Genitive deines deiner deines deiner

Nominative seiner seine seins seine

Accusative seinen seine seins seine

his
Dative seinem seiner seinem seinen

Genitive seines seiner seines seiner

Nominative ihrer ihre ihr(e)s ihre

Accusative ihren ihre ihr(e)s ihre

hers
Dative ihrem ihrer ihrem ihren

Genitive ihres ihrer ihres ihrer

Nominative seiner seine seins seine

Accusative seinen seine seins seine

its
Dative seinem seiner seinem seinen

Genitive seines seiner seines seiner

Nominative unserer unsere unseres unsere

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German English

Accusative unseren unsere unseres unsere

ours
Dative unserem unserer unserem unseren

Genitive unseres unserer unseres unserer

Nominative euerer eure eueres eure

Accusative euren eure eueres eure

yours
Dative eurem eurer eurem euren

Genitive eures eurer eures eurer

Nominative Ihrer Ihre Ihr(e)s Ihre

Accusative Ihren Ihre Ihres Ihre yours

Dative Ihrem Ihrer Ihrem Ihren

Genitive Ihres Ihrer Ihres Ihrer

Nominative ihrer ihre ihr(e)s ihre

Accusative ihren ihre ihres ihre

theirs
Dative ihrem ihrer ihrem ihren

Genitive ihres ihrer ihres ihrer

For example:

Ger. Mein Auto ist gelb. Mein(e)s ist gelb.

- My car is yellow. Mine is yellow.

The word das Auto - “car” is a neuter noun in the nominative case in German, so we need to use
possessive pronoun which is also neuter in the nominative case (See also Determine the Case of
Possessive Pronouns in German p. 299).

NOTE:
In spoken German, the letter e from the ending of the nominative and
accusative neuter possessive pronouns is usually dropped. For example:

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Ger. Mein Buch ist rot. Meins ist rot.

- My book is red. Mine is red.

Furthermore, a phrase “a friend of mine” uses the independent possessive in English, but in German,
the following construction is used: the preposition van + dative personal pronoun (See Informal
Possession with Von in German p. 308). For example:

Ger. ein Freund von mir.

- a friend of mine.

Determine the Case of Possessive Pronouns in German

Below we will demonstrate how to determine cases of the possessive pronouns correctly in
German. The Dutch and Afrikaans examples will also be added for the sake of comparison.

The Nominative Case

Below is a table showing nominative possessive pronouns:

German English

Nominative Case

masc. fem. neut. pl.

meiner meine mein(e)s meine mine

deiner deine deins deine yours

seiner seine seins seine his

ihrer ihre ihr(e)s ihre hers

seiner seine seins seine its

unserer unsere unseres unsere ours

euerer eure eueres eure yours

Ihrer Ihre Ihr(e)s Ihre yours

ihrer ihre ihr(e)s ihre theirs

Now let's look at the nominative possessive pronoun endings for each gender:

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• If the noun is masculine such as der Stuhl - “the chair”, the nominative possessive pronoun that
replaces this noun takes an -er ending:

Ger. Der Stuhl ist meiner (deiner, seiner, ihrer etc.)

- The chair is mine (yours, his, hers etc.).

• If the noun is feminine such as die Tasse - “the cup”, the nominative possessive pronoun that replaces
this noun takes an -e ending.

Ger. Die Tasse ist meine (deine, seine, ihre etc.)

- The cup is mine (yours, his, hers etc.).

• If the noun is neuter such as das Auto - “the car”, the nominative possessive pronoun that replaces this
noun takes an -es ending, which may or may not drop that middle -e-.

Ger. Das Auto ist mein(e)s (deins, seins, ihr(e)s etc.)

- The car is mine (yours, his, hers etc.).

• If the noun is plural such as die Autos - “the cars”, the nominative possessive pronoun that replaces
this noun takes an -e ending:

Ger. Die Autos sind meine (deine, seine, ihre etc.).

- The cars are mine (yours, his, hers etc.).

NOTE:
As it was said before, in Dutch and Afrikaans, the possessive pronouns do not
agree in case, number and gender with nouns and only take the -e ending in all
cases below. Observe the same examples:

Dut. De stoel is de mijne (de jouwe, de zijne, de hare etc.).

Afr. Die stoel is myne (joune, syne, hare etc.).

- This chair is mine (yours, his, hers etc.).

Dut. De beker is de mijne (de jouwe, de zijne, de hare etc.).

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Afr. Die beker is myne (joune, syne, hare etc.).

- This cup is mine.

Dut. De auto is de mijne (de jouwe, de zijne, de hare etc.).

Afr. Die motor is myne (joune, syne, hare)

- The car is mine (yours, his, hers etc.).

Dut. De auto's zijn de mijne (de jouwe, de zijne, de hare etc.)

Afr. Die motors is myne (joune, syne, hare)

- The cars are mine (yours, his, hers etc.).

The Accusative Case

Accusative possessive pronoun endings are -en (masculine), -e (feminine), -(e)s (neuter), -e
(plural):

Below is a table presenting accusative possessive pronouns:

German English

Accusative Case

masc. fem. neut. pl.

meinen meine mein(e)s meine mine

deinen deine deins deine yours

seinen seine seins seine his

ihren ihre ihr(e)s ihre hers

seinen seine seins seine its

unseren unsere unseres unsere ours

euren eure eueres eure yours

Ihren Ihre Ihres Ihre yours

ihren ihre ihres ihre theirs

Study the following example:

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Ger. Hast du einen Bleistift? Er hat seinen verloren.

- Do you have a pencil? He has lost his.

Note that in German the possessive pronoun seinen replaces the phrase einen Bleistift.

Even though the noun “pencil” is masculine (der Bleistift), we cannot use the nominative case form
seiner in this case.

The subject Er - “he” has lost his pencil, so the pencil is the direct object and therefore is used in the
accusative case. That is why the -en ending is used to reflect this.

Furthermore, in German, the accusative case can also be identified by accusative prepositions (See
also The Accusative Case p. 125). For example:

Ger. Wir gehen mit seinem Vater ins Kino, aber ohne meinen.

- We’re going to the cinema with his father but without mine.

NOTE:
Study the same examples in Dutch and Afrikaans:

Dut. Heb jij een potlood? Hij heeft de zijne verloren.

Afr. Het jy 'n potlood? Hy het syne verloor.

- Do you have a pencil? He has lost his.

Dut. We gaan met zijn vader naar de bioscoop, maar zonder de mijne.

Afr. Ons gaan met sy pa bioskoop toe, maar sonder myne.

- We’re going to the cinema with his father but without mine.

The Dative Case

Dative possessive pronoun endings are -em (masculine), -er (feminine), -em (neuter), -en (plural):

Below is a table presenting dative possessive pronouns:

German English

Dative Case

masc. fem. neut. pl.

meinem meiner meinem meinen mine

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German English

deinem deiner deinem deinen yours

seinem seiner seinem seinen his

ihrem ihrer ihrem ihren hers

seinem seiner seinem seinen its

unserem unserer unserem unseren ours

eurem eurer eurem euren yours

Ihrem Ihrer Ihrem Ihren yours

ihrem ihrer ihrem ihren theirs

As we already know, the dative case represents an indirect object in the sentence. Remember that the
dative case can also be indicated by a dative verb and/or dative preposition (See also The Dative Case
p. 121). Study the following:

Ger. Sein Vater ist nicht hier, also essen wir mit meinem.

- His father is not here, so we eat with mine.

NOTE:
Observe the same example in Dutch and Afrikaans:

Dut. Zijn vader is er niet, dus eten we met de mijne.

Afr. Sy pa is nie hier nie, so eet ons met myne.

- His father is not here, so we eat with mine.

The Genitive Case

In the genitive case, both masculine and neuter possessive pronouns take the ending -(e)s. Feminine
and plural possessive pronouns add the ending -er:

Below is a table presenting genitive possessive pronouns:

German English

Genitive Case

masc. fem. neut. pl.

meines meiner meines meiner mine

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German English

deines deiner deines deiner yours

seines seiner seines seiner his

ihres ihrer ihres ihrer hers

seines seiner seines seiner its

unseres unserer unseres unserer ours

eures eurer eures eurer yours

Ihres Ihrer Ihres Ihrer yours

ihres ihrer ihres ihrer theirs

Note that possessive pronouns in the genitive case are very rare. They mainly occur after specific
expressions, for example:

Ger. Du bist dir deines Fehlers bewusst, sie sich ihres nicht.

- You're aware of your mistake, she not of hers.

The word der Fehler - “mistake” is a masculine noun used in the genitive case in the expression:
“Du bist dir deines Fehlers (genitive) bewusst” - “You’re aware of your mistake” in German. Therefore,
we need to use possessive pronoun ihres - “hers” which is also in the genitive case.

Alternative Forms of Possessive Pronouns in German

There are two alternative paradigms of possessive pronouns used in elevated style in German, which
we need to know and recognize, but will never need to use.

Below we will demonstrate the first paradigm using the possessive pronoun “my” to show how it
agrees in case, gender and number with a noun.

Paradigm 1

Case masculine feminine neuter plural

Nominative der meinige die meinige das meinige die meinigen

Accusative den meinigen die meinige das meinige die meinigen

Dative dem meinigen der meinigen dem meinigen den meinigen

Genitive des meinigen der meinigen des meinigen der meinigen

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There are two alternative paradigms of possessive pronouns used in elevated style in German, which
we need to know and recognize, but will never need to use.

Paradigm 2

Case masculine feminine neuter plural

Nominative der meine die meine das meine die meinen

Accusative den meinen die meine das meine die meinen

Dative dem meinen der meinen dem meinen den meinen

Genitive des meinen der meinen des meinen der meinen

Similarly, the possessive pronouns der (die, das) deine/seine/ihre/unsere/eure/Ihre/ihre

etc. are also used. For example:

Ger. Meine drei Kinder sind alle Jungen, die ihren aber alle Mädchen.

- My three children are all boys but hers are all girls.

Informal Possession with Van in Dutch

An alternative way of showing possession without using the possessive pronouns is to use the
following construction: van + object pronoun in Dutch.

This construction is especially particular for the spoken language in Dutch. It corresponds to “of +
object” construction and generally occurs in sentences with the verb zijn - “to be”.

Below is the formula that shows how to form the informal possession with van and the object
pronouns in Dutch:

Below is the formula that shows how to form the informal possession with van and the object
pronouns in Dutch:

mij - mine
jou (inf.)/u (f.) - yours
hem - his
van + haar - hers
ons - ours
jullie (inf.)/u (f.) - yours
hen - theirs

Study the following:

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Dut. Is dat huis van jou? - Ja, die is van mij.

- Is that house yours? - Yes, it is mine.

Dut. Die hond is van ons.

- That dog is ours.

NOTE:
In Dutch, there is no separate form for “its”. To mean “of it/that” the form
ervan is used. In order to stress that something belongs to “it”, the form
hiervan - “of this” or daarvan - “of that” are used. To compare:

Dut. Dit is de achterkant daarvan.

- This is the back side of that.

Furthermore, remember that if the noun is not present in the clause, then the object pronoun
preceded by van and the appropriate demonstratives die - “that” or dat - “those” are used.

Below is the formula showing how to form the mentioned above structure in Dutch:

mij - mine
jou (inf.)/u (f.) - yours
hem - his
die or dat + van + haar - hers
ons - ours
jullie (inf.)/u (f.) - yours
hen - theirs

Observe the following:

Dut. Hier is mijn mok. Die van jou is daar.

- Here is my mug. Yours is there.

Dut. De Duitse economie en die van Groot-Brittannië.

- German economy and that of Britain.

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NOTE:
Remember that the construction die or dat + van + object pronoun is the only
way to form possession with jullie, as there is no possessive pronoun for it. For
example:

Dut. Mijn huis is erg oud, maar dat van jullie is nieuw.
- My house is very old but yours is new.

Use of Possession with Van in Dutch

• The construction with van + object noun is also the common way of expressing the possessive in Dutch,
which corresponds to the English use of “of”. Observe the following:

Dut. Het dak van het huis.

- The roof of the house.

• Unlike English, Dutch also uses the construction with van to refer to persons:

Did you know? Dut. De jurk van Maria.

The German-speaking part of - Maria's dress.

Switzerland (German: Deutschschweiz)
accounts for over 65% of Switzerland.

NOTE:
In Afrikaans, the possessive form with van - “of” is not as common as in Dutch.
Instead, the particle se is used (See also Alternative Constructions for
Possessives p. 310). Compare the following:

Maria se rok. (more usual)

Die rok van Maria. (less usual)
- Maria's dress.

However, the possessive form with van - “of” can be used to avoid the double
possessive in Afrikaans. For example:

Afr. Die dogter van ons kollegas se vriende.

- The daughter of our colleagues' friends.

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• The preposition van is also used before the interrogative pronoun Dut. wie - “who” in order to express
an interrogative possessive in Dutch (See Interrogative Pronouns and Adverbs p. 322). For
example:

Dut. Van wie is deze pen?

- Whose pen is this?

NOTE:
In Afrikaans, the possessive particle se is used after the interrogative pronoun
Afr. wie - “who” in this case. To illustrate:

Afr. Wie se pen is dit?

- Whose pen is this?

Informal Possession with Von in German

In German, an alternative way of showing possession without using the genitive case is to use the
following construction: von + indirect object (dative) pronouns or nouns (See also The Genitive Case
p. 115 and The Dative Case p. 121).

This construction is especially particular in colloquial German. It corresponds to “of + object”

construction and generally occurs in sentences with the verb sein - “to be”.

Below is the formula that shows how to form the informal possession with von and the object
pronouns in the dative in German:

mir - mine
dir - yours
ihm - his
von + ihr - hers
uns - ours
euch - yours
ihnen (pl.)/ihnen (f.) - theirs

Study the following:

Ger. eine Tante von ihm (dat.)

- an aunt of his.

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Ger. Die Brille von meinem Vater (dat.)

- My father's glasses.

Below are some rules concerning the use of the informal possession with von as a genitive substitute
in German.

Use of Possession with Von in German

The genitive case is often replaced by the construction: von + indirect object (dative) pronouns or
nouns:

• to avoid repetition of the genitive case, for example:

Ger. der Schlüssel von der Tür (von-phrase) des Büros (genitive).

- the key from the door of the office.

• in colloquial German, for instance:

Ger. die Schwester von Mark.

- Mark's sister. (lit. the sister of Mark.)

• with pronouns, which are used in the dative, e.g.:

Ger. der Freund von ihr (dat.)

- the friend of hers.

• after viel(e) - “many, much, a lot of” or wenig(e) - “few, little”:

Ger. viele von den guten Produkten (dat.)

- the friend of hers.

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Differences between Possessive Adjectives and Possessive

Pronouns

The main difference between possessive adjectives and possessive pronouns is as follows:

• Possessive adjective stand before the noun.

• Possessive pronouns replace it.

Compare the following examples:

Ger. Das ist mein Buch. Das ist meins.

Dut. Dat is mijn boek. Dat is het mijne. (or informal: Dat is van mij.)

Afr. Dit is my boek. Die boek is myne.

- That is my book. That is mine.

Alternative Constructions for Possessives

Possession with s in German and Dutch and se in Afrikaans

In English, it is possible to form the possession by adding apostrophe + s to the noun or the name
of a person.

However, in German and Dutch, we only add the letter -s to the third person proper noun, In
Afrikaans, the particle se is used. Study the following:

Ger. Toms Brieftasche.

Dut. Toms portemonnee.

Afr. Tom se beursie.

- Tom’s wallet.

NOTE:
Unlike in German and Afrikaans, in Dutch, an apostrophe is added when the
name ends in a vowel other than -e or when the last letter is an s or x:

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Ger. Omas Schlüssel.

Dut. Oma's sleutels.
Afr. Oma se sleutel.
- Oma’s key.

Remember that in German and Dutch, you can only turn proper names into possessive nouns
when adding -s. In Afrikaans, however, to show ownership, we can use the particle se with both proper
names and nouns.

NOTE:
In Dutch, if you want to form the possession with a noun, you should use the
preposition van in this case in Dutch (See Informal Possession with Van
in Dutch p. 305).
In German, you should use the genitive case suffixes to form the possession
with the noun or the name of a person (See Case in German p. 112).

Study the following:

Ger. Das Haus meines Nachbarn.

Dut. Het huis van mijn buurman.

Afr. My buurman se huis.

- My neighbour’s house.

Possession with d’r, z’n and hun in Dutch

Furthermore, in Dutch, in more informal language, you can use the contracted constructions with
d’r - “her”, z’n - “his”, hun - “their” in place of the -s. These constructions are used with the 3rd person
singular or plural.

NOTE:
In German, we use the genitive case suffixes (See The Genitive Case p. 115).
In Afrikaans, the particle se is still used this case.

Observe the following:

Ger. Der Hund meiner Eltern ist groß.

Dut. Mijn ouders hun hond is groot.

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Afr. My ouers se hond is groot.

- My parents’ dog is big.

Ger. Das Kind meines Bruders ist krank.

Dut. Mijn broer z’n kind is ziek.

Afr. My broer se kind is siek.

- My parents’ dog is big.

Possession with s’n in Afrikaans

In Afrikaans, just like se, the particle s’n is used with both proper names and nouns in order to show
ownership. However, unlike se, s’n is used in phrases where the noun or pronoun is put independently.

Compare the following:

Afr. Luan se huis. —> Daardie huis is Luan s’n.

- Luan's house. —> That house is Luan's.

In German, we use the suffix -s in both cases, while in Dutch, the preposition van is used. Observe
the same example:

Ger. Luans Haus. —> Das Haus ist Luans.

Dut. Het huis van Luan. —> Dat huis is van Luan.

- Luan's house. —> That house is Luan's.

NOTE:
In Dutch, we can also use the possessor's name along with the possessives haar
- “her”, zijn - “his” and hun - “their”.
It is, however, considered very informal and it is only used for the third person
singular and plural:

Ger. Dat is Luans zijn huis.

- That is Luan’s (his) house.

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Demonstrative Adjectives and Pronouns

Demonstrative Adjectives
Demonstrative adjectives (English this/that and these/those) are used with nouns which they
modify and point out the location of a particular thing or person (close or far away). They are basically
used to say “which” noun or to emphasize a noun, for example, “this man, that car”.

In Germanic languages (except for Afrikaans), all demonstrative adjectives agree in number with
the noun that they modify. However, in German, unlike in English and Afrikaans, demonstratives are also
declined to reflect gender and case. In Dutch demonstratives also agree in gender (common and neuter).
For example:

Ger. Dieser Mann.

Did you know?
Dut. Deze man.
German is one of Switzerland’s four
national languages. Over 4.6 million Afr. Hierdie (or Diè) man.
people (62.9%) speak it natively in seventeen of
the Swiss cantons. - This man.

The word “man” in German language is masculine, and is common gender in Dutch, so we need
to use demonstrative adjective which is also masculine (in German) and of common gender (in Dutch).

As we could also see from the previous examples, the definite article is not used with
demonstrative adjectives in German, Dutch and Afrikaans.

Forms of Demonstrative Adjectives

Below is a table presenting all the sets of demonstrative adjectives in Dutch, Afrikaans and
nominative case demonstratives in German:

Distance Number German Dutch Afrikaans English

masc. fem. neut. com. neut. — —

Sing. dieser diese dieses deze dit hierdie this

Close
Pl. diese deze hierdie these

Sing. jener jene jenes die dat daardie that

Far
Pl. jene die daardie those

Observe the following:

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Did you know? Ger. Dieses Haus ist groß.

The Rheinturm (Rhine Tower) is the Dut. Dit huis is groot.

tallest building in Düsseldorf, Germany.
The 240-metre-high (789 ft) concrete Afr. Hierdie huis is groot.
telecommunications tower offers fantastic views
- This house is big.
of the city from its observation deck.

Ger. Diese Häuser sind groß.

Dut. Deze huizen zijn groot.

Afr. Hierdie huise is groot.

- These houses are big.

NOTE:
In Afrikaans, the demonstrative adjective diè (even more colloquially daai) -
“this, that, these, those” is also frequently used. For example:

Afr. Diè huis is groot.

- This house is big.

Afr. Diè huise is groot.

- These houses are big.

Declension of Demonstrative Adjectives in German

Note that unlike in Dutch and Afrikaans, in German all demonstrative adjectives, apart from
gender and number, also agree in case with the noun that they modify. For example:

Ger. Ich kenne diesen Mann nicht.

Dut. Ik ken deze man niet.

Afr. Ek ken nie hierdie man nie.

- I don't know this man.

The noun Mann - “man" in German language is masculine and used in the singular, and diesen
Mann - “this man” is the direct object in the above example, so we need to use the demonstrative
adjective diesen in the accusative case, singular, and masculine.

The declension of each of these determiners (dieser, jener) are the same as those for the definite
articles der/die/das in German (See Articles p. 218).

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Below is a table presenting all of the types of demonstrative adjectives (dieser, jener) that
agree in case, gender and number in German language:

German English

Case masc. fem. neut. pl. sing./pl.

Nominative dieser diese dieses diese

Accusative diesen diese dieses diese

this/these
Dative diesem dieser diesem diesen

Genitive dieses dieser dieses dieser

Nominative jener jene jenes jene

Accusative jenen jene jenes jene

that/those
Dative jenem jener jenem jenen

Genitive jenes jener jenes jener

Below will be demonstrated how the demonstrative adjective “this” agrees in case, gender and
number with a noun and how it is used in sentences.

We will take words “dog” (Ger. der Hund), which is masculine in German, “school” (Ger. die
Schule), which is feminine, “house” (Ger. das Haus) - neuter, and “children” (Ger. die Kinder) - a
plural noun to demonstrate the declension.

Remember that you can replace the demonstrative adjective “this” or nouns used in the example
with any other to make up your own phrases.

German

Case masculine feminine neuter plural

Nominative dieser Hund diese Schule dieses Haus diese Kinder

Accusative diesen Hund diese Schule dieses Haus diese Kinder

Dative diesem Hund dieser Schule diesem Haus diesen Kindern

Genitive dieses Hundes dieser Schule dieses Hauses dieser Kinder

NOTE:
As it was said before, in English and Afrikaans, the demonstrative adjectives do
not agree in case and gender with nouns, while in Dutch, demonstratives agree
in gender (common and neuter), for example:

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Dutch Afrikaans English

common neuter __ __

singular deze hond dit huis hierdie hond this dog

(school) (skool, huis) (school, house)
plural deze kinderen hierdie kinders these children

For example:

Ger. Ich kenne diese Schule nicht. (accusative case, feminine)

Dut. Ik ken deze school niet. (common gender)

Afr. Ek ken nie hierdie skool nie.

- I do not know this school.

Ger. Ich spiele mit diesen Kindern (dative case, plural)

Dut. Ik speel met deze kinderen. (plural)

Afr. Ek speel met hierdie kinders.

- I play with these children.

Demonstrative Adjectives this and these in West Germanic Languages

As it is seen from the table, the demonstrative adjectives Ger. dieser, diese, dieses, diese
(nominative case); Dut. deze, dit, deze; Afr. hierdie - “this, these” are used to indicate nouns which are
physically near the speaker and the person to whom he or she is speaking. It is within reaching distance.
For example:

Ger. Dieses Buch ist wunderbar.

Dut. Dit boek is geweldig.

Afr. Hierdie boek is wonderlik.

- This book is wonderful.

In English, these demonstrative adjectives also signify the time and proximity:

Eng. I go to the university this afternoon.

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NOTE:
In English, the demonstrative adjective “this” also signifies the time, e.g. “this
afternoon”.
However, in German, Dutch and Afrikaans, the following expression is used in
this case:
German Dutch Afrikaans English

heute Nachmittag vanmiddag vanmiddag this afternoon

Look at the example:

Ger. Heute Nachmittag gehe ich zur Universität.

Dut. Vanmiddag ga ik naar de universiteit.
Afr. Vanmiddag gaan ek universiteit toe.
- This afternoon, I go to the university.

Demonstrative Adjectives that and those in West Germanic Languages

Ger. jener, jene, jenes, jene (nominative case); Dut. die, dat, die; Afr. daardie - “that, those”
are used indicate nouns which are farther from the speaker and not within the reach or rather the noun
can be nearer to the listener, not the speaker.

NOTE:
In German, jener is rarely used in spoken language. A more usual way of
expressing “that, those” in German is simply by using dieser, which is also
translated as “that”.

Below are the examples that demonstrate the use of that and those in West Germanic languages:

Did you know? Ger. Wie viel kostet dieser (jener) Mantel?
Luxembourg has 3 official languages: Dut. Hoeveel kost die jas?
French, German and Luxembourgish.
Children are taught in Luxembourgish in Afr. Hoeveel kos daardie jas?
nursery schools, and French and German at
primary schools. - How much does that coat cost?

Ger. Diese Schuhe sind sehr teuer.

Dut. Die schoenen zijn erg duur.

Afr. - Daardie skoene is baie duur.

- Those shoes are very expensive.

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Word Order of Demonstrative Adjectives

Demonstrative adjectives in West Germanic languages are placed right before the noun they
modify, for example:

Ger. Diese Zeitungen liegen auf dem Tisch.

Dut. Die kranten liggen op tafel.

Afr. Daardie koerante is op die tafel.

- Those newspapers are on the table.

Demonstrative Pronouns
Demonstrative pronouns indicate the location of the noun they replace. You can use
demonstrative pronouns when you have several options to choose and while choosing you can say “this
one” (the one close to you) or “that one” (the one far from you). So, the words “this one” and “that one”
are both demonstrative pronouns.

Like demonstrative adjectives, German and Dutch demonstrative pronouns agree in number with
the noun that they modify. In German demonstrative pronouns are declined to reflect gender and case. In
Dutch demonstrative pronouns also agree in gender (common and neuter) with the noun that they
substitute (See Demonstrative Adjectives p. 313).Observe the following:

Ger. Welches Kleid soll ich tragen, dieses oder jenes?

Dut. Welke jurk moet ik dragen, deze of die?

Afr. Watter rok moet ek dra, hierdie een of daardie een?

- Which dress should I wear, this one or that one?

The noun “dress” in German language is neuter, and is common gender in Dutch, so we need to
use demonstrative adjective which is also neuter (in German) and of common gender (in Dutch).

Forms of Demonstrative Pronouns

In German and Dutch, demonstrative pronouns are identical to demonstrative adjectives.

However, In Afrikaans, like in English, demonstrative pronouns hierdie - “this”and daardie -

“that” are often followed by een - “one”, as in the English construction “this/that one”.

Below is a table presenting demonstrative pronouns in Dutch, Afrikaans and nominative case
demonstratives in German:

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Distance Number German Dutch Afrikaans English

masc. fem. neut. com. neut. — —

Sing. dieser diese dieses deze dit hierdie een this one
Close

Pl. diese deze hierdie een these ones

Sing. jener jene jenes die dat daardie een that one

Far
Pl. jene die daardie een those ones

Remember that demonstrative pronouns in West Germanic languages are used to replace a noun
instead of modifying it like an adjective would.

In other words, demonstratives can be used without a noun. In this case, the noun is implied
because the speaker has mentioned it earlier in the context, so that it is clear what the speaker is saying:
Compare the following:

Demonstrative Adjective Demonstrative Pronoun

German Dieses Haus ist wunderschön. Dieses ist wunderschön.

Dutch Dit huis is prachtig. Dit is prachtig.

Afrikaans Hierdie huis is pragtig. Hierdie een is pragtig.

English This house is beautiful. This one is beautiful.

NOTE:
In Dutch, if a demonstrative pronoun is linked to a noun with the verb zijn - “to
be”, we must use dit and dat (which are normally used for neuter nouns or het-
nouns), even if the noun is common or de-noun. For example:
Demonstrative Adjective Demonstrative Pronoun

Dutch Deze stad is duur. Dit is duur.

(Not: Deze is duur.)
English This city is expensive. This (one) is expensive.

Also, in spoken German, native speakers normally prefer to use dieser/diese/

dieses - “this one” instead of jener/jene/jenes - “that one”:

Ger. Mein Haus ist größer als dieses (jenes).

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Dut. Mijn huis is groter dan dat.

Afr. My huis is groter as daardie een.
- My house is bigger than that one.

It is worth saying that in order to emphasize something or someone one can use the following form in
West Germanic languages:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

derjenige/diejenige(n) or degene die een the one(-s)

der/die/das

Study the following:

Ger. Derjenige, der hier arbeitet, ist mein Bruder.

Dut. Degene, die hier werkt, is mijn broer.

Afr. Die een wat hier werk is my broer.

- The one who works here is my brother.

Independent (Neuter) Forms of Demonstratives in West Germanic

Languages

Like in English, in German, Dutch and Afrikaans, the demonstratives “this, that, these and those”
are also used independently with the things, such as statements, situations, actions and items that the
speaker cannot identify precisely.

In other words, these independent demonstrative pronouns point out but do not directly modify.
They are placed at the beginning of the sentence.

For example:

Did you know? Ger. Das ist mein Bruder.

The Netherlands has been a kingdom Dut. Dit is mijn broer.

since 1815 and is officially called the
Kingdom of the Netherlands. King Willem- Afr. Dit is my broer.
Alexander Claus George Ferdinand has been the
- This is my brother.
Dutch Head of State since 2013.

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Forms of Independent (Neuter) Demonstratives

Below is a table presenting all the independent (neuter demonstrative) in German, Dutch and
Afrikaans:

Distance Number German Dutch Afrikaans English

Sing. das dit dit this

Close
Pl. das dit dit these
Sing. das dat dit that
Far
Pl. das dat dit those

Below is an example that demonstrates the use of neuter form of demonstrating pronouns in
German, Dutch and Afrikaans languages:

Did you know? Ger. Das ist fantastisch.

Luxembourg’s cuisine is heavily Dut. Dit is fantastisch.
influenced by food traditions of
neighboring France and Germany. Local cuisine Afr. Dit is fantasties.
includes potato pancakes (gromper keeschelche),
plum tart (quetsche tort), apples en croûte - This is fantastic.
(Äppelklatzen) and a lent speciality (Pretzel).

Ger. Das sind meine Bücher.

Dut. Dat zijn mijn boeken.

Afr. Dit is my boeke.

- Those are my books.

NOTE:
In German and Dutch, the neuter form Ger. es and Dut. het can also be used to
mean “it”.
In Afrikaans, the form dit is still used in this case:

Ger. Es ist mein Buch.

Dut. Het is mijn boek.
Afr. Dit is my boek.
- It is my book.

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Difference between Demonstrative Adjectives and Demonstrative Pronouns

The main difference between demonstrative adjectives and demonstrative pronouns is the same
as with possessive adjectives and pronouns in West Germanic languages:

• demonstrative adjectives stand before the noun.

• demonstrative pronouns either precede a verb or replace the noun.

Compare the following examples:

Demonstrative Adjective Demonstrative Pronoun

German Dieses Buch ist interessant. Dieses ist interessant.

Dutch Dit boek is interessant. Dit is interessant.

Afrikaans Hierdie boek is interessant. Hierdie een is interessant.

English This book is interesting. This one is interesting.

Interrogative Pronouns and Adverbs

In West Germanic languages, direct and indirect questions, other than “yes or no” questions,
contain interrogative words.

Such interrogative words can be pronouns, adverbs or interrogative pronominal adverbs as they
answer the questions: Who? What? Where? How? When? Why?.

These question words are usually placed at the beginning of the phrase. To make a question using
question words:

1. start the question with the question word.

2. add the inflected verb in the second position.

3. add the subject.

4. add the rest of the phrase.

Take a look at the formula below:

Question word + verb + subject + the rest of the sentence

For example:

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Ger. Was ist das?

Dut. Wat is dat?

Afr. Wat is dit?

- What is that?

As we can see from the above example:

1. Ger. Was, Dut., Afr. Wat - “what” is the question word.

2. Ger. ist, Dut., Afr. is - “is” is the inflected verb.

3. Ger. das, Dut. dat, Afr. dit - “that” is the subject.

Below is the table showing most common “question” words in German, Dutch and Afrikaans:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

was? wat? wat? what?

wer?* wie? wie? who?/whom?/to whom?

wessen? van wie?/wiens?/wier? wie se/s’n? whose?

welcher?* welk(-e)?* watter?/welke? which (one/-s)?

wie? hoe? hoe? how?

wie viel(-e)? hoeveel? hoeveel? how much?/how many?

wie oft? hoe vaak? hoe gereeld? how often?

wie weit? hoe ver? hoe ver? how far?

wie lange? hoe lang? hoe lank? (for) how long?

wann? wanneer? wanneer? when?

seit wann? sinds wanneer? van wanneer af? since when?

wo? waar? waar? where?

woher? waarvandaan? van waar?/ where from?

waarvandaan?
wohin? waarheen?/waaraan? waarheen?/ where to?
waarnatoe?
warum?/wieso?/wie waarom? waarom?/hoekom? why?/how come?
kommt es?

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NOTE:
In German, the interrogative pronoun wer - “who” agrees in case (See also
Who(m)? - Ger. Wer?, Dut. Wie?, Afr. Wie? p. 326):
German

Nominative wer

Accusative wen

Dative wem

Genitive wessen

The German interrogative word welcher - “which” is also declined according

to gender and case:
German

Case masc. fem. neut. pl.

Nominative welcher welche welches welche

Accusative welchen welche welches welche

Dative welchem welcher welchem welchen

Genitive welches welcher welches welcher

In Dutch, welk is used before het-nouns, while welke before de-nouns and
plural nouns. If not followed by a noun, welke is normally used. Compare the
following:

Dut. Welke dag is het vandaag? (de dag - the day)

- Which day is it today?

Dut. welk huis is het? (het huis - the house)

- Which house is it?

What? - Ger. Was?, Dut. Wat? Afr. Wat?

The interrogative pronouns Ger. was?, Dut. wat?, Afr. wat? - “what?” can be used as subjects,
direct objects, or objects of a preposition. For example:

As a subject:

Ger. Was ist das?

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Dut. Wat is dat?

Afr. Wat is dit?

- What is that?

As an object:

Ger. Was willst du?

Dut. Wat wil je?

Afr. Wat wil jy?

- What do you want?

As object of a preposition:

In English, for example, the interrogative pronoun “what” can also be used with prepositions such
as “about, with, for”. For instance, “about what?”. In this case the interrogative pronoun is used as object
of a preposition.

However, unlike English “what”, German was, Dutch and Afrikaans wat cannot be used in
combination with a preposition.

In this case, German, Dutch and Afrikaans use an adverbial construction with Ger. wo(r)-, and
Dut., Afr. waar- + a preposition (e.g. Ger. -für, -über; Dut. -voor, -over; Afr. -vir, -oor - for, about) in
order to make a question word. In German, if the preposition starts with a vowel, an “r” is added between
them to make the pronunciation easier.

Below is the formula of forming an adverbial construction with Ger. wo(r)-, and Dut., Afr.
waar- and a preposition:

German wo(r)- für -> wofür?

Dutch and Afrikaans waar- + a preposition -> voor -> waarvoor?

English what for -> what for?

Below is the table showing the most common “question” words used with prepositions in
German, Dutch and Afrikaans:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

woran? waaraan? waaraan? at/on what?

womit? waarmee? waarmee? with what?

wofür? waarvoor? waarvoor? what for?

worüber? waarover? waaroor? about which/what?

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German Dutch Afrikaans English

wovon? waarvan? waarvan? of what?

NOTE:
In colloquial Afrikaans, the forms vir wat - “what for?” and wat van - “of what”
are also used.

Study the following:

Ger. Wofür sparen Sie Geld?

Dut. Waarvoor spaar je geld?

Afr. Waarvoor spaar jy geld? or Vir wat spaar jy geld?

- What are saving money for?

Ger. Wovon sprichst du?

Dut. Waarvan praat je?

Afr. Waarvan praat jy?

- What are they talking about?

NOTE:
In Afrikaans, the following forms can also be heard mostly in the spoken
language:

Afr. Wat praat jy van? or Van wat praat jy?

- What are they talking about?

Who(m)? - Ger. Wer?, Dut. Wie?, Afr. Wie?

The interrogative pronouns Ger. wer?, Dut. wie?, Afr. wie? - “who(m)?” can also be used as
subjects, direct objects, or objects of a preposition in the sentences as well.

As a subject:

Ger. Wer ist sie?

Dut. Wie is zij?

Afr. Wie is sy?

- Who is she?

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As an object:

Ger. Wen möchtest du sehen?

Dut. Wie wil je zien?

Afr. Wie wil jy sien?

- Who(m) do you want to see?

As object of a preposition:

In German, Dutch and Afrikaans, just like in English, the interrogative pronoun Ger. wer?, Dut.,
Afr. wie? - “who(m)” can also be used with prepositions. In this case it is used as object of a preposition.

Note that in German, Dutch and Afrikaans, this construction is rendered by “preposition + Ger.
wer, Dut., Afr. wie.

Below is the table showing the most common “question” words with Ger. wer, Dut. and Afr.
wie used with prepositions:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

mit wem? met wie? met wie? with who?

für wen? op/voor wie? vir wie? for who ?

über wen? over wie? oor wie? about who?

von wem? van wie? van wie? of who?

For instance:

Ger. Von wem sprichst du?

Dut. Van wie praat je?

Afr. Van wie praat jy?

- Who are you talking about?

Did you know? Ger. Für wen haben Sie gestimmt?

Dortmund, Germany, hosts the annual Dut. Op wie heb je gestemd?

“Juicy Beats” music festival in the
Westfalenpark with over 50,000 visitors. This Afr. Vir wie het jy gestem?
festival brings together musicians from pop, - Whom did you vote for?
rap, electro, indie, alternative, reggae, and
urban beats.

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It is worth reminding that in German the interrogative pronoun wer agrees in case. Note that the
declension of the interrogative pronoun wer is the same as that for the masculine article der in German
(See Articles p. 218).

Below is the table showing all of the cases of the German interrogative pronoun wer:

Case German English

Nominative wer? who?

Accusstive wen? who(m)?

Dative wem? to who(m)?

Genitive wessen? whose?

For example:

Ger. Mit wem sprichst du? (dative case)

Dut. Met wie praat je?

Afr. Met wie praat jy?

- Who are you talking to? (or To whom are you talking?)

NOTE:
In German, to ask “who”, one should decide if the “who” is the subject, the direct
object, or the indirect object in the phrase.
Remember that the nominative case wer is the subject, the accusative case wen
is the direct object, and the dative case wem is the indirect object. For example:
German English

Subject Wer kommt morgen? Who is coming tomorrow?

Direct object Wen hast du angerufen? Whom did you call?

Indirect object Wem hast du den Schlüssel To whom did you give the key?
gegeben?

Whose? - Ger. Wessen?, Dut. Van wie?/Wiens?/Wier?, Afr. Wie se

The interrogative pronoun Ger. wessen?, Dut. van wie?/wiens?/wier, Afr. wie se? -
“whose?” is a possessive form of the pronoun and is used to denote ownership for people when a person is
the possessor. For instance:

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Ger. Wessen Tasse ist das?

Dut. Wiens beker is dat?

Afr. Wie se beker is dit?

- Whose cup is that?

NOTE:
In German, wessen is the genitive case form of the interrogative pronoun wer.
In Dutch, wiens is the form for the masculine and neuter singular. Wier is
used with the feminine singular and the plural. However, this form is fast
becoming obsolete. Wiens or van wie are used in all cases nowadays.
In Afrikaans, the form wie se is used before nouns in this case. However, the
form wie s'n is used when “whose” is not followed by a noun.
Compare the following:

Ger. Das ist meine Tasse, aber wessen ist das?

Dut. Dit is mijn beker, maar van wie is dat?
Afr. Dit is my beker, maar wie s'n is dit?
- This is my cup but whose is that?

Which (one/-s)? - Ger. Welcher?, Dut. Welk(-e)?, Afr. Watter?/Welke?

The interrogative pronouns Ger. welche/-r/-s, Dut. welk/-e, Afr. watter?/welke? -

“which(one/-s)?” can be used to ask for identification of a particular person or a particular thing in a
group. For example:

Ger. Welche Farbe wählst du, Rot oder Grün?

Dut. Welke kleur kies jij, rood of groen?

Afr. Watter kleur kies jy, rooi of groen?

- Which color do you choose, red or green?

NOTE:
In German, welch- is declined according to gender and case.
In Dutch, welk is used before het-nouns (neuter gender), while welke before
de-nouns (masculine and feminine) and plural nouns. If not followed by a noun,
welke is normally used. For example: welk radiostation? - which radio
station?. It is a neuter noun - het radiostation - so we use welk before it.
In Afrikaans, the Dutch word welke, which has been widely replaced by
watter, both as an interrogative and as a relative. However, it is still heard in
certain standard expressions in formal contexts. For instance:

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Afr. Welke (Watter) van hierdie wil jy hê?

- Which one of these do you want?

As mentioned above, the interrogative pronoun welch- agrees in case and gender in German.
Note that this question word has the same ending as the definite article der/die/das (See also Articles
p. 218)

Below is the table showing all of the cases of the German question word welch-:

German

Case masc. fem. neut. pl.

Nominative welcher welche welches welche

Accusstive welchen welche welches welche

Dative welchem welcher welchem welchen

Genitive welches welcher welches welcher

Ger. Welchen Teegeschmack möchtest du? (accusative case, masculine)

Dut. Welke theesmaak wil je?

Afr. Watter tee-geur wil jy hê?

- Which tea flavour do you want?

Difference between Ger. Welcher?, Dut. Welk(-e)?, Afr. Watter? - Which

(one/-s)? and Ger. Was?, Dut. Wat?, Afr. Wat? - What?

It should be noted that Ger. welche(-r/-s)?, Dut. welk(-e)?, Afr. watter? - “which(one/-s)?” is
used when we are asking a question that requires a choice between a limited number of items. We use
Ger. was?, Dut. wat?, Afr. wat? - “what?” when asking a general question. Compare the following:

Ger. Welchen Kuchengeschmack möchten Sie?

Dut. Welke smaak van de taart wil je?

Afr. Watter geur van die koek wil jy hê?

- Which flavour of the cake do you want?

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In the above example, we have a context of choice so that is why we used Ger. welche(-r/-s),
Dut. welk(-e), Afr. watter - “which(one/-s)”.

Ger. Was willst Du zum Nachtisch?

Dut. Wat wil je voor toetje?

Afr. Wat wil jy hê vir nagereg?

- What do you want for dessert?

In the above example, we have a general question without any context of choice so we used Ger.
was?, Dut. wat?, Afr. wat? - “what?”.

Eng. Which one/-s? VS Ger. Welcher?, Dut. Welk(-e)?, Afr. Watter?

It is worth mention that the interrogative Eng. which one/-s is singular and is used when asking
the listener to select a single item from a group of many. The interrogative Eng. which ones is plural
form and asks for multiple choices out of the group.

In German, Dutch and Afrikaans, however, the interrogatives Ger. welche(-r/-s)?, Dut. welk(-
e)?, Afr. watter? are used in this case. Compare the following:

Ger. Welches Buch möchtest du kaufen? Welches?

Dut. Welk boek wil je kopen? Welk?

Afr. Watter boek wil jy koop? Watter?

- Which book do you want to buy? Which one?

Ger. Auf welche Freunde wartest du? Welche?

Dut. Op welke vrienden wacht je? Welke?

Afr. Vir watter vriende wag jy? Watter?

- Which friends are you waiting for? Which ones?

How? - Ger. Wie?, Dut. Hoe?, Afr. Hoe?

Along with all listed above interrogative pronouns, some adverbs such as Ger. wie, Dut. hoe,
Afr. hoe - “how?” are also used to ask questions. For example:

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Ger. Wie kannst du das machen?

Dut. Hoe kan je het doen?

Afr. Hoe kan jy dit doen?

- How can you do it?

Ger. Wie heißt du?

Dut. Hoe heet je?

Afr. Hoe heet jy?

- What is your name?

NOTE:
In Dutch and Afrikaans, to ask for someone’s name, the interrogative pronoun
wat? - “what?” can also be used.
In German, however, the adverb Ger. wie? - “how?” must be used in this case.
Study the following:

Ger. Wie ist Ihr Name?

Dut. Wat is jouw naam?
Afr. Wat is jou naam?
- What is your name?

It is worth mentioning that Ger. wie, Dut. hoe, Afr. hoe - “how?” are often followed by other
adverbs. Observe the following:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

wie viel(-e)? hoeveel? hoeveel? how much?/how many?

wie oft? hoe vaak? hoe gereeld? how often?

wie weit? hoe ver? hoe ver? how far?

wie lange? hoe lang? hoe lank? (for) how long?

Below we will consider these construction one by one with the following examples.

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How much?/How many? - Ger. Wie viel(-e)?, Dut. Hoeveel?, Afr.

Hoeveel?

Note that in English and German we use Ger. wie viel - “how much” with uncountable nouns,
and Ger. wie viele - “how many” with countable ones. In Dutch and Afrikaans, however, hoeveel is
used in all cases. For example:

Did you know? Ger. Wie viel kostet dieses Hemd?

Dortmund, Germany, hosts the annual Dut. Hoeveel kost dit overhemd?
“Juicy Beats” music festival in the
Westfalenpark with over 50,000 visitors. This Afr. Hoeveel kos hierdie hemp?
festival brings together musicians from pop,
rap, electro, indie, alternative, reggae, and - How much does this shirt cost?
urban beats.

Ger. Wie viele Äpfel hast du?

Dut. Hoeveel appels heb je?

Afr. Hoeveel appels het jy?

- How many apples do you have?

NOTE:
English, German, Dutch and Afrikaans use different ways of asking the date
(See Dates p. 662):

Ger. Der wievielte ist heute?

Dut. Welke datum is het vandaag?
Afr. Wat is die datum vandag?
- What is the date today?

How often? - Ger. Wie oft?, Dut. Hoe vaak?, Afr. Hoe gereeld?

Ger. Wie oft lernst du Deutsch?

Dut. Hoe vaak studeer je Duits?

Afr. Hoe gereeld studeer jy Duits?

- How often do you study German?

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How far? - Ger. Wie weit?, Dut. Hoe ver?, Afr. Hoe ver?

Ger. Wie weit wohnt er?

Dut. Hoe ver woont hij?

Afr. Hoe ver woon (bly) hy?

- How far does he live?

How long? - Ger. Wie lange?, Dut. Hoe lang?, Afr. Hoe lank?

Ger. Wie lange arbeitet sie schon in London?

Dut. Hoe lang werkt ze al in Londen?

Afr. Hoe lank werk sy al in Londen?

- (For) how long has she been working in London?

When? - Ger. Wann?, Dut. Wanneer?, Afr. Wanneer?

Ger. Wann kommst du?

Dut. Wanneer kom je?

Afr. Wanneer kom jy?

- When are you coming?

Since when? - Ger. Seit wann?, Dut. Sinds wanneer?, Afr. Van wanneer
af

Ger. Seit wann wohnst du in Amsterdam?

Dut. Sinds wanneer woon je in Amsterdam?

Afr. Van wanneer af woon jy in Amsterdam?

- Since when have you been living in Amsterdam?

Where? - Ger. Wo?, Dut. Waar?, Afr. Waar?

Ger. Wo ist die Toilette?

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Dut. Waar is het toilet?

Afr. Waar is die badkamer?

- Where is the bathroom?

Where from? - Ger. Woher?, Dut. Waarvandaan?, Afr. Van waar?/

Waarvandaan?

Ger. Wo kommst du her?

Dut. Waar kom jij vandaan?

Afr. Waar kom jy vandaan?

- Where do you come from?

NOTE:
Ger. woher, Dut. and Afr. waarvandaan - “where from” can be both separate
or left together in the phrase, for example:

Ger. Woher kommst du? or Wo kommst du her?

Dut. Waarvandaan kom jij? or Waar kom jij vandaan?

Afr. Waarvandaan kom jy? or Waar kom jy vandaan?

- Where do you come from?

NOTE:
In Afrikaans, van waar - “where from” is usually used with the verb wees -
“to be”, for example:

Afr. Van waar is jy?

- Where are you from?

Where (to)? - Ger. Wohin?, Dut. Waarheen?, Afr. Waarheen?

Ger. Wohin gehst du?

Dut. Waar ga je heen?

Afr. Waarheen/Waarnatoe gaan jy?

- Where are you going (to)?

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NOTE:
In Dutch, the adverb waarheen - “to where” is separable. Waar is put at the
beginning of the phrase and heen is put and the end of it.
Like in Dutch, in Afrikaans, the adverb waarheen/waarnatoe can also be
separable. In this case, heen or natoe are placed at the end of the clause:

Afr. Waar gaan jy heen (or natoe)?

- Where are you going (to)?

Why?/How come? - Ger. Warum?/Wieso?/Wie kommt es?, Dut.

Waarom?, Afr. Waarom?/Hoekom?

Ger. Warum tust du das?

Dut. Waarom doe je dit?

Afr. Hoekom/Waarom doen jy dit?

- Why do you do this?

NOTE:
In German, wie kommt es/wieso also mean “why” and are used in informal
questions. For example:

Ger. Wie kommt es, dass du nicht zur Party gehst? (or Wieso gehst du nicht
zur Party?)
- How come you are not going to the party?

In Afrikaans, hoekom usually replaces waarom - “why” in the spoken

language.

Afr. Hoekom gaan jy nie na die partytjie toe nie?

- How come you are not going to the party?

Exclamations with Interrogative Words

Exclamations are used in order to convey a strong feeling or opinion about something.
Exclamatory words make a phrase into a statement of surprise or amazement.

They are are very similar to interrogative words, but instead of asking something, they declare an
idea or opinion. They are normally used in combination with a noun, for example:

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Ger. Welch eine schöne Stadt!

Dut. Wat een prachtige stad!

Afr. Wat 'n pragtige stad!

- What a beautiful city!

Below are some common exclamatory words that are used in West Germanic languages:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

Welch! Wat! Wat!/Hoe! What!/How!

NOTE:
In Afrikaans, wat is interchangeable with hoe in interrogative exclamations:

Afr. Wat/Hoe 'n pragtige stad!

- What a beautiful city!

What! - Ger. Welch!, Dut. Wat!, Afr. Wat!

In West Germanic languages, these exclamatory words are used in front of nouns, adjectives and
adverbs and mean How or What a…!

NOTE:
In German, you don't need to decline welch when using an exclamatory
adjective. In order to say “how or what a…!” you need to use the word stem
welch.

Ger. Welch eine fantastische Reise!

Dut. Wat een fantastische reis!

Afr. Wat 'n fantastiese reis!

- What a fantastic journey!

It is worth saying that like in German, Dutch and Afrikaans, exclamative words Ger. welch, Dut.
and Afr. wat can be combined with an indefinite article Ger. ein/eine, Dut. een, Afr. 'n (See
Indefinite Articles p. 218).

Observe the following:

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Did you know? Ger. Welch eine Frau!

Bloemfontein, also known as Bloem, is Dut. Wat een vrouw!

the judicial capital of South Africa,
alongside the legislative capital Cape Town and Afr. Wat 'n vrou!
administrative capital Pretoria.
- What a woman!

NOTE:
In West Germanic languages, a qualifying adjective after the noun can be
preceded by Ger. so; Dut. zo; Afr. so - “so”. For example:

Ger. Das Gericht ist so lecker!

Dut. Het gerecht is zo lekker!
Afr. Die gereg is so lekker!
- The dish is so delicious!

Was für (ein-) as an Exclamatory Adjective in German

In German, the construction was für (ein-) can also be used as an exclamatory adjective. This
form is used to emphasize the noun, for example:

Ger. Was für eine fantastische Reise!

- What a fantastic journey!

Relative Pronouns and Adverbs

Relative pronouns (who, whom, which, that, whose) and relative adverbs (where, when) are used
to introduce a clause that modifies a noun in order to make it clear which person, thing, place or time is
being talked about. For example: The man who you see is my brother. In the example “who you see” is the
relative clause introduced by the relative pronoun who.

Relative pronouns and adverbs are also used to introduce further information about someone or
something. For example: “My brother, who is an outstanding singer, released a new album”.

Study another example: The company, where I work, employed many young professionals.

The clause which is introduced by the relative pronouns or adverbs designates the subordinate
clause. The clause containing the component modified by the relative clause is called the main clause. The
noun, pronoun or phrase which is modified by the relative pronoun is called an antecedent.

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It should be mentioned that in English, the relative pronouns can be omitted when they define the
object of the clause (e.g. the book that you bought is interesting = the book you bought is interesting). In
German, Dutch and Afrikaans, the relative pronoun is always required. Observe the following:

Ger. Das Buch, das du gekauft hast, ist interessant.

Dut. Het boek dat je hebt gekocht is interessant.

Afr. Die boek wat jy gekoop het is interessant.

- The book (that) you bought is interesting.

Generally speaking the relative pronouns and adverbs are used to connect two short sentences,
for example:

Ger. Ich habe einen Film gesehen. Der Film war interessant. = Der Film, den ich gesehen habe, war
interessant.

Dut. Ik heb een film gezien. De film was interessant. = De film die ik gezien heb, was interessant.

Afr. Ek het 'n fliek gekyk. Die fliek was interessant. = Die fliek wat ek gekyk het, was interessant.

- I watched a movie. The movie was interesting. = The movie (that) I watched was interesting.

NOTE:
In German, the relative clause is usually shown by putting commas both before
and after it.
In English, Dutch and Afrikaans, however, the use of commas with relative
clauses is inconsistent. Compare the following:

Ger. Der Mann, der hier arbeitet, ist mein Bruder.

Dut. De man die hier werkt is mijn broer.
Afr. Die man wat hier werk is my broer.
- The man who works here is my brother.

Below is a table demonstrating the relative pronouns in West Germanic languages:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

der, die, das, was dat, die, wat, wie wat that, who(m), which

dessen, deren van wie, wiens, wier, wie se, welke whose
welke

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German Dutch Afrikaans English

wo, in + der, die, das waar, waarin waar, waarin where, in which

mit + der, die, das met wie met wie with whom/whom with

von + der, die, das vanwaar waarvan from where/where from

wenn, falls, ob, als, wanneer, als, toen, wanneer when

wann dan

That/Who(m)/Which - Ger. Der/Die/Das/Was, Dut. Dat/Die/Wat/Wie/

Welke, Afr. Wat

This relative pronoun is one of the most frequently used in West Germanic languages. It can refer
to either people or things.

However, there are differences in how they are used in these three West Germanic languages.
Below we will consider these differences in German, Dutch and Afrikaans separately.

German
1. Unlike in Dutch and Afrikaans, in German the relative pronouns der, die, das are declined.

Note that the declension of these relative pronouns is for the most part the same as that for the
definite article der - “the” in German. The only differences are in the dative plural and the genitive.
(See Articles p. 218).

Below is the table showing all of the types of the German relative pronouns der/die/das:

German English

Case masc. fem. neut. pl. sing./pl.

Nominative der die das die

Accusative den die das die that/who(m)/which/

Dative dem der dem denen

Genitive dessen deren dessen deren

For example:

Example 1

Ger. Der Tisch, den er sah, war rot.

- The table that he saw was red.

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Example 2

Ger. Das Buch, das ich gekauft habe.

- The book that I have bought.

Note that the relative pronouns den and das in the above examples are in the accusative case, as “the
table” and “the book” are the direct object of the verbs sehen - “to see” and kaufen - “buy” in the relative
clause respectively. Observe one more examples:

Example 3

Ger. Der Mann, der rennt, ist groß.

- The man who is running is tall.

Example 4

Ich kenne den Autor, der dieses Buch geschrieben hat.

- I know the author who wrote this book.

In the example 3 and in the example 3, the relative pronoun der is nominative, as “the man” and
“the author” are the subjects of the relative clause.

NOTE:
To avoid the repetition of the same word welcher, welche, welches are used
in this case in German. Compare the following examples:
German Das ist die Frau, die die Donuts Das ist die Frau, welche die
verkauft. Donuts verkauft.
English - This is the woman who sells the donuts.

• It is worth mentioning that der, die, das can be used with a preposition. The preposition should come
before the relative pronoun. Study the following:

Ger. Das ist mein Freund, mit dem ich arbeite.

- This is my friend with whom I work.

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Ger. Das Haus, in dem ich wohne.

- The house in which I live.

NOTE:
Remember that in German, the dative case of the appropriate relative pronoun
is used with the prepositions mit - “with” and in - “in” (See also Case in
German. p. 112 and Prepositions p. 676).

2. Was can be translated as “that” or “which” and is used when referring to a whole sentence. Study the
following:

Ger. Alles, was sie sagt, ist wahr.

- Everything that she says is true.

Ger. Mein Lehrer spricht drei Sprachen, was mich erstaunt.

- My teacher speaks three languages which amazes me.

3. Note that the relative pronoun was cannot be used in combination with a preposition. So if we want to
use “that” or “which” to refer to an indefinite antecedent in combination with a preposition, we must
use the construction wo(r) + the preposition (e.g. Ger. -auf, -über - “for/upon”, “about”). If the
preposition starts with a vowel, an “r” is added between them to make the pronunciation easier.

Below is the formula of forming an adverbial construction with Ger. wo(r)- and the preposition
auf:

German wo(r)- + a preposition -> auf -> worauf

For example:

Ger. Das ist etwas, worauf ich warte.

- This is something for which I am waiting. - This is something (that) I am waiting for)

Dutch
1. Dat can be translated as “that” or “which” and is used with het-words. This relative pronoun can be
used to specify the subject or give more information about something or someone else in the sentence,
for example:

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Dut. Het boek dat ik gekocht heb.

- The book that I have bought.

Dut. Het huis dat mijn vader gebouwd heeft.

- The house which my father built.

• Like in German, if the Dutch relative pronoun dat is preceded by a preposition, the following
construction is used: waar- + a preposition (e.g. Dut. -in, -over - “in”, “about”).

Below is the formula of forming an adverbial construction with Dut. waar- and the preposition
in:

Dutch waar- + a preposition -> in -> waarin

For instance:

Dut. Het huis waarin ik woon.

- The house in which I live.

NOTE:
In Dutch, the prepositions can also be used separately from waar, for example:

Dut. Het vliegtuig waar ik in zat.

- The airplane that I was in.

2. Die can be translated as “who” “that” or “which”. However, unlike dat, the relative pronoun die
applies to de-nouns instead. Study the following:

Dut. De man die daar werkt is mijn vriend.

- The man who works there is my friend.

Dut. Ik ken de auteur die dit boek geschreven heeft.

- I know the author who wrote this book.

• If the relative pronoun die is referring something inanimate and is preceded by a preposition, it
becomes waar. For instance:

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Dut. De show waar ik het over had.

- The show that I was talking about.

3. Like the German was, the Dutch relative pronoun wat can also be translated as “that” or “which” and
is used when referring to a whole sentence, to indefinite pronouns, or to adjectives. Study the following:

Dut. Alles wat ze zegt is waar.

- Everything that she says is true.

Dut. Mijn leraar spreekt drie talen, wat mij verbaast.

- My teacher speaks three languages which amazes me.

4. Wie - “whom” is used after a preposition and when we are not referring to a particular person, for
example:

Dut. De persoon met wie ik samenwerk.

- The person whom I work with.

NOTE:
However, in spoken Dutch, this rule is sometimes violated and the adverbial
construction “waar- + a preposition” is used instead when referring to persons.
For example:

Dut. De persoon waarmee ik samenwerk.

(The correct phrase is: De persoon met wie ik samenwerk.)
- The person whom I work with.

Remember that “waar- + a preposition” is a pronominal adverb, which is not

normally used when we refer to persons (See p. 346).

• In Dutch, wie is used to mean “he who…”. We can also say hij die or zij die but the form wie is the
most common. Study the following:

Dut. Wie succesvol wil zijn, moet studeren.

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- He who wants to be successful should study.

5. Welke is translated as “that” or “which”. Just like die, welke also applies to de-nouns. However, it
may often sound too formal. Study the following:

Dut. De kerk welke als museum wordt gebruikt.

(or De kerk die als museum wordt gebruikt.)

- The church which is used as a museum.

Afrikaans
1. The relative pronoun wat translated as “that”, “which” or “who” is used for all antecedents (singular or
plural, personal or non-personal),. This relative pronoun can be used to specify the subject or give more
information about something or someone else in the sentence, for example:

Did you know? Afr.. Die boek wat ek gekoop het.

The Altstadt ("old town"), one of the 50 - The book that I have bought.
quarters (Stadtteile) of Düsseldorf,
Germany, is the heart of the city’s nightlife.The
Düsseldorfer Altstadt is well-known as "the Afr. Die huis wat my pa gebou het.
longest bar in the world" with over 300 bars,
pubs, and restaurants. - The house which my father built.

Afr. Die man wat daar werk is my vriend.

- The man who works there is my friend.

Afr. Ek ken die skrywer wat hierdie boek geskryf het.

- I know the author who wrote this book.

NOTE:
In Afrikaans, the anglicism wie can also be used instead of wat when referring
to a personal antecedent. Remember that this is not considered standard
Afrikaans. For instance:

Afr. Parkering is verbode behalwe vir persone wie hier werk.

(The correct phrase is: Parkering is verbode behalwe vir persone wat hier
werk.)
- Parking is prohibited except for persons who work here.

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• Like in Dutch, if the Afrikaans relative pronoun wat is preceded by a preposition and refers to non-
personal antecedents, the following construction is used: waar- + a preposition (e.g. Dut. -in, -over -
“in”, “about”).

Below is the formula of forming an adverbial construction with Afr. waar- and the preposition
in:

Afrikaans waar- + a preposition -> in -> waarin

For instance:

Afr. Die huis waarin ek woon.

- The house in which I live.

2. Wie - “whom” is used after a preposition and when we are referring to personal antecedents in
Afrikaans, for example:

Afr. Die persoon met wie ek werk.

- The person whom I work with.

NOTE:
However, the adverbial constructions “waar + preposition” and “preposition +
wie” are often replaced by “wat + preposition” when referring to personal or
non-personal antecedents in the spoken Afrikaans, for example: :

Afr. Die persoon wat ek met werk.

(The correct phrase is: Die persoon met wie ek werk.)
- The person whom I work with.

• Just like in Dutch, In Afrikaans wie is used to express “he who…”. Observe the following:

Afr. Wie suksesvol wil wees, moet studeer.

- He who wants to be successful should study.

3. Watter - “which” is used when followed by a noun referring to something mentioned in the previous
clause. Otherwise this word is normally used as an interrogative (See p. 329). To illustrate:

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Afr.. Alles wat sy sê is waar, in watter geval ek haar vertrou.

- Everything that she says is true, in which case I trust her.

Whose - Ger. Dessen/Deren, Dut. Van wie/Wiens/Wier, Afr. Wie se

The relative pronoun Ger. dessen/deren, Dut. van wie/wiens/wier, Afr. wie se - “whose” is
a possessive form of the pronoun and is used to denote ownership for people when a person is the
possessor. For instance:

Ger. Ich habe einen Freund, dessen Vater Arzt ist.

Dut. Ik heb een vriend wiens (van wie de/zijn) vader dokter is.

Afr. Ek het 'n vriend wie se pa 'n dokter is.

- I have a friend whose father is a doctor.

Ger. Sandra, deren Schwester eine Boutique hat, studiert bei mir.

Dut. Sandra, wiens (van wie de/haar) zus een boetiek heeft, studeert bij mij.

Afr. Sandra, wie se suster 'n boetiek het, studeer saam met my.

- Sandra, whose sister has a boutique, studies with me.

It is worth mentioning that the relative pronoun Ger. dessen/deren, Dut. van wie/wiens/
wier, Afr. wie se - “whose” can also be used to indicate possession by animals. For example:

Ger. Die Katze, deren Kätzchen...

Dut. De kat wiens kitten...

Afr. Die kat wie se katjie...

- The cat whose kitten...

NOTE:
In German, dessen, deren is the genitive case form of the relative pronoun
der, die, das. Remember that the relative pronoun takes its gender and
number from the possessor.
In Dutch, wiens is the form for the masculine and neuter singular. The form
wier is used with the feminine singular and the plural. However, it is fast
becoming obsolete. Wiens or van wie are becoming more popular among
Dutch speakers instead.

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In Afrikaans, the colloquial form wat se can be used instead of wie se when
referring to people:

Afr. Ek het 'n vriend wat se pa 'n dokter is.

- I have a friend whose father is a doctor.

Where/In which - Ger. Wo/In + Der, Die, Das; Dut. and Afr. Waar/
Waarin

In West Germanic languages, the relative adverbs Ger. wo, Dut., and Afr. waar - “where”
introduce a relative clause that refers to a place or time. For example:

Ger. Dies ist das Haus, wo der Schauspieler lebt.

Dut. Dit is het huis waar de acteur woont.

Afr. Dit is die huis waar die akteur woon.

- This is the house where the actor lives.

In German, Dutch and Afrikaans, when referring to a place, one can also use the following
construction:

German Dutch and Afrikaans English

in + der, die, das waarin in which

Observe the following example:

Ger. Das ist das Haus, in dem der Schauspieler lebt.

Dut. Dit is het huis waarin de acteur woont.

Afr. Dit is die huis waarin die akteur woon.

- This is the house in which the actor lives.

NOTE:
In German, the relative pronouns der, die, das are declined similarly as the
definite article der - “the” (See Articles p. 218). Normally, when indicating a
place, one should use the dative case, for example:

Ger. Das ist die Stadt, in der ich lebe.

- This is the city in which I live.

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In Dutch and Afrikaans, the construction waarin is a pronominal adverb form

of wat (waar-) + in. (See p. 346 and p. 348)

Dut. Dit is de stad waarin ik woon.

Afr. Dit is die stad waarin ek woon.
- This is the city in which I live.

From Where - Ger. Aus + Der/Die/Das, Dut. and Afr. Waarvandaan

In German, Dutch and Afrikaans, in order to introduce a relative clause that also refers to a place
and means “from where”, one can use the following construction:

German Dutch and Afrikaans English

aus + der, die, das waarvandaan from where/where from

Study the following example:

Ger. Deutschland ist das Land, aus dem er kommt.

Dut. Duitsland is het land waarvandaan hij komt.

Afr. Duitsland is die land waarvandaan hy kom.

- Germany is the country where he comes from.

NOTE:
In German, the preposition auf and the relative pronouns der/die/das are
used to mean “from where". As it was mentioned earlier, der/die/das are
declined similarly as the definite article der - “the” (See Articles p. 218). One
must use the dative case in this case.
In Dutch and Afrikaans, the preposition vandaan can also be used separately
from waar, for example:

Dut. Duitsland is het land waar hij vandaan komt.

Afr. Duitsland is die land waar hy vandaan kom.
- Germany is the country where he comes from.

With Whom - Ger. Mit + Der/Die/Das, Dut. and Afr. Met Wie

In German, Dutch and Afrikaans, when referring to personal antecedents, one can also use the
following construction:

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German Dutch and Afrikaans English

mit + der, die, das met wie with whom/whom with

Observe the following example:

Ger. Die Frau, mit der ich arbeite.

Dut. De vrouw met wie ik werk.

Afr. Die vrou met wie ek werk.

- The woman whom I work with.

When - Ger. Wann, Dut. and Afr. Wanneer

The relative adverbs Ger. wenn/falls/ob/als/wann, Dut. wanneer, als, toen, dan -
“when” are used to introduce a relative clause to make it clear which time we are talking about. For
instance:

Ger. Wir können ins Kino gehen, wann Sie wollen.

Dut. We kunnen naar de bioscoop gaan wanneer je wilt.

Afr. Ons kan die bioskoop toe gaan wanneer jy wil.

- We can go to the cinema when you want.

NOTE:
In German, Dutch, and Afrikaans, the word when has several translations
(See Prepositions p. 676 and Conjunctions p. 753).

Word Order in Relative Clauses

• In German, Dutch and Afrikaans, all relative pronouns put the finite verb (it is a form of a verb that
demonstrates agreement with a subject and is marked for tense) at the end of the relative clause.

Observe the following:

Ger. Das Auto, das Sie jetzt haben, ist fantastisch.

Dut. De auto die je nu hebt is fantastisch.

Afr. Die kar wat jy nou het is fantasties.

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- The car that you have now is fantastic.

• If that clause already contains an infinitive, the finite verb is put after the infinitive in German and
before the infinitive in Dutch and Afrikaans, for example:

Ger. Das Auto, das ich für meinen Sohn kaufen möchte, ist fantastisch.

Dut. De auto die ik voor mijn zoon wil kopen is fantastisch.

Afr. Die kar wat ek vir my seun wil koop is fantasties.

- The car that I want to buy for my son is fantastic.

• If it contains a past participle (i.e. if the clause is in the past tense or the passive), the finite verb is
placed after the participle in German, Dutch and Afrikaans, for example:

Ger. Das Auto, das du für deinen Sohn gekauft hast, ist fantastisch.

Dut. De auto die jij voor je zoon gekocht hebt is fantastisch.

Afr. Die kar wat jy vir jou seun gekoop het, is fantasties.

- The car that you have bought for your son is fantastic.

NOTE:
In German, Dutch, and Afrikaans, there are often two possible positions for
infinitives and past participles when a relative clause follows a main clause. They
can be placed at the end of the main clause or straight after the finite verb as in
English. Compare the following:

Example 1

Ger. Ich habe das Buch, das du mir gezeigt hast, bereits gelesen.
Dut. Ik heb het boek dat je me liet zien, al gelezen.
Afr. Ek het die boek wat jy vir my gewys het, al gelees.
- I have already read the book that you showed me.

Note the comma when this word order is used.

Example 2

Ger. Ich habe das Buch gelesen, das du mir gezeigt hast.
Dut. Ik heb het boek gelezen dat je me liet zien.

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Afr. Ek het die boek gelees wat jy vir my gewys het.

- I have read the book that you showed me.

Use of Participles instead of Relative Clauses

In German, Dutch and Afrikaans, in more formal style, the relative clauses can be avoided by
using a past or present participle (See The Past Participle p. 439 and Present Participle p. 586).

Such phrases can be translated into English by converting them back into relative clauses which
often contain a passive.

Compare the following:

Relative Clause Past Participle

German Ich sehe einen See, der zugefroren ist. Ich sehe einen zugefrorenen See.

Dutch Ik zie een meer dat bevroren is. Ik zie een bevroren meer.

Afrikaans Ek sien 'n meer wat bevrore is. Ek sien 'n bevrore meer.

English I see a lake that is frozen. I see a frozen lake.

Observe one more example:

Relative Clause Present Participle

German Der Mann, der rennt, ist mein Freund. Der laufende Mann ist mein Freund.

Dutch De man die rent is mijn vriend De rennende man is mijn vriend.

Afrikaans Die man wat hardloop is my vriend Die hardloop man is my vriend.

English The man that is running is my friend. The running man is my friend.

Indefinite Adjectives and Pronouns

Indefinite adjectives and pronouns are groups of words which are used to quantify inexactly
things or people (e.g. some, several, a few, many), distinguish one thing from another (e.g. other, a
certain), or relate one thing to another (e.g. each, both).

In general, indefinite adjectives and pronouns refer to an unspecified third person or thing.

Below are the most common inde nite adjectives and pronouns in West Germanic languages:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

etwas/was iets/wat iets something

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German Dutch Afrikaans English

etwas/alles/ iets/wat/alles/niets enigiets/enige, iets anything

irgendetwas/nichts
nichts/nix niets/niks niks nothing

(irgend)jemand(-en, -es, iemand (enig)iemand someone/anyone

-em)
(irgend)jemand(-en, -es, iemand/niemand iemand/niemand anybody/anyone
-em)/niemand(-en, -es,
-em)
jede(-r,-s) iedereen/ieder/een almal/elkeen/ everybody/everyone
ieder iedereen
niemand(-en, -es, -em) niemand niemand nobody/no one

man men ('n) mens/mens one

einige sommige(n)/enkele(n) sommige/etlike some/a few

ein paar een paar ’n paar a couple/a few

einige/gewiss/ sommige(n)/ sommige/seker(e)/ certain/some

bestimmt/sicher bepaalde/zeker beslis
solche(-r/-s)/so zulke/zo’n sulke, so ’n such/such a

jede(-r,-s) elk(e) elke/al wat ('n) each/every

mehrere meerdere verskeie several/multiple

verschieden verschillende verskillende different/various

ein(-e) andere(-r/-s) een ander ’n ander another/different

noch eine(-r/-s) nog een nog een one more

andere(-r/-s)/der (die, andere(n)/de (het) ander, (die) ander other/the other one/
das) andere andere others
allein(e)/der (die, das) alleen/de (het) enige alleen/die enigste alone/the only
einzige(-r/-s)
nur/allein/erst slechts/alleen/maar net/slegs only /just

genug, ausreichend, genoeg, voldoende genoeg, voldoende enough/ sufficient

genügend
viel/viele veel veel, baie much/many/a lot
(of)/lots of
wenig/ein wenig (ein weinig/een beetje/een min/'n bietjie/'n little/a little/few/a
bisschen)/wenige/ paar paar few
ein paar

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German Dutch Afrikaans English

alle/all/alles alle.al de/al/ alle/al die/al/almal/ all (of)

allemaal/alles/allen al wat
alles alles alles everything

der Rest de rest die res the rest

keine(-r/-s) geen geen/geeneen none

beide beide(n)/allebei (de) albei both (of)

die meisten de meeste die meeste (the) most

Something - Ger. etwas/was, Dut. iets/wat, Afr. iets

It is used as a pronoun (when referring to an unspecified or unknown thing) meaning

“something” :

Ger. Ich habe etwas/was für dich.

Dut. Ik heb iets/wat voor je.

Afr. Ek het iets vir jou.

- I have something for you.

Ger. Hast du etwas/was gekauft?

Dut. Heb je iets/wat gekocht?

Afr. Het jy iets gekoop?

- Did you buy anything?

NOTE:
In German, the indefinite pronoun etwas does not decline, which means it does
not change its form. Also, the German indefinite pronoun was is used more
colloquially.
In Dutch, the indefinite pronoun wat is used colloquially.

It is worth mentioning that if one wants to say “something else”, the following structure should be
used in German and Dutch:

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German Dutch Afrikaans English

etwas anderes iets anders iets anders something else

For instance:

Ger. Es war etwas anderes.

Dut. Het was iets anders.

Afr. Dit was iets anders.

- It was something else.

Anything - Ger. etwas/alles/irgendetwas/nichts, Dut. iets/wat/alles/

niets, Afr. enigiets/enige/iets/niks

“Anything” is used when we are talking about a thing, when it does not matter which one.

Ger. Weißt du etwas über ihn?

Dut. Weet jij iets/wat over hem?

Afr. Weet jy iets van hom af?

- Do you know anything about him?

NOTE:
In German, Dutch and Afrikaans, there are several ways of translating
“anything”. Here are some other examples for translating it:

Ger. Willst du mir etwas sagen?

Dut. Wil je me iets/wat vertellen?

Afr. Wil jy my iets vertel?

- Do you want to tell me anything?

Ger. Sie kann mir alles erzählen.

Dut. Ze kan me alles vertellen.

Afr. Sy kan my enigiets vertel.

- She can tell me anything.

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Ger. Ich muss nichts bezahlen.

Dut. Ik hoef niets te betalen.

Afr. Ek hoef niks te betaal nie.

- I don't need to pay anything.

In German, in order to strengthen the indefinite pronoun etwas, one can insert
irgend- before it. For example:

Ger. Gibt es irgendetwas Interessantes zu sehen?

- Is there anything interesting to see?

Everything - Ger. alles, Dut. alles, Afr. alles

“Everything” is used to mean the whole quantity of something or of some things. Observe the
following:

Did you know? Ger. Ich danke dir für alles.

The Free State National Botanical Dut. Ik dank je voor alles.
Garden, located near Bloemfontein, is
the oldest botanical garden in South Africa. It Afr. Ek dank jou vir alles.
covers 70 hectares, and is home to around 400
species of indigenous plants. - I thank you for everything.

Ger. Alles ist in der Tasche.

Dut. Alles zit in de tas.

Afr. Alles is in die sak.

- Everything is in the bag.

Nothing - Ger. nichts/nix, Dut. niets/niks, Afr. niks

Ger. Ich sehe nichts/nix.

Dut. Ik zie niks.

Afr. Ek sien niks.

- I see nothing.

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Ger. Ich habe nichts/nix gekauft.

Dut. Ik heb niets gekocht.

Afr. Ek het niks gekoop nie.

- I bought nothing.

NOTE:
In German, the indefinite pronoun nix is used more colloquially.

Note that the the following construction should be used in order to express “nothing else” in
Germanic languages:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

nichts anderes/ niets anders niks anders nothing else

sonst nichts

For instance:

Ger. Es gibt nichts anderes zu sagen.

Dut. Er is niets anders te zeggen.

Afr. Daar is niks anders om te sê nie.

- There was nothing else to say.

Someone/Anyone - Ger. (irgend)jemand(-en, -es, -em), Dut. iemand,

Afr. (enig)iemand

It is a pronoun that refers to an unspecified or unknown person meaning “someone” or

“somebody” :

Ger. Da ist jemand im Haus.

Dut. Er is iemand in het huis.

Afr. Daar is iemand in die huis.

- There is someone in the house.

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Ger. Hat jemand dieses Buch gelesen?

Dut. Heeft iemand dit boek gelezen?

Afr. Het iemand hierdie boek gelees?

- Has anyone read this book?

NOTE:
In German, just like with etwas, one can also add irgend- before jemand to
strengthen it.
In Afrikaans, one can also add enig(e)- before iemand to emphasize it
(enigiemand). For instance:

Ger. Irgendjemand muss uns helfen.

Dut. Iemand moet ons helpen.
Afr. Enigiemand moet ons help.
- Someone must help us.

Unlike in Dutch and Afrikaans, in German the indefinite pronoun jemand is

declined.
Below is the table providing the declension of jemand in the nominative,
genitive, accusative and dative:
German

nominative jemand

genitive jemandes

accusative jemanden

dative jemandem

Ger. Ich habe dich mit jemandem gesehen. (dative)

Dut. Ik heb je met iemand gezien.
Afr. Ek het jou saam met iemand gesien.
- I have seen you with somebody.

Note that in order to say “somebody else/someone else”, one should use the following structure in
German and Dutch:

German Dutch and Afrikaans English

jemand ander(e)s iemand anders somebody else/someone else

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Ger. Ich werde es jemand anderem geben.

Dut. Ik zal het aan iemand anders geven.

Afr. Ek sal dit vir iemand anders gee.

- I will give it to somebody else.

NOTE:
In German, in the expression jemand anderes the second word must be
declined (See p. 373). For instance:

Ger. Ich werde mit jemand anderem gehen. (dative case)

- I will go with somebody else.

Anybody/anyone - Ger. (irgend)jemand(-en,-em)/niemand(-en, -es,

-em); Dut. and Afr. iemand/niemand

This indefinite pronoun means no matter what person. Study the following:

Ger. Ist da (irgend)jemand?

Dut. Is daar iemand?

Afr. Is enige iemand daar?

- Is anybody there?

Ger. Siehst du jemanden? (accusative case)

Dut. Zie je iemand?

Afr. Sien jy iemand?

- Do you see anyone?

NOTE:
In German, Dutch and Afrikaans, “anybody” can also be translated as
niemand. For example:

Ger. Ich kann niemanden sehen.

Dut. Ik kan niemand zien.
Afr. Ek kan niemand sien nie.

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- I can't see anybody. (lit. I can see nobody.)

Remember that in German, niemand is declined (See p. 361)

Everybody/Everyone - Ger. jede(-r,-s), Dut. iedereen/ieder/een ieder,

Afr. almal/elkeen/iedereen

This indefinite pronoun means all the people in a group, or all the people in the world:

Ger. Jeder weiß es.

Dut. Iedereen weet het.

Afr. Almal weet dit.

- Everybody knows it.

Ger. Jeder war glücklich.

Dut. Iedereen was blij.

Afr. Almal was gelukkig.

- Everyone was happy.

NOTE:
Unlike in Dutch and Afrikaans, in German the indefinite pronoun jeder is
declined. It must also agree with the noun that it replaces.
Below is the table demonstrating the declension of this pronoun:
German

masculine feminine neuter

nominative jeder jede jedes

genitive jedes jeder jedes

accusative jeden jede jedes

dative jedem jeder jedem

For example:

Ger. Das kann jedem passieren. (dative case)

Dut. Dit kan iedereen overkomen.

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Afr. Dit kan met almal gebeur.

- This can happen to everybody.

In Dutch, iedereen is the most usual word. Ieder is sometimes used. In more
formal style een ieder can also be used.
In Afrikaans, however, iedereen is rather formal word. In natural speech
almal is more likely to be used than elkeen. The forms elkeen/iedereen
require the singular possessive sy - “his/its”:

Ger. Jeder hat seinen eigenen Geschmack.

Dut. Iedereen heeft zijn eigen smaak.
Afr. Elkeen het sy eie smaak.
- Everyone has his/its own taste.

Nobody/No one/Anyone - Ger. niemand(-en, -es, -em), Dut. and Afr.

niemand

Ger. Niemand will sprechen.

Dut. Niemand wil spreken.

Afr. Niemand wil praat nie.

- Nobody wants to speak.

Ger. Niemand kam.

Dut. Niemand kwam.

Afr. Niemand het gekom nie.

- No one came.

NOTE:
Unlike in Dutch and Afrikaans, in German the indefinite pronoun niemand is
declined (See Case in German p. 112).
Below is the table demonstrating the declension of niemand:
German

nominative niemand

genitive niemand(e)s

accusative niemanden

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German

dative niemandem

For example:

Ger. Ich sehe niemanden (accusative case).

Dut. Ik zie niemand.
Afr. Ek sien niemand nie.
- I see no one.

Ger. Ich habe noch mit niemandem gesprochen. (dative case).

Dut. Ik heb nog met niemand gesproken.
Afr. Ek het nog met niemand gepraat nie.
- I have not spoken with anyone yet.

Ger. Das ist niemandes Hund (genitive case).

Dut. Dit is niemand's hond.
Afr. Dit is niemand se hond nie.
- This is nobody's dog.

Note that “nobody else” is expressed in the following way in Germanic languages:

German Dutch and Afrikaans English

niemand anders/niemand niemand anders nobody else

sonst

For instance:

Ger. Niemand sonst kann morgen arbeiten.

Dut. Niemand anders kan morgen werken.

Afr. Niemand anders kan môre werk nie.

- Nobody else can work tomorrow.

One - Ger. man, Dut. men, Afr. 'n mens/mens

(See Impersonal Pronoun Ger. Man, Dut. Men, Afr. (’n) Mens - “One” p. 254).

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Some/A few - Ger. einige; Dut. sommige(n)/enkele(n), Afr. sommige/

etlike

Ger. einige, Dut. sommige(n)/enkele(n), Afr. sommige/etlike - “some/a few” can be used as an
adjective or as a pronoun that refers to a quantity of something or a number of people or things. Study the
following:

Ger. Einige Städte haben keine Theater.

Dut. Sommige steden hebben geen theaters.

Afr. Sommige stede het geen teaters nie.

- Some towns have no theatres.

Ger. Einige Mitglieder haben die Sitzung verlassen.

Dut. Enkele leden hebben de vergadering verlaten.

Afr. Sommige/etlike lede het die vergadering verlaat.

- Some members have left the meeting.

NOTE:
In Afrikaans, if we want to express “some of”, the preposition van is commonly
used. For example:

Ger. Einige meiner Freunde lernen Afrikaans.

Dut. Sommige van mijn vrienden leren Afrikaans.
Afr. Van my vriende leer Afrikaans.
- Some of my friends learn Afrikaans.

Furthermore, mass nouns in Afrikaans cannot be followed by sommige and in

such cases van must also be used to mean “some of”, for instance:

Ger. Sie verkaufen einige der besten Produkte.

Dut. Ze verkopen enkele van de beste producten.
Afr. Hulle verkoop van die beste produkte.
- They sell some of the best products.

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In German, Dutch and Afrikaans, in order to say “some ..., (but) others …” the following construction
must be used:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

manche… andere… sommige… andere... sommige… ander… some…others…

For example:

Ger. Manche sind teuer, andere günstig.

Dut. Sommige zijn duur, andere zijn goedkoop.

Afr. Sommige is duur, ander is goedkoop.

- Some are expensive, others are cheap.

NOTE:
In Dutch, sommige(n) and enkele(n) add -n when they are used
independently referring to people, for example:

Ger. Einige haben diesen Film noch nicht gesehen.

Dut. Sommigen hebben deze film nog niet gezien.
Afr. Sommige het nog nie hierdie fliek gesien nie.
- Some have not seen this movie yet.

A couple of/A few - Ger. ein paar; Dut. een paar, Afr. ’n paar

Ger. Sie hat heute ein paar Bücher gekauft.

Dut. Ze heeft vandaag een paar boeken gekocht.

Afr. Sy het vandag 'n paar boeke gekoop.

- She bought a few books today.

Certain/Some - Ger. einige/gewiss/bestimmt/sicher; Dut. sommige(n)/

bepaalde/zeker; Afr. sommige/seker(e)/beslis

Ger. einige; Dut. sommige(n); Afr. sommige - “certain” can be used as a determiner to mean
“one” or “some”, not definitely named. For example:

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Ger. Einige von Ihnen müssen es wissen.

Dut. Sommigen van jullie moeten het weten.

Afr. Sommige van julle moet dit weet

- Some of you must know it.

NOTE:
In Dutch, sommigen is used when referring to people to express “some people”.

It is worth mentioning Ger. bestimmt/gewiss; Dut. bepaalde; Afr. sekere/beslis can be used
as an adjective to mean “certain”, “specific” or “determined”. Study the following:

Ger. Bestimmte Autos sind sehr teuer.

Dut. Bepaalde auto's zijn erg duur.

Afr. Sekere/Beslis motors is baie duur.

- Certain cars are very expensive.

NOTE:
In German, gewiss is less commonly used than bestimmt. Remember that
bestimmt and gewiss are declined (See Case in German p. 112).
Below is the table demonstrating the declension of the adjective bestimmt:
German

Strong declension (without article)

masculine feminine neuter plural

nom. bestimmter bestimmte bestimmtes bestimmte

gen. bestimmten bestimmter bestimmten bestimmter

acc. bestimmten bestimmte bestimmtes bestimmte

dat. bestimmtem bestimmter bestimmtem bestimmten

For example:

Ger. Bestimmter Mann. (nominative, masculine)

- Certain man

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Below is the table demonstrating the declension of the adjective gewiss:

German

Strong declension (without article)

masculine feminine neuter plural

nom. gewisser gewisse gewisses gewisse

gen. gewissen gewisser gewissen gewisser

acc. gewissen gewisse gewisses gewisse

dat. gewissem gewisser gewissem gewissen

Ger. In gewisser Weise. (dative, feminine)

- in a way, in a manner of speaking

It is notable that Eng. certain; Ger. sicher; Dut. zeker; Afr. seker can also mean reliable,
definite, certain. Observe the following:

Ger. Es ist nicht sicher.

Dut. Het is niet zeker.

Afr. Dit is nie seker nie.

- It is not certain.

NOTE:
In Afrikaans, the form sekere is used with nouns and seker is used without
nouns. To compare:

Afr. Sekere mense. (Certain people.)

Afr. Dit is seker. (That is certain.)

Such/Such a - Ger. solche(-r/-s)/so; Dut. zulke/zo’n; Afr. sulke/so ’n

Ger. solche(-r/-s), Dut. zulke, Afr. sulke - “such”can be used to refer back to the thing or
person that you have just mentioned, or a thing or person like the one that you have just mentioned.
Study the following:

Ger. Ich mag solche Dinge nicht.

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Dut. Ik hou niet van zulke dingen.

Afr. Ek hou nie van sulke dinge nie.

- I don't like such things/things like that.

Ger. Ich respektiere solche Leute.

Dut. Ik respecteer zulke mensen.

Afr. Ek respekteer sulke mense.

- I respect such people/people like that.

Ger. solche(-r/-s), Dut. zo’n, Afr. so ’n - “such a/an” used with an indefinite article in front of a
noun means like this or like that. For instance:

Ger. Ein solcher Beruf ist prestigeträchtig.

Dut. Zo’n beroep is prestigieus.

Afr. So ’n beroep is gesog.

- Such a profession is prestigious.

One can use Ger. so, Dut. zo’n, Afr. so ’n - “such a/an” with an indefinite article in front of an
adjective followed by a noun to make the adjective stronger. Observe the following:

Ger. Es ist so ein altes Gebäude.

Dut. Het is zo'n oud gebouw.

Afr. Dit is so 'n ou gebou.

- It is such an old building.

NOTE:
Unlike in German, in Dutch and Afrikaans, one should only use the form Dut.
zo’n, Afr. so ’n to mean “such a/an”:

Ger. Es ist so ein interessantes Buch.

Dut. Het is zo'n interessant boek.

Afr. Dit is so 'n interessante boek.

- It is such an interesting book.

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Each/Every - Ger. jede(-r,-s); Dut. elk(e); Afr. elke/al wat ('n)

Ger. jede(-r,-s); Dut. elk(e); Afr. elke - “each/every” are used as an adjective:

Ger. Sie liest jede Woche ein Buch.

Dut. Ze leest elke week een boek.

Afr. Sy lees elke week 'n boek.

- She reads a book every week.

Ger. Ich gehe jedes Jahr nach Spanien.

Dut. Ik ga elk jaar naar Spanje.

Afr. Ek gaan elke jaar na Spanje.

- I go to Spain every year.

NOTE:
In German, jede(-r,-s) is declined (See p. 360).
In Dutch, the form elk is used with neuter singular nouns (het-nouns). Elke is
used with masculine and feminine singular and plural nouns (de-nouns). For
example:

Dut. De trein rijdt elk uur (elke dag).

- The train runs every hour (every day).

In Afrikaans, the form al wat ('n) can also be used to express “every” . For
example:

Afr. Al wat ('n) werker het opgedaag.

- Every worker has arrived.

Several/Multiple - Ger. mehrere; Dut. meerdere; Afr. verskeie

These are used as an indefinite adjective as well as a pronoun meaning “several/multiple”. For
example:

Ger. Dieses Buch ist in mehrere Sprachen übersetzt.

Dut. Dit boek is in meerdere talen vertaald.

Afr. Hierdie boek is in verskeie tale vertaal.

- This book is translated in several/multiple languages.

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Ger. In diesem Land sind mehrere Schriftsteller bekannt.

Dut. In dit land zijn meerdere schrijvers bekend.

Afr. In hierdie land is verskeie skrywers welbekend.

- In this country, multiple/several writers are well known.

NOTE:
In German, mehrere is declined (See also Case in German p. 112).
Below is the table demonstrating the declension of this pronoun:
German

Case Strong plural Weak and mixed plural

nominative mehrere

genitive mehrerer
mehreren/mehrern
accusative mehrere

dative mehreren/mehrern

For example:

Ger. Ich habe es aus mehreren Gründen getan. (dative case, plural, strong declension)

Dut. Ik heb het om meerdere redenen gedaan.

Afr. Ek het dit om verskeie redes gedoen.

- I did it for several/multiple reasons.

Different/Various - Ger. verschieden; Dut. verschillende; Afr.

verskillende

It is worth saying that that Ger. verschieden; Dut. verschillende; Afr. verskillende - “different/
various” can also mean “varied” or “different”:

Ger. Sie hat Kleider in verschiedenen Farben.

Dut. Ze heeft jurken in verschillende kleuren.

Afr. Sy het rokke van verskillende kleure.

- She has a dress of various colors.

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Ger. Es gibt verschiedene Bücher in dieser Bibliothek.

Dut. Er zijn verschillende boeken in deze bibliotheek.

Afr. Daar is verskillende boeke in hierdie biblioteek.

- There are different books in this library.

NOTE:
In German, verschieden is declined (See Case in German p. 112).
Below is the table demonstrating the declension of this adjective:
German

Case Strong declension, plural (without article)

nominative verschiedene

genitive verschiedener

accusative verschiedene

dative verschiedenen

For example:

Ger. Ich reise in verschiedene Städte (accusative case, plural, strong declension)
Dut. Ik reis naar verschillende steden.
Afr. Ek reis na verskillende stede.
- I am travelling to different/various cities.

Note that Ger. (ein/eine) andere(-r/-s), Dut. (een) ander, Afr. (‘n) ander can be used to say that
two things are different or opposite, they are not like each other (See below).

Compare two types of sentences:

Different (various) Different (opposite)

German Ich mag verschiedene Arten von Musik. Ich mag eine andere Art von Musik.

Dutch Ik hou van verschillende soorten muziek. Ik hou van een ander soort muziek.

Afrikaans Ek hou van verskillende soorte musiek. Ek hou van 'n ander soort musiek.

English I like different/various types of music. I like a different/opposite type of music.

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Another/Different - Ger. ein(-e) andere(-r/-s); Dut. een ander(e); Afr. 'n

ander

In Germanic languages, these indefinite adjectives can be used to mean the following:

• Ger. ein(-e) andere(-r/-s); Dut. een ander(e); Afr. 'n ander are used to mean “different”. For
example:

Ger. Sie will eine andere Sprache lernen.

Dut. Ze wil een andere taal leren.

Afr. Sy wil 'n ander taal leer.

- She wants to learn another/a different language.

NOTE:
In German, ein(-e) andere(-r/-s) is declined (See Case in German p. 112).
Below is the table demonstrating the declension of this adjective:
German

Mixed declension (with indefinite article)

masculine feminine neuter plural

nom. ein anderer eine andere ein anderes anderen

gen. eines anderen einer anderen eines anderen anderen

acc. einen anderen eine andere ein anderes anderen

dat. einem anderen einer anderen einem anderen anderen

For example:

Ger. Willst du ein anderes Getränk? (accusative, neuter)

Dut. Wil je een ander drankje?

Afr. Wil jy 'n ander drankie hê?

- Do you want a different drink?

Note that in Dutch, the form een ander is used with a neuter singular noun (het-noun), while the
form een andere is used with de-nouns. Study the following examples:

Ger. Ich bevorzuge ein anderes Buch.

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Dut. Ik heb liever een ander boek. (het boek)

Afr. Ek verkies 'n ander boek.

- I prefer another book.

One more - Ger. noch eine(-r/-s); Dut. and Afr. nog een

• Ger. noch eine(-r/-s); Dut. nog een; Afr. nog een - “one more” are used to express “additional”.
Study the following:

Ger. Er hat noch einen Kuchen gegessen.

Dut. Hij heeft nog een taart gegeten.

Afr. Hy het nog een koek geëet.

- He has eaten one more cake.

NOTE:
In German, noch eine(-r/-s) is also declined (See Case in German p. 112).
Below is the table demonstrating the declension of this pronoun:
German

masculine feminine neuter

nom. noch einer noch eine noch eines

gen. noch eines noch einer noch eines
acc. noch einen noch eine noch eines
dat. noch einem noch einer noch einem

Ger. Willst du noch einen Apfel? (accusative, masculine)

Dut. Wil je nog een appel?

Afr. Wil jy nog een appel hê?

- Do you want one more apple?

Other/the Other one/Others - Ger. andere(-r/-s), (der, die, das) andere;

Dut. andere(-n), (de, het) andere; Afr. ander, (die) ander

• Ger. andere(-r/-s); Dut. andere; Afr. ander - “other” are used as an adjective. Observe the following:

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Ger.Bist du in andere Länder gereist?

Dut. Ben je naar andere landen gereisd?

Afr. Het jy na ander lande gereis?

- Have you travelled to other countries?

Ger. Ich fühle mich glücklicher, wenn ich andere Menschen lächeln sehe.

Dut. Ik voel me gelukkiger als ik andere mensen zie lachen.

Afr. Ek voel gelukkiger as ek ander mense sien lag.

- I feel happier when I see other people laugh.

NOTE:
In German, andere(-r/-s) must agree in case and gender.
Below is the table demonstrating the declension of andere(-r/-s):
German

Strong declension (without article)

masculine feminine neuter plural

nom. anderer andere anderes andere

gen. anderen anderer anderen anderer

acc. anderen andere anderes andere

dat. anderem anderer anderem anderen

For example:

Ger. Ich will mit anderen Menschen sprechen. (dative case, plural)

Dut. Ik wil met andere mensen praten.

Afr. Ek wil met ander mense praat.

- I want to speak with other people.

Below are some derived words and expression of the indefinite adjective Ger. andere(-r/-s);
Dut. andere; Afr. ander:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

andererseits; anderzijds; andersyds; aan die on the other hand

auf der anderen Seite aan de andere kant ander kant

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German Dutch Afrikaans English

andernfalls anders anders otherwise

Observe the following:

Ger. Wir müssen uns beeilen, andernfalls kommen wir zu spät.

Dut. We moeten opschieten, anders komen we te laat.

Afr. Ons moet opskud, anders kom ons te laat.

- We must hurry up, otherwise we will come too late.

• Ger. der (die, das) andere; Dut. de (het) andere; Afr. die ander (een) - “the other one” can be
used as a pronoun.

Study the following:

Ger. Dieser Mann ist klein und der andere Mann ist groß.

Dut. Deze man is klein en de andere man is lang.

Afr. Hierdie man is kort en die ander man is lank.

- This man is short and the other man is tall.

NOTE:
In German, der (die, das) andere must agree in case and gender.
Below is the table demonstrating the declension of this adjective:
German

Weak declension (with definite article)

masculine feminine neuter plural

nom. der andere die andere das andere die anderen

gen. des anderen der anderen des anderen der anderen

acc. den anderen die andere das andere die anderen

dat. dem anderen der anderen dem anderen den anderen

For instance:

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Ger. Ich habe den anderen Kuchen gegessen. (accusative, masculine)

Dut. Ik heb de andere taart gegeten.

Afr. Ek het die ander koek geëet.

- I have eaten the other cake.

In the above example the noun der Kuchen - “the cake” is masculine in
German. Therefore, the masculine article der changes when used in the
accusative. Der turns into den.
In Dutch, de (het) andere agrees only in gender. For instance:

Ger. Er wohnt in der anderen Wohnung. (dative, feminine)

Dut. Hij woont in het andere appartement.

Afr. Hy woon in die ander woonstel.

- He lives in the other apartment.

In Dutch, the word het appartement is a neuter noun (het-noun). Therefore,

one must use the form het andere.

• Ger. andere; Dut. anderen; Afr. ander - “others” are used as a plural pronoun. Study the following:

Ger. Andere haben es schon getan.

Dut. Anderen hebben het al gedaan.

Afr. Ander het dit reeds gedoen.

- Others have already done it.

Alone/The only - Ger. allein(e)/der (die, das) einzige(-r/-s); Dut. alleen/

de (het) enige; Afr. alleen/die enigste

Ger. allein(e); Dut. alleen; Afr. alleen - “alone” can be used as an adjective to mean you are
alone, you are not with any other people. Study the following:

Ger. Ich bin alleine ins Kino gegangen.

Dut. Ik ben alleen naar de bioscoop gegaan.

Afr. Ek het alleen die bioskoop toe gegaan.

- I went alone to the cinema.

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NOTE:
In German, alleine is mainly colloquial and the form allein is used instead.
For instance:

Ger. Er ist allein.

Dut. Hij is alleen.
Afr. Hy is alleen.
- He is alone.

It should be said that in German, Dutch and Afrikaans, these adjectives cannot be used to convey
English “the only” when you talk about the only thing or person and when there are no others.

In this case, the word Ger. der (die, das) einzige(-r/-s); Dut. de (het) enige (enigste); Afr.
die enigste – the only is used. For example:

Ger. Ich bin das einzige Kind in der Familie.

Dut. Ik ben het enige (het enigste) kind in het gezin.

Afr. Ek is die enigste kind in die gesin.

- I am the only child in the family.

Ger. Das einzige Kino, das diesen Film zeigt, befindet sich im Zentrum der Stadt.

Dut. De enige bioscoop die deze film vertoont, bevindt zich in het centrum van de stad

Afr. Die enigste bioskoop wat hierdie film wys, is in die middel van die stad.

- The only cinema that shows this film is in the centre of the city.

NOTE:
In German, der (die, das) einzige(-r/-s) must agree in case, number and
gender.
Below is the table demonstrating the declension of this adjective:
German

Weak declension (with definite article)

masculine feminine neuter plural

nom. der einzige die einzige das einzige die einzigen

gen. des einzigen der einzigen des einzigen der einzigen

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German

acc. den einzigen die einzige das einzige die einzigen

dat. dem einzigen der einzigen dem einzigen den einzigen

For example:

Ger. Ich habe den einzigen Kuchen gegessen (accusative, masculine)

Dut. Ik heb de enige taart gegeten

Afr. Ek het die enigste koek geëet

- I have eaten the only cake.

In Dutch, de (het) enige agrees in gender. The masculine and feminine gender
is used with de and the neuter is used with het, e.g.:

de enige taart - “the only cake”

het enige kind - “the only child”

In Dutch, de (het) enigste is a common spoken variant used in the

Netherlands.

Only/Just - Ger. nur/allein/erst; Dut. slechts/alleen/maar; Afr. net/

slegs

Ger. nur/allein/erst; Dut. slechts/alleen/maar; Afr. net/slegs can be used as an adverb

meaning “just”, “only”, “simply”. Observe the following:

Ger. Er spricht nur zwei Sprachen.

Dut. Hij spreekt slechts twee talen.

Afr. Hy praat net twee tale.

- He speaks only two languages.

Ger. Ich habe nur zwei Stunden für diese Aufgabe.

Dut. Ik heb slechts twee uur voor deze taak.

Afr. Ek het net twee ure vir hierdie taak.

- I have just two hours for this task.

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Below are some useful derived expression of the inde nite adjectives and adverbs Ger. nur;
Dut. alleen; Afr. net - “only/just”:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

nicht nur (allein)…, niet alleen…, maar nie net…nie, maar not only…, but also
sondern auch ook ook

For example:

Ger. Sie ist nicht nur Schauspielerin, sondern auch Sängerin.

Dut. Ze is niet alleen actrice, maar ook zangeres.

Afr. Sy is nie net 'n aktrise nie, maar ook 'n sangeres.

- She’s not only an actress, but also a singer.

Enough/Sufficient - Ger. genug/ausreichend/genügend; Dut. and Afr.

genoeg/voldoende

Ger. genug; Dut. and Afr. genoeg - “enough” are used as adjectives, pronouns or adverbs to
mean as much or as many as needed. Observe the following:

Ger. Das ist genug für mich.

Dut. Dit is genoeg voor mij.

Afr. Dit is genoeg vir my.

- This is enough for me.

Ger. Er weiß es gut genug.

Dut. Hij weet het goed genoeg.

Afr. Hy weet dit goed genoeg.

- He knows it well enough.

Ger. ausreichend (genügend); Dut. and Afr. voldoende - “sufficient”, “adequate” are used as
adjectives. Study the following:

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Ger. Mein Einkommen ausreichend für meine Familie.

Dut. Mijn inkomen is voldoende voor mijn gezin.

Afr. My inkomste is voldoende vir my gesin.

- My income is sufficient for my family.

Ger. Ich habe genügend/ausreichend Erfahrung, um hier zu arbeiten.

Dut. Ik heb voldoende ervaring om hier te werken.

Afr. Ek het voldoende ondervinding om hier te werk.

- I have sufficient experience to work here.

Much/Many/A lot (of)/Lots of - Ger. viel/viele; Dut. veel; Afr. baie/veel

• As an adjective or pronoun Ger. viel; Dut. veel; Afr. baie - “much/a lot (of)/lots of” is used to talk
about a large amount of something or about something considerable or impressive. For example:

Ger. Wir hatten viel Spaß.

Dut. We hadden veel plezier.

Afr. Ons het baie pret gehad.

- We had much (a lot of/lots of) fun.

Did you know? Ger. Ich habe viel zu tun.

Essen, Germany, offers a wide range of Dut. Ik heb veel te doen.
events and attractions. Essen Motor
Show is the largest event held in the city's Afr. Ek het baie om te doen.
exhibition centre, Messe Essen, with over
500.000 visitors each year. - I have much/a lot to do.

• As an adjective or pronoun Ger. viele; Dut. veel; Afr. baie - “many/a lot of/lots of” is used to talk
about a large number of people or things. Study the following:

Ger. Er hat viele Freunde.

Dut. Hij heeft veel vrienden.

Afr. Hy het baie vriende.

- He has many (a lot of, lots of) friends.

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• Note that Ger. viel/viele; Dut. veel; Afr. veel - “much/many” are used with Ger. zu, Dut. te, Afr. te -
“too” to mean a very large amount of something. For instance:

Ger. Sie hat zu viel Arbeit.

Dut. Ze heeft te veel werk.

Afr. Sy het te veel werk.

- She has too much work.

Ger. Es sind zu viele Menschen auf der Straße.

Dut. Er zijn te veel mensen op straat.

Afr. Daar is te veel mense op straat.

- There are too many people in the street.

NOTE:
In German, viel is used with nouns that cannot be counted (e.g. viel Zeit -
much/a lot of time). Viele is used with nouns that can be counted (e.g. viele
Menschen - many/a lot of people)
In Afrikaans, veel - “many”, “much” is usually used chiefly with negatives or
when modified by adverbs. However, baie is a more common synonym with a
mostly complementary distribution.

Little/A little/Few/A few - Ger. wenig/ein wenig (ein bisschen)/

wenige/ein paar; Dut. weinig/een beetje/een paar; Afr. min/'n
bietjie/'n paar

• As adverbs or nouns Ger. wenig; Dut. weinig; Afr. min - “little” are used to mean a small amount of
something. For example:

Ger. Ich weiß wenig über ihn.

Dut. Ik weet weinig over hem.

Afr. Ek weet min van hom af.

- I know little about him.

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Ger. Über sein Leben ist wenig bekannt.

Dut. Over zijn leven is weinig bekend.

Afr. Oor sy lewe is min bekend.

- Little is known about his life. (About his life little is known)

• As an adverb Ger. ein wenig/ein bisschen; Dut. een beetje; Afr. 'n bietjie - “a little (bit)” are used
to mean in only a small quantity or degree. For instance:

Ger. Ich spreche ein wenig Niederländisch.

Dut. Ik spreek een beetje Nederlands.

Afr. Ek praat 'n bietjie Nederlands

- I speak Dutch a little.

Ger. Willst du ein bisschen Saft?

Dut. Wil je een beetje sap?

Afr. Wil jy 'n bietjie sap hê?

- Do you want a little juice?

NOTE:
In English, “a little” is often used with “bit”. In German ein bisschen, Dutch
een beetje and Afrikaans 'n bietjie are still used. For example:

Ger. Es ist ein bisschen schwierig.

Dut. Het is een beetje moeilijk.
Afr. Dit is 'n bietjie moeilik.
- It is a little bit difficult.

• As an adjective Ger. wenig; Dut. weinig; Afr. min - “a little” are used to mean that something exists
only in a small amount. For example:

Ger. Sie haben wenig Geld.

Dut. Ze hebben weinig geld.

Afr. Hulle het min geld.

- They have little money.

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• Remember that as adjectives Ger. klein; Dut. klein; Afr. klein - “little” are used to mean a person or
thing that is little or small in size. Observe the following:

Ger. Er wohnt in einem kleinen Haus.

Dut. Hij woont in een klein huis.

Afr. Hy woon in 'n klein huis.

- He lives in a small/little house.

NOTE:
In German, klein is declined (See Case in German p. 112).
Below is the table demonstrating the declension of this adjective:
German

Mixed declension (with indefinite article)

masculine feminine neuter plural

nom. ein kleiner eine kleine ein kleines kleinen

gen. eines kleinen einer kleinen eines kleinen kleinen

acc. einen kleinen eine kleine ein kleines kleinen

dat. einem kleinen einer kleinen einem kleinen kleinen

For example:

Ger. Er hat ein kleines Haus in Österreich. (accusative, neuter)

Dut. Hij heeft een klein huis in Oostenrijk.

Afr. Hy het 'n klein huis in Oostenryk.

- He has a small house in Austria.

• As an adjective or pronoun Ger. wenige; Dut. weinig; Afr. min - “few” are used to mean a small
number of people or things. Study the following:

Ger. Er hat wenige Freunde.

Dut. Hij heeft weinig vrienden.

Afr. Hy het min vriende.

- He has few friends.

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• Note that Ger. ein paar; Dut. een paar; Afr. 'n paar - “a few” can also mean a small number of
people or things (See also p. 364). For instance:

Ger. Der Student hat ein paar Fehler gemacht.

Dut. De student heeft een paar fouten gemaakt.

Afr. Die student het 'n paar foute gemaak.

- The student has made a few mistakes.

NOTE:
In German, wenig is used with uncountable nouns. Wenige is used with plural
countable nouns. To compare:
German wenig Zeit wenige Städte

English little time few towns

Unlike in German, the Dutch weinig and Afrikaans min - “little”, “few” are
used with both uncountable and countable nouns, for example:
Dutch weinig tijd weinig steden

Afrikaans min tyd min stede

English little time few towns

All (of) - Ger. alle/all/alles; Dut. alle/al de/al/allemaal/alles/allen; Afr.

alle/al die/al/almal/al wat

• As an adjective, Ger., Dut. and Afr. alle means “the entire”, “the whole” amount, number, quantity, or
extent of something, or every member or individual:

Ger. Alle Teilnehmer sind angekommen.

Dut. Alle deelnemers zijn gearriveerd.

Afr. Alle deelnemers het opgedaag.

- All participants have arrived.

Ger. Wir haben alle Bücher verkauft.

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Dut. Wij hebben alle boeken verkocht.

Afr. Ons het alle boeke verkoop.

- We sold all books.

NOTE:
In Dutch and Afrikaans, the forms Dut. al de, Afr. al die are also used before
before plural nouns, for example:

Dut. alle (al de) deelnemers zijn gearriveerd.

Afr. Al die deelnemers het opgedaag.
- All the participants have arrived.

Remember that German, Dutch and Afrikaans alle is only used before plural nouns or before
uncountable singular nouns. For example:

Ger. Das Buch ist für alle Kinder geschrieben.

Dut. Het boek is voor alle (al de) kinderen geschreven.

Afr. Die boek is vir alle (al die) kinders geskryf.

- The book is written for all children.

NOTE:
In German, alle is also used to express “every” in time intervals with plural
nouns. In Dutch and Afrikaans, elke is used instead. For example:

Ger. Sie gehen alle zwei Wochen ins Kino.

Dut. Ze gaan elke twee weken naar de bioscoop.
Afr. Hulle gaan elke twee weke die bioskoop toe.
- They go to the cinema every two weeks.

• It is worth mentioning that unlike German, Dutch and Afrikaans alle, the forms Ger. all, Dut. and Afr.
al must be used before possessive and demonstrative pronouns. Study the following:

Ger. All(e) meine Freunde sind nett.

Dut. Al mijn vrienden zijn aardig.

Afr. Al my vriende is gaaf.

- All my friends are nice.

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NOTE:
In German, it is still more common to use alle in this case:

Ger. Alle meine Freunde sind nett.

Furthermore, in colloquial German, the adjective ganz is often used instead

with definite article or determiner. Ganz must agree in case and gender.
Compare the following:
All Ganz

All(e) meine Freunde sind nett. Meine ganzen Freunde sind nett.

- All my friends are nice.

• You can also use the expression Ger. der (die, das)/ein (eine) ganze(-r/-s); Dut. de (het)/een hele;
Afr. die/'n hele to mean “the/a whole” or “the/an entire” number or sum of something. For example:

Ger. Die ganze Straße ist mit Schnee bedeckt. (nominative, feminine)

Dut. De hele straat is bedekt met sneeuw.

Afr. Die hele straat is bedek met sneeu.

- The whole street is covered with snow.

Ger. Ich habe eine ganze Pizza gegessen. (accusative, feminine)

Dut. Ik heb een hele pizza gegeten.

Afr. Ek het 'n hele pizza geëet.

- I ate a whole pizza.

NOTE:
In German, der (die, das)/ein (eine) ganze(-r/-s) must agree in case,
number and gender.
Below is the table demonstrating the weak declension (with definite article) of
this adjective:
German

Weak declension (with definite article)

masculine feminine neuter plural

nom. der ganze die ganze das ganze die ganzen

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German

gen. des ganzen der ganzen des ganzen der ganzen

acc. den ganzen die ganze das ganze die ganzen

dat. dem ganzen der ganzen dem ganzen den ganzen

Below is the table showing the mixed declension (with indefinite article) of this
adjective:
German

Mixed declension (with indefinite article)

masculine feminine neuter plural

nom. ein ganzer eine ganze ein ganzes ganzen

gen. eines ganzen einer ganzen eines ganzen ganzen

acc. einen ganzen eine ganze ein ganzes ganzen

dat. einem ganzen einer ganzen einem ganzen ganzen

In Dutch, de (het) hele agrees in gender. The masculine and feminine gender is
used with de and the neuter is used with het, e.g.:

de hele taart - “the whole cake”

het hele appartement - “the whole apartment”

• Ger. alle, Dut. and Afr. alle - “all” in previous examples were used as adjectives and put before the
word they modified (see above), but they can also be used as adverbs and can occur somewhere after
the noun they say something about.

Note that in this case Dut. allemaal and Afr. almal must be used. Observe the following:

Ger. Die Studenten sind alle sehr schlau.

Dut. De studenten zijn allemaal erg slim.

Afr. Die studente is almal baie slim.

- The students are all very smart.

Ger. Die Bücher liegen alle in der Bibliothek.

Dut. De boeken staan allemaal in de bibliotheek.

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Afr. Die boeke is almal in die biblioteek.

- The books are all in the library.

NOTE:
In Dutch, allemaal and Afrikaans almal are the common forms and are used
to refer to plural nouns and to singular nouns that do not have plural forms.
Observe one more example:

Dut. De deelnemers worden allemaal voor een evenement uitgenodigd.

Afr. Die deelnemers word almal na 'n geleentheid genooi.
- The participants are all invited to an event.

• As a pronoun, we use the forms Ger. alles/alle; Dut. alles/allen; Afr. alles/almal - “all/everything”
when they occur independently, which means that it does not have an antecedent (a noun it refers to):

1. German, Dutch and Afrikaans alles is used to mean “everything”. Study the following:

Ger. Alles ist gut.

Dut. Alles is goed.

Afr. Alles is goed.

- All (Everything) is good (well, fine).

Ger. Ich will alles wissen, was du weißt.

Dut. Ik wil alles weten wat jij weet.

Afr. Ek wil alles weet wat jy weet.

- I want to know all (everything) that you know.

NOTE:
Unlike in German and Dutch, in Afrikaans the form al wat can also be used to
express “everything”, “all”, for example:

Ger. Das ist alles, was ich weiß.

Dut. Dat is alles wat ik weet.

Afr. Dit is al wat ek weet.

- That is everything I know.

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2. Ger. alle, Dut. allen, Afr. almal are normally used as a synonym for “everyone/all people”. It is used
for people only. To illustrate:

Ger. Alle haben die Prüfung bestanden.

Dut. Allen zijn voor het examen geslaagd.

Afr. Almal het die eksamen geslaag.

- All have passed the examination.

In the above example Ger. alle, Dut. allen, Afr. almal can also be substituted by Ger. jeder,
Dut. iedereen, Afr. iedereen/elkeen - “everyone”:

Ger. Jeder hat die Prüfung bestanden.

Dut. Iedereen is geslaagd voor het examen.

Afr. Iedereen/Elkeen het die eksamen geslaag.

- Everyone has passed the examination.

NOTE:
In German, alle is declined and becomes allen in the dative case (See Cases p.
300). For example:

Ger. Sie sprach mit allen, die kamen. (dative, plural)

- She talked to everyone who came.

In Dutch, the use of allen is very formal. Its synonym iedereen - “everyone” is
more commonly used. Study the following:

Dut. Ze sprak met iedereen die kwam.

- She talked to everyone who came.

In Afrikaans, the use of iedereen is rather formal. Its synonyms elkeen or

almal - “everyone” are more commonly used in natural speech. Study the
following:

Afr. Sy het met almal/elkeen gepraat wat gekom het.

- She talked to everyone who came.

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• You can also use “all of” before personal pronouns (you, us, them) and relative pronouns (whom,
which). Ger. alle and Dut. allemaal, Afr. almal are used in this case. Study the following:

Ger. Es gibt viele Museen, die alle freien Eintritt bieten.

Dut. Er zijn veel musea, die allemaal gratis toegang bieden.

Afr. Daar is baie museums, wat almal gratis toegang bied.

- There are a lot of museums, all of which offer free admission.

Ger. Das ist für euch alle.

Dut. Dit is voor jullie allemaal.

Afr. Dit is vir julle almal.

- This is for all of you (or This is for you all).

Also, if you talk to two or more people you can say Ger. beide, Dut. beide/allebei (de), Afr.
albei - “both (of)” (See also Both (of) Ger. beide; Dut. beide(n)/allebei (de), Afr. albei p. 512). For
instance:

Ger. Ich möchte euch beide sehen.

Dut. Ik wil jullie allebei zien.

Afr. Ek wil julle albei sien.

- I want to see both of them.

You can also use “all (of)” before demonstrative pronouns (this, that, these, those). Ger. alle, Dut.
allen/iedereen, Afr. almal are used instead. Study the following:

Ger. Alle, die angekommen sind.

Dut. Iedereen die is gearriveerd.

Afr. Almal wat aangekom het.

- All (of) those who have arrived.

NOTE:
In German, Dutch and Afrikaans, the form Ger. derjenige , Dut. degene, Afr.
diegene - “the one who/those who” can also be used when referring to people
(singular and plural), for example:

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Ger. Derjenige, der angekommen ist.

Dut. Degene die is aangekomen.
Afr. Diegene wat aangekom het
- The one who has arrived.

• There are also fixed expressions with Ger. alle/all/alles; Dut. alle/al/allemaal/alles/allen; Afr.
alles/almal - “all” that should be remembered.

However, in some cases Ger. ganz, Dut. hele, Afr. hele are used instead:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

alles in allem alles bij elkaar alles in ag geneem all in all

über alles vooral; bovenal bowenal above all

Alleskönner; alleskunner; Jack van alle jack of all trades

ein Hansdampf (m) in manusje-van-alles ambagte
allen Gassen
ganz Ohr een en al oor almal ore all ears

alles Gute het allerbeste alles van die beste all the best

alle zusammen allemaal samen allemaal samen all together

den ganzen Tag (lang) de hele dag (lang) die hele dag (lank) all day long

das ganze Jahr durch/ hele jaar door die hele jaar all year round
über

Ger. Ich wünsche Ihnen alles Gute!

Dut. Ik wens je het allerbeste toe!

Afr. Ek wens jou alles van die beste toe!

- I wish you all the best!

Ger. Ich bin das ganze Jahr über gereist.

Dut. Ik heb het hele jaar door gereisd.

Afr. Ek het die hele jaar gereis.

- I have travelled all year round.

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Everything - Ger. alles; Dut. alles, Afr. alles (as an indefinite pronoun)

As an indefinite pronoun Ger. alles; Dut. alles; Afr. alles refer to “all”, “everything” in general:

Ger. Ich habe alles gekauft.

Dut. Ik heb alles gekocht.

Afr. Ek het alles gekoop.

- I have bought everything.

Ger. Ich habe ihr alles erzählt, was ich weiß

Dut. Ik heb haar alles verteld wat ik weet

Afr. Ek het haar alles vertel wat ek weet.

- I have told her everything I know

NOTE:
In German Dutch and Afrikaans, alles should be put before past participle in a
sentence.

The rest - Ger. der Rest; Dut. de rest, Afr. die res

As a noun, Ger. der Rest; Dut. de rest; Afr. die res - “the rest” are preceded by the definite
article which agrees in case (in German) and in gender and number (in German and Dutch) and mean the
others or the parts of something that are left. Observe the following:

Ger. Der Rest der Besucher kann nicht kommen.

Dut. De rest van de bezoekers kan niet komen.

Afr. Die res van die besoekers kan nie kom nie.

- The rest of the visitors cannot come.

Ger. Den Rest des Jahres hat er in Deutschland verbracht.

Dut. De rest van het jaar heeft hij in Duitsland doorgebracht.

Afr. Die res van die jaar het hy in Duitsland deurgebring.

- He spent the rest of the year in Germany.

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NOTE:
In German, der Rest must agree in case.
Below is the table showing the declension of Rest:
German

Masculine

Nominative der Rest

Genitive des Restes

Accusative den Rest

Dative dem Rest

None - Ger. keine(-r/-s), Dut. geen, Afr. geen/geeneen

The indefinite pronoun Ger. keine(-r/-s); Dut. geen; Afr. geen/geeneen- “none” are used to
express not one or not any:

Ger. Keiner von ihnen ist gekommen.

Dut. Geen van hen is gekomen.

Afr. Geen van hulle het gekom nie.

- None of them came.

Ger. Hast du Äpfel? - Nein, keine.

Dut. Heb je appels? - Nee, geen.

Afr. Het jy enige appels? - Nee, geen.

- Do you have any apples? - No, none.

NOTE:
In German, keine(-r/-s) agrees in case, gender, number (See Determine the
Case of Possessive Pronouns p. 299 and Negation p. 550)
Below is the table demonstrating the declension of this pronoun:
German

masculine feminine neuter plural

nom. keiner keine keines keine

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German

gen. keines keiner keines keiner

acc. keinen keine keines keine

dat. keinem keiner keinem keinen

In Afrikaans, the form geeneen can also be used to mean “none’ or “not one”.
Study the following:

Afr. Geeneen van hulle het gekom nie.

- None of them came.

Both (of) - Ger. beide; Dut. beide(n)/allebei (de), Afr. albei

Ger. beide; Dut. beide(n)/allebei (de); Afr. albei - “both (of)” are used to refer to two people,
things or places. These pronouns can be dependent, independent, or predicative:

• Dependent:

3. Ger. beide; Dut. beide/allebei de; Afr. albei - “both” are used before a noun. Study the following:

Ger. Er kaufte beide Jacken.

Dut. Hij kocht beide/allebei de jassen.

Afr. Hy het albei baadjies gekoop.

- He bought both jackets.

Ger. Beide Arbeiter arbeiten morgen.

Dut. Beide/allebei de werknemers werken morgen.

Afr. Albei werkers werk môre.

- Both workers work tomorrow.

NOTE:
In German, beide is declined (See also Determine the Case of Possessive
Pronouns p. 299).
Below is the table demonstrating the declension of beide:

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German

Singular (neuter, pronoun only) Plural (strong forms)

nominative beides beide

genitive — beider

accusative beides beide

dative beidem beiden

For example:

Ger. Ich gehe mit beiden ins Kino. (dative case).

- I go to the cinema with both of them.

In Dutch, allebei de is more often used than beide in the previous example.

4. Ger. beide; Dut. beide/allebei; Afr. albei - “both or both of” can also be used after a determiner (e.g.
a/an, the, her, his) + noun:

Ger. Ihre beiden Schwestern leben in Berlin.

Dut. Haar beide zussen wonen in Berlijn.

Afr. Haar albei susters woon in Berlyn.

- Both/Both of her sisters live in Berlin.

• Independent:

1. We can also use Ger. beide; Dut. beide(n); Afr. albei - “both” independently as a pronoun. For
example:

Ger. Beide sind bei Amazon erhältlich.

Dut. Beide zijn bij Amazon te koop.

Afr. Albei is by Amazon te koop.

- Both are on sale at Amazon.

Ger. Beide sind sehr spät angekommen.

Dut. Beiden zijn erg laat aangekomen.

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Afr. Albei het baie laat opgedaag.

- Both arrived very late.

In the first example, we refer to any goods that could be on sale. In the second example, we refer
to persons.

NOTE:
In Dutch, when used independently, beide is used for things and beiden for
persons.

• Predicative:

1. Ger. beide; Dut. allebei; Afr. albei - “both” are used with pronouns:

• You can use Ger. beide and Dut. allebei; Afr. albei - “both” after a subject pronoun or an object
pronoun (you, us, them). Study the following:

Ger. Wir mögen beide klassische Musik.

Dut. We houden allebei van klassieke muziek.

Afr. Ons hou albei van klassieke musiek.

- We both like classical music.

Ger. Ich kaufe ihm beide.

Dut. Ik koop hem allebei.

Afr. Ek koop hom albei.

- I am buying him both (of them).

• Remember that you must put Ger. beide; Dut. allebei; Afr. albei - “both” after a modal verb or the
first auxiliary verb, or after Ger. sein; Dut. zijn; Afr. wees - “to be” as a main verb (See Verbs p. ). For
instance:

Did you know? Ger. Sie sind beide sehr intelligent.

Düsseldorf, the capital of the German Dut. Ze zijn allebei erg intelligent.
state of North Rhine-Westphalia, is a
major transportation hub. Düsseldorf is the Afr. Hulle is albei baie intelligent.
fourth-largest and busiest commercial airport
in Germany, with over 600 flights daily and - They are both very intelligent.
around 25 million passengers annually.

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Ger. Wir können beide schwimmen.

Dut. Wij kunnen allebei zwemmen.

Afr. Ons kan albei swem.

- We can both swim.

• Eng. both of is used before relative pronouns (whom, which). However, Ger. and Dut, beide and Afr.
albei must be used after the relative pronoun Ger., Dut. die and Afr. wat - “which” in this case.

Ger. Es gibt zwei Museen, die beide freien Eintritt bieten.

Dut. Er zijn twee musea, die beide gratis toegang bieden.

Afr. Daar is twee museums, wat albei gratis toegang bied.

- There are two museums, both of which offer free admission.

2. Ger. beide; Dut. beide/allebei and Afr. albei - “both (of)” must also be used after prepositions.
Observe the following:

Ger. Es ist für beide Kinder.

Dut. Het is voor beide kinderen.

Afr. Dit is vir albei kinders.

- This is for both children. (both of the children).

Ger. Es ist für Sie beide nützlich.

Dut. Het is voor jullie allebei nuttig

Afr. Dit is vir julle albei nuttig.

- It is useful for you both. (both of you).

To say Eng. both…and, the following expression is used in German, Dutch and Afrikaans:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

sowohl...als auch... zowel…als beide…en both…and…

For example:

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Ger. Ich kann sowohl Fußball als auch Basketball spielen.

Dut. Ik kan zowel voetbal als basketbal spelen.

Afr. Ek kan beide sokker en basketbal speel.

- I can play both football and basketball.

It is worth saying that Ger. keine(-r/-s) von beiden, Dut. geen van beide(n), Afr. geen/
geeneen/nie een van albei…nie - “neither of them” are used as a pronoun to refer to each of two
things or people, when a negative statement is made that includes both of them, for example:

Ger. Keiner von beiden hat mich angerufen.

Dut. Geen van beiden heeft mij gebeld.

Afr. Geeneen (Geen/Nie een) van albei het my gebel nie.

- Neither of them called me.

NOTE:
Remember that in Dutch, beide is used for things and beiden for persons. For
example:

Dut. Geen van beide films was succesvol.

- Neither of the films was successful.

Dut. Geen van beiden kan zwemmen.

- Neither of them can swim.

In order to say Eng. neither…nor, the following expression is used in German, Dutch and
Afrikaans (See also Negation p. 515):

German Dutch Afrikaans English

weder...noch noch…noch nie…of neither…nor

For instance:

Ger. Weder er noch ich gehen auf eine Party.

Dut. Noch hij, noch ik gaan naar een feestje.

Afr. Nie ek of hy gaan na 'n partytjie nie.

- Neither he nor I are going to a party.

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(The) most - Ger. Die meisten; Dut. De meeste, Afr. Die meeste

Ger. Die meisten Kinder mögen Schokolade.

Dut. De meeste kinderen houden van chocolade.

Afr. Die meeste kinders hou van sjokolade.

- Most children like chocolate.

NOTE:
In Afrikaans, the article die in the expression (die) meeste is commonly
omitted. For example:

Afr. Meeste kinders hou van sjokolade.

- Most children like chocolate.

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CHAPTER 6: VERBS
A verb is a word that indicates an action or a state of being, for example: go, live, be.

Overview
German and Dutch verbs, just like English verbs, have categories of mood (indicative, conditional,
subjunctive, and imperative), tense, person, number (two numbers), and voice (active, passive) to
consider in conjugation.

In English, many tenses have a parallel tense in German, Dutch and Afrikaans. In these West
Germanic languages, the indicative mood is used for general statements and consists of six basic tense
forms in German and Dutch, and three main tenses in Afrikaans.

They are divided into simple (one single word) and compound (made up of an auxiliary verb and a
past participle) tense forms. The simple tenses include the present, past. The compound tenses include
the present perfect, pluperfect, future and future prefect. Compound tenses in all these Germanic
languages are formed using the auxiliary verbs “to be” and/or “to have”.

Subjunctive forms are used for statements that are perceived as desired or hypothetical. In West
Germanic languages, they are considered archaic or dialectal and are usually replaced by the indicative or
by a periphrastic conditional phrase. There is also the imperative mood of the verb that does not have
different tenses and is only used for the second person. The imperative mood expresses commands,
orders or instructions.

In total there are the following spoken active-voice forms for each verb in these West Germanic
languages: infinitive, imperative, present, preterite/imperfect/past, perfect, pluperfect, participle.

West Germanic verbs may also take the passive voice. German, Dutch, and Afrikaans use the
passive voice more frequently than English.

The following demonstrates all the moods and tenses of the 1st person singular of the regular verb
Ger. arbeiten; Dut. werken; Afr. werk - “to work”.

German Dutch Afrikaans

Indicative mood

Present tenses

Present ich arbeite ik werk ek werk

Present ich habe gearbeitet ik heb gewerkt ek het gewerk

Perfect
Past tenses

Preterite/ ich arbeitete ik werkte __

Imperfect/
Past

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German Dutch Afrikaans

Pluperfect ich hatte gearbeitet ik had gewerkt __

Future tenses

Future ich werde arbeiten ik zal werken; (Ik ga werken) ek sal werk; (ek gaan werk)

Future ich werde gearbeitet haben ik zal gewerkt hebben ek sal gewerk het
Perfect
Conditionals

Conditional ich würde arbeiten ik zou werken Ek sou werk

Imperative
Conditional ich würde gearbeitet haben ik zou gewerkt hebben Ek sou gewerk het
Perfect
Subjunctive mood

Present tenses

Present ich arbeite ik werke __

Past tenses

Past ich arbeitete __ __

Imperative mood

arbeit(e) (du) werk werk

Imperative arbeiten (wir) werkt
arbeitet (ihr)
arbeiten (Sie)
Infinitive

Infinitive arbeiten werken werk

Participle

Present arbeitend werkend werkende

Participle
Past gearbeitet gewerkt gewerk
Participle

NOTE:
In Afrikaans, owing to the almost total demise of the preterite/imperfect or past
tense, the present prefect tense is also used the preterite or past tense.

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The Indicative Mood

The Present Tense

Verbs are always learnt in the infinitive form, i.e. the form that has not yet defined who is
performing the action of the verb, which ends in -en in German and Dutch.

In order to conjugate verbs—that is, employ verbs in a sentence, naming the doer of that verb—
one must remove the ending leaving the stem of the verb. In other words, the stem is what is left when the
ending -en of the infinitive is removed (See Infinitive p. 578).

Unlike in German and Dutch, in Afrikaans and English, there is almost no distinction between the
infinitive and the stem of the verb. Observe the following:

Infinitive Stem

German trinken —> trink-

Dutch drinken —> drink-

Afrikaans drink —> drink

English to drink —> drink

NOTE:
In English, the infinitive is the combination of to and the stem or the base form
of a verb. In order to conjugate verbs in English one must remove this particle
to leaving the stem of the verb.

The present tense of most verbs is formed by adding the appropriate personal endings to the stem
of the verb and the ending it takes depends on its subject in German and Dutch, for example:

Did you know? Ger. ich kaufe, du kaufst, sie kauft

The Dutch invented the world’s first Dut. ik koop, jij koopt, , zij koopt
stock exchange. The Amsterdam Stock
Exchange was established in 1602 by the Dutch - I buy, you buy, she buys
East India Company.

In the present tense, the verb uses four different forms in German and three different forms in
Dutch.
However, in Afrikaans, the verbs use only one form in the present tense, which is the infinitive or
the stem, since verbs do not inflect in person or number. To compare:

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Afr. Ek koop, jy koop, sy koop

- I buy, you buy, she buys

It is somewhat similar to English verbs, since infinitives are mostly equivalent to verbs in the
present tense, except for the singular 3rd person forms, in which case the suffix “-s” must be added to the
stem, which means that English only has two forms in the present tense.

The table shows all the forms of regular verbs in the present tense:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

-e, -st, -t, -en (stem), -t, -en (stem) (stem), -s

Below is the conjugation formula of the present tense in the West Germanic languages.

German Dutch Afrikaans English

1st per. sing. -e (stem) (stem) (stem)

2nd per. sing. -st -t (stem) (stem)

3rd per. sing. -t -t (stem) -s

1st per. pl. -en -en (stem) (stem)

2nd per. pl. -en -en (stem) (stem)

3rd per. pl. -en -en (stem) (stem)

What follows is the conjugation of a regular verb, Ger. trinken, Dut. drinken, Afr. drink - “to
drink” in the present tense.

German Dutch Afrikaans English

ich trinke ik drink ek drink I drink

du trinkst jij, je, U drinkt jy drink you drink

er, sie, es trinkt hij, zij, het drinkt hy, sy, dit drink he, she, it drinks

wir trinken wij, we drinken ons drink we drink

ihr trinkt jullie drinken julle drink you drink

sie, Sie trinken zij drinken hulle drink they drink

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NOTE:
German
In spoken German, it is quite common to drop the final -e of the first person.
However, it should be indicated by the use of an apostrophe if ever done in writing,
for instance:

Ger. Ich arbeit’ jetzt. - I’m working now.

Dutch
If the pronoun U is used, whether it addresses one or more people the verb is always
singular.
When jij/je follows the verb and its subject, the verb always drops the ending -t
(but not the t of the stem). For example:

Dut. Wat drink je? - What do you drink?

Remember that if the pronoun jij/je following the verb is used as the indirect object,
the verb keeps the ending -t:

Dut. Hij geeft je een peer. - He gives you a pear.

If hij follows the verb, it is pronounced ie in ordinary speech unless the pronoun
receives special emphasis, e.g.:

Dut. Werkt hij? —> Werkt ie? - Does he work?”

Just like in German, in Dutch, the pronouns Ger. sie, Dut. zij - “she” and Ger. sie,
Dut. zij - “they” are identical, but the form of the accompanying verb always
indicates which is intended:

Ger. Sie arbeitet. Sie arbeiten.

Dut. Zij werkt. Zij werken.
- She works. They work.

List of Regular Verbs in The Present Tense

Below is the list of some frequently used regular verbs in the present tense in West Germanic
languages.

It is worth mentioning that some of these verbs require spelling changes in addition to adding the
personal endings (See Verb Spelling and Vowel Changes p. 406).

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German Dutch Afrikaans English

antworten* antwoorden antwoord to answer

arbeiten werken werk to work

beginnen beginnen* begin to begin

bekommen worden word to get/become

benutzen gebruiken gebruik to use

besuchen bezoeken besoek to visit

bezahlen betalen* betaal to pay for

bleiben blijven* bly to remain/stay

dauern duren* hou to last

denken denken dink to think

entdecken ontdekken* ontdek to discover

erfinden uitvinden uitvind to invent

erlauben toelaten toelaat to permit

erzählen vertellen* vertel to tell

essen* eten* eet to eat

finden vinden vind to find

fischen vissen* visvang to fish

fliegen vliegen vlieg to fly

fragen vragen* vra to ask

gehen gaan* gaan to go

gewinnen winnen* wen to win

glauben geloven* glo to believe/think

helfen* helpen help to help

kaufen kopen* koop to buy

kennen kennen* ken to know (people)

kommen komen kom to come

laufen*, rennen rennen* hardloop to run

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German Dutch Afrikaans English

lehren leren* onderrig to teach

lernen leren* leer to learn

lieben houden van lief hê to love

liegen liggen* lê to lay

machen maken* maak to make

passieren gebeuren gebeur to happen

rauchen roken* rook to smoke

reisen reizen reis to travel

rufen bellen bel to call

sagen zeggen* sê to say

schlafen slapen* slaap to sleep

schreiben schrijven* skryf to write

schwimmen zwemmen* swem to swim

sehen* zien zien to see

singen zingen sing to sing

sitzen* zitten* sit to sit

sparen sparen* spaar to save (money)

stellen zetten* sit to put

stehen staan* staan to stand

studieren studeren* studeer to study

suchen zoeken soek to look for

tanzen dansen dans to dance

treffen* ontmoeten ontmoet to meet

trennen scheiden skei to separate

trinken drinken drink to drink

verdienen verdienen verdien to earn (money)

vergessen vergeten* vergeet to forget

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German Dutch Afrikaans English

verlieren verliezen verloor to lose

versprechen beloven* belowe to promise

verstehen verstaan verstaan to undertand

warten wachten wag to wait

waschen* wassen* was to wash

winken zwaaien waai to wave

wünschen wensen wens to wish/desire

ziehen trekken* trek to move

NOTE:
In German and Duch, the verbs marked with an asterisk require spelling
changes in addition to adding the appropriate personal endings (See Verb
Spelling and Vowel Changes p. 406).

In Afrikaans, the absolute majority of the verbs are regular. There are only two
verbs that differ in the infinitive and the present form of the verb (See
Completely Irregular Verbs in the Present Tense p. 421).

Verb Spelling and Vowel Changes in The Present Tense

However, despite the majority of similar regular and irregular verbs, each of the considered West
Germanic languages has its own number of irregular verbs with specific models of conjugation, which
means that some verbs have specific spelling changes in order to preserve the pronunciation (sound)
presented in the infinitive and others change their vowel within the stem.

Therefore, it is highly important to regard the special rules for when the spelling or vowels change
in a verb conjugation. Since the rules are very divergent and particular for each language, it makes it
difficult to somehow combine these changes occurring in a verb conjugation of the West Germanic
languages.

So, it is necessary to consider them separately in German and Dutch. Note that in in Afrikaans,
however, conjugations are relatively straightforward compared to German and Dutch, which means that
there are almost no spelling or vowel changes in a verb conjugation.

German

Spelling changing verbs (regular verbs in the present tense)

As it was said before, there are also some verbs whose spelling changes in order to preserve the
correct pronunciation (sound) presented in the infinitive in German. Basically, the understanding of these
rules is essential for correct writing in German. Below are the rules of the spelling changes in a verb
conjugation:

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1. The present tense of verbs with stems ending in -t or -d:

• When the stem of a verb ends in -t or -d, an additional -e- is inserted between the stem and an -st (the
2nd person singular) or a -t (the 3rd person singular and the 2nd person plural) ending of the present
tense, for example: arbeiten - to work and finden - to find:

Arbeiten: ich arbeite - du arbeitest - er/sie/es arbeitet - wir arbeiten - ihr arbeitet - sie arbeiten.

Finden: ich finde - du findest - er/sie/es findet - wir finden - ihr findet - sie finden.

Below are some common verbs that add an additional -e- before a -t or -st ending:

antworten to answer

arbeiten to work

bedeuten to mean

lauten to be

warten to wait

enden to end

finden to find

melden to report

senden to send

verbinden to connect

2.The present tense of verbs with stems ending in a consonant + n or m:

• Verbs whose stem ends in a consonant + n or m also add an -e- before the endings -st and -t in order to
make them easier to pronounce, for instance: öffnen - to open and widmen - to devote:

Öffnen: ich öffne - du öffnest - er/sie/es öffnet - wir öffnen - ihr öffnet - sie öffnen.

Widmen: ich widme - du widmest - er/sie/es widmet - wir widmen - ihr widmet - sie widmen.

The following are some common verbs in this category:

atmen to breathe

begegnen to encounter

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bewaffnen to arm

eignen to suit, qualify

entgegnen to reply

ereignen to occur

leugnen to deny

öffnen to open

ordnen to order, organize

rechnen to calculate

regnen to rain

segnen to bless

trocknen to dry

vervollkommnen to perfect

wappnen to prepare

widmen to devote

zeichnen to draw

3. Verbs with a stem ending in -s, -ss, -ß, -tz, -x, or -z:

• When the stem of a verb ends in -s, -ss, -ß, -tz, -x, or -z, the ending used for the 2nd person singular
(du form) is just -t, not -st, which means that the 2nd and 3rd person singular endings look the same,
e.g. heißen - to be called, reisen - to travel.

Ger. Heißen: ich heiße - du heißt - er/sie/es heißt - wir heißen - ihr heißt - sie heißen.

Ger. Reisen: ich reise - du reist - er/sie/es reist - wir reisen - ihr reist - sie reisen.

The following are some common verbs in this category:

brausen to roar, thunder

bremsen to brake

boxen to box/fight

dösen to dose

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einheimsen to collect, rake

entgleisen to derail

grasen to graze

grinsen to grin

hausen to dwell

heißen to be called

hopsen to hop

knipsen to snap

kreisen to circle

leasen to lease

reizen to travel

sitzen to sit

• As we already know, most German verbs end in -en. However, a few verbs end in -eln or -ern. The 1st
person of the verbs ending in -eln drops this e when adding the -e ending of the 1st person singular, but
those ending in -ern do not, for example: lächeln - to smile and wandern - to hike, go walking:

Ger. Lächeln: ich lächle (not lächele) - du lächelst - er/sie/es lächelt - wir lächeln - ihr lächelt - sie
lächeln.

Ger. Wandern: ich wandere (not wandre) - du wanderst - er/sie/es wandert - wir wandern - ihr wandert -
sie wandern.

The following are other common verbs in this category:

entwickeln to develop

fordern to demand

handeln to act/trade/negotiate

lächeln to smile

liefern to deliver/provide

regeln to regulate/control

wandern to hike/go walking

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Dutch

Spelling changing verbs (regular verbs in the present tense)

Many verbs change their stem spelling in the various forms of the conjugation following the
spelling rules in Dutch.

• Long vowel infinitives require long vowel stems:

Take, for example, the infinitive form of the verb maken - to make. This infinitive has a long
vowel “a”. In order to conjugate this verb, we need to derive the stem from this infinitive.

Following the rule for deriving the stem from the infinitive (stem = infinitive minus -en), we get:
mak-. The stem has a short vowel “a" (a single, closed vowel). To keep it long, we need to add an extra
“a". The stem then becomes: maak-. Observe the following:

Infinitive: maken —> stem: maak- —> conjugation: ik maak - jij maakt - hij/zij/het/u maakt - wij
maken - jullie maken - zij maken.

NOTE:
See how the plural conjugations for wij - “we”, jullie - “you”, and zij - “they” are
identical to the infinitive form, and the stem is identical to the 1st, 2nd and 4rd
person singular forms.

The following are some common verbs in this category:

betalen (stem: betaal) to pay

breken (stem: breek) to break

haten (stem: haat)* to hate

hopen (stem: hoop) to hope

horen (stem: hoor) to hear

koken (stem: kook) to cook

leren (stem: leer) to learn

lopen (stem: loop) to walk

maken (stem: maak) to make

nemen (stem: neem) to take

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praten (stem: praat)* to talk

raden (stem: raad) to guess

vuren (stem: vuur) to shoot

weten (stem: weet)* to know

NOTE:
If the stem of a verb ends in -t like haten (haat), praten (praat), weten (weet),
the stem does not get the ending -t in the conjugation of the 2nd and the 3rd person
singular (See p. 412). For example:

Dut. Hij weet het - He knows it.

• A stem never ends in two identical consonants:

Remember that when a stem ends in two identical consonants, one must subtract one consonant
in Dutch. For example, leggen - to lay:

Infinitive: leggen —> stem: leg- —> conjugation: ik leg - jij legt - hij/zij/het/u legt - wij leggen - jullie
leggen - zij leggen.

NOTE:
It is worth noting that the plural conjugations for wij - “we”, jullie - “you”, and zij
- “they” are identical to the the infinitive form.

The following are some common verbs in this category:

leggen (stem: leg) to lay

lukken (stem: luk) to succeed

missen (stem: mis) to miss

pakken (stem: pak) to get

stoppen (stem: stop) to stop

vallen (stem: val) to fall

wassen (stem: was) to wash

wennen (stem: wen) to get used

zitten (stem: zit) to sit

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• Verbs with stems ending in -t

In Dutch, if the stem of a verb ends in -t, the ending -t for the 2nd and 3rd person singular is not
added, for example zitten - to sit, weten - to know:

Infinitive: zitten —> stem: zit- —> conjugation: ik zit - jij zit - hij/zij/het/u zit - wij zitten - jullie
zitten - zij zitten.

Infinitive: weten —> stem: weet- —> conjugation: ik weet - jij weet - hij/zij/het/u weet - wij weten -
jullie weten - zij weten.

The following are some frequent verbs in this category:

haten (stem: haat) to hate

praten (stem: praat) to talk

weten (stem: weet) to know

zitten (stem: zit) to sit

• Verbs with stems ending in -d

When the stem of a verb ends in -d, we do add the ending -t in the 2nd and 3rd person singular,
even though the pronunciation does not change at all, for example rijden - to ride, houden - to hold:

Infinitive: rijden —> stem: rijd- —> conjugation: ik rijd, rij - jij rijdt - hij/zij/het/u rijdt - wij rijden -
jullie rijden - zij rijden.

Infinitive: houden —> stem: houd- —> conjugation: ik houd, hou rij - jij houdt - hij/zij/het/u houdt -
wij houden - jullie houden - zij houden.

NOTE:
The verbs rijden and houden as spoken and written normally drop the ending -d
of the stem as well as the ending -t of the 2nd person singular in the inverted form
(See Asking Questions p. 514).
For example:

Dut. Rij je? - Do you ride?; Hou je? - Do you hold?

The following are some frequent verbs in this category:

houden (stem: houd) to hold

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raden (stem: raad) to guess

rijden (stem: rijd) to ride

zitten (stem: zit) to sit

• A stem never ends in v or z:

Note that if, after subtraction of the ending -en from the infinitive, and possibly the vowel length
correction (See below), the stem ends in v or z, these letters become f and s respectively in the 1st, 2nd,
3rd person singular.

For instance, schrijven - to write and lezen - to read:

Infinitive: schrijven —> stem: schrijf- —> conjugation: ik schrijf - jij schrijft - hij/zij/het/u schrijft - wij
schrijven - jullie schrijven - zij schrijven.

Infinitive: lezen —> stem: lees- —> conjugation: ik lees - jij leest - hij/zij/het/u leest - wij lezen - jullie
lezen - zij lezen.

The following are some common verbs in this category:

beven (stem: beef) to tremble

blijven (stem: blijf) to stay

bonzen (stem: bons) to pound

durven (stem: durf) to dare

geloven (stem: geloof) to believe

kiezen (stem: kies) to choose

leven (stem: leef) to live

lezen (stem: lees) to read

lozen (stem: loos) to dump

razen (stem: raas) to rage

schrijven (stem: schrijf) to write

verven (stem: verf) to paint

werven (stem: werf) to acquire

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wuiven (stem: wuif) to wave

zweven (stem: zweef) to float

• The stem of an -iën verb ends in -ie:

In Dutch, there are a few verbs that end in -iën. The dieresis over “e” means that it is the
beginning of a new syllable. The vowel combination “ie" is normally pronounced as /ee/ (as in the English
verb to seek), but iën must be pronounced separately as /ee-ye/.

So when we derive the stem of an -iën verb, we subtract the ending -n, and we keep -e, but we
remove the dieresis from it in the 1st, 2nd, 3rd person singular and we keep it in the 1st, 2nd, 3rd person
plural.

For instance: ruziën - to quarrel:

Infinitive: ruziën —> stem: ruzie- —> conjugation: ik ruzie - jij ruziet - hij/zij/het/u ruziet - wij ruziën -
jullie ruziën - zij ruziën.

The following are some common verbs in this category:

neuriën (stem: neurie) to hum

oliën (stem: olie) to oil

ruziën (stem: ruzie) to quarrel

skiën (stem: skie)* to ski

NOTE:
The 1st person singular of the verb skiën is an exception as we must subtract the
personal ending -e. For instance:

Dut. Ik ski vaak. - I ski often.

Afrikaans

Remember that in Afrikaans, conjugations are straightforward compared to other West Germanic
languages. Since in Afrikaans, the stem of a verb is identical to its stem in Dutch and since the Afrikaans
verbs do not decline, verbs do not change their stem spelling.

Compare the following:

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Dutch Afrikaans English

Infinitive —> Stem

lopen —> loop- loop —> loop to walk —> walk

Conjugation

Ik loop Ek loop I walk

Jij/Je/U loopt Jy loop You walk (sing. inf.)

Hij/Zij/Het loopt Hy/Sy/Dit loop He/She/It walks

Wij/We lopen Ons loop We walk

Jullie lopen Julle loop You walk (plural)

Zij lopen Hulle loop They walk

The Present Tense of Irregular Verbs in German

Note that the real indicator of whether verbs are regular or irregular is how they conjugate in the
past tenses (See The Preterite p. 481).

Many German verbs that are irregular in the past are perfectly regular in the present. However,
there are many common irregular verbs that show several irregularities in the present tense as well in
German.

Therefore, we will refer to them as strong verbs, as opposed to the completely irregular verbs (See
Completely Irregular Verbs in The Present Tense in German, Dutch and Afrikaans p. 421).

It should be mentioned that the irregularities normally apply only to the 2nd and 3rd persons
singular in German. We will deal with them below.

NOTE:
Remember that if a verb is irregular in any of the following ways in the present
tense in German, it is almost certainly irregular in the past tenses and will thus be
found in the list of irregular verbs (See List of (Strong) Irregular Verbs in the
Preterite p. 495)

Stem changing verbs (irregular verbs in the present tense)

In German, there is a number of strong or irregular verbs whose vowels change the stem. Stem-
changing verbs are normally conjugated the same way as regular verbs, except there is a stem change in
the 2nd person singular (du form) and the 3rd person singular (er/sie/es form) conjugations in the
present tense. There are four main types of stem changes in German.

Below is a formula with the main types of stem changes:

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Type 1 Type 2 Type 3 Type 4

e —> i e —> ie a —> ä au —> äu

Below is the description of each of them:

‣ e –> i

This type of stem change is considered to be one of the most common in German. Nearly all irregular
verbs whose stem contains an e change that e to i in the second and third persons singular, e.g. geben -
to give, essen - to eat:

Geben: ich gebe - du gibst - er/sie/es gibt - wir geben - ihr gebt - sie geben.

Essen: ich esse - du isst - er/sie/es isst - wir essen - ihr esst - sie essen.

Below are some common verbs of this type of stem change:

essen (du, er/sie/es isst) to eat

gelten (du giltst, er/sie/es gilt) to apply/be considered

geben (du gibst, er/sie/es gibt) to give

helfen (du hilfst, er/sie/es hilft) to help

nehmen (du nimmst, er/sie/es nimmt)* to take

sprechen (du sprichst, er/sie/es spricht) to speak

sterben (du stirbst, er/sie/es stirbt) to die

treffen (du triffst, er/sie/es trifft) to meet

treten (du trittst, er/sie/es tritt)* to tread/step

vergessen (du, er/sie/es vergisst) to forget

werfen (du wirfst, er/sie/es wirft) to throw

NOTE:
The verbs nehmen and treten show further idiosyncrasies of spelling in the 2nd
and 3rd persons singular. For instance:

Ger. ich nehme - du nimmst - er/sie/es nimmt - wir nehmen - ihr nehmt - sie
nehmen.

Ger. ich trete - du trittst - er/sie/es tritt - wir treten - ihr tretet - sie treten.

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‣ e –> ie

This type of stem change is considered to be less common in German. A much smaller number of verbs
change the e to ie in the 2nd and 3rd persons singular, e.g. lesen - to read:

Lesen: ich lese - du liest - er/sie/es liest - wir lesen - ihr lest - sie lesen.

The following verbs do the same:

empfehlen (du empfiehlst, er/sie/es empfiehlt) to recommend

geschehen (er/sie/es geschieht) to happen

lesen (du, er/sie/es liest)* to read

sehen (du siehst, er/sie/es sieht) to see

stehlen (du stiehlst, er/sie/es stiehlt) to steal

NOTE:
Like regular verbs, stem-changing verbs whose stems end in -s, -ß, or -z, such as
essen and lesen, drop the -s- in the 2nd person singular (du form) ending.

‣ a –> ä

An extensive number of irregular verbs whose stem contains an a add an Umlaut to the a (ä) in the 2nd
and 3rd persons singular in the present tense, for example schlafen - to sleep:

Schlafen: ich schlafe - du schläfst - er/sie/es schläft - wir schlafen - ihr schlaft - sie schlafen.

Here is a list of the most common verbs that do this:

braten (du brätst, er/sie/es brät)* to roast

fahren (du fährst, er/sie/es fährt) to drive/travel

fallen (du fällst, er/sie/es fällt) to fall

fangen (du fängst, er/sie/es fängt) to catch

halten (du hältst, er/sie/es hält)* to hold/stop

laden (du lädst, er/sie/es lädt)* to load

lassen (du, er/sie/es lässt) to leave

raten (du rätst, er/sie/es rät)* to guess/advise

tragen (du trägst, er/sie/es trägt) to carry

wachsen (du, er/sie/es wächst) to grow

waschen (du wäsch(s)t, er/sie/es wäscht) to wash

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NOTE:
Unlike regular verbs, stem-changing verbs whose stems end in -d or -t, such as
braten, halten, laden, and raten, do not add an additional -e- in the 2nd and the
3rd persons singular. Study the following:

Ger. ich brate - du brätst - er/sie/es brät - wir braten - ihr bratet - sie braten.
Ger. ich halte - du hältst - er/sie/es hält - wir halten - ihr haltet - sie halten.
Ger. ich lade - du lädst - er/sie/es lädt - wir laden - ihr ladet - sie laden.
Ger. ich rate - du rätst - er/sie/es rät - wir raten - ihr ratet - sie raten.

‣ au –> äu

There are also several irregular verbs with au in their stem that add an Umlaut to the a (äu) in the 2nd
and 3rd persons singular in the present tense, for instance laufen - to run.

Laufen: ich laufe - du läufst - er/sie/es läuft - wir laufen - ihr lauft - sie laufen.

Below are some common verbs of this type of stem change:

laufen (du läufst, er/sie/es läuft) to run

saufen (er/sie/es) to booze

NOTE:
The is one verb with o in its stem that also takes an Umlaut (ö) in the 2nd and 3rd
persons singular in the present tense, e.g. stoßen - to shove:

Ger. ich stoße - du stößt - er/sie/es stößt - wir stoßen - ihr stoßt - sie stoßen.

List of Irregular Verbs in the Present Tense in German

It is worth reminding that the (strong) irregular verbs in German are characterized by
unpredictable changes in their roots to show verb tense. These stem changes occur mostly in the past
tense forms, but in some instances, present tense forms are also affected.

Below is the comprehensive list of the most commonly used (strong) irregular verbs in the present
tense, which contains the infinitive and the 3rd person singular form in German:

German English

backen (bäckt/backt) to bake

befehlen (befiehlt) to command

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German English

bergen (birgt) to salvage

bersten (birst/berstet) to burst

blasen (bläst) to blow

braten (brät) to fry

brechen (bricht) to break

dreschen (drischt) to thresh

dürfen (darf) may, to be allowed

empfehlen (empfiehlt) to recommend

erlöschen* (erlischt) to go out (of light)

erschrecken* (erschrickt) to be startled

essen (isst) to eat

fahren (fährt) to drive/go

fallen (fällt) to fall

fangen (fängt) to catch

fechten (ficht) to fight/fence

flechten (flicht) to braid/plait

fressen (frisst) to eat (of animals)

gebären (gebärt/gebiert) to give birth

geben (gibt) to give

gelten (gilt) to count, be worth

geschehen (geschieht) to occur

graben (gräbt) to dig

haben (hat) to have

halten* (hält) to hold

helfen (hilft) to help

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German English

können (kann) can, to be able to

laden (lädt) to load

lassen (lässt) to let

laufen (läuft) to run

lesen (liest) to read

melken (milkt/melkt) to milk

messen (misst) to measure

mögen (mag) to like

müssen (muss) must, to have to

nehmen (nimmt) to take

quellen (quillt) to gush, well up

raten (rät) to advise

saufen (säuft) to drink, booze

schelten (schilt) to scold

schlafen (schläft) to sleep

schlagen (schlägt) to hit, beat

schmelzen (schmilzt) to melt

schwellen (schwillt) to swell

sehen (sieht) to see

sein (ist) to be

sollen (soll) shall, to be supposed to

sprechen (spricht) to speak

stechen (sticht) to prick, sting

stehlen (stiehlt) to steal

sterben (stirbt) to die

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German English

stoßen (stößt) to bump, push

tragen (trägt) to wear, carry

treffen (trifft) to meet

verderben (verdirbt) to ruin

vergessen (vergisst) to forget

wachsen (wächst) to grow

waschen (wäscht) to wash

werben (wirbt) to advertise, recruit

werden (wird) to become

werfen (wirft) to throw

wissen (weiß) to know

wollen (will) to want

Completely Irregular Verbs in the Present Tense in German, Dutch and

Afrikaans

In West Germanic languages, there are completely irregular verbs in the present tense that do not
fit into any of the above categories. While they share similarities with other types of verbs, their
conjugations are quite unpredictable.

These verbs are very common, so their forms must be memorized by heart.

Below is a list of completely irregular verbs in German, Dutch and Afrikaans:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

sein zijn wees to be

haben hebben hê to have

What follows is the description and conjugation of presented above completely irregular verbs in
the present tense:

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Verb To Be - Ger. Sein, Dut. Zijn, Afr. Wees

The verb Ger. sein, Dut. zijn, Afr. wees - “to be”, the most irregular verb in all of the West
Germanic languages, is conjugated like no other verb in the present tense. It is also used in more different
ways than any other verb.

As an independent verb, it can be used as the link verb “to be”. Furthermore, it often functions as
the auxiliary verb before a past participle (See The Past Participle p. 439).

Below is the conjugation of the verb “to be” in the present tense in West Germanic
Languages.

German Dutch Afrikaans English

ich bin ik ben ek is I am

du bist jij/je bent jy is you are

er, sie, es ist hij, zij, het is hy, sy, dit is he, she, it is

wir sind wij/we zijn ons is we are

ihr seid jullie zijn julle is you are

sie, Sie sind zij zijn hulle is they are

For example:

Ger. Ich bin in Berlin.

Dut. Ik ben in Berlijn.

Afr. Ek is in Berlyn.

- I am in Berlin.

Verb To Have - Ger. Haben, Dut. Hebben, Afr. Hê

Just like the verb “to be”, the verb Ger. haben, Dut. hebben, Afr. hê - “to have” is used in a
variety of ways.

As an independent verb it means to have, but like the verb to be, it can also be used as the
auxiliary verb before a past participle (See The Past Participle p. 439).

NOTE:
In German, the present tense of haben shows irregularities only in the 2nd and 3rd
persons singular, where the b of the verb stem is omitted.

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In Dutch, the verb hebben is not very irregular in the present tense as only the 3rd
person singular has an irregular stem heeft.

Below is the conjugation of the verb “to have” in the present tense in West Germanic
Languages.

German Dutch Afrikaans English

ich habe ik heb ek het I have

du hast jij/je hebt jy het you have

er, sie, es hat hij, zij, het heeft hy, sy, dit het he, she, it has

wir haben wij/je hebben ons het we have

ihr habt jullie hebben julle het you have

sie, Sie haben zij hebben hulle het they have

For example:

Ger. Sie hat einen Hund.

Dut. Ze heeft een hond.

Afr. Sy het 'n hond.

- She has a dog.

NOTE:
Remember that in Dutch the form hebt is can also be used with the pronoun u, for
example:

Dut. U heeft (or hebt) een hond.

- You have a dog.

Other Commonly Used Irregular Verbs in German and Dutch

There are other frequently used irregular verbs in the present tense in German and Dutch, which
we need to consider.

Below is a list of other commonly used irregular verbs in German and Dutch:

German Dutch English

tun doen to do

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German Dutch English

sehen zien to see

wissen weten* to know

werden worden* to become

kommen* komen to come

NOTE:
Unlike in German and Dutch, in Afrikaans the above mentioned verbs are
regular:
Afrikans English

doen to do

sien to see

weet to know

word to become

kom to come

Below we will consider these irregular verbs in the present tense in German and Dutch:

Verb To Do - Ger. Tun, Dut. Doen

The verb Ger, tun and Dut. doen - “to do” is only irregular in the present in that it ends in -n,
and not -en, but to conjugate it you just remove the ending -n and add the regular personal endings, as
with Ger. trinken, Dut. drinken above.

We mentioned these verbs here, because their infinitives do not allow us to simply follow the
usual steps for deriving the verb stem. For example:

German Dutch English

ich tue ik doe I do

du tust jij/je doet you do

er, sie, es tut hij, zij, het doet he, she, it does

wir tun wij/we doen we do

ihr tut jullie doen you do

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German Dutch English

sie, Sie tun zij doen they do

NOTE:
For the sake of comparison, we add the conjugation of the regular verb Afr.
doen - “to do” in Afrikaans:
Afrikaans English

ek doen I do

jy doen you do

hy, sy, dit doen he, she, it does

ons doen we do

julle doen you do

hulle doen they do

Verb To See - Ger. Sehen, Dut. Zien

In German, the verb sehen - “to see” is a stem-changing verb (e —> ie) in the 2nd and 3rd
persons singular.

In Dutch, just like the verb doen, the verb Dut. zien - to see does not end -en, but in -n, and is
also considered to be regular in the present tense in Dutch. For instance:

German Dutch English

ich sehe ik zie I see

du siehst jij ziet you see

er, sie, es sieht hij, zij, het, U ziet he, she, it see

wir sehen wij zien we see

ihr seht jullie zien you see

sie, Sie sehen zij zien they see

NOTE:
In Afrikaans, the verb sien - “to see” is regular. To compare:

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Afrikaans English

ek sien I see

jy sien you see

hy, sy, dit sien he, she, it see

ons sien we see

julle sien you see

hulle sien they see

Furthermore, in Dutch, just like the verbs doen and zien, there are three more verbs with an
infinitive that end in -n. These are gaan - “to go”, staan - “to stand”, and slaan - “to hit”. All of these
verbs occur quite frequently in Dutch. Otherwise, they are regular in the present tense.

To conjugate these verbs, you should remember that a syllable never ends in a double vowel. The
stems are thus ga, sla, and sta.

In the 2nd and 3rd singular, however, we must write double aa again. Because of the additional
-t, we need a double vowel to keep the sound long. As an example, study the conjugation of the verb gaan
below:

Dutch English

ik ga I go

jij/je gaat you go

hij, zij, het, U gaat he, she, it go

wij/we gaan we go

jullie gaan you go

zij gaan they go

NOTE:
Unlike in Dutch, in German and Afrikaans the following verbs are perfectly
regular:
German Afrikaans English

gehen gaan to go

stehen staan to stand

schlagen slaan to hit

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Observe the conjugation of the verb Ger. gehen and Afr. gaan:
German Afrikaans English

ich gehe ek gaan I go

du gehst jy gaan you go

er, sie, es geht hy, sy, dit gaan he, she, it go

wir gehen ons gaan we go

ihr geht julle gaan you go

sie, Sie gehen hulle gaan they go

Verb To Become - Ger. Werden, Dut. Worden

The verb werden - “to become” is a stem-changing verb (e —> i). Plus, it drops the personal
ending -t in the 3rd person singular (er/sie/es form) in German. Note that this verb is also the auxiliary
verb we use for the future tense in German (See The Future Tense p. 531). Study the following:

German English

ich werde I become

du wirst you become

er, sie, es wird he, she, it becomes

wir werden we become

ihr werdet you become

sie, Sie werden they become

NOTE:
Unlike in German, in Dutch and Afrikaans, the verb Dut. worden, Afr. word -
“to become” is regular in the present tense:
Dutch Afrikaans English

ik word ek word I become

jij/je wordt jy word you become

hij, zij, het wordt hy, sy, dit word he, she, it becomes

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Dutch Afrikaans English

wij/we worden ons word we become

jullie worden julle word you become

zij worden hulle word they become

Verb To Know - Ger. Wissen, Dut. Weten

In German, the conjunction of the verb wissen - “to know” is similar to that of the modal verbs
(See Modal Verbs in the Present Tense p. 430).

Additionally, note that the 2nd person singular (du-form) adds only a -t personal ending since the
verb stem ends in ß. Observe the following:

German English

ich weiß I know

du weißt you know

er, sie, es weiß he, she, it knows

wir wissen we know

ihr wisst you know

sie, Sie wissen they know

NOTE:
In Dutch and Afrikaans, the verb Dut. weten, Afr. weet - “to know” is also
considered regular.
In Dutch, however, it follows the general spelling rules. In order to conjugate
this verb, we need to add an extra “a” to the stem to make the vowel long
(weet).
In addition, the stem of this verb does not get the ending -t in the conjugation of
the 2nd and the 3rd person singular because it already ends in -t. Study the
following:
Dutch English

ik weet I know

jij/je weet you know

hij, zij, het, U weet he, she, it knows

wij/we weten we know

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Dutch English

jullie weten you know

zij weten they know

Verb To Come - Ger. Kommen, Dut. Komen

In Dutch, the stem vowel of the verb komen - “to come” is short in the singular, but long in the
plural. Observe the following:

Dutch English

ich kom I come

du komt you come

er, sie, es komt he, she, it comes

wir komen we come

ihr komen you come

sie, Sie komen they come

It is worth mentioning a few more examples of verbs with the same conjugation as Dutch
komen:

bijkomen to recover

ontkomen to escape

overkomen to hapen to

aankomen to arrive, to put on weight

NOTE:
Unlike in Dutch, in German, the verb kommen - “to come” is perfectly regular
in the present tense:
German English

ich komme I come

du kommst you come

er, sie, es kommt he, she, it come

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German English

wir kommen we come

ihr kommt you come

sie, Sie kommen they come

Modal Verbs in the Present Tense

In German and Dutch, modal verbs can be grouped together not only because they are used in
much the same way but also because their formation is also similar in the present tense.

These verbs can be considered as mixed verbs because they share characteristics of both (strong)
irregular verbs and regular verbs.

For example, modal verbs have characteristic stem changes in their singular forms, but like all
other verbs, the plural forms of all modal verbs are perfectly regular.

Below is a list of modal verbs in German, Dutch and Afrikaans:

German Dutch English

können kunnen can, be able to

sollen zullen (zou/zouden) moeten should

dürfen mogen may, to be allowed

müssen moeten must, have to

wollen willen to want to

NOTE:
In Dutch, the modal verb moeten and willen are regular and conjugated
according to the general rules. However, willen has one little extravagancy. In
the 3rd person singular of the present tense, we do not add the ending -t to the
stem (See below).
Unlike in German and Dutch, in Afrikaans, all the modal verbs are regular and
are used in the same way as we use them in English, which means that we use
the same form of the modal verbs for the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd persons singular and
plural:
Afrikaans English

kan can, be able to

sal will, shall, should

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Afrikaans English

mag may, to be allowed

moet must, have to

wil to want to

What follows is the conjugation of modal verbs in the present tense in German, Dutch, and
Afrikaans.

Verb Can, Be Able To - Ger. Können, Dut. Kunnen, Afr. Kan

Below is the conjugation of the verb “can, be able to” in the present tense in German, Dutch
and Afrikaans.

German Dutch Afrikaans English

ich kann ik kan ek kan I can

du kannst jij/je kan/kunt* jy kan you can

er, sie, es kann hij, zij, het, U kan hy, sy, dit kan he, she, it can

wir können wij/we kunnen ons kan we can

ihr könnt jullie kunnen julle kan you can

sie, Sie können zij kunnen hulle kan they can

NOTE:
In Dutch, the 2nd person singular forms kan and kunt are both correct.

Study the following examples:

Ger. Ich kann schwimmen.

Dut. Ik kan zwemmen.

Afr. Ek kan swem.

- I can swim.

Ger. Kannst du mir helfen?

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Dut. Kun* je me helpen?

Afr. Kan jy my help?

- Can you help me?

NOTE:
In Dutch, the verb kunnen as spoken and written normally drop the -t of the
second person singular in the inverted (question) form. To compare:
Dutch

Je kunt me helpen Kun je me helpen?

- You can help me. - Can you help me?

Verb Should - Ger. Sollen, Dut. Zullen (Zou/Zouden) Moeten , Afr. Moet

Below is the conjugation of the verb “should” in German, Dutch and Afrikaans.

German Dutch Afrikaans English

ich soll/sollte ik zou moeten ek moet I should

du sollst/solltest jij/je zou moeten jy moet you should

er, sie, es soll/sollte hij, zij, het, U zou moeten hy, sy, dit moet he, she, it should

wir sollen/sollten wij/we zouden moeten ons moet we should

ihr sollt/solltet jullie zouden moeten julle moet you should

sie, Sie sollen/sollten zij zouden moeten hulle moet they should

Note that in German, the present and past tenses are used to express “should”. In the present
tense, sollen shows how something should definitively occur. The simple past form implies that
something should happen, but might not.

In Dutch, zullen must be used in the past form (zouden) together with another modal verb
moeten to express “should”. However, zouden moeten is used when something should happen, but
might not, while moeten (without zouden) shows that something should definitively occur.

Observe the following examples:

Ger. Ich soll (present tense)/sollte (past tense) es tun.

Dut. Ik zou (past tense) het moeten doen.

Afr. Ek moet dit doen.

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- I should do it.

Verb May, To Be Allowed - Ger. Dürfen, Dut. Mogen, Afr. Mag

Below is the conjugation of the verb “may, to be allowed” in the present tense in German,
Dutch and Afrikaans.

German Dutch Afrikaans English

ich darf ik mag ek mag I may

du darfst jij/je mag jy mag you may

er, sie, es darf hij, zij, het, U mag hy, sy, dit mag he, she, it may

wir dürfen wij/we mogen ons mag we may

ihr dürft jullie mogen julle mag you may

sie, Sie dürfen zij mogen hulle mag they may

Observe the following examples:

Ger. Darf ich gehen?

Dut. Mag ik gaan?

Afr. Mag ek gaan?

- May I go?

Verb Must, Have to - Ger. Müssen, Dut. Moeten, Afr. Moet

Below is the conjugation of the verb “must, have to” in the present tense in German, Dutch
and Afrikaans.

German Dutch Afrikaans English

ich muss ik moet ek moet I must

du musst jij/je moet jy moet you must

er, sie, es muss hij, zij, het, U moet hy, sy, dit moet he, she, it must

wir müssen wij/we moeten ons moet we must

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German Dutch Afrikaans English

ihr müsst jullie moeten julle moet you must

sie, Sie müssen zij moeten hulle moet they must

Observe the following examples:

Ger. Wir müssen es tun.

Dut. Wij moeten het doen.

Afr. Ons moet dit doen.

- We must do it.

Verb To Want To - Ger. Wollen, Dut. Willen, Afr. Wil

Below is the conjugation of the verb “to want to” in the present tense in German, Dutch and
Afrikaans.

German Dutch Afrikaans English

ich will ik wil ek wil I want to

du willst jij/je wilt jy wil you want to

er, sie, es will hij, zij, het, U wil hy, sy, dit wil he, she, it wants to

wir wollen wij/we willen ons wil we want to

ihr wollt jullie willen julle wil you want to

sie, Sie wollen zij willen ek wil they want to

NOTE:
In Dutch, the modal verb willen has an exception. In the 3rd person singular of
the present tense, we do not add the ending -t to the stem.

Observe the following examples:

Ger. Er will ein Auto kaufen.

Dut. Hij wil een auto kopen.

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Afr. Hy wil 'n kar koop.

- He wants to buy a car.

The above irregularities in the forming of the present tense of German, Dutch, Afrikaans, and
English verbs occur overwhelmingly in very frequently used verbs, which is what makes remembering
them quite easy as you will be confronted with these completely irregular verbs so frequently that they will
cease to look irregular.

Use of the Present Tense

It is relevant to note that whereas English has multiple present tense forms, German, Dutch and
Afrikaans has one form of the present tense. The German and Dutch present tense is equivalent to all of
the present tense English forms. Study the following:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

ich spiele ik speel ek speel I play, I am playing, I do play

du isst jij eet jy eet you eat, you are eating, you do eat

er tanzt hij danst hy dans he dances, he is dancing, he does dance

wir studieren we studeren ons studeer we study, we are studying, we do study

NOTE:
In Dutch and Afrikaans, there are also progressive or continuous constructions
which are usually used to emphasize the continuity of an action (See p. 570)

The present tense in German, Dutch and Afrikaans is used in the same cases as in English. It has
five main uses:

Actions in the present

• To identify an action that takes place in the present or at the moment of speech:

Ger. Es regnet.

Dut. Het regent.

Afr. Dit reën.

- It is raining.

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Ger. Was machst du jetzt?

Dut. Wat doe je nu?

Afr. Wat doen jy nou?

- What are you doing now?

Did you know? Ger. Ich arbeite jetzt.

Maastricht is one of the oldest cities in Dut. Ik werk nu.
the Netherlands, founded by the
Romans. It is mentioned in ancient documents Afr. Ek werk nou.
dating back to 575. Fragments of Roman
sculptures are displayed in the city's public - I’m working now.
library - Centre Céramique.

Habitual actions

• To indicate the regular repetitive action or things that one does as a habit:

Ger. Er reist viel.

Dut. Hij reist veel.

Afr. Hy reis baie.

- He travels a lot.

Ger. Ich studiere Fremdsprachen an der Universität.

Dut. Ik studeer vreemde talen aan de universiteit.

Afr. Ek studeer vreemde tale aan die universiteit.

- I study foreign languages in college.

Ger. Ich wohne jetzt in Oslo.

Dut. Ik woon nu in Oslo.

Afr. Ek woon nou in Oslo.

- I live in Oslo now.

Universal truths

• To indicate the action that is not referred to a certain moment, but refers to general statements,
scientific definitions, proverbs and etc.:

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Ger. Alle Menschen brauchen Liebe.

Dut. Alle mensen hebben liefde nodig.

Afr. Alle mense het liefde nodig.

- All people need love.

Ger. Der Mount Everest ist der höchste Berg der Erde.

Dut. Mount Everest is de hoogste berg op aarde.

Afr. Mount Everest is die hoogste berg op aarde.

- Mount Everest is the tallest mountain on Earth.

Ger. Wasser kocht bei 100 Grad Celsius.

Dut. Water kookt bij 100 graden Celsius.

Afr. Water kook by 100 grade Celsius.

- Water boils at 100 degrees Celsius.

Replacing the future tense

• To refer to close or planned future especially when future time is clearly indicated in some other way, i.e.
usually by an adverbial expression of time (next week, tomorrow, etc.):

Did you know? Ger. Ich gehe heute Abend ins Kino.

The Austrian flag dates from 1191, Dut. Ik ga vanavond naar de bioscoop.
which makes it one of the oldest
national flags in the world. Afr. Ek gaan vanaand bioskoop toe.

- I am going to the cinema tonight.

Ger. Mein Zug kommt um neun Uhr an.

Dut. Mijn trein komt om negen uur aan.

Afr. My trein kom nege-uur aan.

- My train arrives at nine.

Ger. Morgen spiele ich Tennis.

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Dut. Morgen speel ik tennis.

Afr. Môre speel ek tennis.

- Tomorrow I am playing tennis.

NOTE:
The German, Dutch, and Afrikaans equivalent for “will" Ger. werden, Dut.
zullen, Afr. sal can be used as well, but it is less common and can make a
sentence sound quite stiff (See The Future Tense p. 531).

Special Use of the Present Tense with Prepositions of Time, Conditional,

and Temporal Clauses

The present tense in temporal and conditional clauses

• The present tense is most often used in temporal and conditional clauses in West Germanic languages
(See The Conditional Tense p. 537):

Ger. Wenn du kommst, essen wir.

Dut. Als jij komt, eten wij.

Afr. As jy kom, eet ons.

- When you come, we will eat.

NOTE:
Like in English, in German, Dutch and Afrikaans, the auxiliary verb Ger.
werden, Dut. zullen, Afr. sal - “will” after an “if or when clause” is also used:

Ger. Wenn du kommst, werden wir essen

Dut. Als je komt, zullen we eten
Afr. Wanneer jy kom, sal ons eet
- If/When you come, we will eat.

The present tense with the prepositions of time

• In German, Dutch and Afrikaans, the present tense together with the prepositions of time Ger. seit,
Dut. sinds, Afr. sedert - “since” can be used to describe an action that started in the past and still
continues in the present. In English, the present perfect continuous is used in this case (See also
Prepositions p. 676).

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Ger. Ich arbeite seit 2013 in dieser Bank.

Dut. Ik werk sinds 2013 bij deze bank.

Afr. Ek werk sedert 2013 in hierdie bank.

- I have been working in this bank since 2013.

Also, be careful to avoid the incorrect use of the German, Dutch and Afrikaans present perfect for
English expressions like, “I have lived in Berlin for two years (now)”.

In German, Dutch and Afrikaans, that would be expressed in the present tense with the same
prepositions of time Ger. seit, Dut. sinds, Afr. sedert. Observe the following:

Ger. Ich lebe seit zwei Jahren in Berlin.

Dut. Ik woon sinds twee jaar in Berlijn.

Afr. Ek woon sedert twee jaar in Berlyn.

- I have lived in Berlin for two years.

In order to ask the question “since when”, Ger. seit wann, Dut. sinds wanneer; Afr. van
wanneer af are used. Study the following:

Ger. Seit wann arbeitest du in dieser Bank?

Dut. Sinds wanneer werk je bij deze bank?

Afr. Van wanneer af werk jy in hierdie bank?

- Since when have you been working in this bank?

The Past Participle

Overview
Just like in English, in German, Dutch, and Afrikaans, the past participle is a very useful form of a
verb that can function as an adjective, a predicative, or as a verb in conjugation with Ger. haben/sein;
Dut. hebben/zijn; Afr. hê/wees - “to have/to be“ to form the perfect tenses, which is the most common
use of the past participle (See Use of Past Participle p. 466).

What follows is the example of the past participle used in the present perfect in German, Dutch
and Afrikaans:

Ger. Ich habe in Stockholm gewohnt.

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Dut. Ik heb in Stockholm gewoond.

Afr. Ek het in Stockholm gewoon.

- I have lived in Stockholm.

The above example shows that Ger. gewohnt, Dut. gewoond, Afr. gewoon is the past participle
of the regular verb Ger. wohnen, Dut. wonen, Afr. woon - “to live, reside, dwell”.

The past participles in all of the West Germanic languages can be divided into two major groups
according to whether:

1. the past participle is formed by the addition of a prefix and/or suffix to the stem. This group of verbs is
called “weak verbs”. For example:

German wohnen Ich habe gewohnt

Dutch wonen Ik heb gewoond*

Afrikaans woon Ek het gewoon

English to live I have lived

NOTE:
In Dutch, as seen in the previous examples (wonen > gewoond), many regular
verbs change their stem spelling in the past participle following the spelling
rules in Dutch (See p. 442).

2. the past participle is formed by the addition of a prefix and/or suffix to the stem and a vowel change in
the stem itself. This category of verbs is called “strong verbs”. For instance:

German singen Ich habe gesungen

Dutch zingen ik heb gezongen

Afrikaans sing Ek het gesing*

English to sing I have sung

NOTE:
It must be mentioned that the historical distinction between regular and
irregular verb forms has died out in favour of the former in Afrikaans.
So, all the past participle forms are regular in this Germanic language.

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Formation of the Past Participle of Regular (Weak) Verbs

In English, the past participle of regular verbs end in -d/-ed. In German and Dutch, the past
participle of a regular verb is formed by attaching the prefix -ge to the beginning of the stem of the verb.
Remember that verb stems are the infinitives minus the -en, with the appropriate spelling changes in
German and Dutch.

In addition to this prefix, regular verbs in German and Dutch form the past participle by adding
the suffix -t (or also -d in Dutch) to the end of the stem of the verb.

NOTE:
To derive the past participle in Afrikaans, one only needs to add the prefix -ge
to the stem (infinitive). No suffixes are added to the end of the past participle.

Below is a table presenting how the past participle of regular verbs is formed in all of the
West Germanic languages:

Infinitive Prefix Stem Ending Past Participle

German tanzen —> ge- + tanz- + -t = getanzt

Dutch dansen —> ge- + dans- + -t/-d = gedanst

Afrikaans dans —> ge- + dans- + N/A = gedans

English to dance —> N/A + dance + -d/-ed = danced

Observe more examples:

Did you know? Ger. spielen > Er hat gespielt.

Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Dut. spelen > Hij heeft gespeeld.

Luxembourg and Liechtenstein have
Afr. speel > Hy het gespeel.
German as the official language.
- to play > He has played.

Ger. mischen > Sie hat gemischt.

Dut. mengen > Ze heeft gemengd.

Afr. meng > Sy het gemeng.

- to mix > She has mixed.

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Common Regular Verbs in The Past Participle

Below is the list of some commonly used regular verbs in the past participle in the West Germanic
languages.

It is worth noting that some of these verbs require spelling changes when deriving the stem of the
verbs and adding the prefix -ge and/or suffixes -t or -d (in German and Dutch).

German Dutch Afrikaans English

antworten* antwoorden antwoord to answer

(geantwortet) (geantwoord) (geantwoord) (answered)
arbeiten* (gearbeitet) werken (gewerkt) werk (gewerk) to work (worked)

bauen (gebaut) bouwen (gebouwd) bou (gebou) to build (built)

baden* (gebadet) baden* (gebaad) bad (gebad) to bath (bathed)

drehen (gedreht) draaien (gedraaid) draai (gedraai) to turn (turned)

enden* (geendet) eindigen* (geëindigd) eindig (geeindig) to end (ended)

fragen (gefragt) vragen* (gevraagd) vra (gevra) to ask (asked)

glauben (geglaubt) geloven* (geloofd) glo (geglo) to believe (believed)

handeln (gehandelt) handelen* (gehandeld) handel (gehandel) to trade (traded)

kleiden* (gekleidet) kleden* (gekleed) klee (geklee) to dress (dressed)

kochen (gekocht) koken* (gekookt) kook (gekook) to cook, boil (cooked,

boiled)
kosten* (gekostet) kosten* (gekost) kos (gekos) to cost (cost)

kühlen (gekühlt) koelen (gekoeld) koel (gekoel) to cool (cooled)

hören (gehört) horen* (gehoord) hoor (gehoor) to hear (heard)

leben (gelebt) leven* (geleefd) leef/lewe (geleef/ to live (lived)

gelewe)
lernen (gelernt) leren* (geleerd) leer (geleer) to learn (learned)

machen (gemacht) maken* (gemaakt) maak (gemaak) to make (made)

mieten* (gemietet) huren* (gehuurd) huur (gehuur) to rent (rented)

öffnen* (geöffnet) openen (geopend) open (geopen) to open (opened)

rauchen (geraucht) roken* (gerookt) rook (gerook) to smoke (smoked)

reden* (geredet) praten* (gepraat) praat (gepraat) to talk (talked)

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German Dutch Afrikaans English

reizen (gereizt) reizen* (gereisd) reis (gereis) to travel (traveled)

sagen (gesagt) zeggen* (gezegd) sê (gesê) to say (said)

sparen (gespart) sparen* (gespaard) spaar (gespaar) to save (saved)

spielen (gespielt) spelen* (gespeeld) sê (gesê) to play (played)

spreizen (gespreizt) spreiden* (gespreid) sprei (gesprei) to spread (spread)

stören (gestört) storen* (gestoord) steur (gesteur) to disturb (disturbed)

träumen (geträumt) dromen* (gedroomd) droom (gedroom) to disturb (disturbed)

warten* (gewartet) wachten (gewacht) wag (gewag) to wait (waited)

wohnen* (gewohnt) wonen* (gewoond) woon (gewoon) to live (lived)

wünschen (gewünscht) wensen (gewenst) wens (gewens) to wish (wished)

* The German and Dutch verbs marked with an asterisk require spelling changes in addition to
adding the prefix -ge and the suffixes -t or -d (See Verb Spelling Changes of Regular Verbs in the
Past Participle in German and Dutch p. 443).

Verb Spelling Changes of Regular Verbs in The Past Participle in German

and Dutch

It is important to regard the special rules for when the spelling or vowels change in a verb
conjugation in the past participle.

Since the rules are very divergent and particular for each language, it makes it difficult to
somehow combine these changes occurring in a verb conjugation of these West Germanic languages. So, it
is necessary to consider them separately in German and Dutch.

German

Spelling changing verbs (regular verbs in the past participle)

Just like in a verb conjugation of the present tense, in the past participle, there are also some
verbs whose spelling changes in order to preserve the correct pronunciation (sound) presented in the
infinitive in German (Verb Spelling and Vowel Changes in The Present Tense p. 406).

Below are the rules of the spelling changes in the past participle:

• When the stem of a verb ends in -t or -d, an additional -e- is inserted between the stem and the suffix -t,
for example:

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Ger. arbeiten > gearbeitet

- to work > worked

Ger. reden > geredet

- to talk > talked

Below are some common verbs that add an additional -e- before the suf x -t in German:

antworten (geantwortet) to answer (answered)

arbeiten (gearbeitet) to work (worked)

enden (geendet) to end (ended)

falten (gefaltet) to fold (folded)

kleiden (gekleidet) to clothe (clothed), dress (dressed)

kosten (gekostet) to cost (cost)

lauten (gelautet) to be (been)

melden (gemeldet) to report (reported)

mieten (gemietet) to rent (rented)

reden (geredet) to talk (talked)

schmieden (geschmiedet) to smith (smithed)/forge (forged)

senden (gesendet) to send (sent)

warten (gewartet) to wait (waited)

• Verbs whose stem ends in a consonant + n or m also add an -e- before the suffix -t in the past participle
in order to make them easier to pronounce, for instance:

Ger. öffnen > geöffnet

- to open > opened

Ger. widmen > gewidmet

- to devote > devoted

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The following are some common verbs in this category:

atmen (geatmet) to breathe (breathed)

eignen (geeignet) to suit, qualify (suited, qualified)

leugnen (geleugnet) to deny (denied)

öffnen (geöffnet) to open (opened)

ordnen (geordnet) to order, organize (ordered, organized)

rechnen (gerechnet) to calculate (calculated)

regnen (geregnet) to rain (rained)

segnen (gesegnet) to bless (blessed)

trocknen (getrocknet) to dry (dried)

wappnen (gewappnet) to prepare (prepared)

widmen (gewidmet) to devote (devoted)

zeichnen (gezeichnet) to draw (drawn)

• Remember that if any regular or (strong) irregular verbs start with unstressed inseparable prefixes be-,
emp-, ent-, er-, ge-, miss-, über-, ver-, zer-, one forms the past participle without the prefix ge- and
with the -(e)t ending (See Inseparable Verbal Prefixes p. 622). For instance:

Ger. bedeuten > bedeutet

- to mean > meant

Ger. erreichen > erreicht

- to reach > reached

NOTE:
German
Note that verbs with the inseparable prefix ge- do not add an additional ge- in the
past participle:

Ger. gehorchen > gehorcht

- to obey > obeyed

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The following are some common verbs in this category:

benutzen (benutzt) to use (used)

besuchen (besucht) to visit (visited)

bezahlen (bezahlt) to pay (paid)

entdecken (entdeckt) to discover (discovered)

entleeren (entleert) to empty (emptied)

erlauben (erlaubt) to allow (allowed)

erzählen (erzählt) to tell (told)

gehören (gehört) to belong (belonged)

gelangen (gelangt) to reach (reached)

gestalten (gestaltet) to shape (shaped)

missachten (missachtet) to ignore (ignored)

missbilligen (missbilligt) to disapprove (disapproved)

missbrauchen (missbraucht) to misuse (misused)

missglücken (missglückt) to fail (failed)

missgönnen (missgönnt) to envy (envied)

überhören (überhört) to mishear (misheard)

überleben (überlebt) to survive (survived)

überlegen (überlegt) to think about (thought about)

überwältigen (überwältigt) to overwhelm (overwhelmed)

verbessern (verbessert) to improve (improved)

verbreiten (verbreitet) to spread (spread)

verdienen (verdient) to earn (earned)

verdrehen (verdreht) to distort (distorted)

versalzen (versalzt) to oversalt (oversalted)

zerknallen (zerknallt) to detonate (detonated)

zerlegen (zerlegt) to dismantle (dismantled)

zerstören (zerlegt) (zerstört) to destroy (destroyed)

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NOTE:
German
It is worth mentioning that verbs with separable prefixes include the ge-
between the prefix and the verb stem in the past participle (See Separable
Verbal Prefixes p. 596):

Ger. aufregen > aufgeregt

- to excite > excited

Ger. ausbessern > ausgebessert

- to fix > fixed

• Additionally, verbs that end in -ieren, omit the prefix ge- in the past participle. These verbs are all
regular (weak), so their past participles end in -t, for example:

Ger. studieren > studiert

- to study > studied

Ger. manipulieren > manipuliert

- to manipulate > manipulated

NOTE:
German
It is worth saying that most of the verbs that end with -ieren in German are
derived from French.

The following are some more common verbs in this category:

aktivieren (aktiviert) to animate (animated)

animieren (animiert) to animate (animated)

digitalisieren (digitalisiert) to digitalize (digitalized)

diskutieren (diskutiert) to discuss (discussed)

fotografieren (fotografiert) to take a photo (taken a photo)

kopieren (kopiert) to copy (copied)

notieren (notiert) to note (noted)

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operieren (operiert) to operate (operated)

organisieren (organisiert) to organize (organized)

reparieren (repariert) to repair (repaired)

servieren (serviert) to serve (served)

telefonieren (telefoniert) to phone (phoned)

Dutch

Spelling changing verbs (regular verbs in the present tense)

Just like in a verb conjugation of the present tense, in the past participle, many verbs change their
stem spelling following the general spelling rules in Dutch.

It is important to familiarize yourself with the general Dutch spelling rules, so that the stem rules
presented above and below will not come as a surprise (See Verb Spelling and Vowel Changes in
The Present Tense p. 406).

Choice of the suffix -t or -d in the past participle

In Dutch, the choice of the ending -t or -d in the past participle tense is determined by the
consonant in the stem. Study the following:

• -t

If the stem of a verb ends in voiceless consonants -t, -k, -f, -s, -ch, -p, the suffix -t is used in
addition to the prefix -ge in order to form the past participle. Let us take, for example, the verbs werken
- to work, wensen - to wish:

Infinitive: werken —> stem: werk- —> past participle: gewerkt

Infinitive: wensen —> stem: wens- —> past participle: gewenst

NOTE:
Dutch
Remember that the stem of a verb that ends in t, do not add an additional -t in
the past participle, for example zetten - to set, kosten - to cost:

Infinitive: zetten —> stem: zet- —> past participle: gezet

Infinitive: kosten —> stem: kost- —> past participle: gekost

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The following are some common verbs in this category:

fietsen (gefietst) to cycle (cycled)

hopen (gehoopt) to hope (hoped)

kloppen (geklopt) to knock (knocked)

koken (gekookt) to cook, boil (cooked, boiled)

kussen (gekust) to kiss (kissed)

maken (gemaakt) to make (made)

merken (gemerkt) to notice (noticed)

praten (gepraat) to talk (talked)

roken (gerookt) to smoke (smoked)

rusten (gerust) to rest (rested)

straffen (gestraft) to punish (punished)

vluchten (gevlucht) to flee (fled)

wachten (gewacht) to wait (waited)

wensen (gewenst) to wish (wished)

zetten (gezet) to set (set)

• -d

When the stem of a verb does not have any of the above consonants, the suffix -d is used along
with the prefix -ge to form the past participle, e.g. bouwen - to build, vragen - to ask:

Infinitive: bouwen —> stem: bouw- —> past participle: gebouwd

Infinitive: vragen —> stem: vraag- —> past participle: gevraagd

NOTE:
Dutch
If the stem of a verb ends in d, one does not add an additional -d in the past
participle, for example antwoorden - to answer, baden - to bath:

Infinitive: antwoorden —> stem: antwoord- —> past participle: geantwoord

Infinitive: baden —> stem: baad- —> past participle: gebaad

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 CHAPTER 6: VERBS

Below are some common verbs that take the -d suffix:

antwoorden (geantwoord) to answer (answered)

bloeden (gebloed) to bleed(bled)

bouwen (gebouwd) to build (built)

dromen (gedroomd) to dream (dreamt)

kleden (gekleed) to dress (dressed)

leggen (gelegd) to lay (laid)

lenen (geleend) to lend, borrow (lent/borrowed)

luisteren (geluisterd) to listen (listened)

naaien (genaaid) to sew (sewed)

schudden (geschud) to shake (shaken)

smeden (gesmeed) to smith (smithed)/forge (forged)

sparen (gespaard) to save (saved)/spare (spared)

spreiden (gespreid) to save (saved)/spare (spared)

studeren (gestudeerd) to study (studied)

wonen (gewoond) to live (lived)

Verbs that have v or z in the infinitive, also add the suffix -d. However, note that this suffix is
added to the stem of the verb (not the infinitive) to form the past participle, e.g. leven - to live:

Infinitive: leven —> stem: leef- —> past participle: geleefd

Below are some common verbs in this category:

geloven (geloofd) to believe (believed)

glanzen (geglansd) to shine (shined)

leven (geleefd) to live (lived)

reizen (gereisd) to travel (travelled)

NOTE:
Remember that even though the verb stems change the letters v and z to the
letters f and s respectively, the pronunciation of the past participle forms is sill

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pronounced with the sounds [v] or [z]. For instance: /geloovd/, /geglanzd/, /
geleevd/, /gereizd/.

Note that, just like in German, in Dutch, if any regular or (strong) irregular verbs begin with
unstressed inseparable prefixes be-, er-, ge-, her-, mis-, ont-, over-, toe-, ver-, the past participle is
formed without the prefix ge- and with the -t/-d ending (See Inseparable Verbal Prefixes p. 622).
For example:

Dut. betekenen > betekend

- to mean > meant

Dut. erkennen > erkend

- to acknowledge > acknowledged

NOTE:
In Dutch, verbs with the inseparable prefix ge- do not add an additional ge- in
the past participle:

Dut. gebeuren > gebeurd

- to happen > happened

The following are some common verbs in this category:

bedanken (bedankt) to thank (thanked)

benijden (benijd) to envy (envied)

benutten (benut) to profit from (profited from)

bereiken (bereikt) to reach (reached), achieve (achieved)

betalen (betaald) to pay (paid)

bezoeken (bezocht) to visit (visited)

erkennen (erkend) to acknowledge (acknowledged)

gebruiken (gebruikt) to use (used), consume (consumed)

geloven (geloofd) to believe (believed)

geschieden (geschied) to occur (occurred), happen (happened)

herhalen (herhaald) to repeat (repeated)

herkennen (herkend) to recognize (recognized)

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misbruiken (misbruikt) to misuse (misused)

mislukken (mislukt) to fail (failed)

ontdekken (ontdekt) to tell (told)

ontmantelen (ontmanteld) to dismantle (dismantled)

ontmoeten (ontmoet) to meet (met)

ontploffen (ontploft) to explode (exploded)

overleven (overleefd) to survive (survived)

overweldigen (overweldigd) to overwhelm (overwhelmed)

toebehoren (toebehoord) to belong (belonged)

verbeteren (verbeterd) to improve (improved)

verdienen (verdiend) to earn (earned)

verdraaien (verdraaid) to twist (twisted), distort (distorted)

verklaren (verklaard) to explain (explained), clarify (clarified)

vernietigen (vernietigd) to destroy (destroyed)

verspreiden (verspreid) to spread around (spread around)

vertellen (verteld) to discover (discovered)

vervormen (vervormd) to deform (deformed)

NOTE:
It should be said that in Dutch, verbs with separable prefixes get the ge- ending
between the prefix and the verb stem in the past participle (See also Separable
Verbal Prefixes p. 596):

Dut. afschaffen > afgeschaft

- to abolish > abolished

Dut. opgroeien > opgegroeid

- to grow up > grown up

• Additionally, unlike German, many Dutch verbs that end in -eren, do require the prefix ge- in the past
participle regardless of the length of the verb. These verbs are all regular (weak), so their past participles
end in -t/-d. Compare the following:

Ger. studieren > studiert

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Dut. studeren > gestudeerd

- to study > studied

Did you know? Ger. manipulieren > manipuliert

Belgium, a country in Western Europe, Dut. manipuleren > gemanipuleerd
has three official languages. People
speak Dutch, French, and German in different - to manipulate > manipulated
parts of the country.

Below are some more frequent verbs in this category in Dutch:

activeren (geactiveerd) to animate (animated)

animeren (geanimeerd) to animate (animated)

digitaliseren (gedigitaliseerd) to digitalize (digitalized)

discussiëren (gediscussieerd) to discuss (discussed)

fotograferen (gefotografeerd) to take a photo (taken a photo)

kopiëren (gekopieerd) to copy (copied)

noteren (genoteerd) to note (noted)

opereren (geopereerd) to operate (operated)

organiseren (georganiseerd) to organize (organized)

repareren (gerepareerd) to repair (repaired)

serveren (geserveerd) to serve (served)

telefoneren (getelefoneerd) to phone (phoned)

Formation of Past Participle of Irregular (Strong) Verbs

Unlike the regular (weak) verbs which use the same infinitive stem and add the appropriate
prefixes and/or endings to form the past participle, the irregular (strong) verbs, in addition to prefixes
and/or suffixes, have stem changes to form the past participle in West Germanic languages.

Note that these stem changes are not predictable and must be learned by heart or looked up in a
dictionary. For easy reference, there is a comprehensive list of the irregular (strong) verbs in West
Germanic languages. (See List of (Strong) Irregular Verbs in the Past Participle p. 455).

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Just like the past participle of regular (weak) verbs, in German, Dutch, and Afrikaans, the past
participle of irregular (strong) verbs is formed by attaching the prefix -ge to the beginning of the stem of
the verb.

In addition to this prefix added to the beginning of the verb stem that have a vowel change in the
stem itself, irregular verbs in German and Dutch, form the past participle by adding the suffix -en to the
end of the stem of the verb.

NOTE:
Remember that in Afrikaans the absolute majority of the past participle forms
are regular.
To form the past participle, one only adds the prefix -ge to the stem (infinitive).
One does not add any suffixes to the end of the verb stem.

Below is a table presenting how the past participle of irregular verbs is formed in all of the
West Germanic languages:

Infinitive Prefix Stem Ending Past Participle

German trinken —> ge- + trunk- + en = getrunken

Dutch drinken —> ge- + dronk- + en = gedronken

Afrikaans drink —> ge- + drink- + N/A = gedrink

English to drink —> N/A + drunk + N/A = drunk

As seen from the table, the common form of irregularity in the past perfect is the changing of the
vowel in the stem of the irregular verb in German and Dutch, exactly as in English where we say “drunk”
(not “drinked”), or “spoken” (not “speaked”) etc. Observe the following:

Ger. brechen > Ich habe gebrochen.

Dut. breken > Ik heb gebroken.

Afr. breek > Ek het gebreek.

- to break > I have broken.

Remember that, in German and Dutch, if any (strong) irregular verbs begin with unstressed
inseparable prefixes:

Dutch: be-, er-, ge-, her-, mis-, ont-, over-, toe-, ver-,
German: be-, emp-, ent-, er-, ge-, miss-, über-, ver-, zer-,

one forms the past participle without the prefix ge- and with the -en ending. Study the following:

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 CHAPTER 6: VERBS

Ger. betrügen > betrogen

Dut. bedriegen > bedrogen

- to deceive > deceived

NOTE:
Just like in German and Dutch, in Afrikaans, the (strong) irregular verbs that
begin with unstressed inseparable prefixes are also formed without the prefix
ge-. To illustrate:

Afr. bedrieg > bedrieg

- to deceive > deceived

In German, Dutch and Afrikaans, verbs with the inseparable prefix ge- do not add an additional
ge- in the past participle. For instance: Afr. geniet > geniet

Ger. genießen > genossen

Dut. genieten > genoten

Afr. geniet > geniet

- to enjoy > enjoyed

However, it should also be noted that (strong) irregular verbs with separable prefixes get the ge-
between the prefix and the verb stem in the past participle in German, Dutch and Afrikaans (See
Separable Verbal Prefixes p. 596). Observe the following:

Ger. abbrechen > abgebrochen

Dut. afbreken > afgebroken

Afr. afbreek > afgebreek

- to break off > broken off

List of (Strong) Irregular Verbs in the Past Participle

Remember that the (strong) irregular verbs in West Germanic languages are always marked by
unpredictable changes in their roots to demonstrate verb tenses. These stem changes also occur in the
past participle forms that are used to construct perfect tenses. To know what these root changes are is
important to properly use the strong verbs.

Below you will find a comprehensive list of all (strong) irregular verbs, which contains the
infinitives and the past participle forms, which need to be memorized.

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NOTE:
It is worth reminding that the historical distinction between regular and
irregular past participle forms has died out in favour of the former in
Afrikaans.
So, almost all of the past participle forms listed below are regular and are put in
the list for the sake of comparison with other Germanic languages.

Below is a list of verbs, the past participles of which are irregular in all or some of the West
Germanic languages:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

backen (gebacken/gebackt) bakken (gebakken) bak (gebak) to bake

befehlen (befohlen) bevelen (bevolen) beveel (beveel) to command, order

beginnen (begonnen) beginnen (begonnen) begin (begin) to begin

beißen (gebissen) bijten (gebeten) byt (gebyt) to bite

bekommen (bekommen) krijgen (gekregen) kry (gekry) to get

bergen (geborgen) bergen (geborgen) berg (geberg) to salvage

bersten (geborsten) barsten (gebarsten) bars (gebars) to burst

betrügen (betrogen) bedriegen (bedrogen) bedrieg (bedrieg) to deceive, cheat

bewegen* (bewogen) bewegen (bewogen) beweeg (beweeg) to move, induce

biegen (gebogen) buigen (gebogen) buig (gebuig) to bend, turn

bieten (geboten) bieden (geboden) bied (gebied) to offer

binden (gebunden) binden (gebonden) bind (gebind) to bind, tie

bitten (gebeten) bedelen (gebedeld) bedel (gebedel) to beg, plead

betteln (gebettelt) smeken (gesmeekt)
blasen (geblasen) blazen (geblazen) blaas (geblaas) to blow

bleiben (geblieben) blijven (gebleven) bly (gebly) to stay, become

braten (gebraten) braden (gebraden) braai (gebraai) to fry, roast

brauen (gebraut) brouwen (gebrouwen) brou (gebrou) to brew

brechen (gebrochen) breken (gebroken) breek (gebreek) to break

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German Dutch Afrikaans English

brennen (mixed) (gebrannt) branden* (gebrand) brand (gebrand) to burn

bringen (mixed) (gebracht) brengen (gebracht) bring (gebring) to bring

bügeln (gebügelt) strijken (gestreken) stryk (gestryk) to iron (clothes)

denken (mixed) (gedacht) denken (gedacht) dink (gedink) to think

dreschen (gedroschen) dorsen (gedorst) dors (gedors) to thresh

dringen (gedrungen) dringen (gedrongen) dring (gedring) to press

dürfen (gedurft) mogen (gemogen) mag (mag) may, to be allowed

empfehlen (empfohlen) aanbevelen (aanbevolen) aanbeveel to recommend

(aanbeveel)
erkiesen (erkoren) kiezen (gekozen) kies (gekies) to choose, elect
wählen (gewählt)
erklimmen (erklommen) klimmen (geklommen) klim (geklim) to scale, climb
klettern (geklettert)
erlöschen* (erloschen) verlopen (verlopen) verloop (verloop) to expire
verfallen (verfallen) aflopen (afgelopen) afloop (afgeloop)
ablaufen (abgelaufen)
erscheinen (erschienen) verschijnen (verschenen) verskyn (verskyn) to appear, turn out

erschrecken* schrikken (geschrokken) skrik (geskrik) to be startled, scare

(erschrocken)
essen (gegessen) eten (gegeten) eet (geëet) to eat

fahren (gefahren) rijden (gereden) ry (gery) to drive, go

fallen (gefallen) vallen (gevallen) val (geval) to fall

falten (gefalten/gefaltet) vouwen (gevouwen) vou (gevou) to fold

fangen (gefangen) vangen (gevangen) vang (gevang) to catch

finden (gefunden) vinden (gevonden) vind (gevind) to find

flechten (geflochten) vlechten (gevlochten) vleg (gevleg) to braid, plait

fliegen (geflogen) vliegen (gevlogen) vlieg (gevlieg) to fly

fliehen (geflohen) vluchten* (gevlucht) vlug (gevlug) to flee

fließen (geflossen) vloeien* (gevloeid) vloei (gevloei) to flow

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German Dutch Afrikaans English

fressen (gefressen) vreten (gevreten) vreet (gevreet) to eat, devour

frieren (gefroren) vriezen (gevroren) vries (gevries) to freeze

gären (gegoren) gisten* (gegist) gis (gegis) to ferment

gebären (geboren) baren* (gebaard) baar (gebaar) to give birth

geben (gegeben) geven (gegeven) gee (gegee) to give

gedeihen (gediehen) gedijen (gedijd) floreer (gefloreer) to thrive

gehen (gegangen) gaan (gegaan) gaan (gegaan) to go, walk

lopen (gelopen) loop (geloop)
gelingen (gelungen) slagen* (geslaagd) slaag (geslaag) to succeed

gelten (gegolten) gelden (gegolden) geld (gegeld) to count, apply

genesen (genesen) genezen (genezen) genees (genees) to cure, recover

genießen (genossen) genieten (genoten) geniet (geniet) to enjoy

geschehen (geschehen) gebeuren* (gebeurd) gebeur (gebeur) to occur, happen

gewinnen (gewonnen) winnen (gewonnen) wen (gewen) to win/gain

gießen (gegossen) gieten (gegoten) giet (gegiet) to pour

gleichen (geglichen) gelijken (geleken) gelyk (gelyk) to resemble

gleiten (geglitten) glijden (gegleden) gly (gegly) to glide, slide, slip

glimmen (geglommen) glimmen (geglommen) skyn (geskyn) to glimmer

graben (gegraben) graven (gegraven) grawe (gegrawe) to dig

greifen (gegriffen) grijpen (gegrepen) gryp (gegryp) to seize, grab, grasp

haben (gehabt) hebben (gehad) hê (gehad) to have

halten (gehalten) houden (gehouden) hou (gehou) to keep, hold

hängen (gehangen) hangen (gehangen) hang (gehang) to hang

hauen (gehauen) houwen (gehouwen) hou (gehou) to chop, cut, hew

heben (gehoben) heffen (geheven) hef (gehef) to lift, raise, levy

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German Dutch Afrikaans English

heißen (geheißen) heten (geheten) heet (geheet) to be called, be

named
helfen (geholfen) helpen (geholpen) help (gehelp) to help

hissen (gehisst) hijsen (gehesen) hys (gehys) to hoist (sails, flag)

kämpfen (gekämpft) vechten (gevochten) veg (geveg) to fight

fechten (gefochten)
kauen (kaute) kluiven (gekloven) kou (gekou) to chew

kaufen (gekauft) kopen (gekocht) koop (gekoop) to buy

kennen (gekannt) kennen (gekend) ken (geken) to know, be

acquainted with
klingen (geklungen) klinken (geklonken) klink (geklink) to sound

knacken (geknackt) kraken (gekraakt) kraak (gekraak) to crack

kneifen (gekniffen) knijpen (geknepen) knyp (geknyp) to pinch, squeeze

kommen (gekommen) komen (gekomen) kom (gekom) to come

können (gekonnt) kunnen (gekund) kan (gekund) can, to be able to

kriechen (gekrochen) kruipen (gekropen) kruip (gekruip) to crawl, creep

lachen (gelacht) lachen (gelachen) lag (gelag) to laugh

laden (geladen) laden (geladen) laai (gelaai) to load

lassen (gelassen) laten (gelaten) laat (gelaat) to let

laufen (gelaufen) lopen (gelopen) loop (geloop) to run

leiden (gelitten) lijden (geleden) ly (gely) to suffer

leihen (geliehen) lenen (geleend) leen (geleen) to lend

lesen (gelesen) lezen (gelezen) lees (gelees) to read

liegen (gelegen) liggen (gelegen) lê (gelê) to lie (on a bed)

loslassen (losgelassen) loslaten (losgelaten) loslaat (losgelaat) to let go

lügen (gelogen) liegen (gelogen) lieg (gelieg) to (tell a) lie

meiden (gemieden) mijden (gemeden) vermy (vermy) to avoid

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German Dutch Afrikaans English

melken (gemolken) melken (gemolken) melk (gemelk) to milk

messen (gemessen) meten (gemeten) meet (gemeet) to measure

misslingen (misslungen) mislukken (mislukt) misluk (misluk) to fail

mögen (gemocht) willen (gewild) wil (wou) to like

müssen (gemusst) moeten (gemoeten) moet (moes) must, to have to

nehmen (genommen) nemen (genomen) neem (geneem) to take

nennen (mixed) (genannt) noemen* (genoemd) noem (genoem) to name, call

pfeifen (gepfiffen) fluiten (gefloten) fluit (gefluit) to whistle

preisen (gepriesen) prijzen (geprezen) prys (geprys) to praise, laud

quellen (gequollen) zwellen (gezwollen) swel (geswel) to swell

schwellen (geschwollen)
rasieren (rasiert) scheren (geschoren) skeer (geskeer) to shave

raten (geraten) raden (geraden) raai (geraai) to advise, guess

rauchen (geraucht) roken (gerookt) rook (gerook) to smoke

reiben (gerieben) wrijven (gewreven) vryf (gevryf) to rub

reißen (gerissen) rijten (gereten) ruk (geruk) to rip, tear

reiten (geritten) rijden (gereden) ry (gery) to ride (a horse)

rennen (mixed) (gerannt) rennen (gerend) loop (geloop) to run

riechen (gerochen) ruiken (geroken) ruik (geruik) to smell

ringen (gerungen) worstelen* (geworsteld) stoei (gestoei) to wrestle

rufen (gerufen) roepen (geroepen) roep (geroep) to shout, call

salzen (gesalzen) zouten (gezouten) sout (gesout) to salt

saufen (gesoffen) zuipen (gezopen) suip (gesuip) to drink, booze

saugen* (gesogen, gesaugt) zuigen (gezogen) suig (gesuig) to suck

schaffen* (geschaffen) scheppen (geschapen) skep (geskep) to create

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German Dutch Afrikaans English

scheiden (geschieden) scheiden (gescheiden) skei (geskei) to divorce, separate

scheinen (geschienen) schijnen (geschenen) skyn (geskyn) to seem, appear

scheinen (geschienen) schijnen (geschenen) skyn (geskyn) to shine

schelten (gescholten) schelden (gescholden) skel (geskel) to scold, curse

scheren* (geschoren) scheren (geschoren) skeer (geskeer) to shear, clip

schieben (geschoben) schuiven (geschoven) skuif (geskuif) to push, shove

schießen (geschossen) schieten (geschoten) skiet (geskiet) to shoot

schinden (geschunden) villen (gevild) vil (gevil) to flay, skin

schlafen (geschlafen) slapen (geslapen) slaap (geslaap) to sleep

schlagen (geschlagen) slaan (geslagen) slaan (geslaan) to hit, beat

schleichen (geschlichen) sluipen (geslopen) sluip (gesluip) to sneak

schleifen* (geschliffen) slijpen (geslepen) slyp (geslyp) to grind, sharpen

mahlen (gemahlen) malen (gemalen) maal (gemaal)
schließen (geschlossen) sluiten (gesloten) sluit (gesluit) to close, shut

schmeißen (geschmissen) smijten (gesmeten) swaai (geswaai) to fling, hurl

schmelzen (geschmolzen) smelten (gesmolten) smelt (gesmelt) to melt

schnauben (geschnaubt) snuiven (gesnoven) snuif (gesnuif) to sniff, snort

schneiden (geschnitten) snijden (gesneden) sny (gesny) to cut

schreiben (geschrieben) schrijven (geschreven) skryf (geskryf) to write

schreien (geschrien) schreeuwen* skree (geskree) to shout, yell, scream

(geschreeuwd)
schreiten (geschritten) schrijden (geschreden) sryd (gesryd) to stride

schrumpfen krimpen (gekrompen) krimp (gekrimp) to shrink

(geschrumpft)
schützen (geschützt) schuilen (gescholen) skuil (geskuil) to shelter, protect

schweben (geschwebt) zweven (gezweefd) sweef (gesweef) to float

schweigen (geschwiegen) zwijgen (gezwegen) swyg (geswyg) to be silent

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German Dutch Afrikaans English

schwelgen (geschwelgt) zwelgen (gezwolgen, swelg (geswelg) to revel

gezwelgd)
schwimmen zwemmen (gezwommen) swem (geswem) to swim
(geschwommen)
schwinden (geschwunden) slinken (geslonken) slink (geslink) to dwindle

schwingen (geschwungen) schommelen skommel to swing

schaukeln (geschaukelt) (geschommeld) (geskommel)
schwören (geschworen) zweren (gezworen) sweer (gesweer) to swear

segeln (gesegelt) varen (gevaren) vaar (gevaar) to sail

sehen (gesehen) zien (gezien) sien (gesien) to see

sein (gewesen) zijn (geweest) wees (gewees) to be

senden (gesendet) zenden (gezonden) stuur (gestuur) to send

sturen (gestuurd)
sengen (gesengt) zengen (gezengd) sing (gesing) to singe

sieden (gesotten) zieden (gezoden) sien (gesien) to boil, seethe

singen (gesungen) zingen (gezongen) sing (gesing) to sing

sinken (gesunken) zinken (gezonken) sink (gesink) to sink

sinnen (gesonnen) peinzen (gepeinsd) peins (gepeins) to meditate, ponder

sitzen (gesessen) zitten (gezeten) sit (gesit) to sit

sollen (gesollt) moeten (gemoeten) moet (moes) shall, to be supposed

to
spalten (gespalten) splitsen (gesplitst) verdeel (verdeel) to split, cleave

spannen (gespannt) spannen (gespannen) span (gespan) to strain

speien (gespien) spugen (gespogen) spoeg (gespoeg) to spit

spenden (gespendet) schenken (geschonken) skenk (geskenk) to donate, give

spinnen (gesponnen) spinnen (gesponnen) spin (gespin) to spin, twist

sprechen (gesprochen) spreken (gesproken) spreek (gespreek) to speak

sprießen (gesprossen) spruiten (gesproten) spruit (gespruit) to sprout

springen (gesprungen) springen (gesprongen) springen (gespring) to jump

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German Dutch Afrikaans English

spritzen (gespritzt) spuiten (gespoten) spuit (gespuit) to spout, squirt

stauben (gestaubt) stuiven (gestoven) stof (gestof) to make dust, stir up

dust
stechen (gestochen) steken (gestoken) steken (gestoken) to prick, sting

stehen (gestanden) staan (gestaan) staan (gestaan) to stand

stehlen (gestohlen) stelen (gestolen) steel (gesteel) to steal

steifen (gesteift) stijven (gesteven) styf (gestyf) to starch

steigen (gestiegen) stijgen (gestegen) styg (gestyg) to rise, climb

stellen (gestellt) zetten (gezet) sit (gesit) to put, place

sterben (gestorben) sterven (gestorven) sterf (gesterf) to die

stinken (gestunken) stinken (gestonken) stink (gestink) to stink

stoßen (gestoßen) stoten (gestoten) stoot (gestoot) to bump, push

streichen (gestrichen) aaien (geaaid) aai (geaai) to stroke, caress, pet

streiten (gestritten) strijden (gestreden) stry (gestry) to fight, quarrel

tapezieren* (tapeziert) behangen (behangen) behang (behang) to wallpaper

tauchen (getaucht) duiken (gedoken) duik (geduik) to dive

tragen (getragen) dragen (gedragen) dra (gedra) to carry, bear, wear

treffen (getroffen) treffen (getroffen) tref (getref) to meet, hit

treiben (getrieben) drijven (gedreven) dryf (gedryf) to drive, drift

treten (getreten) treden (getreden) trap (getrap) to step, tread

trinken (getrunken) drinken (gedronken) drink (gedrink) to drink

tropfen (getropft) druipen (gedropen) drup (gedrup) to drip

tun (getan) doen (gedaan) doen (gedoen) to do

verbieten (verboten) verbieden (verboden) verbied (verbied) to forbid

verderben (verdorben) bederven (bedorven) bederf (bederf) to spoil, ruin

vergessen (vergessen) vergeten (vergeten) vergeet (vergeet) to forget

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German Dutch Afrikaans English

verkaufen (verkauft) verkopen (verkocht) verkoop (verkoop) to sell

verlassen (verlassen) verlaten (verlaten) verlaat (verlaat) to leave

verlieren (verloren) verliezen (verloren) verloor (verloor) to lose

verraten (verraten) verraden (verraden) verraai (verraai) to betray

verschleißen verslijten (versleten) verslyt (verslyt) to wear out (by use)

(verschlissen)
abnutzen (abgenutzt)
verschwinden verdwijnen (verdwenen) verdwyn (verdwyn) to disappear
(verschwunden)
verzeihen (verziehen) vergeven (vergeven) vergewe (vergewe) to forgive

vorgeben (vorgegeben) voorgeven (voorgegeven) voorgee (voorgegee) to pretend

wägen/wiegen (gewogen) wegen (gewogen) weeg (geweeg) to weigh

wachsen (gewachsen) groeien* (gegroeid) groei (gegroei) to grow

waschen (gewaschen) wassen (gewassen) was (gewas) to wash

weben (gewebt) weven (geweven) weef (geweef) to weave

weichen (gewichen) wijken (geweken) wyk (gewyk) to yield

weisen (gewiesen) wijzen (gewezen) wys (gewys) to point, show

wenden (mixed) (gewandt) wenden* (gewend) wend (gewend) to turn to, consult,
address
werben (geworben) werven (geworven) werf (gewerf) to enlist, recruit

werden (geworden) worden (geworden) word (geword) to become

werfen (geworfen) werpen (geworpen) gooi (gegooi) to throw

winden (gewunden) winden (gewonden) wind (gewind) to wind

wissen (mixed) (gewusst) weten (geweten) weet (geweet) to know

wollen (gewollt) willen (gewild) wil (gewil) to want to

wringen (gewrungen) wringen (gewrongen) wring (gewring) to wring

ziehen (gezogen) trekken (getrokken) trek (getrek) to pull, draw

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German Dutch Afrikaans English

zwingen (gezwungen) dwingen (gedwongen) dwing (gedwing) to force

The underlined past participles are regular in German and Dutch (See Formation of the Past
Participle of Regular (Weak) Verbs p. 441).

NOTE:
The mixed verbs are marked in brackets in German (See Mixed Verbs in the
Past Participle in German p. 465).
In Afrikaans, as you can see, there is only one verb that differs in the infinitive
and the past participle form of the verb, which is hê - “to have”.

It is seen from the table that the range of German and Dutch irregular past participles are quite
similar to each other. In this regard, it can be argued that there is a partial convergence of irregular past
participle forms in these two West Germanic languages.

Once you know these above mentioned irregular forms, you can easily conjugate strong verbs in
the preterite tense.

Mixed Verbs in the Past Participle in German

Mixed verbs share characteristics of both (strong) irregular verbs and (weak) regular verbs. Like
(weak) regular verbs, the mixed verbs use the prefix -ge and the suffix -(e)t in the past participle forms.

Like the (strong) irregular verbs in the past participle, they also have a stem vowel change. These
verbs are quite few in number in German, for example: brennen - to burn and wissen - to know:

Ger. brennen > gebrannt

- to burn > burnt

Ger. wissen > gewusst

- to know > known

It is worth mentioning that the modal verbs are a subset of the mixed verbs. Modal verbs are like
the rest of the mixed verbs, in that they:

• have a changed stem past participle forms, except for of sollen - “will, should” and wollen - “to want
to”;

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• use the suffix -(e)t in the past participle, for example: dürfen - “may, to be allowed” and müssen -
“must, have to”:

Ger. dürfen > gedurft

- may, be allowed > been allowed

Ger. müssen > gemusst

- must, have to > had to

Use of Past Participle

• As an adjective

Past participles in West Germanic languages can be used as adjectives when the action is finished or has
been completed and must agree in gender, number, and/or in case (in German) with the nouns they
modify. (See The Past Participle as an Adjective p. 169) For example:

Did you know? Ger. das verlorene Portemonnaie.

The city of Luxembourg, the capital city Dut. de verloren portemonnee.
of the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg, is a
UNESCO World Heritage Site because of its Afr. die verlore beursie.
historic fortifications and old quarters.
- the lost wallet.

Ger. ein übersetztes Buch

Dut. een vertaald boek

Afr. 'n vertaalde boek

- A translated book.

• As a predicative adjective

Past participles can also act as predicative adjectives when used in conjugation with a linking verb
Ger. sein, Dut. zijn, Afr. wees - “to be”.

This can be referred to as the statal passive in analogy with the structure of passive voice (See
also Predicate Adjectives Followed by a Fixed Preposition p. 172).

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It should be noted that the verb Ger. sein, Dut. zijn, Afr. wees + past participle describes a
particular state, whereas the use of the passive voice means a process or its end result (See The Passive
Voice p. 561).

In this case, they do not agree in gender and number with the nouns they modify in German,
Dutch and Afrikaans. For example:

Ger. Der Laden ist dauerhaft geschlossen.

Dut. De winkel is permanent gesloten.

Afr. Die winkel is permanent gesluit.

- The shop is permanently closed.

• In the Perfect Tenses (See The Present Perfect p. 467)

• In extended adjectival phrases (See Relative Pronouns and Adverbs p. 338)

The Present Perfect

Formation of the Present Perfect

The perfect tense is often referred to as the present perfect or the compound past tense,
contrasting with the preterite, imperfect, or simple past tense (See The Preterite p. 481).

In English the present perfect is formed by combining a finite form of the verb “to have” with the
past participle, e.g. “He has played”. German, Dutch and Afrikaans are similar in the way in which they
form this tense.

In these West Germanic languages, the present perfect is formed by the combining present
indicative of the auxiliary verb Ger. haben; Dut. hebben; Afr. hê - “to have”, which is conjugated to the
subject of the sentence, and the past participle.

NOTE:
In Afrikaans, owing to the almost total demise of the preterite, imperfect, or simple
past tense, the prefect tense is normally called the preterite or past tense.

Below is the present perfect formula in German, Dutch and Afrikaans:

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Present Perfect Formula

habe
hast
German haben hat
haben
habt
haben

heb + Past Participle

hebt
Dutch hebben heeft Ger. -ge + -t/-en
hebben Dut. -ge + -t/-d/-en
hebben
Afr. -ge
hebben

Afrikaans hê het

Study one more example:

Ger. Ich habe getanzt.

Dut. Ik heb gedanst.

Afr. Ek het gedans.

- I have danced.

It is worth mentioning that the important difference from English, is that in German, Dutch and
Afrikaans, the auxiliary verb and past participle are not normally placed next to one another if there are
any objective nouns in the sentence.

In a regular sentence, in German, Dutch, and Afrikaans, the auxiliary verb Ger. haben; Dut.
hebben; Afr. hê is put immediately after the subject and the past participle is always placed at the end of
the clause after objective nouns. Remember that the auxiliary verb can also be positioned second in the
sentence.

In English, however, the auxiliary verb to have and the past participle are both placed
immediately after the subject. To compare:

Below is the standard pattern of the word order of a regular sentence in the present perfect:

German
Dutch Subject + auxiliary verb (Ger. haben; Dut. hebben; Afr. hê) + objective nouns +
Afrikaans past participle

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 CHAPTER 6: VERBS

English Subject + auxiliary verb (Eng. to have) + past participle + objective nouns.

Observe the following:

Did you know? Ger. Sie haben ein Haus gebaut.

Switzerland’s Gotthard Tunnel is the Dut. Ze hebben een huis gebouwd.

world’s longest tunnel, measuring 57
km in length. It is located 2.3km beneath the Afr. Hulle het 'n huis gebou.
Alps and it took 17 years to complete.
- They have built a house.

Ger. Sie hat einen Kuchen gebacken.

Dut. Ze heeft een taart gebakken.

Afr. Sy het 'n koek gebak.

- She has baked a cake.

NOTE:
In German, Dutch and Afrikaans, the auxiliary verbs Ger. haben; Dut.
hebben; Afr. hê also separate from the past participle if there are object
pronouns in the sentence, they are placed after the auxiliary verb, and the past
participle goes to the end of the sentence.
In English, however, the auxiliary verb to have does not separate from the past
participle. If there is an object pronoun in a regular sentence, it is placed at the
end of the clause.
To compare:

Ger. Ich habe sie gesehen.

Dut. Ik heb haar gezien.
Afr. Ek het haar gesien.
- I have seen her.

Formation of the Present Perfect with the Verb to be in German and Dutch

In German and Dutch, the auxiliary verb Ger. sein; Dut. zijn - “to be” is used with intransitive
verbs (meaning they do not have a direct object), particularly those which are used to talk about
movement, a transition from one state to another, or a change of place or state) in order to form the
present perfect.

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NOTE:
Unlike other Germanic languages, the Afrikaans present perfect tense is always
formed using the auxiliary verb Afr. hê - “to have”.

Observe the following:

Did you know? Ger. Sie ist gekommen.

Austria is home to Europe’s tallest Dut. Ze is gekomen.
Waterfalls – the Krimml Waterfalls
(German: Krimmler Wasserfälle). They reach a Afr. Sy het gekom.
height of 380 metres (1,247 feet), and are
located near the village of Krimml in the High - She has come.
Tauern National Park.

Study one more example:

Ger. Sie ist nach Paris gezogen.

Dut. Ze is naar Parijs verhuisd.

Afr. Sy het na Parys verhuis.

- She has moved to Paris.

The majority of the intransitive verbs that take Ger. sein, Dut zijn - “to be” in the perfect tense
are (strong) irregular.

German and Dutch have a similar group of (strong) irregular and (weak) regular intransitive
verbs with which the auxiliary verb Ger. sein; Dut. zijn is used. Remember that in Afrikaans, the
auxiliary verb Afr. hê - “to have” must always be used with all groups of verbs.

Below is a list of some common (strong) irregular intransitive verbs in West Germanic
languages:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

ablaufen uitgaan (is uitgegaan) uitgaan (het uitgegaan) to expire (has expired),
(ist ausgegangen) to run off (has run off)
ankommen aankomen aankom to arrive
(ist angekommen) (is aangekomen) (het aangekom) (has arrived)
eintreffen arriveren arriveer
(ist eingetroffen) (is gearriveerd) (het gearriveer)
ausgehen uitgaan (is uitgegaan) uitgaan (het uitgegaan) to go out (has gone
(ist ausgegangen) out)

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German Dutch Afrikaans English

beginnen* beginnen (is begonnen) begin (het begin) to begin (has begun)
(hat begonnen)
bersten (ist geborsten) barsten (is gebarsten) bars (het gebars) to burst (has burst)
platzen (is geplatzt)
biegen (ist gebogen) buigen* (heeft gebogen) buig (het gebuig) to bend (has bent),
to turn (has turned)
brechen# breken# breek (gebreek) to break (has broken)
(ist/hat gebrochen) (is/heeft gebroken)
eindringen binnen-dringen dring (het gedring) to penetrate (has
(ist eingedrungen) (is binnen-gedrongen) penetrated)
erscheinen verschijnen verskyn to appear
(ist erschienen) (is verschenen) (het verskyn) (has appeared)
erschrecken schrikken skrik (het geskrik) to be startled (has been
(ist erschrocken) (is geschrokken) startled)
fahren+ rijden+ ry (het gery) to drive (has driven),
(ist/hat gefahren) (is/heeft gereden) to go (has gone)
fallen (ist gefallen) vallen (is gevallen) val (het geval) to fall (has fallen)

fliegen+ vliegen+ vlieg (het gevlieg) to fly (has flown)

(ist/hat geflogen) (is/heeft gevlogen)
fliehen (ist geflohen) vluchten (is gevlucht) vlug (het gevlug) to flee (has fled)
fließen (ist geflossen) vloeien* vloei (het gevloei) to flow (has flowed)
(heeft gevloeid)
folgen (ist gefolgt) volgen* (heeft gevolgd) volg (het gevolg) to follow (has followed)

frieren# bevriezen# vries (het gevries) to freeze (has frozen)

(ist/hat gefroren) (is/heeft gevroren)
gedeihen (ist gediehen) gedijen (heeft gedijd) floreer (het gefloreer) to thrive (has thrived)

gehen (ist gegangen) gaan (is gegaan) gaan (het gegaan) to go (has gone),
lopen+ loop (het geloop) to walk (has walked)
(is/heeft gelopen)
gelingen (ist gelungen) slagen (is geslaagd) slaag (het geslaag) to succeed (has
succeeded)
genesen (ist genesen) genezen# genees (het genees) to cure (has cured)
(is/heeft genezen)
geschehen gebeuren (is gebeurd) gebeur (het gebeur) to occur
(ist geschehen) (has occurred)
gleiten (ist geglitten) glijden+ gly (het gegly) to glide (has glided),
(is/heeft gegleden) to slide (has slid)
kommen (ist gekommen) komen (is gekomen) kom (het gekom) to come (has come)

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German Dutch Afrikaans English

kriechen (ist gekrochen) kruipen+ kruip (het gekruip) to crawl (has crawled)
(is/heeft gekropen)
laufen (ist gelaufen) lopen+ loop (het geloop) to run (has run)
(is/heeft gelopen)
misslingen mislukken+ misluk to fail (has failed)
(ist misslungen) (is/heeft mislukt) (het misluk)
quellen (ist gequollen) zwellen (is gezwollen) swel (het geswel) to swell (has swelled)
schwellen
(ist geschwollen)
reißen+ (ist/hat gerissen) rijten* (heeft gereten) ruk (het geruk) to rip (has ripped),
to tear (has torn)
reiten+ (ist/hat geritten) rijden* (heeft gereden) ry (het gery) to ride (a horse)
(has ridden)
rennen+ (mixed) rennen+ loop (het geloop) to run (has run)
(ist/hat gerannt) (is/heeft gerend)
schießen+ schieten+ skiet (het geskiet) to shoot (has shot)
(ist/hat geschossen) (is/heeft geschoten)
schleichen sluipen+ sluip (het gesluip) to sneak (has sneaked)
(ist geschlichen) (ist/hat geslopen)
schlittern slippen (is geslipt) gly (het gegly) to slide (has slid),
(ist geschlittert) to slip (has slipped)
schleudern slingeren slinger (het geslinger) to fling (has flung),
(ist/hat geschleudert) (heeft geslingerd) to hurl (hurled)
schmelzen# smelten# smelt (het gesmelt) to melt (has melted)
(ist/hat geschmolzen) (is/heeft gesmolten)
schreiten schrijden sryd (het gesryd) to stride (has strid)
(ist geschritten) (is geschreden)
schrumpfen krimpen krimp (het gekrimp) to shrink (has shrunk
(ist/hat geschrumpft) (is gekrompen)
schweben+ zweven+ sweef (het gesweef) to float (has floated)
(ist/hat geschwebt) (is/heeft gezweefd)
schwimmen+ zwemmen+ swem (het geswem) to swim (has swum)
(ist/hat geschwommen) (is/heeft gezwommen)
schwinden slinken (is geslonken) slink (het geslink) to dwindle
(ist geschwunden) (has dwindled)
sinken (ist gesunken) zinken (is gezonken) sink (het gesink) to sink (has sunk)

sprießen (ist gesprossen) spruiten (is gesproten) spruit (het gespruit) to sprout (has
sprouted)
springen (ist gesprungen) springen springen to jump (has jumped)
(is gesprongen) (het gespring)

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German Dutch Afrikaans English

steigen (ist gestiegen) stijgen (is gestegen) styg (het gestyg) to rise (has risen),
to climb (has climbed)
sterben (ist gestorben) sterven (is gestorven) sterf (het gesterf) to die (has died)

stoßen (ist/hat gestoßen) stoten* (heeft gestoten) stoot (het gestoot) to bump (has bumped),
to push (has pushed)
tauchen+ duiken+ duik (het geduik) to dive (has dived)
(ist/hat getaucht) (is/heeft gedoken)
treiben+ drijven+ dryf (het gedryf) to drive (has driven),
(ist/hat getrieben) (is/heeft gedreven) to drift (has drifted)
treten+ (ist/hat getreten) treden+ trap (het getrap) to step (has stepped),
(is/heeft getreden) to tread (has treaded
verderben# bederven# bederf to spoil (has spoiled),
(ist/hat verdorben) (is/heeft bedorven) (het bederf) to ruin (has ruined)
verschleißen+ verslijten* verslyt to wear out (has worn
(ist/hat verschlissen) (heeft versleten) (het verslyt) out) (by use)
verschwinden verdwijnen verdwyn to disappear
(ist verschwunden) (is verdwenen) (het verdwyn) (has disappeared)
wachsen (ist gewachsen) groeien (is gegroeid) groei (het gegroei) to grow (has grown)

weichen (ist gewichen) wijken (is geweken) wyk (het gewyk) to yield (has yielded)

ziehen+ (ist/hat gezogen) trekken+ trek (het getrek) to pull (has pulled),
(is/heeft getrokken) to draw (has drawn)
zurückkommen terugkomen terugkom to return
(ist zurückgekommen) (is teruggekomen) (het teruggekom) (has returned)

Remember that the underlined past participle forms are regular in German and Dutch.

NOTE:
German and Dutch
1) Verbs that take the auxiliary verb Ger. haben; Dut. hebben - “to have” to
form the perfect tense are shown with an asterisk (*).
2) Verbs that are both transitive and intransitive are indicted with a plus (+). In
German and Dutch, if one uses the verb intransitively, one has to use the
auxiliary verb Ger. sein, Dut zijn - “to be”. If the verb is used used transitively,
one must use Ger. haben; Dut. hebben - “to have”. Compare the following:

Ger. Er hat das Auto gefahren (transitive)

Dut. Hij heeft de auto gereden (transitive)
- He drove the car.

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Ger. Er ist durch die Stadt gefahren. (intransitive)

Dut. Hij is door de stad gereden. (intransitive)
- He drove through the city.

To identify whether one uses the transitive or the intransitive form, remember
to associate the transitive with a direct object. This will also help us identify
those verbs that can be both.
3) Verbs that can be used with both Ger. haben; Dut. hebben and Ger. sein,
Dut zijn are shown with a hashtag (#). One usually uses the auxiliary verb Ger.
sein, Dut zijn with these verbs to talk about a movement or a change.

Observe two more examples:

Did you know? Ger. Er ist in Wien gestorben.

The Free State Stadium in Bloemfontein Dut. Hij is in Wenen gestorven.

was the hosting stadium of the 2010
FIFA World Cup South Africa matches. Afr. Hy is in Wene gesterf.

- He has died in Vienna.

Ger. Der Schneemann ist geschmolzen.

Dut. De sneeuwpop is gesmolten.

Afr. Die sneeuman het gesmelt.

- The snowman has melted.

We will also present a list of (weak) regular verbs that require Ger. sein; Dut. zijn - “to be” in the
perfect tense because they indicate motion or a change of state in German and Dutch respectively.

Remember that in Afrikaans, unlike in German and Dutch, all the verbs require Afr. hê - “to
have” in the perfect tense.

Below is a list of some (weak) regular intransitive verbs used with the verb “to be” in German
and Dutch:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

explodieren exploderen explodeer to explode

(ist explodiert) (is geëxplodeerd) (het geexplodeer) (has exploded)
kentern kapseizen kantel to capsize
(ist gekentert) (is gekapseisd) (het gekantel) (has capsized)

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German Dutch Afrikaans English

landen landen land to land

(ist gelandet) (is geland) (het geland) (has landed)
paddeln peddelen roei to paddle
(ist gepaddelt) (is gepeddeld) (het geroei) (has paddled)
radeln fietsen fiets to cycle
(ist geradelt) (is gestruikeld) (het gefiets) (has cycled)
reisen reizen reis to travel
(ist gereist) (heeft/is gereisd) (het gereis) (has traveled)
stolpern struikelen struikel to stumble
(ist gestolpert) (is gestruikeld) (het gestruikel) (has stumbled)

For example:

Ger. Das Flugzeug ist gelandet.

Dut. Het vliegtuig is geland.

Afr. Die vliegtuig het geland.

- The plane has landed.

Ger. Wir sind nach Südafrika gereist.

Dut. We zijn naar Zuid-Afrika gereisd.

Afr. Ons het na Suid-Afrika gereis.

- We have travelled to South Africa.

It is worth mentioning that, in German and Dutch, there are several verbs that also use the
auxiliary verb Ger. sein, Dut. zijn - “to be” to form the present perfect, although they show no change of
place or state.
In Afrikaans, however, these verbs take the auxiliary verb Afr. hê - “to have” when forming the
present perfect:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

bleiben blijven bly to stay

werden worden word to become

sein zijn wees* to be

For instance:

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Ger. Ich bin zu Hause geblieben.

Dut. Ik ben thuis gebleven.

Afr. Ek het tuis gebly.

- I have stayed home.

Ger. Er ist Lehrer geworden.

Dut. Hij is leraar geworden.

Afr. Hy het 'n onderwyser geword.

- He has become a teacher.

Did you know? Ger. Ich bin dort gewesen.

The Cologne Cathedral, located in Dut. Ik ben daar geweest.

Cologne, Germany, is the largest Gothic
church in Northern Europe. Architects started to Afr. Ek was* al daar.
build the Cologne Cathedral in 1248 and did not - I have been there.
finish the construction of it until 1880.

NOTE:
In Afrikaans, as seen from the above example, the past participle form of wees
-> gewees (to be -> been) is rarely used. It is usually replaced with was in the
present perfect.
The past participle form gewees can be used along with the auxiliary verb hê
(het) - “to have (had)” when a modal verb is used in the present perfect:

Afr. Sy kon 'n professor gewees het.

- She could have been a professor.

Recall that in the passive voice, the auxiliary verb Ger. sein, Dut. zijn - “to be” is always used
(See The Passive Voice p. 561)

Use of the Present Perfect

In German and Dutch, the present perfect is used more and the preterite (imperfect or simple
past) correspondingly less than in English, particularly in speech (See Special Use of the Present
Perfect in German and Dutch p. 481).

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The English grammar requires us to use the preterite when an action happened in the past, but in
German and Dutch, there are no such restrictions. The present perfect tense is roughly equivalent in
meaning to the preterite (imperfect or past simple) tense. Both are normally used to narrate actions or
events that has occurred in the past. (See The Preterite p. 481).

NOTE:
Remember that in Afrikaans, no formal distinction is made between the present
perfect and preterite. The perfect tense is called the preterite or past tense and is
used to refer to actions or events that has occurred in the past.

The present perfect in German, Dutch and Afrikaans is normally used:

• To describe situations and actions that happened in the past, without fixing it in time. Also, it is used for
actions that happened in the recent past, which usually refer to what someone has done:

Ger. Er hat das Auto gewaschen.

Dut. Hij heeft de auto gewassen.

Afr. Hy het die kar gewas.

- He has washed the car.

Ger. Sie hat ein Buch geschrieben.

Dut. Ze heeft een boek geschreven.

Afr. Sy het 'n boek geskryf.

- She has written a book.

NOTE:
With expressions of time that refer to a more specific moment in the past or ones
that refer to a time that is over, German and Dutch tend to use the present
perfect, whereas English prefer to use the preterite.
Just like in German and Dutch, in Afrikaans, the present perfect is used to
express past events since the preterite tense has disappeared.

Below is a list of some time adverbials that refer to a definite point in the past in West
Germanic languages:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

gestern gisteren gister yesterday

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German Dutch Afrikaans English

letzten Sonntag afgelopen zondag verlede Sondag last Sunday

letzte Woche vorige week verlede week last week

letzten Monat vorige maand verlede maand last month

letztes Jahr vorig jaar verlede jaar last year

Ger. Er hat letztes Jahr ein Buch geschrieben.

Dut. Hij heeft vorig jaar een boek geschreven.

Afr. Hy het verlede jaar 'n boek geskryf.

- He wrote a book last year.

Ger. Letzten Monat habe ich einen Schwedischkurs belegt.

Dut. Vorige maand heb ik een cursus Zweeds gevolgd.

Afr. Verlede maand het ek 'n Sweedse kursus gevolg.

- Last month, I took a Swedish course.

Did you know? Ger. Ich habe ihn gestern gesehen.

In the Netherlands there are over Dut. Ik heb hem gisteren gezien.
1,000 windmills spread across the
Afr. Ek het hom gister gesien.
country. The UNESCO World Heritage Site of
Kinderdijk is one of the best places to see - I saw him yesterday.
Dutch windmills.

• With expressions of time (time adverbials) that do not refer to a specific moment in the past or ones that
refer to a time that isn’t over yet (See also Adverbs of Time p. 184):

Below is a list of some common time adverbials that refer to an indefinite moment in the past
in West Germanic languages:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

früher, eher vroeger, eerder vroeër earlier

gerade net net, pas just

kürzlich, neulich, unlängst onlangs onlangs recently

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German Dutch Afrikaans English

heute vandaag vandag today

jetzt nu nou now

noch nog nog yet

schon al al already

diese Woche deze week hierdie week this week

diesen Monat deze maand hierdie maand this month

dieses Jahr dit jaar hierdie jaar this year

For example:

Ger. Ich habe kürzlich einen Schwedischkurs belegt.

Dut. Ik heb onlangs een cursus Zweeds gevolgd.

Afr. Ek het onlangs 'n Sweedse kursus gevolg.

- I have recently taken a Swedish course.

Did you know? Ger. Wir haben ihn gerade gesehen.

The Bloukrans Bridge, Western Cape, Dut. We hebben hem net gezien.
South Africa, is the highest commercial
bungee jump in the world. It is 216m (709 ft) Afr. Ons het hom net gesien.
high and falls over the Bloukrans river valley. - We have just seen him.

• To describe actions that happened in the past and/or continue into the present. For example:

Ger. Sie hat zwei Jahre Deutsch studiert.

Dut. Ze heeft twee jaar Duits gestudeerd.

Afr. Sy het twee jaar lank Duits studeer.

- She has studied German for two years.

NOTE:
When an action that began in the past and continues at the present tense,
German, Dutch, and Afrikaans also use the present tense, usually accompanied
by Ger. seit, Dut. al, Afr. al as the action of the verb is expected to be still
ongoing:

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Ger. Sie studiert seit zwei Jahren Deutsch.

Dut. Ze studeert al twee jaar Duits.
Afr. Sy studeer al twee jaar lank Duits.
- She has been studied German for two years.

• To emphasize the present result of an action that started in the past:

Did you know? Ger. Wo hast du Afrikaans gelernt?

The Lærdal Tunnel, Norway, is the Dut. Waar heb je Afrikaans geleerd?
world’s longest road tunnel. It is 15
miles (24.5 km) long and connects the small Afr. Waar het jy Afrikaans geleer?
communities of Lærdal and Aurland.
- Where have you learned Afrikaans?

• To indicate a future result of an event so that another event can follow.

Ger. Wenn er Deutsch gelernt hat, kann er hier arbeiten.

Dut. Als hij Duits heeft geleerd, kan hij hier werken.

Afr. Wanneer hy Duits geleer het, kan hy hier werk.

- When he has learned German, he can work here.

Note that in questions that begin with Ger. Wie lange?; Dut. Hoe lang?; Afr. Hoe lank? -
“How long?”, one should use:

• the perfect tense if the main interest is the duration of the event rather than a specific point in time. For
example:

Ger. Wie lange hast du Deutsch gelernt?

Dut. Hoe lang heb je Duits geleerd?

Afr. Waar het jy Afrikaans geleer?

- How long have you learned German?

NOTE:
Dutch
Remember that in Dutch, one usually uses the preterite tense if the duration of
the event is not important (See The Preterite p. 481)

Dut. Hoe lang woonde u in Berlijn?

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- How long did you live in Berlin?

German
In German, however, the present perfect is used in this case because the perfect
tense is the most usual way of expressing past events in spoken German:

Ger. Wie lange haben Sie in Berlin gelebt?

- How long did you live in Berlin?

Afrikaans
Since the preterite of all verbs in Afrikaans has disappeared, the present perfect
is always used to express past events and actions:

Afr. Hoe lank het jy in Berlyn gewoon?

- How long did you live in Berlin?

Special Use of the Present Perfect in German and Dutch

It is notable that in conversational German the present perfect tense is used as the preterite tense,
which is the most common tense to talk about past events and actions.

The preterite (or simple past) tense, however, is used mostly in written German to narrate past
events and actions.

Unlike in German, in Dutch the present perfect and the preterite tense are equally used in
conversational contexts. One can often mix up these two tenses and there are no strict rules that indicate
when to use which tense in Dutch.

The Preterite
Overview

The preterite is also referred to as the simple past tense and the imperfect tense, contrasting with
the perfect or compound past tense. It is important to note that the difference between a regular and an
irregular verb really comes to the fore in the past tenses in German and Dutch.

For example, verbs like Ger. trinken, Dut. drinken - “to drink” and many others, don’t differ
from regular verbs in the present, but they certainly do in the past. Compare the following:

The Present Tense The Preterite

German ich trinke ich trank

Dutch ik drink ik dronk

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The Present Tense The Preterite

English I drink I drank

The verbs in German and Dutch can be divided into two major groups according to whether:

1. the preterite is formed by the addition of a suffix to the stem. This group of verbs is called “weak verbs”.
For example:

German leben ich lebte

Dutch leven ik leefde

English to live I lived

2. the preterite is formed by a vowel change in the stem itself. This category of verbs is called “strong
verbs”. For instance:

German singen ich sang

Dutch zingen ik zong

English to sing I sang

NOTE:
Afrikaans
With the few exceptions dealt with in this chapter, the imperfect tense of all
verbs has disappeared in Afrikaans.
There is only a handful of irregular verbs whose preterite (imperfect) form still
survives today (See p. 504).

Formation of the Preterite of Regular (Weak) Verbs

The preterite of regular (weak) verbs is formed by dropping the infinitive ending -en and adding
the appropriate personal ending to the present infinitive stem of a verb in German and Dutch.

Below is the formula for the formation of the preterite tense of regular verbs:

Infinitive Stem Ending Preterite (1st per. sing.)

German tanzen —> tanz- —> + ending —> ich tanzte

Dutch dansen —> dans- —> + ending —> ik danste

English to dance —> dance —> + ending —> I danced

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Below is a table demonstrating the endings of regular verbs in the preterite tense in West
Germanic languages:

German Dutch English

1st per. sing. -(e)te

2nd per. sing. -(e)test -te/-de

3rd per. sing. -(e)te

1st per. pl. -(e)ten -d/-ed

2nd per. pl. -(e)tet -ten/-den

3rd per. pl. -(e)ten

What follows is the conjugation of a regular verb, Ger. tanzen, Dut. dansen - “to dance” in the
preterite tense.

German Dutch English

ich tanzte ik danste I danced

du tanztest jij danste you danced

er, sie, es tanzte hij, zij, het, U danste he, she, it danced

wir tanzten wij dansten we danced

ihr tanztet jullie dansten you danced

sie, Sie tanzten zij dansten they danced

Common Regular Verbs in The Preterite Tense

Below is the list of some frequently used regular verbs in the preterite tense in West Germanic
languages. It is worth mentioning that some of these verbs require spelling changes in addition to adding
the personal endings.

German Dutch English

antworten* (er antwortete) antwoorden (hij antwoorde) to answer (he answered)

fragen (er fragte) vragen* (hij vraagde/vroeg*) to ask (he asked)

bauen (er baute) bouwen (hij bouwde) to build (he built)

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German Dutch English

kosten* (es kostete) kosten (het kostte) to cost (it cost)

enden* (er endete) eindigen (hij eindigde) to end (he ended)

hören (er hörte) horen* (hij hoorde) to hear (he heard)

sagen (er sagte) zeggen* (hij zegde/zei) to say (he said)

Remember that in German and Dutch, the verbs marked with an asterisk require spelling changes
in addition to adding the appropriate personal endings (See below Verb Spelling and Vowel
Changes).

NOTE:
In Dutch, the verbs vragen and zeggen also have irregular form vroeg and
zei respectively.

Verb Spelling and Vowel Changes of Regular Verbs in the Preterite

It is important to regard the special rules for when the spelling or vowels change in a verb
conjugation in the preterite. Since the rules are very divergent and particular for each language, it makes
it difficult to somehow combine these changes occurring in a verb conjugation of the West Germanic
languages. So, it is necessary to consider them separately in German and Dutch.

German

Spelling changing verbs (regular verbs in the preterite tense)

Just like in a verb conjugation of the present tense (See Present Tense p. 401), in the preterite
tense, there are also some verbs whose spelling changes in order to preserve the correct pronunciation
(sound) presented in the infinitive in German.

Below are the rules of the spelling changes in a verb conjugation:

• When the stem of a verb ends in -t or -d, an additional -e- is inserted between the stem and the -te,
-test, -te, -ten, -tet and -ten endings in the preterite, for example: arbeiten - to work and reden - to
talk:

Arbeiten: ich arbeitete - du arbeitetest - er/sie/es arbeitete - wir arbeiteten - ihr arbeitetet - sie
arbeiteten.

Reden: ich redete - du redetest - er/sie/es redete - wir redeten - ihr redetet - sie redeten.

Below are some common verbs that add an additional -e- before a -te, -test, -te, -ten, -tet
and -ten ending:

antworten to answer

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arbeiten to work

bedeuten to mean

enden to end

falten to fold

kosten to cost

reden to talk

senden to send

warten to wait

• Verbs whose stem ends in a consonant + n or m also add an -e- before the endings -te, -test, -te, -ten,
-tet and -ten in the preterite in order to make them easier to pronounce, for instance: öffnen - to open
and widmen - to devote:

Öffnen: ich öffnete - du öffnetest - er/sie/es öffnete - wir öffneten - ihr öffnetet - sie öffneten.

Widmen: ich widmete - du widmetest - er/sie/es widmete - wir widmeten - ihr widmetet - sie widmeten.

The following are some common verbs in this category:

atmen to breathe

öffnen to open

widmen to devote

zeichnen to draw

Dutch

In Dutch, the choice of the ending -te/-ten or -de/-den in the preterite tense is determined by
the consonant in the stem. Study the following:

• -te/-ten

If the stem of a verb ends in voiceless consonants -t, -k, -f, -s, -ch, -p, the ending -te/-ten is
used, for example zetten - to set, straffen - to punish:

Infinitive: zetten —> stem: zet- —> conjugation: ik zette - jij zette - hij/zij/het/u zette - wij zetten -
jullie zetten - zij zetten.

Infinitive: straffen —> stem: straf- —> conjugation: ik strafte - jij strafte - hij/zij/het/u strafte - wij
straften - jullie straften - zij straften.

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The following are some common verbs in this category:

fietsen (hij fietste, ze fietsten) to cycle (he cycled, they cycled)

hopen (hij hoopte, ze hoopten) to hope (he hoped, they hoped)

kloppen (hij klopte, ze klopten) to knock (he knocked, they knocked)

kussen (hij kuste, ze kusten) to kiss (he kissed, they kissed)

lachen (hij lachte, ze lachten) to laugh (he laughed, they laughed)

merken (hij merkte, ze merkten) to notice (he noticed, they noticed)

praten* (hij praatte, ze praatten) to talk (he talked, they talked)

roken (hij rookte, ze rookten) to smoke (he smoked, they smoked)

rusten* (hij rustte, ze rustten) to rest (he rested, they rested)

straffen (hij strafte, ze straften) to punish (he punished, they punished)

wensen (hij wenste, ze wensten) to wish (he wished, they wished)

zetten* (hij zette, ze zetten) to set (he set, they set)

• -de/-den

When the stem of a verb does not have any of the above consonants, the ending -de/-den is used
to form the preterite, e.g. antwoorden - to answer:

Infinitive: antwoorden —> stem: antwoord- —> conjugation: ik antwoordde - jij antwoordde - hij/
zij/het/u antwoordde - wij antwoordden - jullie antwoordden - zij antwoordden.

Below are some common verbs that take the -de/-den ending:

antwoorden* (hij antwoordde, ze antwoordden) to answer (he answered, they answered)

bestellen (hij bestelde, ze bestelden) to order (he ordered, they ordered)

bloeden* (hij bloedde, ze bloedden) to bleed (he bled, they bled)

bouwen (hij bouwde, ze bouwden) to build (he built, they built)

leggen (hij legde, ze legden) to lay (he laid, they laid)

lenen (hij leende, ze leenden) to lend, borrow (he lent/borrowed, they lent/
borrowed)

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luisteren (hij luisterde, ze luisterden) to listen (he listened, they listened)

naaien (hij naaide, ze naaiden) to sew (he sewed, they sewed)

schudden* (hij schudde, ze schudden) to shake (he shook, they shook)

studeren (hij studeerde, ze studeerden) to study (he studied, they studied)

NOTE:
It should be noted that the double -tt- and -dd- is a spelling convention and is
pronounced like single t and d. The ending -n is also dropped in ordinary
speech: praten and antwoorden (infinitives), praatte and antwoordde
(preterite, singular), praatten and antwoordden (preterite, plural) are all
pronounced alike in Dutch.

Verbs that have v or z in the infinitive also add the endings -de/-den. However, note that these
endings are added to the stem of the verb in the preterite, e.g. leven - to live:

Infinitive: leven —> stem: leef- —> conjugation: ik leefde - jij leefde - hij/zij/het/u leefde - wij leefden
- jullie leefden - zij leefden.

Below are some common verbs in this category:

geloven (hij geloofde, ze geloofden) to believe (he believed, they believed)

glanzen (hij glansde, ze glansden) to shine (he shined, they shined)

leven (hij leefde, ze leefden) to live (he lived, they lived)

reizen (hij reisde, ze reisden) to travel (he travelled, they travelled)

NOTE:
It is worth reminding that this is the rule that the letters v and z may not close a
syllable.
However, the pronunciation does not follow this rule and the past tense forms
are pronounced as “geloovde”, “glanzde”, “leevde”, “reizde”.

The Preterite Tense of (Strong) Irregular Verbs

Unlike the (weak) regular verbs which use the same infinitive stem and add the appropriate
personal endings to form the preterite tense, the strong verbs have stem changes to signify the preterite
tense in West Germanic Languages.

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Note that these stem changes are not predictable and must be learned by heart or looked up in a
dictionary.

For easy reference, there is a comprehensive list of the (strong) irregular verbs in German and
Dutch (See List of (Strong) Irregular Verbs in the Preterite p. 495)

Below is the formula for the formation of the preterite tense of irregular verbs:

Infinitive Preterite Stem Preterite (3rd per. sing.)

German singen —> sang —> er sang

Dutch zingen —> zong —> hij zong

English to sing —> sang —> he sang

As you can see, the most common form of irregularity in the preterite (imperfect) is the changing
of the vowel in the stem of the verb in German and Dutch, exactly as in English where we say “sang” (not
“singed”), or “spoke” (not “speaked”) etc.

Let us compare how a typical strong verb is conjugated in the present and in the preterite
(imperfect).

Below we will conjugate the (strong) irregular verb, Ger. singen, Dut. zingen - “to sing”, in the
present and in the preterite:

German Dutch English

The Present Tense

ich singe ik zing I sing

du singst jij zingt you sing

er, sie, es singt hij, zij, het, U zingt he, she, it sings

wir singen wij zingen we sing

ihr singt jullie zingen you sing

sie, Sie singen zij zingen they sing

The Preterite Tense

ich sang ik zong I sang

du sangst jij zong you sang

er, sie, es sang hij, zij, het, U zong he, she, it sang

wir sangen wij zongen we sang

ihr sangt jullie zongen you sang

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German Dutch English

sie, Sie sangen zij zongen they sang

Furthermore, as it is seen from the table, in German and Dutch, personal endings are also added
to the preterite stem of (strong) irregular verbs to form the preterite conjugations.

In German, for example, the endings -st (in the 2nd person singular), -en (in the 1st and 3rd
persons plural), and -t (in the 2nd person plural) must be added to the preterite stem. The preterite stem
is usually considered to be the 3rd person singular in German, which must be memorized to conjugate
strong verbs correctly.

In Dutch, the ending -en is added to the preterite stem in the 1st, 2nd and 3rd persons plural.
The preterite stem is usually represented by the singular preterite form (the 1st, 2nd, or 3rd persons
singular in the preterite), which should also be learned since the preterite stem changes are very
unpredictable.

Below is a table demonstrating the endings of irregular verbs in the preterite tense in
German:

German Dutch

1st per. sing. preterite stem preterite stem

2nd per. sing. preterite stem + -st preterite stem

3rd per. sing. preterite stem preterite stem

1st per. pl. preterite stem + -en preterite stem + -en

2nd per. pl. preterite stem + -t preterite stem + -en

3rd per. pl. preterite stem + -en preterite stem + -en

NOTE:
Dutch
Remember that, in Dutch, many strong verbs change their stem spelling in the
plural forms of the conjugation following the spelling rules when adding the
ending -en to the singular form in the preterite.
Compare the following:
Dutch

spreken - to speak schrijven - to write

ik sprak (I spoke) ik schreef (I wrote)

jij sprak (you spoke) jij schreef (you wrote)

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Dutch

hij, zij, het, U sprak (he, she, it spoke) hij, zij, het, U schreef (he, she, it wrote)

wij spraken (we spoke) wij schreven (we wrote)

jullie spraken (you spoke) jullie schreven (you wrote)

zij spraken (they spoke) zij schreven (they wrote)

However, for easier learning and less confusion, it is advised to memorize both
forms: the preterite singular and the preterite plural in Dutch.

Vowel Changes in the Stem of Irregular Verbs in the Preterite Tense and
Past Participle
In German and Dutch, there are a number of different ways in which vowels of the stem of
(strong) irregular verbs might change in the preterite. Traditionally, in the West Germanic languages, we
arrange these so-called strong verbs in seven patterns or classes, each shown here with one verb.

In the table below, the preterite contains one form of the irregular verbs: the 3rd person singular
in German and two forms: the preterite singular and the preterite plural in Dutch.

Also, it is usual to include in the table the past participle of the verbs, which has the prefix ge-
and ends in an -en in German and Dutch (See The Past Participle p. 439 and The Present Perfect
p. 467).

German Dutch

1 Infinitive schreiben (to write) schrijven (to write)

Preterite schrieb schreef, schreven

Past Part. geschrieben geschreven

1a Infinitive beißen (to bite) bijten (to bite)

Preterite biss beet, beten

Past Part. gebissen gebeten

2 Infinitive fliegen (to fly) vliegen (to fly)

Preterite flog vloog, vlogen

Past Part. geflogen gevlogen

2a Infinitive biegen (to bend) buigen (to bend)

Preterite bog boog, bogen

Past Part. gebogen gebogen

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German Dutch

3 Infinitive trinken (to drink) drinken (to drink)

Preterite trank dronk, dronken

Past Part. getrunken gedronken

3a Infinitive senden (to send) zenden (to send)

Preterite sandte zond, zonden

Past Part. gesandt gezonden

4 Infinitive sprechen (to speak) spreken (to speak)

Preterite sprach sprak, spraken

Past Part. gesprochen gesproken

5 Infinitive geben (to give) geven (to give)

Preterite gab gaf, gaven

Past Part. gegeben gegeven

5a Infinitive lügen (to lie) liggen (to lie)

Preterite log lag, lagen

Past Part. gelogen gelegen

6 Infinitive tragen (to carry) dragen (to carry)

Preterite trug droeg, droegen

Past Part. getragen gedragen

7 Infinitive schlafen (to sleep) slapen (to sleep)

Preterite schlief sliep, sliepen

Past Part. geschlafen geslapen

7a Infinitive fangen (to catch) vangen (to catch)

Preterite fing ving, vingen

Past Part. gefangen gevangen

7b Infinitive helfen (to help) helpen (to help)

Preterite half hielp, hielpen

Past Part. geholfen geholpen

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German Dutch

Minor groups
(represented by only a few members)
8 Infinitive bewegen (to move) bewegen (to move)

Preterite bewog bewoog, bewogen

Past Part. bewogen bewogen

8a Infinitive schwören (to swear) zweren (to swear)

Preterite schwor zwoor, zworen;

zwoer, zwoeren
Past Part. geschworen gezworen

NOTE:
Dutch
It is worth noting that the preterite of classes four and five has a short vowel in
the singular but a long in the plural.

Below are a few other strong verbs representing irregularities:

German Dutch

Infinitive verlieren (to lose) verliezen (to lose)

Preterite verlor verloor, verloren

Past Part. verloren verloren

Infinitive kommen (to come) komen (to come)

Preterite kam kwam, kwamen

Past Part. gekommen gekomen

Infinitive halten (to hold) houden (to hold)

Preterite hielt hield, hielden

Past Part. gehalten gehouden

Infinitive essen (to eat) eten (to eat)

Preterite aß at, aten

Past Part. gegessen gegeten

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German Dutch

Infinitive werden (to become) worden (to become)

Preterite wurde werd, werden

Past Part. geworden geworden

NOTE:
For more strong (irregular) verbs in the preterite (See List of (Strong)
Irregular Verbs in the Preterite p. 455).

Below is the full conjugation of an irregular (strong) verb Ger. schreiben, Dut. schrijven - “to
write” in the preterite (imperfect) tense in German and Dutch:

German Dutch English

The Preterite Tense

ich schrieb ik schreef I wrote/was writing

du schriebst jij schreef you wrote/were writing

er, sie, es schrieb hij, zij, het, U schreef he, she, it wrote/was writing

wir schrieben wij schreven we wrote/were writing

ihr schriebt jullie schreven you wrote/were writing

sie, Sie schrieben zij schreven they wrote/were writing

NOTE:
It is useful to remember that a form like Ger. “ich schrieb”, Dut. “ik schreef”
translates “I wrote”, “I was writing” or “I did write”, depending on context.

It should be noted that one cannot tell from an infinitive whether a verb is (weak) regular or
(strong) irregular in German and Dutch. Here you find pairs of two verbs that look similar in the
infinitive, one is (strong) irregular and one (weak) regular, for example:

German Dutch

Regular Verb

Infinitive hoffen - to hope hopen - to hope

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German Dutch

Preterite hoffte hoopte

Past Part. gehofft gehoopt

Irregular Verb

Infinitive laufen - to run/walk lopen - to run/walk

Preterite lief liep, liepen

Past Part. gelaufen gelopen

Study one more example:

German Dutch

Regular Verb

Infinitive verdienen - to earn verdienen - to earn

Preterite verdiente verdiende

Past Part. verdient verdiend

Irregular Verb

Infinitive bieten - to offer bieden - to offer

Preterite bot bood, boden

Past Part. geboten geboden

However, if a verb is (strong) irregular, one can observe recurring patterns within each class of
(strong) irregular verbs in German and Dutch. For instance, study the recurring pattern between the
following verbs:

German Dutch

Infinitive schreiben - to write schrijven - to write

Preterite schrieb schreef, schreven

Past Part. geschrieben geschreven

Infinitive bleiben - to stay blijven - to stay

Preterite blieb bleef, bleven

Past Part. geblieben gebleven

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Nevertheless, one has to learn by heart whether a verb is (weak) regular or (strong) irregular, and
if (strong) irregular, in which way it is irregular and to what class of irregular verbs it belongs. Luckily, the
number of irregular verbs is finite.

Spelling Changes in an Irregular Verb Conjugation in the Preterite Tense in

German
It is important to understand that German has a number of irregular verbs with specific spelling
changes in the preterite. Below are the rules of the spelling changes in an irregular verb conjugation in the
preterite tense in German:

• When the stem of the preterite ends in -t or -d, an additional -e- is inserted between the stem and the
ending in the 2nd person singular (-st) and plural (-t), as illustrated below by Ger. finden (class 3) - “to
find” and halten (class 7) - “to hold”:

Finden: ich fand - du fandest - er/sie/es fand - wir fanden - ihr fandet - sie fanden.

Halten: ich hielt - du hieltest - er/sie/es hielt - wir hielten - ihr hieltet - sie hielten.

• When the stem of the preterite ends in -s, an additional -e- is inserted between the stem and the ending
in the 2nd person singular (-st), as illustrated here by Ger. lesen (class 5) - “to read”:

Lesen: ich las - du lasest - er/sie/es las - wir lasen - ihr last - sie lasen.

List of (Strong) Irregular Verbs in the Preterite

Remember that the (strong) irregular verbs in West Germanic languages are marked by
unpredictable changes in their roots to demonstrate verb tense. These stem changes occur particularly in
the past tense forms. Knowing what these root changes are is essential to proper usage of the strong verbs.

Below is a comprehensive list of all (strong) irregular verbs in the preterite tense, which contains
the infinitive and the preterite stem which is represented by the 3rd person singular in German, and two
preterite forms of the irregular verbs: the singular and the plural in Dutch:

German Dutch English

ähneln (ähnelte) lijken op (leek op, leken op) to resemble

backen (backte/buk) bakken (bakte, bakten) to bake

befehlen (befahl) bevelen (beval, bevalen) to command

beginnen (begann) beginnen (begon, begonnen) to begin

beißen (biss) bijten (beet, beten) to bite

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German Dutch English

bekommen (bekam) krijgen (kreeg, kregen) to get

bergen (barg) bergen (borg, borgen) to salvage

bersten (barst) barsten (barstte, barstten) to burst

beten* (betete) bidden (bad, baden) to pray

betrachten (betrachtete) kijken naar (keek/keken naar) to look at

betrügen (betrog) bedriegen (bedroog, bedrogen) to deceive, cheat

bewegen* (bewog) bewegen (bewoog, bewogen) to induce

biegen (bog) buigen (boog, bogen) to bend/turn

bieten (bot) bieden (bood, boden) to offer

binden (band) binden (bond, bonden) to bind/tie

bitten (bat) verzoeken (verzocht, to ask/request

verzochten)
blasen (blies) blazen (blies, bliezen) to blow

bleiben (blieb) blijven (bleef, bleven) to stay

blinken* (blinkte) blinken (blonk, blonken) to shine, gleam

braten (briet) braden (braadde, braadden) to fry, roast

brauen (braute) brouwen (brouwde, brouwden) to brew

brechen (brach) breken (brak, braken) to break

brennen (mixed) (brannte) branden* (brandde, brandden) to burn

bringen (brachte) brengen (bracht, brachten) to bring

bügeln (bügelte) strijken (streek, streken) to iron (clothes)

denken (mixed) (dachte) denken (dacht, dachten) to think

dreschen (drosch) dorsen (dorste, dorsten) to thresh

dringen (drang) dringen (drong, drongen) to press, insist

dürfen (durfte) mogen (mocht, mochten) may, to be allowed

empfehlen (empfahl) bevelen (beval, bevalen) to recommend, command

erkiesen (erkor) kiezen (koos, kozen) to choose/elect

erklimmen (erklomm) klimmen (klom, klommen) to climb

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German Dutch English

erliegen (erlag) bezwijken (bezweek, bezweken) to succumb

erlöschen* (erlosch) verlopen (verliep, verliepen) to expire/go out

erscheinen (erschien) verschijnen (verscheen, to appear, turn out

verschenen)
erschrecken* (erschrak) schrikken (schrok, schrokken) to be startled

essen (aß) eten (at, aten) to eat

fahren (fuhr) rijden (reed, reden) to drive/go

fallen (fiel) vallen (viel, vielen) to fall

falten (faltete) vouwen (vouwde, vouwden) to fold

fangen (fing) vangen (ving, vingen) to catch

fechten (focht) vechten (vocht, vochten) to fight/fence

finden (fand) vinden (vond, vonden) to find

flechten (flocht) vlechten (vlocht, vlochten) to braid/plait

fliegen (flog) vliegen (vloog, vlogen) to fly

fliehen (floh) vluchten* (vluchtte, vluchtten) to flee

fließen (floß) vloeien* (vloeide, vloeiden) to flow

flusen (fluste) pluizen (ploos, plozen) to fluff

fragen (fragte) vragen (vroeg, vroegen) to ask

fressen (fraß) vreten (vrat, vraten) to eat, devour

frieren (fror) vriezen (vroor, vroren) to freeze

gären (gärte/gor) gisten* (gistte, gistten) to ferment

gebären (gebar) baren (baarde, baarden) to give birth

geben (gab) geven (gaf, gaven) to give

gedeihen (gedieh) gedijen (gediijde, gediijden) to thrive

gehen (ging) gaan (ging, gingen) to walk/go

lopen (liep, liepen)
gelingen (gelang) slagen* (slaagde, slaagden) to succeed

gelten (galt) gelden (gold, golden) to count, apply

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German Dutch English

genesen (genas) genezen (genas, genazen) to cure, recover

genießen (genoss) genieten (genoot, genoten) to enjoy

geschehen (geschah) gebeuren* (gebeurde, to occur

gebeurden)
gewinnen (gewann) winnen (won, wonnen) to win/gain

gießen (goss) gieten (goot, goten) to pour

gleichen (glich) gelijken (geleek, geleken) to resemble

gleiten (glitt) glijden (gleed, gleden) to glide/slide

glimmen (glomm) glimmen (glom, glommen) to glow, glimmer

graben (grub) graven (groef, groeven) to dig

greifen (griff) grijpen (greep, grepen) to seize, grab

haben (hatte) hebben (had, hadden) to have

halten (hielt) houden (hield, hielden) to keep, hold

hängen (hing) hangen (hing, hingen) to hang

hauen* (hieb) houwen (hieuw, hieuwen) to hew

heben (hob) heffen (hief, hieven) to lift, raise

heißen (hieß) heten (heette, heetten) to be called, be named

helfen (half) helpen (hielp, hielpen) to help

hissen (hisste) hijsen (hees, hesen) to hoist (sails, flag)

jagen (jagte) jagen (joeg, joegen) to hunt

kämpfen (kämpfte) vechten (vocht, vochten) to fight

kauen (kaute) kluiven (kloof, kloven) to chew

kaufen (kaufte) kopen (kocht, kochten) to buy

kennen* (kannte) kennen (kende, kenden) to know

klingen (klang) klinken (klonk, klonken) to sound

kneifen (kniff) knijpen (kneep, knepen) to pinch

kommen (kam) komen (kwam, kwamen) to come

können (konnte) kunnen (kon, konden) can, to be able to

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 CHAPTER 6: VERBS

German Dutch English

kriechen (kroch) kruipen (kroop, kropen) to crawl/creep

laden (lud) laden (laadde, laadden) to load

lassen (ließ) laten (liet/lieten) to let

laufen (lief) lopen (liep, liepen) to run

leiden (litt) lijden (leed, leden) to suffer

leihen (lieh) lenen (leende, leenden) to lend

lesen (las) lezen (las, lazen) to read

liegen (lag) liggen (lag, lagen) to lie (on a bed)

lügen (log) liegen (loog, logen) to (tell a) lie

mahlen (mahlte) malen (maalde, maalden) to grind

meiden (mied) mijden (meed, meden) to avoid, evade

melken* (molk, melkte) melken (molk, melkte /molken, to milk

melkten)
messen (maß) meten (mat, maten) to measure

misslingen (misslang) mislukken (mislukte, to fail

mislukten)
mögen (mochte) willen (wou, wilde/wouden, to like
wilden)
müssen (musste) moeten (moest, moesten) must, to have to

nehmen (nahm) nemen (nam, namen) to take

nennen (nannte) noemen* (noemde, noemden) to name, call

pfeifen (pfiff) fluiten (floot, floten) to whistle

preisen (pries) prijzen (prees, prezen) to praise

quellen (quoll) zwellen (zwol, zwollen) to swell

schwellen (schwoll)
rasieren (rasierte) scheren (schoor, schoren) to shave

raten (riet) raden (ried, rieden / raadde, to advise, guess

raadden)
reiben (rieb) wrijven (wreef, wreven) to rub

reißen (riss) rijten (reet, reten) to rip, tear

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 CHAPTER 6: VERBS

German Dutch English

reiten (ritt) rijden (reed, reden) to ride (a horse)

rennen (rannte) rennen (rende, renden) to run

riechen (roch) ruiken (rook, roken) to smell

rinnen (rann) rennen (rende, renden) to flow, trickle

rufen (rief) roepen (riep, riepen) to call, shout

sagen (sagte) zeggen (zei, zegde/zeiden, to say

zegden)
saufen (soff) zuipen (zoop, zopen) to drink, booze

saugen* (sog) zuigen (zoog, zogen) to suck

senden (sendete) zenden (zond, zonden) to send

sturen (stuurde, stuurden)
schaffen* (schuf) scheppen (schiep, schiepen) to create

scheiden (schied) scheiden* (scheidde, to divorce, separate

scheidden)
scheinen (schien) schijnen (scheen, schenen) to shine, seem

scheißen (schiss) schijten (scheet, scheten) to sh*t (vulgar)

schelten (schalt) schelden (schold, scholden) to scold, curse

scheren* (schor) scheren (schoor, schoren) to shear, clip

schieben (schob) schuiven (schoof, schoven) to push, shove

schießen (schoss) schieten (schoot, schoten) to shoot

schinden (schindete) villen (vilde, vilden) to flay

schlafen (schlief) slapen (sliep, sliepen) to sleep

schlagen (schlug) slaan (sloeg, sloegen) to hit, beat

schleichen (schlich) sluipen (sloop, slopen) to creep, sneak

schleifen* (schliff) slijpen (sleep, slepen) to grind, sharpen

schließen (schloss) sluiten (sloot, sloten) to close, shut

schmeißen (schmiss) smijten (smeet, smeten) to fling, hurl

schmelzen (schmolz) smelten (smolt, smolten) to melt

schnauben (schnaubte) snuiven (snoof, snoven) to sniff, snort

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German Dutch English

schneiden (schnitt) snijden (sneed, sneden) to cut

schreiben (schrieb) schrijven (schreef, schreven) to write

schreien (schrie) schreeuwen* (schreeuwde, to scream, shout

schreeuwden)
schreiten (schritt) schrijden (schreed, schreden) to stride

schrumpfen (schrumpfte) krimpen (kromp, krompen) to shrink

schützen (schützte) schuilen (school, scholen) to shelter, protect

schweigen (schwieg) zwijgen (zweeg, zwegen) to be silent

schwelgen (schwelgte) zwelgen (zwolg, zwolgen) to revel

schwimmen (schwamm) zwemmen (zwom, zwommen) to swim

schwinden (schwand) slinken (slonk, slonken) to dwindle

schwören (schwor) zweren (zwoor, zwoer/zworen, to swear

zwoeren)
segeln (segelte) varen (voer, voeren) to sail

sehen (sah) zien (zag, zagen) to see

sein (war) zijn (was, waren) to be

sieden (siedete/sott) zieden (ziedde/ziedden) to boil, seethe

singen (sang) zingen (zong, zongen) to sing

sinken (sank) zinken (zonk, zonken) to sink

sinnen (sann) peinzen (peinsde, peinsden) to meditate, ponder

sitzen (saß) zitten (zat, zaten) to sit

sollen (sollte) moeten (moest, moesten) shall, to be supposed to

spalten (spaltete) splijten (spleet, spleten) to split, cleave

spannen (spannte) spannen (spande, spanden) to strain

spenden (spendete) schenken (schonk, schonken) to donate, give

spinnen (spann) spinnen (spon, sponnen) to spin, twist

sprechen (sprach) spreken (sprak, spraken) to speak

sprießen (sproß) spruiten (sproot, sproten) to sprout

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German Dutch English

springen (sprang) springen (sprong, sprongen) to jump

spritzen (spritzte) spuiten (spoot, spoten) to spout, squirt

stauben (staubte) stuiven (stoof, stoven) to make dust, stir up dust

stechen (stach) steken (stak, staken) to prick, sting

stehen (stand) staan (stond, stonden) to stand

stehlen (stahl) stelen (stal, stalen) to steal

steigen (stieg) stijgen (steeg, stegen) to rise, climb

sterben (starb) sterven (stierf, stierven) to die

stinken (stank) stinken (stonk, stonken) to stink

stoßen (stieß) stoten (stiet, stieten/stootte, to bump, push

stootten)
streichen (strich) aaien (aaide, aaiden) to stroke

streiten (stritt) strijden (streed, streden) to fight, quarrel

tauchen (tauchte) duiken (dook, doken) to dive

tragen (trug) dragen (droeg, droegen) to wear, carry

treffen (traf) treffen (trof, troffen) to hit, meet

treiben (trieb) drijven (dreef, dreven) to drive, drift

treten (trat) treden (trad, traden) to step, tread

trinken (trank) drinken (dronk, dronken) to drink

tropfen (tropfte) druipen (droop, dropen) to drip

tun (tat) doen (deed, deden) to do

verbieten (verbot) verbieden (verbood/verboden) to forbid

verdenken (verdachte) verwijten (verweet/verweten) to blame

verderben (verdarb) bederven (bedierf, bedierven) to ruin, spoil

vergessen (vergaß) vergeten (vergat, vergaten) to forget

verletzen (verletzte) schenden (schond, schonden) to violate, hurt

verlieren (verlor) verliezen (verloor, verloren) to lose

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German Dutch English

verschwinden (verschwand) verdwijnen (verdween, to disappear

verdwenen)
verzeihen (verzieh) vergeven (vergaf, vergaven) to forgive

wägen (wog) wegen (woog, wogen) to weigh

wählen (wählte) kiezen (koos, kozen) to choose, elect

wachsen (wuchs) groeien* (groeide, groeiden) to grow

waschen (wusch) wassen (waste, wasten) to wash

weichen (wich) wijken (week, weken) to give way

weisen (wies) wijzen (wees, wezen) to point, show

wenden (mixed) (wandte) wenden* (wendde, wendden) to turn

werben (warb) werven (wierf, wierven) to advertise, recruit

werden (wurde) worden (werd, werden) to become

werfen (warf) werpen (wierp, wierpen) to throw

winden (wand) winden (wond, wonden) to wind

wissen (mixed) (wusste) weten (wist, wisten) to know

wollen (wollte) willen (wou, wouden/wilde, to want

wilden)
wringen (wrang) wringen (wrong, wrongen) to wring

ziehen (zog) trekken (trok, trokken) to pull, draw, move

zwingen (zwang) dwingen (dwong, dwongen) to force

The underlined verb forms in the preterite are regular in German and Dutch (Formation of the
Preterite of Regular (Weak) Verbs p. 482)

NOTE:
German
When the verb bewegen means “to move”, it is conjugated as a weak verb. If
the verbs erlöschen meaning “to extinguish” and erschrecken - “frighten”
are transitive, they are conjugated as weak verbs. The verbs hauen and
saugen may also be conjugated as a weak verb. In some regions, the preterite
form molk of the verb melken is the preferred preterite form.
When conjugated as weak verbs, schaffen, scheren, schleifen and senden
mean “to manage, work”, “to concern”, “to drag” and “to broadcast”
respectively. The verb wenden may also be conjugated as a weak verb,
especially to mean “to turn over, turn around”. The weak verb wiegen means

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“to rock”. The mixed verbs are marked in brackets in German (See Mixed
Verbs in the Preterite in German p. 506).

It is seen from the table that the range of German and Dutch irregular verbs are quite similar to
each other. In this regard, it can be argued that there is a partial convergence of irregular verbs in these
two West Germanic languages. Once you know these above mentioned irregular forms, you can easily
conjugate strong verbs in the preterite tense.

To remind, in German, in order to conjugate (strong) irregular verbs in the preterite, you need to
take the preterite stem, which is the 3rd person singular form indicated in the table above, and add the
appropriate personal endings -st (the 2nd person singular), -t (the 2nd person plural), and -(e)n (the 1st
and 3rd person plural).

In Dutch, to learn the irregular verb conjugations, you need to learn only two forms presented in
the table above, which are the singular preterite and the plural preterite. To illustrate:

Below is the conjugation of a strong verb Ger. geben, Dut. geven - “to give” in the preterite
tense in German and Dutch:

German Dutch English

ich gab ik gaf I gave

du gabst jij gaf you gave

er, sie, es gab hij, zij, het, U gaf he, she, it gave

wir gaben wij gaven we gave

ihr gabt jullie gaven you gave

sie, Sie gaben zij gaven they gave

List of Irregular Verbs in the Preterite in Afrikaans

As mentioned before, there are several irregular verbs whose preterite (imperfect) form still
survives today in Afrikaans.

Below is a table illustrating irregular verbs in the preterite (imperfect) tense in Afrikaans:

Afrikaans English

dink (dag/dog) to think

weet (wis) to know

hê (had) to have

wees (was) to be

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Verb “Dink”

• Note that the preterite (imperfect) forms of the verb dink are frequently used. These two forms of the
preterite tense of this verb are synonymous and completely interchangeable, for example:

Afr. Sy dag/dog ek kan nie kom nie. (or Sy het gedink ek kan nie kom nie.)

- She thought I couldn't come.

Although the preterite (imperfect) forms dag/dog and the present perfect form het gedink are
synonymous and can alternate without any differentiation in meaning, the latter is particularly common
in the spoken language.

Verb “Weet”

• It should be mentioned that the preterite (imperfect) form wis is becoming rare. One may hear this
form in the speech of older people or meet in literary Afrikaans but not in natural speech.

Instead, the present perfect form het geweet is used in the spoken language:

Afr. Ek het dit baie goed geweet.

- I knew that very well.

Verb “Hê”

• Just like the verb weet, the verb hê also has a rarely used preterite (imperfect) form, had. This form is
never heard in speech anymore and is rarely written. It is occasionally found in literature, very high style
and journalistic writing. It also occurs dialectically in the Cape.

The present perfect form het gehad is commonly used instead:

Afr. Hulle het twee huise gehad.

- They had two houses.

Verb “Wees”

• It should be said that the preterite (imperfect) form was and the present perfect form was gewees are
interchangeable, for instance:

Afr. Ek was gister in Kaapstad. (or Ek was gister in Kaapstad gewees.)

- I was in Cape Town yesterday.

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Note that unlike other Afrikaans verbs, the past participle of wees (gewees) - “to be (been)” does
not usually take the auxiliary verb hê (het) - “to have” to form the perfect tense:

Afr. Ek was siek gewees.

- I have been sick.

However, if a sentence involves modal verbs, the form gewees het must be used (never gewees
is/was). Note that in this case the auxiliary verb het must follow the past participle gewees.

Below are some common constructions with modal verbs and the present perfect form of the
wees (gewees) in Afrikaans:

Afrikaans English

kan/kon gewees het can/could have been

moet/moes gewees het must/should have been

For example:

Did you know? Afr. Sy kon siek gewees het.

According to Guinness World Records, - She could have been sick.
the world’s narrowest street is in the
city of Reutlingen, Germany. It is called
Spreuerhofstraße and is 31 cm (12.2 in) wide at Afr. Ek weet (dat) sy moes siek gewees het.
its narrowest point.
- I know (that) she must have been sick.

NOTE:
In Afrikaans, subordinating dat - “that” is optional, as it is in English. Compare
the same example:

Afr. Ek weet sy moes siek gewees het.

- I know she must have been sick.

Mixed Verbs in the Preterite in German

Mixed verbs share characteristics of both (strong) irregular verbs and (weak) regular verbs. Like
(weak) regular verbs, the mixed verbs use the suffix -te or -(e)t in the preterite and past participle forms.
Like the (strong) irregular verbs in the preterite, they also have a stem vowel change. There are fewer than
20 such verbs in the German language, for example: brennen - to burn and wissen - to know:

Brennen: ich brannte - du branntest - er/sie/es brannte - wir brannten - ihr branntet - sie brannten.

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Wissen: ich wusste - du wusstest - er/sie/es wusste - wir wussten - ihr wusstet - sie wussten.

NOTE:
German
Among the mixed verbs, the verb wissen has an irregular conjugation in the
present tense as well (See p. 428)

It is worth mentioning that the modal verbs are a subset of the mixed verbs. Modal verbs are like
the rest of the mixed verbs, in that they:

• have a changed stem in the preterite and past participle forms, except for of sollen - “will, should” and
wollen - “to want to”;

• use the suffix -te and -(e)t in the preterite and past participle forms respectively, for example: dürfen -
“may, to be allowed” and müssen - “must, have to”:

Dürfen: ich durfte - du durftest - er/sie/es durfte - wir durften - ihr durftet - sie durften.

Müssen: ich musste - du musstest - er/sie/es musste - wir mussten - ihr musstet - sie mussten.

Use of the Preterite

It should be recalled that parallel with what is the case in the present tense (See Use of the
Present Tense p. 435), the German and Dutch preterite tense is equivalent to all of the past tense
English forms. Observe the following:

German Dutch English

ich spielte Ik speelde I played, I was playing, I did play

du aßest je at you ate, you were eating, you did eat

er tanzte hij danste he danced, he was dancing, he did dance

wir studierten we studeerden we studied, we were studying, we did study

Even though there are many similarities between English and German and Dutch in the way in
which the preterite tense is formed, German and Dutch differ markedly from English in the way in which
they use this tense.

The preterite of most verbs is not nearly as frequently used in speech as the present perfect is
(See The Present Perfect p. 467).
The preterite in German and Dutch has the following uses:

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Habitual actions

• To express a habit from the past or to refer to an action or event that went on during a certain past
event:

Ger. Als ich klein war, lebte ich in Berlin.

Dut. Toen ik klein was, woonde ik in Berlijn.

- When I was small, I lived in Berlin.

Did you know? Ger. Im Winter war ich im Urlaub.

Liechtenstein, a small German- Dut. In de winter was ik op vakantie.
speaking European country nestled
between Switzerland and Austria, is about eight - During the winter, I was on vacation.
times smaller than the city of Los Angeles.

Ger. Früher hat er jeden Tag geraucht.*

Dut. Vroeger rookte hij elke dag.

- He used to smoke every day.

NOTE:
German
In the third example, the present perfect is more commonly used in German
(See Special Use of the Preterite in German p. 511).

Actions in the past

• To describe actions that happened in the past without any relation to the present:

Ger. Sie öffneten das Fenster.

Dut. Ze openden het raam.

- They opened the window.

Note that if the event or action is still relevant to the present time, the present perfect is normally
used. It is important to mention that when referring to past events or actions, the present perfect is still
much more common than the preterite, especially in German. Compare the following:

Ger. Sie haben das Fenster geöffnet.

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Dut. Ze hebben het raam geopend.

- They have opened the window.

Remember that in order to set the stage in the past, the present perfect is usually used. All events
and actions that follow are expressed by the preterite. Study the following:

Ger. Dieses Jahr sind wir in die Schweiz gefahren. Wir übernachteten in einem Hotel in Genf und
besuchten dann den Genfersee.

Dut. Dit jaar zijn we naar Zwitserland geweest. We verbleven in een hotel in Genève en bezochten
toen het Meer van Genève.

- This year, we went to Switzerland. We stayed in a hotel in Geneva and then, we visited the Lake
Geneva.

Narration of two or more actions in the past

• Like in English, in German and Dutch, the preterite tense is normally used for the narration of a series
of actions or events in the past:

Ger. Ich ging in die Innenstadt, kaufte ein T-Shirt, sah meinen Freund und sprach mit ihm.

Dut. Ik ging naar de stad, kocht een t-shirt, zag mijn vriend en sprak met hem.

- I went downtown, bought a t-shirt, saw my friend and talked with him.

Ger. Sie betraten das Zimmer und öffneten das Fenster.

Dut. Ze kwamen de kamer binnen en openden het raam.

- They entered the room and opened the window.

Two simultaneous actions

• Use it to talk about actions that were taking place at the same time in the past:

Ger. Während sie schlief, las er die Zeitung.

Dut. Terwijl ze sliep, las hij de krant.

- While she was sleeping, he was reading the newspaper.

Time and dates in the past

Ger. Es war Montag.

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Dut. Het was maandag.

- It was Monday.

NOTE:
In Afrikaans, unlike other verbs, the verb wees - “to be” has the past (imperfect)
form, which is was (See also p. 505). To illustrate:

Afr. Dit was Maandag.

- It was Monday.

Introducing a past action by Ger. als and Dut. toen - “when”

• If we express a past event by using Ger. als and Dut. toen - “when”, we normally use the preterite
tense. Note that if we use the present perfect tense at all, the pluperfect must be used (See The
Pluperfect Tense p. 529):

Ger. Als ich aufwachte, regnete es.

Dut. Toen ik wakker werd, regende het.

- When I woke up, it was raining.

NOTE:
In Dutch, we also use toen as a translation of “then”. In German, the word
dann is used in this case. Study the following:

Ger. Wir sind nach Genf gefahren und dann haben wir den Genfersee besucht.
Dut. We gingen naar Genève en toen bezochten we het Meer van Genève.
- We went to Geneva and then, we visited the Lake Geneva.

The following are the most common expressions that are usually used with the preterite:

German Dutch English

gestern gisteren yesterday

gestern Nachmittag gistermiddag yesterday afternoon

letzter Nacht afgelopen nacht, gisteravond last night

Vorgestern eergisteren the day before yesterday

neulich de andere dag, onlangs the other day

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German Dutch English

vor zwei Tagen twee dagen geleden two days ago

letzte Woche vorige week last week

letzten Monat, Im vorige maand last month

vergangenen Monat
letztes Jahr, vergangenes vorig jaar last year
Jahr
heute Morgen deze morgen this morning

plötzlich plotseling suddenly

lange Zeit, lange lange tijd, lang for a long time

letzten Sommer vorige zomer last summer

vor einiger Zeit, vorhin een tijdje geleden, eerder a little while ago

eine Weile een tijdje for a little while

For instance:

Ger. Letzte Woche war ich in Amsterdam.

Dut. Vorige week was ik in Amsterdam.

- Last week, I was in Amsterdam.

Note that, in German, the preterite tense is used mostly in a narrative of past events in writing.
Below are the special rules of the preterite use in German.

Special Use of the Preterite in German

It should be mentioned that the preterite is used mostly in written German and usually to narrate
past events. In conversational contexts, the present perfect is normally used in German. Compare the
following:

Ger. Sie kam aus München zurück. (written narrative form)

- She returned from Munich.

Ger. Sie ist aus München zurückgekommen. (usual spoken form)

- She has returned from Munich.

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NOTE:
Remember that, in German, the preterite of the verb occurs in the 2nd position
and any additional verbal elements, such as separable prefixes and
complementary infinitives (with modal verbs), appear at the end of the
sentence, for example:

Ger. Ich kam zu spät zurück.

- I came back too late.

Ger. Ich wollte es verkaufen.

- I wanted to sell it.

It should be mentioned that English normally has a rule that if the time of an event that occurred
in the past is mentioned, then the preterite must be used, but if the time is omitted, the present perfect is
used, for example:

Eng. She returned from Munich yesterday. She has returned from Munich.

However, in German, this distinction is not made. Study the following:

Ger. Sie kam gestern aus München zurück. (written narrative form)

- She returned from Munich yesterday.

Ger. Sie ist gestern aus München zurückgekommen. (usual spoken form)

- She has returned from Munich yesterday (not grammatical in English).

It is worth saying that because the preterite tense is primarily a written form, the 2nd person
singular and plural (du, ihr, Sie forms) are uncommon and usually sound strange to the ear of a native
speaker. For example, a phrase such as Ger, du tanztest - “you danced” sounds extremely odd and
would hardly be used by a native speaker. It means that the 1st and 3rd persons singular and plural (ich,
wir, er/sie/es, sie forms) are the only commonly used forms of the preterite tense.

However, there is a group of verbs that represent an exception to the above-mentioned rule. The
preterite tense of the modal verbs können - “can, be able to”, sollen - “will, should”, dürfen - “may, to
be allowed”, müssen - “must, have to”, wollen - “to want to” (See Modal Verbs p. ), the verbs like
sein - “to be”, haben - “to have", werden - “will”, and sometimes wissen - “to know” are preferred
over the present perfect tense forms, even in spoken German. For this reason, the forms of these verbs
will also be used in the 2nd person and they are used with equal frequency in written and conversational
German.

Observe how the present perfect tense and the preterite of these common verbs can be used in the
same sentence:

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Did you know? Ger. Ich habe viel gearbeitet und war so müde.

German shares 60% of its - I worked a lot and I was so tired.

vocabulary with English because
these languages descended from the same
root language: Proto-Germanic.

NOTE:
A few other commonly used verbs may be heard in the preterite tense in spoken
German. However, it is also usual to hear them in the present perfect tense. For
example:
German English

er/sie sagte he/she said

er/sie ging he/she went

er/sie gab he/she gave

er/sie stand he/she stood

er/sie blieb he/she stayed

er/sie kam he/she came

Difference between the Preterite and the Present Perfect in the West
Germanic languages

In German and Dutch, the preterite tense is roughly equivalent in meaning to the present perfect
tense. Both are used to refer to action or events that has occurred in the past.

The difference between the two is mainly in their usage. The present perfect tense is used mostly
in conversational contexts, especially in German, and the preterite tense is used mostly in a written form
and usually to describe past events.

In Afrikaans, however, the present perfect is always used since the preterite (imperfect) tense of
all verbs (with the few exceptions) has disappeared. Study the following:

The Preterite Tense The Present Perfect Tense

German Es regnete Es hat geregnet.

Dutch Het regende. Het heeft geregend.

Afrikaans Dit het gereën. Dit het gereën.

English - It rained./It was raining. - It rained/It was raining./It has rained.

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Asking Questions
We have already looked at question words (See Interrogative Adverbs p. 186) and now we
will consider yes/no questions, which are questions that can be answered with “yes” or “no”, and
questions that get more detailed information.

Unlike in English, in West Germanic languages questions are formed differently. In English, the
verb to do is used to form questions: “Do you know him?”, whereas in other West Germanic languages
this verb is never used.

Generally speaking, in German, Dutch, and Afrikaans, asking a question which can be answered
with “yes” or “no” is quite simple. In order to pose such a question, you should invert the subject and the
verb to make it a question. In other words, you should place the conjugated verb first in the question and
the subject second. To compare:

Statement Question

German Er arbeitet. Arbeitet er?

Dutch Hij werkt. Werkt hij?

Afrikaans Hy werk. Werk hy?

English He works Does he work?

It is worth mentioning that in German, Dutch and Afrikaans, there is no equivalent to what is
called the continuous verb form. So the above examples could also be translated as: “He is working.”, “Is
he working?”.

Asking Questions Using Statement Additions

Also, you can change a statement into a question by adding the word Ger. nicht wahr? Dut. niet
waar? Afr. nie waar nie? to the end of a statement in all of the West Germanic languages.

These kinds of phrases are called statement additions or question tags and can translate several
ways into English: isn’t he/she/it?, aren't you/we/they?, doesn’t he/she/it?, don't you/we/they?, right?,
am I right?, yes?, don't you think? etc., which depends on the subject and verb previously mentioned.
When you use these question tags, you are almost always expecting agreement. For instance:

Ger. Du kommst morgen, nicht wahr?

Dut. Je komt morgen, niet waar?

Afr. Jy kom môre, nie waar nie?

- You are coming tomorrow, aren’t you?/right?

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NOTE:
German
Southern Germany and Austria tend to use gell? instead of nicht wahr?. The
latter is commonly abbreviated to nicht? or even ne? in speech:

Ger. Du kommst morgen, gell/nicht/ne?

- You are coming tomorrow, aren’t you?/right?

If you are not sure if what you said is correct, you could also add Ger. oder? Dut. of? Afr. of? -
“or?” to the end of a statement instead. However, in this case, you would normally change the word order
of the statement to make it a normal yes/no question. Compare the following examples:

Example 1 Example 2

German Du kommst morgen, nicht wahr? Kommst du morgen, oder?

Dutch Je komt morgen, niet waar? Komt je morgen, of?

Afrikaans Jy kom môre, nie waar nie? Kom jy môre, of?

English You are coming tomorrow, aren’t you? Are you coming tomorrow, or?

The first example would mean that it is a rhetorical question, while the second example is more of
a genuine question and means one wants a response.

Negation
Unlike in English, in other West Germanic languages negation is also formed quite differently.
For instance, in English the verb to do is widely used to make a sentence negative: “I don’t know”, while
in German, Dutch and Afrikaans the verb to do is never used in negative sentences. For example:

Did you know? Ger. Ich weiß das nicht.

German shares 60% of its vocabulary Dut. Ik weet het niet.

with English because these languages
descended from the same root language: Proto- Afr. Ek weet dit nie.
Germanic. - I do not know it.

NOTE:
German
When contradicting a negative question in German, ‘yes’ is translated as doch,
not ja (compare French si), for example:

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Ger. Sie fliegt nicht nach Belgien, oder? - Doch.

- She isn't flying to Belgium, is she? - Yes, she is.

Furthermore, double negation is not acceptable in English, German, and Dutch, for example: I
know nobody/I don’t know anybody (since it is not grammatically correct to say I don’t know nobody).

In Afrikaans, however, double negation is widely used. Study the following:

Ger. Ich kenne niemanden.

Dut. Ik ken niemand.

Afr. Ek ken niemand nie.

- I know nobody. / I don’t know anybody.

Formation of Negation in Simple Tenses

1. German, Dutch, and Afrikaans negative sentences are formed by putting the word Ger. nicht, Dut.
niet, Afr. nie after the verb it negates, if no other elements in the sentence or main clause are present.

Below are the examples demonstrating the formation of negative sentences from affirmative
in West Germanic languages:

Affirmative: Negative:

Ger. Ich arbeite. Ger. Ich arbeite nicht.

Dut. Ik werk. Dut Ik werk niet.

Afr. Ek werk. Afr. Ek werk nie.

- I work. - I don’t work.

NOTE:
Afrikaans
If a nominal object, an adjective, an adverb or a separable prefix follow the
verb, the double negation nie…nie is required in Afrikaans, where the first nie
is placed after the verb and the second nie is put at the end of the phrase, e.g.:

Afr. Ek ken nie daardie man nie.

- I do not know that man.

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German and Dutch

If a sentence contains a nominal object following the verb, the negative word
Ger. nicht, Dut. niet must be put at the end of the phrase, for example:

Ger. Ich kenne diesen Mann nicht.

Dut. Ik ken die man niet.
- I do not know that man.

2. If we want to negate a noun in German, Dutch, and Afrikaans, we use the words Ger. kein(-e), Dut.
geen, Afr. geen…nie - “no, not a/any”, for example: I have no children.

NOTE:
German
The form Ger. kein or keine depends on the gender of the noun we use (See
Gender of Nouns p. 23).
German

masc. sing. der/ein Mann - the/a man kein Mann - no man

fem. sing. die/eine Frau - the/a woman keine Frau - no woman

neut. sing. das/ein Kind - the/a child kein Kind - no child

plural die Autos - (the) cars keine Autos - no cars

Afrikaans
In Afrikaans, the combination geen…nie is used to negate nouns where geen
is put before the noun and nie after it.

Below are the examples showing the negation of nouns using Ger. kein(-e), Dut. geen, Afr.
geen…nie:

Affirmative: Negative:

Ger. Sie schreibt ein Buch (neut.) Ger. Sie schreibt kein Buch.

Dut. Ze schrijft een boek. Dut Ze schrijft geen boek.

Afr. Sy skryf 'n boek. Afr. Sy skryf geen boek nie.

- She writes a book. - She doesn’t write a book; - She doesn't write any
book; - She writes no book.

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3. When an object pronoun (See Object Pronoun p.263, p.272) follows the verb, the negative word
should be placed after the object pronoun in West Germanic languages. For example:

Affirmative: Negative:

Ger. Ich kenne sie. Ger. Ich kenne sie nicht.

Dut. Ik ken haar. Dut. Ik ken haar niet.

Afr. Ek ken haar. Afr. Ek ken haar nie.

- I know her. - I don’t know her.

4. If there is an infinitive which follows the finite verb (a finite verb is a verb that shows agreement with a
subject) in a sentence, the negative word is placed after the finite verb in German and Dutch (See also
The Infinitive p. 578).

In Afrikaans, however, the combination nie…nie must be used in a negated clause where the first
nie is put after the finite verb and the second nie is placed after the infinitive. For instance:

Affirmative: Negative:

Ger. Ich will schlafen. Ger. Ich will nicht schlafen.

Dut. Ik wil slapen. Dut. Ik wil niet slapen.

Afr. Ek wil slaap. Afr. Ek wil nie slaap nie.

- I want to sleep. - I don’t want to sleep.

5. When a finite verb (or an auxiliary verb) is followed by a past participle in German and Dutch, the
negative word Ger. nicht, Dut. niet is also placed after the finite verb (See The Past Participle p.
439).

In Afrikaans, the combination nie…nie must also be used in this case. The first nie is put after
the finite verb and the second nie is placed after the past participle. For example:

Affirmative: Negative:

Ger. Sie ist gekommen. Ger. Sie ist nicht gekommen.

Dut. Ze is gekomen. Dut. Ze is niet gekomen.

Afr. Sy het gekom. Afr. Sy het nie gekom nie.

- She has come. - She hasn’t come.

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Negation with Adjectives and the Adverb Very

The negative words Ger. nicht, Dut. niet, Afr. nie - “not” can also be used to negate adjectives.

Just like in English, if you want to negate an adjective in German and Dutch, you should put the
negative particle Ger. nicht, Dut. niet - “not” before it.

NOTE:
Afrikaans
To make an adjective negative in Afrikaans, however, the combination nie…nie
is used where the first nie is placed before the adjective and the second nie
must be put after it.

Did you know? Ger. Sie sind nicht alt.

Berlin, Germany’s capital, dates to the Dut. Ze zijn niet oud.

13th century and is around nine times
bigger than Paris. Afr. Hulle is nie oud nie.

- They are not old.

The adverb Ger. sehr, Dut. erg, Afr. baie - “very” can also be used with adjectives.

In this case, to negate an adjective with the adverb “very” in German and Dutch, the negative
word Ger. nicht, Dut. niet - “not” must be placed before the adverb, while in Afrikaans, the first negative
word nie is put before the adverb and the second nie after the adjective. For example:

Ger. Das Haus ist nicht sehr groß.

Dut. Het huis is niet erg groot.

Afr. Die huis is nie baie groot nie.

- The house is not very big.

Formation of Negation in Compound Tenses

In compound tenses, when a finite verb (or an auxiliary verb) is followed by a past participle in
German and Dutch negative sentences, the negative word Ger. nicht, Dut. niet is placed after the finite
verb (See The Past Participle p. 439).

In Afrikaans, however, the combination nie…nie must be used in this case. The first negative
word nie is put after the auxiliary verb and the second nie is placed after the past participle.

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In West Germanic languages, auxiliary verbs are Ger. haben; Dut. hebben; Afr. hê - “to have”.
Study the following:

Affirmative: Negative:

Ger. Er hat gegessen. Ger. Er hat nicht gegessen.

Dut. Hij heeft gegeten. Dut Hij heeft niet gegeten

Afr. Hy het geëet. Afr. Hy het nie geëet nie.

- He has eaten. - He hasn’t eaten

The German and Dutch auxiliary verbs Ger. sein; Dut. zijn - “to be” are also used with reflexive
and intransitive verbs (See Formation of the Present Perfect with the Verb to be in German
and Dutch p. 469).

NOTE:
Afrikaans
In Afrikaans, the auxiliary verb hê - “to have” is used with all types of verbs.

Observe the following:

Affirmative: Negative:

Ger. Sie ist gekommen. Ger. Sie ist nicht gekommen.

Dut. Ze is gekomen. Dut. Ze is niet gekomen.

Afr. Sy het gekom. Afr. Sy het nie gekom nie.

- She has come. - She hasn’t come.

Other Negative Expressions

There are many other negative expressions, which are used in the West Germanic languages.
Below is a table demonstrating the most common negative combinations and expressions:.

German Dutch Afrikaans English

niemand(-es, -em, -en) niemand niemand…(nie) no one, nobody

nichts niets niks…(nie) nothing

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German Dutch Afrikaans English

weder…noch noch…noch nie…of…nie neither…nor

nie(mals) nooit nooit…nie never

nicht mehr niet meer nie meer…nie no longer, anymore

nicht einmal niet eens nie eers…nie not even

noch nicht nog niet nog nie…nie not yet

No one, Nobody - Ger. niemand; Dut. niemand; Afr. niemand…(nie)

1. If the pronouns Ger. niemand, Dut. niemand, Afr. niemand - “no one, nobody” are used as the
subject of a sentence, they are put before the verb in a sentence.

NOTE:
In Afrikaans, the combination niemand…nie is used in this case where the
negative word nie is placed at the very end of the phrase.
Study the following:

Ger. Niemand sieht mich.

Dut. Niemand ziet mij.

Afr. Niemand sien my nie.

- No one sees me.

Ger. Niemand ist gekommen.

Dut. Niemand is gekomen.

Afr. Niemand het gekom nie.

- No one came (Nobody has come).

2. It should be remembered that the pronouns Ger. niemand, Dut. niemand, Afr. niemand - “no
one, nobody” are always placed after the verb in simple tenses or the auxiliary verb in compound
tenses when they function as the object in German, Dutch and Afrikaans.

NOTE:
Afrikaans
The pronoun niemand is also used with the negative word nie that is placed at

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the very end of the sentence in simple and compound tenses in Afrikaans. To
illustrate:

Ger. Ich sehe niemanden.

Dut. Ik zie niemand.

Afr. Ek sien niemand nie.

- I see no one (nobody).

Ger. Er hat niemanden gesehen.

Dut. Hij heeft niemand gezien.

Afr. Hy het niemand gesien nie.

- He has seen no one.

NOTE:
German
The word niemand is declined and depends on the position in a sentence (See
Case in German p. 112).
German

Nominative niemand

Genitive niemandes

Dative niemand/niemandem

Accusative niemand/niemanden

As you can see from the table above, niemand may or may not take the case
endings -em in dative and -en in accusative, for example:
“Ich warte auf niemand” and “Ich warte auf niemanden.” - “I'm waiting for
nobody.” are both correct.

3. If an infinitive is used in a sentence, Ger. niemand, Dut. niemand, Afr. niemand precede the
infinitive in West Germanic languages. Remember that in Afrikaans, the negative word nie should
also be put at the end of the sentence in his case. For instance:

Ger. Ich will niemanden sehen.

Dut. Ik wil niemand zien.

Afr. Ek wil niemand sien nie.

- I want to see no one.

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Nothing - Ger. nichts; Dut. niets; Afr. niks…(nie)

Like no one and nobody, nothing has similar rules of placement in the sentence in the West
Germanic languages.
1. If Ger. nichts, Dut. niets, Afr. niks - “nothing” are used as the subject, they are put before the verb
in a sentence, whereas the Afrikaans the second negative word nie is also placed at the very end of the
sentence. Observe the following:

Ger. Nichts macht mich glücklich.

Dut. Niets maakt me gelukkig.

Afr. Niks maak my gelukkig nie.

- Nothing makes me happy.

2. When Ger. nichts, Dut. niets, Afr. niks function as the object, they follow the main verb in simple
tenses. In compound tenses, they follow the auxiliary verb in German, Dutch and Afrikaans.

NOTE:
Afrikaans
In compound tenses, nie must also be put at the end of the sentence in
Afrikaans.

Ger. Ich sehe nichts.

Dut. Ik zie niets.

Afr. Ek sien niks

- I see nothing (I don’t see anything).

Ger. Ich habe nichts gesehen.

Dut. Ik heb niets gezien.

Afr. Ek het niks gesien nie.

- I have seen nothing (I haven’t see anything).

3. When there is an infinitive in the sentence, Ger. nichts, Dut. niets, Afr. niks precede the infinitive;
in Afrikaans, the negative word nie is also placed at the end of the sentence. For example:

Ger. Ich will nichts essen.

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Dut. Ik wil niets eten.

Afr. Ek wil niks eet nie.

- I want to eat nothing.

Neither…nor - Ger. weder…noch; Dut. noch…noch; Afr. nie…of…nie;

These negative words are usually placed after the main verb in simple tenses or after the auxiliary
verb in compound tenses in the West Germanic languages.

It should be mentioned that the negative word Afr. nie, must always be placed at the end of the
sentence in simple and compound tenses in Afrikaans. For instance:

Ger. Sie sprechen weder Deutsch noch Holländisch.

Dut. Ze spreken noch Duits, noch Nederlands.

Afr. Hulle praat nie Duits of Nederlands nie.

- They speak neither German nor Dutch.

Ger. Wir sind weder nach Namibia noch nach Südafrika gereist.

Dut. We zijn noch naar Namibië, noch naar Zuid-Afrika gereisd.

Afr. Ons het nie na Namibië of na Suid-Afrika gereis nie.

- We have travelled neither to Namibia nor to South Africa.

It is worth noting that Ger. noch; Dut. noch; Afr. of can be used in the sentence more than
twice. Observe the following:

Ger. Er spricht weder Deutsch, noch Holländisch, noch Englisch.

Dut. Hij spreekt noch Duits, noch Nederlands, noch Engels.

Afr. Hy praat nie Duits of Nederlands of Engels nie.

- He speaks neither German nor Dutch nor English.

Never - Ger. nie(mals); Dut. nooit; Afr. nooit…(nie)

1. Unlike in English, in German, Dutch and Afrikaans the adverbs Ger. nie(mals); Dut. nooit; Afr.
nooit - “never” are placed at the end of the sentence in this case.

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NOTE:
In Afrikaans, nooit must be used with nie where nie follows it. Study the
following:

Ger. Er besucht mich nie.

Dut. Hij bezoekt me nooit.

Afr. Hy besoek my nooit nie.

- He never visits me.

2. In compound tenses, the adverbs Ger. nie(mals); Dut. nooit; Afr. nooit - “never” follow the
auxiliary verb in German, Dutch and Afrikaans. However, in Italian never can also be placed before
the past participle.

NOTE:
In Afrikaans, the second negative word nie follows the past participle in
compound tenses. Study the following:

Ger. Ich bin nie gereist.

Dut. Ik heb nooit gereisd.

Afr. Ek het nooit gereis nie.

- I have never travelled.

NOTE:
In German, Dutch and Afrikaans, Ger. nie, Dut. nooit, Afr. nooit are often
used in combination with Ger. noch, Dut. nog, Afr. nog, which could be
translated as “not yet”. It could also add a slight connotation of “never ever”.
For example:

Ger. Ich bin noch nie gereist.

Dut. Ik heb nog nooit gereisd.
Afr. Ek het nog nooit gereis nie.
- I have never (yet) travelled.

3. In German, nie and niemals can be used interchangeably. They both mean “never”. However,
niemals is somewhat stronger and could be translated as “never ever”. For example:

Ger. Ich würde es niemals tun.

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- I would never ever do it.

NOTE:
In German, niemals can also stand alone as an answer meaning “never/no
way”. For example:

Ger. Würdest du es tun? - Niemals.

- Would you do it? - Never/No way.

No longer, Anymore, No more - Ger. nicht mehr; Dut. niet meer; Afr.
nie meer…nie

1. The adverbs Ger. mehr; Dut. meer; Afr. meer - “more” can only be used in combination with the
negative words Ger. nicht; Dut. niet; Afr. nie - “no”.

Therefore, the combination Ger. nicht mehr; Dut. niet meer; Afr. nie meer - “no longer,
anymore, no more” follows the main verb in simple tenses in all of the West Germanic languages.

NOTE:
In Afrikaans, the second negative word nie must always be put at the very end
of the sentence in simple tenses.

Ger. Er arbeitet nicht mehr im Krankenhaus.

Dut. Hij werkt niet meer in het ziekenhuis.

Afr. Hy werk nie meer by die hospitaal nie.

- He doesn’t work at the hospital anymore (He no longer works at the hospital).

If a sentence contains an object pronoun following the verb, the combination Ger. nicht mehr;
Dut. niet meer; Afr. nie meer must be placed after the object pronoun in simple tenses in German,
Dutch and Afrikaans:

Ger. Ich sehe sie nicht mehr.

Dut. Ik zie haar niet meer.

Afr. Ek sien haar nie meer nie.

- I haven’t seen her anymore.

If there is a nominal object following the verb, the combination Ger. nicht mehr; Dut. niet
meer is also placed after the nominal object in simple tenses in German and Dutch.

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NOTE:
In Afrikaans, however, nie meer is used after the main verb. Study the
following:

Ger.Ich sehe diese Frau nicht mehr.

Dut. Ik zie die vrouw niet meer.

Afr. Ek sien nie meer daardie vrou nie.

- I don't see that woman anymore.

2. In compound tenses, Ger. nicht mehr; Dut. niet meer; Afr. nie meer - “no longer, anymore” follow
the auxiliary verb in German, Dutch and Afrikaans. Also, in Afrikaans, the second negative nie must
also be placed at the end of the sentence. Study the following:

Ger. Ich bin nicht mehr nach Europa gereist.

Dut. Ik ben niet meer naar Europa gereisd.

Afr. Ek het nie meer na Europa gereis nie.

- I have no longer travelled to Europe.

It is worth noting that if an object pronoun follows the auxiliary verb, the combination Ger. nicht
mehr; Dut. niet meer; Afr. nie meer should be placed after the object pronoun in compound tenses in
West Germanic languages. For instance:

Did you know? Ger. Ich habe ihn nicht mehr gesehen.

Dortmund, Germany, offers more than Dut. Ik heb hem niet meer gezien.
20 museums to explore, from art and Afr. Ek het hom nie meer gesien nie.
history to football and technology.
- I haven’t seen him anymore.

If a nominal object follows the auxiliary verb, the combination Ger. nicht mehr; Dut. niet
meer; Afr. nie meer should be placed after the nominal object in compound tenses:

Ger. Ich habe diesen Mann nicht mehr gesehen.

Dut. Ik heb die man niet meer gezien.

Afr. Ek het daardie man nie meer gesien nie.

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- I haven’t seen that man anymore.

3. When there is an infinitive in the sentence, no longer, anymore precede the infinitive in German,
Dutch and Afrikaans. Remember that in Afrikaans, the second negative word nie must be placed after
the infinitive. For example:

Ger. Ich will nicht mehr essen.

Dut. Ik wil niet meer eten.

Afr. Ek wil nie meer eet nie.

- I don’t want to eat anymore.

Not Even - Ger. nicht einmal; Dut. niet eens; Afr. nie eers…nie

1. Ger. nicht einmal; Dut. niet eens; Afr. nie ears…nie - “not even” follow the auxiliary verb in
German, Dutch and Afrikaans. Also, in Afrikaans, the second negative nie must also be placed at the
end of the sentence.

Study the following:

Ger. Sein Name wird nicht einmal erwähnt.

Dut. Zijn naam wordt niet eens genoemd.

Afr. Sy naam word nie eers genoem nie.

- His name is not even mentioned.

Not Yet - Ger. noch nicht; Dut. nog niet; Afr. nog nie…nie

1. Ger. noch nicht; Dut. nog niet; Afr. nog nie…nie - “not yet” also follow the auxiliary verb in
German, Dutch and Afrikaans. In Afrikaans, the second negative nie must also be placed at the end of
the sentence.

Observe the following:

Ger. Die neue Schule ist noch nicht eröffnet.

Dut. De nieuwe school is nog niet geopend.

Afr. Die nuwe skool is nog nie geopen nie.

- His name is not even mentioned.

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The Pluperfect Tense

Formation of the Pluperfect
The pluperfect tense is sometimes referred to as the past perfect. If the present perfect is “I have
worked/slept” then the past perfect is “I had worked/slept”. It refers to an action having been performed
prior to another action that occurred in the past.

In German and Dutch, the pluperfect tense is formed by using the past tense of the verb Ger.
haben or sein; Dut. hebben or zijn with the past participle.

NOTE:
In Afrikaans, there is no difference between the perfect and the pluperfect form,
and therefore one uses the perfect to talk about events in the past (See Present
Perfect p. 467).

The formation of the pluperfect of the German and Dutch is presented in the drawing below:

Pluperfect Formula

hatte
hattest
haben hatte
hatten
hattet
hatten
German
war
warst
sein war
waren
wart
waren
+ Past Participle
had Ger. -ge + -t/-en
had Dut. -ge + -t/-d/-en
hebben had
hadden
hadden
hadden
Dutch
was
was
zijn was
waren
waren
waren

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NOTE:
Like in the Present Perfect, in the Pluperfect as well as other compound tenses
the auxiliary verbs Ger. sein; Dut. zijn - “to be” are also used with reflexive and
intransitive verbs in German and Dutch (See p. 469).

Below is the table showing the example of conjugation of verbs in the pluperfect tense:

German Dutch

Haben Hebben

ich hatte getanzt ik had gedanst

du hattest getanzt jij had gedanst

er, sie, es hatte getanzt hij, zij, het, U had gedanst

wir hatten getanzt wij hadden gedanst

ihr hattet getanzt jullie hadden gedanst

sie hatten getanzt zij hadden gedanst

Sein Zijn

ich war gekommen ik was gekomen

du warst gekommen jij was gekomen

er, sie, es war gekommen hij, zij, het, U was gekomen

wir waren gekommen wij waren gekomen

ihr wart gekommen jullie waren gekomen

sie waren gekommen zij waren gekomen

For example:

Ger. Wir hatten gesprochen und dann ging sie weg.

Dut. We hadden gesproken en toen ging ze weg.

- We had spoken and then she left.

Ger. Sie war bereits gegangen, als ich ankam.

Dut. Ze was al weggegaan toen ik aankwam.

- She had already left when I arrived.

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Use of the Pluperfect Tense

The pluperfect tense is used in the same way in German and Dutch as in English. It is used to
express:

• Past action completed prior to another action in the past.

Study the following example:

Ger. Ich wusste nicht, ob sie mich gesehen hatte.

Dut. Ik wist niet of ze mij had gezien.

- I didn’t know if she had seen me.

In Afrikaans, however, the present perfect must be used in this case since the pluperfect tense has
disappeared. Study the same example:

Afr. Ek het nie geweet of sy my gesien het nie.

- I didn’t know if she had seen me.

The Future Tense

Formation of the Future

The future tense of most verbs is formed by using the present tense of the auxiliary verb Ger.
werden; Dut. zullen; Afr. sal - “will” with the infinitive.

Did you know? Below is the future tense formula in German,

Dutch and Afrikaans:
Düsseldorf, the seventh-largest city in
Germany, is one of the most important
telecommunications hubs in Germany.

There are many foreign information and

communication technology companies,
advertising agencies, well-known newspaper
and filmmaking companies are located in
Düsseldorf.

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Future Tense Formula

werde
wirst
German werden wird
werden
werdet
werden

zal
zult + Infinitive
Dutch zullen zal
zullen
zullen
zullen

Afrikaans sal sal

English will will

The following is the table showing the example of conjugation of the verb Ger. sprechen; Dut.
spreken; Afr. praat - “to speak” in the future tense:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

ich werde sprechen ik zal spreken ek sal praat I will speak

du wirst sprechen jij zult spreken jy sal praat you will speak

er, sie, es wird sprechen hij, zij, het, U zal spreken hy, sy, dit sal praat he, she, it will speak

wir werden sprechen wij zullen spreken ons sal praat we will speak

ihr werdet sprechen jullie zullen spreken julle sal praat you will speak

sie werden sprechen zij zullen spreken hulle sal praat they will speak

Use of The Future Tense

Like in English, the future tense in German, Dutch and Afrikaans is used:

• to express an action that will occur in the future:

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Ger. Ich werde ihn morgen besuchen.

Dut. Ik zal hem morgen bezoeken.

Afr. Ek sal hom môre besoek.

- I will visit him tomorrow.

Note that Ger. werden; Dut. zullen; Afr. sal act syntactically the same as all the modal verbs,
which means that the infinitive of the action verb usually stands at the end. Study one more example:

Ger. Wir werden es morgen tun.

Dut. Wij zullen het morgen doen.

Afr. Ons sal dit môre doen.

- We will do it tomorrow.

• to make a request:

Ger. werden; Dut. zullen; Afr. sal like “will”, is also used in requests, for example:

Ger. Wirst du mir helfen?

Dut. Wil je me helpen?

Afr. Sal jy my help?

- Will you help me?

• to promise:

Ger. Ich werde dir auf jeden Fall helfen.

Dut. Ik zal je zeker helpen.

Afr. Ek sal jou verseker help.

- I will help you for sure.

• to invite:

Ger. Sollen wir eine Tasse Kaffee trinken?

Dut. Zullen we een kopje koffie drinken?

Afr. Sal ons 'n koppie koffie drink?

- Shall we have a cup of coffee?

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• to express probability and assumption:

In conversational German, Dutch and Afrikaans the future can be used to express probability.

In German, Dutch and Afrikaans, the following adverbs can be used in order to express
probability in the future.

German Dutch Afrikaans English

wahrscheinlich waarschijnlijk waarskynlik probably

sicherlich zeker seker surely

wohl wel wel probably, likely

For example:

Ger. Er wird wohl (wahrscheinlich) im Park sein.

Dut. Hij zal wel (waarschijnlijk) in het park zijn.

Afr. Hy sal wel (waarskynlik) in die park wees.

- He will probably be in the park.

Use of The Present Tense to Express the Future

It is important to mention that German, Dutch and Afrikaans often use the present tense to
express an action or intention that will occur in the future when future time is clearly indicated by an
adverb or an adverbial expression of time.

This convention occurs in English too but is less common in English than in German, Dutch and
Afrikaans. Study the following example:

Ger. Ich fahre morgen nach Paris. Ger. Nächstes Jahr heiraten sie.

Dut. Ik ga morgen naar Parijs. Dut. Volgend jaar trouwen ze.

Afr. Ek gaan môre Parys toe. Afr. Volgende jaar trou hulle.

- I am going to Paris tomorrow. - They will get married next year.

The Future Tense Using the Verb Gaan in Dutch and Afrikaans

Just like English, Dutch and Africans, in addition to “will” and the present tense, often use the
verb gaan - “to go” to express the future. It is formed by the verb “to go” of the present tense which is
placed right before the infinitive.

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In Dutch and Afrikaans, the future tense with the verb gaan is used to express an intention, a
prediction or if we want to talk about a plan for the future in a construction analogous to the English “to
be going to”.

The formula of the future tense with the verb gaan in Dutch and Afrikaans is the following:

Dut., Afr. gaan + infinitive

Observe the following examples:

Dut. Hij gaat een boek lezen. Dut. Ik ga in Amsterdam studeren.

Afr. Hy gaan 'n boek lees. Afr. Ek gaan in Amsterdam studeer.

- He is going to read a book. - I am going to study in Amsterdam.

NOTE:
Unlike Dutch and Afrikaans, German does not do this. In such cases you must
choose between the verb werden and the present tense:

Ger. Er wird ein Buch lesen.

- He is going to read a book.

Ger. Ich werde in Amsterdam studieren.

- I am going to study in Amsterdam.

The Future Perfect Tense

Formation of the Future Perfect

The future perfect in in German, Dutch and Afrikaans is formed by using the verb Ger. werden;
Dut. zullen; Afr. sal - “will” in the present tense and the past participle plus the verb Ger. haben or
sein; Dut. hebben or zijn - “to have” or “to be”.

It should be said that unlike German and Dutch, Afrikaans uses the auxiliary verb Afr. hê - “to
have” with all the verbs (transitive and intransitive) to form the future perfect tense. The future perfect is
generally used to express an action that will have been completed at a certain moment in the future.

The formula of the future perfect tense in German, Dutch and Afrikaans is the following:

German werden + haben or sein

Dutch zullen + past participle + hebben or zijn

Afrikaans sal + hê

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Below is the table showing the example of conjugation of verbs in the future perfect tense:

German Dutch Afrikaans

Haben Hebben Hê

ich werde getanzt haben ik zal gedanst hebben ek sal gedans het

du wirst getanzt haben jij zal gedanst hebben jy sal gedans het

er, sie, es wird getanzt haben hij, zij, het, U zal gedanst hebben hy, sy, dit sal gedans het

wir werden getanzt haben wij zullen gedanst hebben ons sal gedans het

ihr werdet getanzt haben jullie zullen gedanst hebben julle sal gedans het

sie werden getanzt haben zij zullen gedanst hebben hulle sal gedans het

Sein Zijn Hê

ich werde gekommen sein ik zal gekomen zijn ek sal gekom het

du wirst gekommen sein jij zal gekomen zijn jy sal gekom het

er, sie, es wird gekommen sein hij, zij, het, U zal gekomen zijn hy, sy, dit sal gekom het

wir werden gekommen sein wij zullen gekomen zijn ons sal gekom het

ihr werdet gekommen sein jullie zullen gekomen zijn julle sal gekom het

sie werden gekommen sein zij zullen gekomen zijn hulle sal gekom het

Study the following:

Ger. Ich werde schon weggegangen sein, wenn sie kommt.

Dut. Ik zal al weggegaan zijn als ze komt.

Afr. Ek sal reeds weggegaan het wanneer sy kom.

- I will have already left when she arrives.

Use of the Future Perfect Tense

In German, Dutch and Afrikaans the future perfect tense is used:

• To express a future action that will have been completed before another action in the future:

Ger. Morgen um neun Uhr werden sie in Madrid angekommen sein.

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Dut. Morgen om negen uur zullen ze in Madrid aangekomen zijn.

Afr. Môre om nege-uur sal hulle in Madrid aangekom het.

- Tomorrow at nine o’clock, they will have arrived in Madrid.

Ger. Wir werden die Aufgabe bis Januar abgeschlossen haben.

Dut. We zullen de klus tegen januari voltooid hebben

Afr. Ons sal die taak teen Januarie voltooi het.

- We will have completed the task by January.

• Like the future tense, the future perfect is also used to express probability in the West Germanic
languages. However, it is used in this way with all verbs (See Use of the Future Tense p. 532).

Ger. Sie wird Wien wahrscheinlich verlassen haben.

Dut. Ze zal waarschijnlijk Wenen hebben verlaten.

Afr. Sy sal waarskynlik Wene verlaat het.

- She will probably have left Vienna.

NOTE:
In Dutch, this tense is quite uncommon. Instead of the future perfect, the Dutch
usually uses the present perfect (See also Present Perfect p. 467):

Dut. Morgen om negen uur zijn ze in Madrid aangekomen.

(literally: Tomorrow at nine o’clock, they have arrived in Madrid.)

The Conditional Tense

Overview

Like in English, in German, Dutch and Afrikaans the conditional tense is generally used to
express what would happen in the future, which means that it refers to possible and hypothetical
situations.

Formation of the Present Conditional

The present conditional is formed in English by “would” + infinitive and thus in German, Dutch
and Afrikaans by using the subjunctive (in German) and the past tense (in Dutch and Afrikaans) of the
verb Ger. werden; Dut. zullen; Afr. sal - “would” + the infinitive.

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Below is the present conditional formula in German, Dutch and Afrikaans:

Present Conditional Formula

würde
würdest
German werden würde
würden
würdet
würden

zou
zou + Infinitive
Dutch zullen zou
zouden
zouden
zouden

Afrikaans sal sou

English will would

The following is the table showing the example of conjugation of the verb Ger. sprechen; Dut.
spreken; Afr. praat - “to speak” in the present conditional:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

ich würde sprechen ik zou spreken ek sou praat I would speak

du würdest sprechen jij zou spreken jy sou praat you would speak

er, sie, es würde hij, zij, het, U zou hy, sy, dit sou praat he, she, it would speak
sprechen spreken
wir würden sprechen wij zouden spreken ons sou praat we would speak

ihr würdet sprechen jullie zouden spreken julle sou praat you would speak

sie würden sprechen zij zouden spreken hulle sou praat they would speak

Use of the Conditional Tense

In the West Germanic languages the present conditional is used:

• To express and describe an action that would happen if it were not for some other
circumstances:

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Note that it is used in combination with Ger. wenn, Dut. als, Afr. as - “if” clause, which states
the condition under which the action would be performed.

Ger. Wenn ich du wäre, würde ich das nicht tun.

Dut. Als ik jou was, zou ik dat niet doen.

Afr. As ek jy was, sou ek dit nie doen nie.

- If I were you, I would not do that.

Ger. Wenn ich Zeit hätte, würde ich ins Café gehen.

Dut. Als ik tijd had, zou ik naar het café gaan.

Afr. As ek tyd gehad het, sou ek kafee toe gaan.

- If I had time, I would go to the café.

NOTE:
In German, if the infinitive that follows würde is haben - “to have” or sein -
“to be”, it is advisable to use the form hätte and wäre instead of würde
haben and würde sein respectively, although the latter do exist. To compare:

Ger. Wenn sie keine Kinder hätte, hätte sie Zeit

(or Wenn sie keine Kinder hätte, würde sie Zeit haben.
- If she did not have kids, she would have time.

• To express a polite suggestion, desire or advice:

In order to politely express a wish or desire, one uses the adverb Ger. gerne, Dut. graag, Afr.
graag which is the equivalent of English “would like”. To illustrate:

Ger. Ich würde gerne nach Lissabon fliegen.

Dut. Ik zou graag naar Lissabon vliegen.

Afr. Ek sou graag na Lissabon vlieg.

- I would like to fly to Lisbon.

NOTE:
In German, the subjunctive form of the verb mögen (möchte) can also be used
to render “would like”, for example:

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Ger. Ich möchte eine Tasse Tee trinken.

- I would like to have a cup of tea.

However, the form hätte gern is also commonly used when requesting
something in German, for example:

Ger. Ich hätte gerne zwei Pizzen.

- I would like to have two pizzas.

One can also use Ger. werden/wäre; Dut. zullen; Afr. sal - “would” to make a suggestion, for
example:

Ger. Es wäre besser (or es würde besser sein), wenn wir zu Hause blieben.

Dut. Het zou beter zijn als we thuis bleven.

Afr. Dit sou beter wees as ons by die huis bly.

- It would be better if we stayed at home.

NOTE:
In Afrikaans, if the infinitive that follows sou is wees - “to be”, the contracted
form was can also be used instead of sou wees. To compare:

Afr. Dit was beter as ons by die huis bly.

- It would be better if we stayed at home.

• To express “should” in Dutch:

In Dutch, we do not have a verb for “should”. Instead, the following combination is used Dut.
zou/zouden moeten:

Dut. Ik zou moeten werken./Ze zouden moeten werken

- I should work./They should work.

NOTE:
In Dutch, however, when the action is urgent or presented as a clear command,
we often use moeten:

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Ger. Wat moet ik nu doen?

- What should I do now?

• To express a future action in indirect speech:

It is used when the main verb is in the past tense. In this case, the present conditional can be
equivalent to a simple future in the past in English:

Ger. Sie sagte mir, dass sie kommen würde

Dut. Ze vertelde me dat ze zou komen

Afr. Sy het vir my gesê sy sou kom.

- She told me that she would come.

It should be remembered that if the verb in the main sentence is in the present tense, the future
tense is used. Observe the following:

Ger. Sie sagt, dass sie kommen wird.

Dut. Ze zegt dat ze zal komen.

Afr. Sy sê dat sy sal kom.

- She says that she will come.

The Conditional Perfect Tense

Overview

Like in English, in German, Dutch and Afrikaans the conditional tense expresses an action in the
past that would have happened but did not because of another event.

Formation of the Conditional Perfect

The conditional perfect in English is formed by “would have” + past participle to express “would
have done something”.

In German, Dutch and Afrikaans it is formed by using the subjunctive (in German) and the past
tense (in Dutch and Afrikaans) of the verb Ger. werden; Dut. zullen; Afr. sal - “would” + the past
participle + the verb Ger. haben or sein; Dut. hebben or zijn - “to have” or “to be”.

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Remember that unlike German and Dutch, Afrikaans uses the auxiliary verb Afr. hê - “to have”
with all the verbs (transitive and intransitive) to form the future perfect tense.

The formula of the future perfect tense in German, Dutch and Afrikaans is the following:

German werden + haben or sein

Dutch zullen + past participle + hebben or zijn

Afrikaans sal + hê

Below is the table showing the example of conjugation of verbs in the future perfect tense:

German Dutch Afrikaans

Haben Hebben Hê

ich würde getanzt haben ik zou gedanst hebben ek sou gedans het

du würdest getanzt haben jij zou gedanst hebben jy sou gedans het

er, sie, es würde getanzt haben hij, zij, het, U zou gedanst hy, sy, dit sou gedans het
hebben
wir würden getanzt haben wij zouden gedanst hebben ons sou gedans het

ihr würdet getanzt haben jullie zouden gedanst hebben julle sou gedans het

sie würden getanzt haben zij zouden gedanst hebben hulle sou gedans het

Sein Zijn Hê

ich werde gekommen sein ik zou gekomen zijn ek sou gekom het

du wirst gekommen sein jij zou gekomen zijn jy sou gekom het

er, sie, es wird gekommen sein hij, zij, het, U zou gekomen zijn hy, sy, dit sou gekom het

wir werden gekommen sein wij zouden gekomen zijn ons sou gekom het

ihr werdet gekommen sein jullie zouden gekomen zijn julle sou gekom het

sie werden gekommen sein zij zouden gekomen zijn hulle sou gekom het

Use of the Conditional Perfect Tense

In German, Dutch and Afrikaans the conditional perfect tense is used:

• To express what would have happened if something else had not prevented it (See
Conditional Clauses p. 544):

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Ger. Wenn ich Zeit gehabt hätte, würde ich nach Lissabon geflogen sein*.

Dut. Als ik tijd had gehad, zou ik naar Lissabon gevlogen zijn*.

Afr. As ek tyd gehad het, sou ek Lissabon toe gevlieg het*.

- If I had had time, I would have flown to Lisbon.

Ger. Ich würde dieses Buch gekauft haben*, wenn ich das Geld gehabt hätte.

Dut. Ik zou dit boek gekocht hebben*, als ik het geld gehad had.

Afr. Ek sou hierdie boek gekoop het, as ek die geld gehad het.

- I would have bought this book if I had had the money.

NOTE:
German
It is preferable to use the contracted form hätte and wäre instead of würde
haben and würde sein respectively in German. To compare:

Ger. Wenn ich Zeit gehabt hätte, wäre ich nach Lissabon geflogen.
- If I had had time, I would have flown to Lisbon.

Ger. Ich hätte dieses Buch gekauft, wenn ich das Geld gehabt hätte.
- I would have bought this book if I had had the money.

Dutch
We often do not use the conditional perfect at all when referring to a past
hypothetical event. Instead, the pluperfect tense is used in Dutch.
Compare the following:

Dut. Als ik tijd had gehad, was ik naar Lissabon gevlogen.

- If I had had time, I would have flown to Lisbon.

Dut. Ik had dit boek gekocht, als ik het geld had gehad.
- I would have bought this book if I had had the money.

Afrikaans
In colloquial Afrikaans, instead of the conditional perfect, the past tense can
also be used to refer to a hypothetical event where context makes the meaning
clear, for example:

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Afr. As ek tyd gehad het, het ek na Lissabon gevlieg.

- If I had had time, I would have flown to Lisbon.

Afr. Ek het hierdie boek gekoop, as ek die geld gehad het.

- I would have bought this book if I had had the money.

• To express “should/could have + past participle”:

In order to express “should/could have + past participle”, in German, Dutch and Afrikaans the
following constructions are used:

German hätte(-st,-t,-n) + infinitive + sollen/können

Dutch had(-den) moeten/kunnen + infinitive

Afrikaans moes/kon + past participle + het

English should/could have + past participle

For example:

Ger. Du hättest es tun sollen. Ger. Sie hätten es tun können.

Dut. Je had het moeten doen. Dut. Ze hadden het kunnen doen.

Afr. Jy moes dit gedoen het. Afr. Hulle kon dit gedoen het.

- You should have done it. - They could have done it.

Conditional Clauses

A conditional clause refers to an event (ofter hypothetical), which may or may not happen in
reality. Conditional sentences have two parts: the conditional or if clause, and the main clause, for
instance: “If you have time, we will go to the cinema”. In this sentence the conditional clause or if clause
“If you have time” refers to a hypothetical event, the main clause “we will go to the cinema” shows what
will happen if the condition of the if clause is met.

Normally, conditional clauses are introduced by if (Ger. wenn; Dut. als; Afr. as - “if") in the
West Germanic languages.

Conditional clauses have a particular sequence of tenses that needs to be followed in German,
Dutch and Afrikaans. There are three types of if clauses in the West Germanic languages.
1. Possible Condition
Below is the formation of the first type of if clause in German, Dutch and Afrikaans, which is
Possible Condition:

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Ger. wenn; Dut. als; Afr. as + Present Present or Future Tense

Indicative

The first type of the conditional clause is used to demonstrate that the condition is likely to be
implemented and, therefore, the consequence is regarded as possible. Observe the following:

Ger. Wenn du Hunger hast, kaufe ich etwas zu essen.

Dut. Als je honger hebt, koop ik iets te eten.

Afr. As jy honger is, koop ek iets om te eet.

- If you’re hungry, I’ll buy something to eat.

Ger. Wenn er genug Zeit hat, wird er nach Südamerika fliegen.

Dut. Als hij genoeg tijd heeft, zal hij naar Zuid-Amerika vliegen.

Afr. As hy genoeg tyd het, sal hy na Suid-Amerika vlieg.

- If he has enough time, he will fly to South America.

NOTE:
It is worth saying that in German, the conjunction wenn can be translated as
“if” and “when”. In order to make it clear you mean if and not when, we can use
the conjunction falls, for example:

Ger. Falls du Hunger hast, kaufe ich etwas zu essen

- If you’re hungry, I’ll buy something to eat.

2. Impossible condition in the present

The following is the formation of the second type of if clause in German, Dutch and Afrikaans,
which is called impossible condition in the present:

If Clause: Main Clause:

Ger. wenn; Dut. als; Afr. as + Past Tense or Present Conditional or Subjunctive
Subjunctive

NOTE:
In German, for unreal conditionals in the present, we use the subjunctive in
both clauses.
In Dutch, however, unreal conditionals are often formed using the past tense
in the if-clause and the present conditional in the main clause.

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It should be said that in Dutch and Afrikaans, the sequence of tenses required with these
conditionals is generally identical to English.

The second type of conditional clause is contrary to the reality of the present and so the
consequence is considered to be highly unlikely or impossible to fulfil. For example:

Ger. Wenn ich genug Zeit hätte, würde ich nach Südamerika gehen.

Dut. Als ik genoeg tijd had, zou ik naar Zuid-Amerika vliegen.

Afr. As ek genoeg tyd gehad het, sou ek na Suid-Amerika vlieg.

- If I had enough time, I would go to South America.

3. Impossible condition in the past

The following is the formation of the third type of if-clause in German, Dutch and Afrikaans, which is
called impossible condition in the past:

If Clause: Main Clause:

Ger. wenn; Dut. als; Afr. as + Pluperfect or Conditional Perfect or Past Subjunctive
Past Subjunctive

NOTE:
In German, we use the past subjunctive in both clauses.
In Dutch, the pluperfect is used in the if-clause and the conditional perfect
tense is used in the main clause.

It should be remembered that in Dutch and Afrikaans, the sequence of tenses required with the
impossible conditionals in the past is mainly identical to English.
The third type of conditional clause is predominantly used for the situations that are contrary to
the reality of the past. Therefore, it describes an unrealized past possibility. For instance:

Ger. Wenn ich genug Zeit gehabt hätte, würde ich nach Südamerika geflogen sein.

Dut. Als ik genoeg tijd had gehad, zou ik naar Zuid-Amerika zijn gevlogen

Afr. As ek genoeg tyd gehad het, sou ek na Suid-Amerika gevlieg het.

- If I had had enough time, I would have flown to South America.

NOTE:
In German, the pluperfect subjunctive form (wäre/-st/-t/-n + past perfect) can

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also be used in the main clause.

In Dutch, the pluperfect tense (was/waren + past participle) can be used in
this case. Compare the following:

Ger. Wenn ich genug Zeit gehabt hätte, wäre ich nach Südamerika
geflogen.
Dut. Als ik genoeg tijd had gehad, was ik naar Zuid-Amerika gevlogen.
- If I had had enough time, I would have flown to South America.

Alternatives to Ger. wenn, Dut. als, Afr. as - “if”

The table below shows conjunctions you can use instead of Ger. wenn, Dut. als, Afr. as - “if”
(See also Conjunctions p. ):

German Dutch Afrikaans English

falls ingeval ingeval in case, if

sofern mits mits provided (that)

nur wenn alleen als net as, slegs as only if

außer wenn behalve als behalwe as except if

selbst wenn, auch zelfs als selfs as even if

wenn

Study the following example:

Ger. Ich besuche dich, nur wenn ich genug Zeit habe.

Dut. Ik bezoek je alleen als ik genoeg tijd heb.

Afr. Ek besoek jou net as ek genoeg tyd het.

- I will visit you only if I have enough time.

The Subjunctive Mood

Overview

The subjunctive is not often used in West Germanic languages (it is usually part of a fixed
expression), whereas it is widely used in Romance languages such as Spanish, Portuguese, Italian and
French.

At first let’s look at the difference between the indicative and subjunctive moods in the West
Germanic languages. The indicative mood is used to express a truth, fact, probability or action which is

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not dependent on an opinion or condition, while the subjunctive mood conveys desires, doubts, emotions
or actions which are possible, uncertain, doubtful or unreal. Such ideas are dependent on an opinion or
condition.

Basic Rules for Indicative and Subjunctive

The Indicative mood is

• generally used to talk about events, states or actions that are considered to be facts or true;

• quite common in speech to make real, accurate and factual statements or for describing evident
qualities while referring to a situation or person.

The Subjunctive mood is

• generally used to talk about desires, doubts, emotions, the abstract and other unreal situations;
• commonly used in speech for making recommendations and expressing how particular things make you
feel;

• widely used to express opinions concerning another action.

Study the following:

Indicative mood Subjunctive mood

Ger. Der König lebt lange. Ger. Lang lebe der König.

Dut. De koning leeft lang. Dut. Lang leve de koning.

- The king lives long. - Long live the king.

Note that in English the lack of ‘-s’ on “live” (not lives) tells us this is a subjunctive form.

NOTE:
It should be mentioned that the number of tenses in the subjunctive mood differs
among West Germanic languages languages:
German
There are two subjunctive forms in German, which are present subjunctive
(Subjunctive I) and past subjunctive (Subjunctive II).
Dutch
Unlike in German, in Dutch we do not use the subjunctive very often. It is
normally part of fixed expressions. Even though the subjunctive can be
conjugated in all eight tenses, we only use it in the present tense.
Afrikaans

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Only the verb wees - “to be” has subjunctive forms in Afrikaans, but they are
seldom ever used in the present day.

The Present Subjunctive

Formation of the Present Subjunctive

In German, the verbs form the present subjunctive by dropping the final -n from the infinitive
and/or adding the appropriate personal ending to the root of a verb. Some plural forms have the same
form as the infinitive.

In Dutch, to form the singular form of the subjunctive, we also subtract the final -n from the
infinitive. The plural subjunctive, however, has the same form as the infinitive.

NOTE:
In Afrikaans, as it was mentioned before, the verb wees - “to be” is the only
verb that has the present subjunctive form (See below).

Below is the table showing the example of conjugation of the verb Ger. arbeiten, Dut. werken
- “to work” in the present subjunctive in German and Dutch respectively:

German Dutch

ich arbeite ik werke

du arbeitest jij werke

er, sie, es arbeite hij, zij, het, U werke

wir arbeiten wij werken

ihr arbeitet jullie werken

sie arbeiten zij werken

Use of the Present Subjunctive

German
In German, the most common use of subjunctive I relates to reporting quotation or indirect
speech.
Compare the following two examples, where the former quotes directly what was said (present
indicative is used) and the latter expresses it indirectly (subjunctive I is used):

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Ger. Er hat sie gefragt: “Warum tanzt du nicht auch?” (present indicative)

- He asked her, "Why don't you dance too?"

Ger. Er hat sie gefragt, warum sie nicht auch tanze. (present subjunctive/subjunctive I)

- He asked her why she is not dancing too.

Note that in German, when the verb in the subordinate clause is in the past, this is always
conveyed by the past participle plus the subjunctive I of the auxiliary verbs haben/sein - “to have/to be”.

For example:

Ger. Er hat sie gefragt: “Warum hast du mich nicht angerufen?” (present indicative)

- He asked her, “why didn't you call me?”

Ger. Er hat sie gefragt, warum sie ihn nicht angerufen habe. (present subjunctive)

- He asked her why she didn't call him.

Observe more examples:

Ger. Er hat sie gefragt: “Warum bist du nicht nach Südafrika geflogen?” (present indicative)

- He asked her, “why didn't you fly to South Africa?”

Ger. Er hat sie gefragt, warum sie nicht nach Südafrika geflogen sei. (present subjunctive)
- He asked her why she didn’t fly to South Africa.

Remember that the present subjunctive (subjunctive I) is found very commonly in journalese.
However, it is always interchangeable with the present indicative.

Because three of the six persons of the verb are identical to the present indicative, the past
subjunctive forms (See also the Past Subjunctive (Subjunctive II) p. 552) are more frequently used
instead of the present subjunctive forms, for all six persons, when reporting indirect speech.

Below are alternative versions of the previously mentioned examples that express indirect speech
in German:

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Example 1

Ger. Er hat sie gefragt, warum sie nicht auch tanzt. (present indicative)

Ger. Er hat sie gefragt, warum sie nicht auch tanzte. (past subjunctive/subjunctive II)

Example 2

Ger. Er hat sie gefragt, warum sie ihn nicht angerufen hat. (present indicative)

Ger. Er hat sie gefragt, warum sie ihn nicht angerufen hätte. (past subjunctive/subjunctive II)

Example 3

Ger. Er hat sie gefragt, warum sie nicht nach Südafrika geflogen ist. (present indicative)

Ger. Er hat sie gefragt, warum sie nicht nach Südafrika geflogen wäre. (past subjunctive/subjunctive II)

Dutch
Unlike in German, in Dutch, the present subjunctive is usually used as part of fixed expressions.
For example:

Singular subjunctive:

Dut. Lang leve de koning! - Long live the king!

Dut. Moge de beste speler winnen. - May the best player win.

Singular subjunctive:

Dut. Lang leven de burgers! - Long live the citizens!

Dut. Mogen de beste sporters winnen. - May the best sportsmen win.

NOTE:
Remember that in Dutch, even though the subjunctive can be conjugated in all
eight tenses, it is only used in the present tense.

Afrikaans
As it was said earlier, the Afrikaans verb wees - “to be” is the only verb that has subjunctive
forms. In particular, the third person singular form of the present subjunctive, sy, is still slightly
productive in Afrikaans. Study the following:

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Afr. Hoe dit (ook) sy,… - Whatever the case may be,...

Afr. God sy met u. - God be with you

The Past Subjunctive

Overview

Unlike in English, Dutch and Afrikaans, the past subjunctive is very common in daily German. It
is found in many common expressions and is used to express doubt or politeness.

For example, there is only one living example of the past subjunctive in English, i.e. “If I were
rich, I would buy an island.” “If I were rich” states a hypothesis, as opposed to “I was rich”, which states
a fact.

However, unlike Dutch and Afrikaans, German makes the same distinction, for example:

Hypothesis Fact

German Wenn ich reich wäre, würde ich eine Insel kaufen. Ich war reich.

Dutch Als ik rijk was, zou ik een eiland kopen. Ik was rijk.

Afrikaans As ek ryk was, sou ek 'n eiland koop. Ek was ryk.

English If I were rich, I would buy an island. I was rich.

As seen from the above table, German always makes the distinction between the past subjunctive
(i.e. subjunctive II) and the past indicative (i.e. the preterite or imperfect).

In English, for example, it is only obvious with certain persons of the verb “to be” where “was”
and “were” alternate, whereas in Dutch and Afrikaans it is not obvious at all.

Below we will discuss the past subjunctive in German, Dutch and Afrikaans. Since the rules of the
past subjunctive formation and use are very divergent and particular for each language, it is necessary to
consider them separately in German, Dutch and Afrikaans.

German

Note that the past subjunctive (or Subjunctive II) is used much more often than the present
subjunctive (Subjunctive I), as it is crucial in German. Below we will consider the formation of the past
subjunctive:

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Formation of the Past Subjunctive (Subjunctive II) in German

Like in the preterite, it is important to note that the difference between a regular and an irregular
verb really comes to the fore in the past subjunctive in German (See also the Preterite p. 481).

For example, verb like Ger. trinken - “to drink” and many others, don’t differ from regular verbs
in the present subjunctive, but they certainly do in the past subjunctive.

Compare the following:

The Present Subjunctive The Past Subjunctive

German ich trinke ich tränke

Like in the preterite, the German verbs in the past subjunctive (subjunctive II) can be divided into
two major groups according to whether:

1. the preterite is formed by the addition of a suffix to the stem. This group of verbs is called “weak verbs”.
For example:

German leben (to live) ich lebte

2. the past subjunctive is formed by a vowel change in the stem itself and by the addition of a suffix to the
changed stem. This category of verbs is called “strong verbs”. For instance:

German singen (to sing) ich sänge

Formation of the Subjunctive II of Regular Verbs in German

The past subjunctive (subjunctive II) of regular verbs is formed by dropping the infinitive ending
-en and adding the appropriate personal ending to the present infinitive stem of a verb in German.

Below is the formula for the formation of the past subjunctive (subjunctive II) of the regular
verb Ger. tanzen - “to dance”:

Infinitive Stem Ending Subjunctive II (1st per. sing.)

German tanzen —> tanz- —> + ending —> ich tanzte

Below is a table demonstrating the endings of regular verbs in the past subjunctive
(subjunctive II) in German:

1st per. sing. -(e)te 1st per. pl. -(e)ten

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2nd per. sing. -(e)test 2nd per. pl. -(e)tet

3rd per. sing. -(e)te 3rd per. pl. -(e)ten

What follows is the conjugation of a regular verb, Ger. tanzen - “to dance” in the past subjunctive
(subjunctive II).

1st per. sing. ich tanzte 1st per. pl. wir tanzten

2nd per. sing. du tanztest 2nd per. pl. ihr tanztet

3rd per. sing. er, sie, es tanzte 3rd per. pl. sie, Sie tanzten

Common Verbs in The Subjunctive II

Below is the list of some frequently used regular verbs in the past subjunctive, as well as their 3rd
person singular form in German. It is worth mentioning that some of these verbs require spelling changes
in addition to adding the personal endings.

German English

antworten* (er antwortete) to answer (if he answered)

fragen (er fragte) to ask (if he asked)

bauen (er baute) to build (if he built)

kosten* (es kostete) to cost (if it cost)

enden* (er endete) to end (if he ended)

hören (er hörte) to hear (if he heard)

sagen (er sagte) to say (if he said)

Remember that in German, the verbs marked with an asterisk require spelling changes in
addition to adding the appropriate personal endings (See below).

Spelling Changes of Regular Verbs in the Past Subjunctive (Subjunctive II)

in German

Just like in a verb conjugation of the preterite tense, in the past subjunctive, there are also some
verbs whose spelling changes in order to preserve the correct pronunciation (sound) presented in the
infinitive in German. Below are the rules of the spelling changes in a verb conjugation:

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• When the stem of a verb ends in -t or -d, an additional -e- is inserted between the stem and the -te,
-test, -te, -ten, -tet and -ten endings in the preterite, for example: arbeiten - to work and reden - to
talk:

Arbeiten: ich arbeitete - du arbeitetest - er/sie/es arbeitete - wir arbeiteten - ihr arbeitetet - sie
arbeiteten.

Reden: ich redete - du redetest - er/sie/es redete - wir redeten - ihr redetet - sie redeten.

Below are some common verbs that add an additional -e- before a -te, -test, -te, -ten, -tet
and -ten ending:

antworten to answer

arbeiten to work

bedeuten to mean

enden to end

falten to fold

kosten to cost

reden to talk

senden to send

warten to wait

• Verbs whose stem ends in a consonant + n or m also add an -e- before the endings -te, -test, -te, -ten,
-tet and -ten in the preterite in order to make them easier to pronounce, for instance: öffnen - to open
and widmen - to devote:

Öffnen: ich öffnete - du öffnetest - er/sie/es öffnete - wir öffneten - ihr öffnetet - sie öffneten.

Widmen: ich widmete - du widmetest - er/sie/es widmete - wir widmeten - ihr widmetet - sie widmeten.

The following are some common verbs in this category:

atmen to breathe

öffnen to open

widmen to devote

zeichnen to draw

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The Subjunctive II of Irregular Verbs in German

Unlike the (weak) regular verbs which use the same infinitive stem, to form the past subjunctive
(subjunctive II), the strong verbs have stem changes to signify the past subjunctive in German.

Below is the formula for the formation of the past subjunctive (subjunctive II) of the irregular
verb Ger. singen - “to sing:

Infinitive Subjunctive II Stem Subjunctive II (3rd per. sing.)

German singen (to sing) —> säng —> er sänge

As you can see, the irregular verbs in the past subjunctive (subjunctive II) are formed by changing
of the vowel in the stem of the verb in German.

Compare how a typical strong verb is conjugated in the present subjunctive (subjunctive I) and in
the past subjunctive (subjunctive II):

Below we will conjugate the (strong) irregular verb, Ger. singen - “to sing”, in the subjunctive I
and in the subjunctive II:

German

Subjunctive I Subjunctive II

ich singe ich sänge

du singest du sängest

er, sie, es singe er, sie, es sänge

wir singen wir sängen

ihr singet ihr sänget

sie, Sie singen sie, Sie sängen

Furthermore, as it is seen from the table, in German, personal endings are also added to the past
subjunctive (subjunctive II) stem of irregular verbs to form the past subjunctive conjugations.

For example, the endings -est (in the 2nd person singular), -en (in the 1st and 3rd persons
plural), and -t (in the 2nd person plural) must be added to the preterite stem. The preterite stem is usually
considered to be the 3rd person singular in German, which must be memorized to conjugate strong verbs
correctly.

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Below is a table demonstrating the endings of irregular verbs in the subjunctive II in German:

subjunctive II stem + -e, -est, -e, -en, -et, -en

Below is the full conjugation of an irregular (strong) verb Ger. werden - “to become” in the past
subjunctie (subjunctive II) in German:

1st per. sing. ich würde 1st per. pl. wir würden

2nd per. sing. du würdest 2nd per. pl. ihr würdet

3rd per. sing. er, sie, es würde 3rd per. pl. sie, Sie würden

It must be mentioned that in German a lot of strong verbs from the above table are practically
never used any more in the subjunctive II (See also The Subjunctive II Verb Forms that are still
Used in German p. 558).

For example, take the following phrase:

“It wouldn't surprise me if she met him before.”

Whenever an if-clause is used in combination with a would-clause, the verb in the if-clause uses a
subjunctive II form, thus we would express this phrase in the following way in German:

Ger. Es würde mich nicht überraschen, wenn sie ihn schon einmal träfe.

Although this is grammatically correct German, it sounds very unnatural and would rarely be
heard. The forms like träfe are normally replaced by treffen würde in natural sounding German, for
instance:

Ger. Es würde mich nicht überraschen, wenn sie ihn schon einmal treffen würde.

Compare the English: It wouldn't surprise me if she were to meet him before.

Note that with some of the more commonly used verbs, like kommen - “to come”, you can hear
either käme or kommen würde. Study the following:

Ger. Es würde mich nicht überraschen, wenn er käme.

(or Es würde mich nicht überraschen, wenn er kommen würde.)

- It wouldn't surprise me if he came.

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However, with less common verbs only the latter will be usually heard (e.g.: not flöge but fliegen
würde). Observe the following:

Ger. Es würde mich nicht überraschen, wenn er nach Namibia fliegen würde.

(not … wenn er nach Namibia flöge.)

- It wouldn't surprise me if he flew to Namibia.

The Subjunctive II Verb Forms that are still Used in German

• In practice you will find the subjunctive II verb forms of only a handful of verbs that are still frequently
used. These verbs are as follows:

German English

sein (wäre) to be

haben (hätte) to have

kommen (käme) (less common) to come

gehen (ginge) (less common) to go

Below is the conjugation of the verbs Ger. sein and haben - “to be” and “to have” in the
subjunctive II in German:

German

to be to have

1st per. sing. ich wäre ich hätte

2nd per. sing. du wärest du hättest

3rd per. sing. er, sie, es wäre er, sie, es hätte

1st per. pl. wir wären wir hätten

2nd per. pl. ihr wäret ihr hättet

3rd per. sing. sie, Sie wären sie, Sie hätten

Observe the following examples:

Ger. Wenn ich ein Auto hätte, würde ich nach Bern fahren.

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- If I had a car, I would drive to Bern.

Ger. Wenn er reicher wäre, würde er viel reisen.

- If he were richer, he would travel a lot.

• Generally speaking, in addition to wäre and hätte, you will also need to use the subjunctive II of modal
verbs as well as that of werden and wissen, for example:

German English

dürfen (dürfte) to be allowed to, may

können (könnte) can

mögen (möchte) to like, would like to

müssen (müsste) must

werden (würde) will, to become

wissen (wüsste) to know

Study the following examples:

Ger. Ich möchte eine Tasse Kaffee trinken.

- I would like to have a cup of coffee.

Ger. Wenn sie Nüsse essen dürfte, würde sie den Kuchen probieren.

- If she was allowed to eat nuts, she would try the cake.

Ger. Wenn ich Sie noch einmal besuchen könnte, würde ich kommen.

- If I could visit you again, I would come.

Note that all of these verbs, with the exception of wissen, are normally used as auxiliary verbs.
We added the verb wissen only because of the frequency of the following expression:

Ger. Wenn ich nur wüsste!

- If only I knew.

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Could/Should Have Done in German

In order to render “could have done” and “should have done” in German, the following formula is
used:

hätte + infinitive + können or sollen

Study the following examples:

Ger. Ich hätte es machen können. - I could have done it.

Ger. Ich hätte dich anrufen sollen. - I should have called you.

Dutch
Just like in English, in Dutch, the past subjunctive form of the verb zijn - “to be”, which is ware -
“was/were”, is still used. However, its use limited to the following fixed expression:

Dut. ware het niet… - were it not…

Study the following example:

Dut. Ik zou morgen naar Pretoria vliegen, ware het niet dat de vlucht morgen weer wordt geannuleerd.

- I would fly to Pretoria tomorrow were it not that the flight is cancelled again tomorrow.

Afrikaans
The past (imperfect) subjunctive form of the verb wees - “to be” , which is ware - “were", has
only survived in the following idiomatic expression:

Afr. as't ware. - as it were.

The following examples show that the imperfect subjunctive has been replaced by the past
(imperfect) tense in modern Afrikaans, as in spoken English:

Afr. Ek wens ek was baie ryk. - I wish I was/were very rich.

Afr. As ek jy was, was ek in Berlyn. - If I were you, I would have been in Berlin.

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The Passive Voice

Overview

Generally, passive constructions are formed when the objects of active constructions become the
subjects of the passive verbs. The following is the example of a passive construction in English:

Active voice Passive voice

My friend wrote the book. The book was written by my friend.

The passive voice in the West Germanic languages is not very different from English and is
formed and used more or less exactly as it is in English. Below we will consider the formation of the
passive voice.

Formation of the Passive Voice

The passive voice is formed by using the conjugated forms of the verbs Ger. sein/werden, Dut.
zijn/worden and Afr. wees/word - “to be/to become” plus the past participle of the verb.

The person or the agent performing the action is normally introduced by the preposition von (in
German), door (in Dutch) and deur (in Afrikaans), which corresponds to the English “by”.

Below is the table that shows the formation of the passive voice in the West Germanic
languages:

German sein/werden von

Dutch zijn/worden door

+ Past Participle +
Afrikaans wees/word deur

English to be by

Observe the following examples:

Active voice Passive voice

German Mein Vater kauft das Haus. Das Haus wird von meinem Vater gekauft.

Dutch Mijn vader koopt het huis. Het huis wordt door mijn vader gekocht.

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Active voice Passive voice

Afrikaans My pa koop die huis. Die huis word deur my pa gekoop.

English My father buys the house. The house is bought by my father.

Like in English, in other West Germanic languages the passive voice can be used in all tenses,
which means that all tenses in the active voice can be replaced by an equivalent with the verb in the
passive voice.

For example, German, Dutch and/or Afrikaans, the passive voice can take the passive simple,
passive perfect, passive pluperfect, etc.

Below is the illustration of all forms of the passive voice in German, Dutch and Afrikaans. The 1st
person singular of the verb Ger. lesen; Dut. lezen; Afr. lees - "to read” was taken as an example.

German Dutch Afrikaans English

Present tenses

Present Das Buch wird Het boek wordt Die boek word gelees The book is (being)
gelesen gelezen read
Present Das Buch ist gelesen Het boek is gelezen. Die boek is gelees The book has been
Perfect read
Past tenses

Preterite/ Das Buch wurde Het boek werd Die boek is gelees The book was
Imperfect gelesen gelezen (being) read

Pluperfect Das Buch war Het boek was gelezen Die boek was gelees The book had been
gelesen read
Future tenses

Future Das Buch wird Het boek zal gelezen Die boek sal gelees The book will be
gelesen werden worden word read
Future Das Buch wird Het boek zal gelezen Die boek sal gelees The book will have
Perfect gelesen worden sein zijn gewees het been read

Conditionals

Conditional Das Buch würde Het boek zou gelezen Die boek sou gelees The book would be
Present gelesen werden worden word read

Conditional Das Buch wäre Het boek zou gelezen Die boek sou gelees The book would have
Perfect gelesen worden zijn gewees het been read

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Passive Voice with Ger. Sein/Werden, Dut. Zijn/Worden, Afr. Wees/

Word
It should be noted that in English, we use the verb “to be” for both the simple and the perfect
tenses in order to form the passive voice.

In German, Dutch and Afrikaans, on the other hand, we use two different verbs: Ger. sein and
werden, Dut. zijn and worden, Afr. wees and word - “to be” and “to become”.

Werden, Worden, Word with Past Participle:

• The verb Ger. werden, Dut. worden, Afr. word, the independent meaning of which is “to become”, is
used if the event is/was still going on at this particular moment (present/preterite/imperfect tense). In
English, we would use the simple tense of the verbs “to be”, “to become” or “to get”:

Ger. Das Buch wird von meinem Freund geschrieben.

Dut. Het boek wordt door mijn vriend geschreven.

Afr. Die boek word deur my vriend geskryf.

- The book is (being) written by my friend.

NOTE:
Unlike German and Duch, Afrikaans does not have the preterite (imperfect)
forms and, thus, wees - “to be” is used in the perfect form to express an action in
the past. Compare the following:

Ger. Das Buch wurde von meinem Freund geschrieben.

Dut. Het boek werd door mijn vriend geschreven.
Afr. Die boek is deur my vriend geskryf.
- The book was (being) written by my friend.

Sein, Zijn, Wees with Past Participle:

• The verb Ger. sein, Dut. zijn, Afr. wees - “to be” is used when we want to show that an event has
already happened or been done (perfect /pluperfect tense). In English, we would use the perfect tense of
the verb “to be".

Ger. Das Buch ist von meinem Freund geschrieben.

Dut. Het boek is door mijn vriend geschreven.

Afr. Die boek is deur my vriend geskryf.

- The book has been written by my friend.

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Ger. Das Buch war von meinem Freund geschrieben.

Dut. Het boek was door mijn vriend geschreven.

Afr. Die boek was deur my vriend geskryf.

- The book had been written by my friend.

Modal Verbs in the Passive Voice

In German, Dutch and Afrikaans, when the passive voice is used in combination with modal
verbs, the order of the auxiliary verbs and the past participle in main and subordinate clauses is as follows
(See also Modal Verbs in the Present Tense p. 430):

Present Simple:

Ger. Etwas muss getan werden. Ger. Er kann nicht gefeuert werden.

Dut. Iets moet gedaan worden. Dut. Hij kan niet ontslagen worden.

Afr. Iets moet gedoen word. Afr. Hy kan nie afgedank word nie.

- Something must be done. - He cannot be fired.

Preterite (Imperfect):

Ger. Das Haus musste repariert werden. Ger. Er konnte nicht gefeuert werden.

Dut. Het huis moest gerepareerd worden. Dut. Hij kon niet ontslagen worden.

Afr. Die huis moes reggemaak word. Afr. Hy kon nie ontslaan word nie.
- The house had to be fixed. - He couldn't be fired.

Future:

Ger. Das wird gebaut werden müssen. Ger. Das wird gebaut werden können.

Dut. Daar zal gebouwd moeten worden. Dut. Dat zal gebouwd kunnen worden.

Afr. Dit sal gebou moet word. Afr. Dit sal gebou kan word.

- That will have to be built. - That will be able to be built.

Since the use of the modal verbs in the perfect tense may seem awkward (especially in the future
perfect), we will give the example only in the present perfect:

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Present Perfect:

Ger. Es hat getan werden können. Ger. Es hat getan werden sollen.

Dut. Dit had gedaan kunnen worden. Dut. Het had gedaan moeten worden.

Afr. Dit kon gedoen gewees het. Afr. Dit moes gedoen gewees het.

- It could have been done. - It should have been done.

Use of the Introductory Ger. es, Dut. er, Afr. daar with Passives
German, Dutch and Afrikaans can sometimes use the passive voice in ways that are not easily
transferred to English.

For example, the introductory Ger. es, Dut. er and Afr. daar - “there/it” is often used to start a
passive main clause.

It should be noted that if some other element is put in the first position, the introductory Ger. es,
Dut. er and Afr. daar usually disappears. Compare two examples:

Example 1 Example 2

German Es wird nur Niederländisch gesprochen. Hier wird nur Niederländisch gesprochen.

Dutch Er wordt alleen Nederlands gesproken. Hier wordt alleen Nederlands gesproken.

Afrikaans Daar word net Nederlands gepraat. Hier word net Nederlands gepraat.

English - Only Dutch is spoken. - Here only Dutch is spoken.

As we can see from the example 2, the introductory Ger. es and Dut. er - “there” is omitted in
German and Dutch, because we put the adverb hier in the first position.

Furthermore, in German, Dutch and Afrikaans, the passive voice introduced by Ger. es, Dut. er,
Afr. daar can also be used without any grammatical subject; such a construction must be expressed in
English by a paraphrase:

Ger. Es wird viel gelacht.

Dut. Er wordt veel gelachen.

Afr. Daar word baie gelag.

- There is a lot of laughing.

Ger. Es wurde viel getanzt

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Dut. Er werd veel gedanst

Afr. Daar is baie gedans

- There was a lot of dancing.

It is worth mentioning that in German, the introductory Ger. es is especially common in the
passive with verbs that take the dative:

Ger. Es wird mir geholfen.

- I am being helped.

However, when another element is put in the first position, the German es normally disappears,
for example:

Ger. oft wird mir geholfen.

- I am often helped.

The Statal Passive

The passive voice assumes that an action is taking place, whereas the statal passive denotes a state
that has resulted from a previous action.

Unlike the passive voice, which is used with the verb Ger. werden, Dut. worden, Afr. word, the
statal passive must be used with the verb Ger. sein, Dut. zijn, Afr. wees - “to be” + the past participle,
which is used adjectivally. Compare the following:

Passive Voice (action) Statal Passive (state)

German Die Straße wird gesperrt. Die Straße ist gesperrt.

Dutch De straat wordt geblokkeerd. De straat is geblokkeerd.

Afrikaans Die straat word versper. Die straat is versper.

English - The street is being blocked. - The street is blocked.

However, note that German, Dutch and Afrikaans make no visual distinction between the perfect
tense of a passive action and the statal passive.

For example, in German, Dutch and Afrikaans, “the street is blocked” (state of being) means the
same as saying “the street has been blocked”. These two phrases are expressed in the same way using the
verb Ger. sein, Dut. zijn, Afr. wees - “to be” in German, Dutch and Afrikaans respectively. Study the
following:

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Passive Voice (action) Statal Passive (state)

German Die Straße ist gesperrt. Die Straße ist gesperrt.

Dutch De straat is geblokkeerd. De straat is geblokkeerd.

Afrikaans Die straat is versper. Die straat is versper.

English - The street has been blocked. - The street is blocked.

Alternatives to Passive Voice in the West Germanic Languages

Note that there is a number of equivalent constructions which can also be used instead of the
passive voice in German, Dutch and Afrikaans:

• To convert a passive construction into an active voice.

If the agent is expressed, the passive voice in German, Dutch and Afrikaans could be avoided,
especially in informal speech, by converting a passive construction into an active one. Observe the
following:

Passive Active

German Dieses Lied wurde von einem bekannten Ein bekannter Sänger hat dieses Lied
Sänger geschrieben. geschrieben.
Dutch Dit nummer werd door een populaire Een populaire zanger heeft dit nummer
zanger geschreven. geschreven.
Afrikaans Hierdie liedjie is deur 'n gewilde sanger ’n Gewilde sanger het hierdie liedjie
geskryf. geskryf
English This song was written by a popular A popular singer wrote this song.
singer.

• Using an impersonal pronoun man (in German), men (in Dutch), mens (in Afrikaans):

When the agent is not given, it is possible to replace the passive voice by using an impersonal
pronoun Ger. man, Dut. men, Afr. mens meaning “one”, “they”, “people”. This construction uses the
active voice (See Impersonal Pronoun Ger. Man, Dut. Men, Afr. (’n) Mens - “One” p. 254).

NOTE:
When Ger. man, Dut. men, Afr, mens is used, the verb is conjugated in the 3rd
person singular.

Ger. Man kann ein Buch schreiben.

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Dut. Men kan een boek schrijven.

Afr. 'n Mens kan 'n boek skryf.

- One can write a book.

Remember that colloquially German, Dutch and Afrikaans can also use the generic Ger. du/Sie,
Dut. jij (je)/u, Afr. jy/u - “you” in the same way:

Ger. Du musst hart arbeiten.

Dut. Je moet hard werken.

Afr. Jy moet hard werk.

- You must work hard.

It is also possible to use the generic Ger. sie; Dut. ze, Afr. hulle - “they” in German, Dutch and
Afrikaans respectively. To demonstrate:

Ger. Sie bauen hier eine Kirche.

Dut. Ze bouwen hier een kerk.

Afr. Hulle bou 'n kerk hier.

- They are building a church here.

• Using the reflexive.

Constructions with the reflexive pronoun sich (in German), zichzelf (in Dutch), homself (in
Afrikaans) with the 3rd person singular or plural form of some verb are rather common in German,
Dutch and Afrikaans. There is an English equivalent, without the reflexive, but usually not.

Note that these constructions are predominantly used when the subject (the agent) by whom the
action is fulfilled is not a person or unimportant. In this case the verb agrees with the subject in number:

Ger. Dieses Produkt verkauft sich sehr gut.

Dut. Dit product verkoopt zichzelf zeer goed.

Afr. Hierdie produk verkoop homself baie goed.

- This product is selling very well.

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• Using the construction Ger. sein + zu, Dut. zijn + te, Afr. wees + om te + infinitive:

The construction Ger. sein + zu, Dut. zijn + te, Afr. wees + om te + infinitive implies Ger.
können, Dut. kunnen, Afr. kan - “can” and is sometimes equivalent to the English “is/are to +
infinitive”. Study the following:

Below is the formula for this construction:

German sein + zu

Dutch zijn + te + infinitive

Afrikaans wees + om te

Study the following:

Ger. Das Haus ist leicht zu reparieren.

Dut. Het huis is gemakkelijk te repareren.

Afr. Die huis is maklik om te herstel.

- The house is easy to repair.

The same phrase in the passive voice would be as follows:

Ger. Das Haus kann leicht repariert werden.

Dut. Het huis kan gemakkelijk worden gerepareerd.

Afr. Die huis kan maklik herstel word.

- The house can easily be repaired.

It is worth noting that German, Dutch and Afrikaans use the passive voice somewhat a bit less
than English does. Overuse of the passive voice in German, Dutch an Afrikaans can make what is being
said impersonal and probably difficult to follow.

Below we will consider when the passive voice should be used in the West Germanic languages.

When to Use the Passive Voice

Note that there is a number of cases in which the passive voice is used in German, Dutch and
Afrikaans. It is used:

• When the action being done is more important rather than who actually does it:

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Ger. Das Auto wurde (von meinem Sohn) gewaschen.

Dut. De auto werd (door mijn zoon) gewassen.

Afr. Die kar is (deur my seun) gewas.

- The car was washed (by my son).

•When it is not known who is doing the action:

Did you know?

The Loch Logan Waterfront is the Ger. Hier wird eine neue Moschee gebaut.
largest shopping centre in central South
Africa. It spans around 80 000 m2 of space and Dut. Hier wordt een nieuwe moskee gebouwd.
offers a vast range of shopping, entertainment,
dining, sport and leisure options for locals and Afr. Hier word 'n nuwe moskee gebou.
visitors in Bloemfontein.
- Here a new mosque is being built.

• When the general statement is implied:

Ger. In Südafrika wird der Präsident alle fünf Jahre gewählt.

Dut. In Zuid-Afrika wordt de president elke vijf jaar gekozen.

Afr. In Suid-Afrika word die president elke vyf jaar verkies.

- In South Africa the president is elected every five years.

• When the implied subject is not a person but an organization or a formal institution. In this case, the use
of the passive voice makes the text quite formal:

Ger. Den Reisenden wird empfohlen, mit der Bahn anzureisen.

Dut. De reizigers wordt geadviseerd om met de trein te reizen.

Afr. Die reisigers word aangeraai om per trein te reis.

- The travellers are advised to travel by train.

The Continuous Tenses

Formation of Continuous Tenses

The continuous or progressive tenses show that the action of the verb is in the process of taking
place in the West Germanic languages.

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Unlike in English, in which the continuous tense is formed with the present participle (gerund) of
the verb with an appropriate form of the verb “to be” (e.g. I am reading a book.), in German, Dutch and
Afrikaans, it is rendered simply by using the present simple tense, for example:

Ger. Ich lese ein Buch.

Dut. Ik lees een boek.

Afr. Ek lees 'n boek.

- I am reading a book.

Even though it is a usual way of expressing continuous structures in German, Dutch and
Afrikaans, it is not the only way.

When a certain emphasis is put on the continuity of an action, the continuous structures can be
rendered in one of the following ways in German, Dutch and Afrikaans:

German
• The following construction is commonly used in German if there is a need to emphasize that an action is
ongoing:

German English

gerade dabei sein, … zu + infinitive to be in the process of + present participle

(gerund or -ing verb)

For example:

Ger. Er ist gerade dabei, ein Buch zu schreiben.

- He is (in the process of) writing a book.

• There is another common construction to render the continuous in German. Study the following:

German English

beim sei + infinitival noun to be + present participle (gerund or -ing verb)

For instance:

Ger. - Was machen Sie? - Sie sind beim Studieren. (or Sie studieren.)

- What are they doing? - They are studying.

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Dutch and Afrikaans

• In Dutch and Afrikaans, the following verbs of position can be used in combination with Dut. te and
Afr. en + the infinitive to express the progressive:

Dutch Afrikaans English

liggen lê to lie

zitten sit to sit

staan staan to stand

lopen loop to walk

Below is the full formula for this construction:

Dutch liggen, zitten, staan, lopen + te

+ infinitive
Afrikaans lê, sit, staan, loop + en

Observe the following:

Dut. - Wat doe je? Ek zit te studeren.

Afr. - Wat doen jy? Ek sit en studeer.

- What are they doing? - I am studying.

(lit.: “I am sitting and studying” or “I am studying while sitting down)

Dut. Ze ligt te slapen.

Afr. Sy lê en slaap.

- She is sleeping.

(lit.: “She is lying and sleeping” or “She is sleeping while lying)

Dut. Hij loopt te zingen.

Afr. Hy loop en sing.

- He is singing.

(lit.: “He is walking along singing” or “He is singing while walking)

Dut. Wij staan te koken.

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Afr. ons staan en kook.

- We are cooking.

(lit.: “We are cooking and standing” or “We are cooking while standing)

It is worth saying that the verbs Dut. liggen, zitten, staan, lopen; Afr. lê, sit, staan, loop
should not be understood too literally in their dictionary meanings. These verbs do not necessarily have to
mean if the action being performed is being done in a standing or sitting position.

However, this is most usually the case and the verbs Dut. liggen, zitten, staan, lopen; Afr. lê,
sit, staan, loop can only be used with reference to actions that can be performed in those positions as
the following phrases show:

Dut. Ze ligt te slapen.

Afr. Sy lê en slaap.

(lit.: “She is lying and sleeping” or “She is sleeping while lying)

Although the phrase Dut. Ze ligt te denken; Afr. Sy lê en dink. - “I am thinking” is possible, the
phrase Dut. Ze zit/staat te denken; Afr. Sy sit/staan en dink. - “I am thinking” would be a more
common option. Remember that this phrase can also be rendered by using the present simple tense, for
example:

Dut. Zij denkt.

Afr. Sy dink.

- She is thinking.

In Dutch, the perfect tense of this continuous construction is formed by omitting the preposition
te and using the conjugated verb hebben - “to have” + the infinitive form of verbs liggen, zitten, staan,
lopen + any other infinitive instead of a past participle to express the progressive.

NOTE:
In Afrikaans, however, the present perfect tense is usually used in this case (See
Present Perfect p. 467).

Below is the formula for these constructions:

Dutch hebben + infinitive of liggen, zitten, staan, lopen + infinitive

Afrikaans hê + past participle

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Compare the following:

Dut. Ik heb zitten studeren.

Afr. Ek het gestudeer.

- I have been studying.

Dut. Ze heeft liggen slapen.

Afr. Sy het geslaap.

- She has been sleeping.

It should be mentioned that like in Afrikaans, in Dutch, the “normal” present perfect (non-
continuous) is used much more often than the continuous perfect. Study the same example:

Dut. Ik heb gestudeerd.

- I have been studying.

Dut. Ze heeft geslapen.

- She has been sleeping.

• Like in English, in Dutch and Afrikaans the verb Dut. zijn, Afr. wees - “to be" can also be used to
express the continuous.
It is formed by a conjugation of Dut. zijn, Afr. wees followed by the words Dut. aan het, Afr.
wees aan die + the infinitive of the verb that expresses the action.

The formula of this continuous construction in Dutch and Afrikaans is the following:

Dutch zijn + aan het

+ infinitive
Afrikaans wees + aan die

Note that the Dutch and Afrikaans word aan is a preposition meaning “at” and the word het in
Dutch and die in Afrikaans is a definite article “the”.

Remember that in order to form the continuous we need to conjugate the verbs Dut. zijn, Afr.
wees in the present tense (e.g. I am reading) or in the past tense (e.g. I was reading).

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Below is the table showing the example of conjugation of the verb Dut. zijn and Afr. wees in
the present tense:

Dutch zijn:
ik ben, jij bent, hij/zij/het is, wij zijn, + aan het
jullie zijn, zij zijn
+ infinitive
Afrikaans wees:
ek is, jy is, hy/sy/dit is, ons is, julle is, + aan die
hulle is

Below is the table showing the example of conjugation of the verb Dut. zijn and Afr. wees in
the past tense:

Dutch zijn:
ik was, jij was, hij/zij/het was, wij + aan het
waren, jullie waren, zij waren
+ infinitive
Afrikaans wees:
ek was, jy was, hy/sy/dit was, ons + aan die
was, julle was, hulle was

Study the following examples:

Dut. Ik ben een boek aan het lezen.

Afr. Ek is 'n boek aan die lees.

- I am reading a book.

Did you know? Dut. Hij is een brief aan het schrijven.

Düsseldorf is a city in western Germany Afr. Hy is 'n brief aan die skryf.
known for its world-class shopping,
fashion industry, and art scene. - He is writing a letter.

The Königsallee ("King's Avenue"), nicknamed

Kö, is one of Germany's busiest and most
Dut. De kinderen waren aan het spelen.
famous shopping streets with lots of jewellery
shops, designer labels, fashion showrooms and Afr. Die kinders was aan die speel.
luxury retail stores.
- The children were playing.

NOTE:
In Dutch and Afrikaans, an older form of this structure is also used in the
written language, for example:

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Dut. Ik ben 'n boek aan 't lezen.

Afr. Ek is 'n boek aan't lees.
- I am reading a book.

Dut. De kinderen waren aan 't spelen.

Afr. Die kinders was aan't speel.
- The children were playing.

• Another way to express an action in progress in Dutch and Afrikaans is with the following expresion:

The formula of this continuous construction in Dutch and Afrikaans is the following:

Dutch bezig zijn te

+ infinitive
Afrikaans besig wees te

In English, this construction can be rendered as “to be busy/in the process of doing something”.

Study the following examples:

Dut. Ik ben bezig een brief te schrijven.

Afr. Ek is besig om 'n brief te skryf.

- I am writing a letter.

Note that very often the use of this structure corresponds to its literal equivalent in English, for
example:

Dut. Ze is bezig het boek te lezen.

Afr. Sy is besig om die boek te lees.

- She is busy doing the washing-up.

This construction can also be used in the past in Dutch and Afrikaans, for instance:

Dut. Ik was bezig een brief te schrijven.

Afr. Ek is/was besig gewees om n' brief te skryf.

- I was writing a letter.

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 CHAPTER 6: VERBS

• There is another similar construction to render the continuous in Dutch and Afrikaans. Study the
following:

Dutch bezig zijn met

Afrikaans besig wees met

For instance:

Dut. Ik ben bezig met het schrijven van een brief.

Afr. Ek is besig met die skryf van 'n brief.

- I am writing a letter.

Use of Continuous Tenses

Just like in English, in other West Germanic languages the continuous is normally used with
action verbs in order to express that an action is taking place.

The Present Continuous

In German, Dutch and Afrikaans, the present continuous is primarily used:

• for an action that is taking place at the present moment. For example:

Ger. Ich bin beim Essen. (or Ich esse.)

Dut. Ik ben aan het eten. (or Ik zit te eten.)

Afr. Ek is aan die eet. (or Ek sit en eet.)

- I am eating.

The Past (Imperfect) Continuous

In West Germanic languages this tense is used similarly as the present continuous, but referring
to a past time.

Ger. Als ich ankam, war sie gerade dabei zu lesen.

Dut. Toen ik aankwam, was ze aan het lezen.

Afr. Toe ek daar aankom, was sy aan die lees.

- When I arrived she was reading.

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The Infinitive
Overview
The Infinitive is the basic form of the verb in any language. In English, the infinitive is preceded
by the preposition to (e.g. to go, to speak, to do etc.), while in the West Germanic languages, infinitives
are separated into three conjugations according to their endings.

In German and Dutch, infinitives nearly always end in -EN, whereas in Afrikaans infinitives do
not have endings. The infinitive forms show what an action is, but show nothing about who is doing the
action or at what time the action is performed.
In German and Dutch, in order to conjugate a verb, one needs to remove the infinitive ending and
add the appropriate tense's ending to the stem of the verb.

Unlike in German and Dutch, in Afrikaans and English, there is almost no distinction between the
infinitive and the stem of the verb.

Below is a table helping to nd the stem from the in nitive of the regular verbs in West
Germanic languages:

Infinitive Stem

German trinken —> trink-

Dutch drinken —> drink-

Afrikaans drink —> drink

English to drink —> drink

Remember that English always puts the particle “to” before the infinitive in isolation. In context,
however, there are occasions when this “to” may or may not be used.

Similarly in German, Dutch and Afrikaans, although the infinitive in isolation is never preceded
by Ger. zu, Dut. te, Afr. om te; in a sentence there are specific rules for when the particle Ger. zu, Dut.
te, Afr. om te is and is not used before an infinitive.

We will consider these rules bellow.

Rules for the use of Ger. zu, Dut. te, Afr. om te with Infinitives
In German, Dutch and Afrikaans, as a general rule one can say that an infinitive which is
dependent on a preceding finite verb and is placed at the end of a clause is preceded by Ger. zu, Dut. te,
Afr. om te. To illustrate:

Ger. Es ist schwer zu verstehen.

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 CHAPTER 6: VERBS

Dut. Het is moeilijk te begrijpen.

Afr. Dit is moeilik om te verstaan.

- It is difficult to understand.

Ger. Dieser Satz ist nicht leicht zu übersetzen.

Dut. Deze zin is niet gemakkelijk te vertalen.

Afr. Hierdie frase is nie maklik om te vertaal nie.

- This phrase is not easy to translate.

Omission of Ger. zu, Dut. te, Afr. om te

However, there are numerous cases in which Ger. zu, Dut. te, Afr. om te is omitted before the
infinitive, for example:

• It is never used after modal verbs when a modal is the finite verb in the clause. German, Dutch and
Afrikaans shares this feature with English:

Ger. Ich kann das machen.

Dut. Ik kan dat doen.

Afr. Ek kan dit doen.

- I can do that.

Ger. Sie müssen Deutsch lernen.

Dut. Ze moeten Duits leren.

Afr. Hulle moet Duits leer.

- They must (have to) learn German.

Note that the English modal verb “to want to”, where the second “to” is part of the verb (compare
“to have to” above), unlike German, Dutch and Afrikaans. Study the following:

Ger. Sie will auch reisen.

Dut. Ze wil ook reizen.

Afr. Sy wil ook reis.

- She wants to travel too.

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Use of Ger. um…zu, Dut. om…te, Afr. om…te before Infinitives

Ger. um…zu, Dut. om…te, Afr. om…te is often synonymous with the English “in order to”, for
instance:

• When “to” before an infinitive means “in order to”, we need to use Ger. um…zu, Dut. om…te, Afr.
om…te. This construction is called an infinitive clause.

This construction resembles the archaic English form “for to”. Study the following: “She went to
town for to buy a hat”. This form comes close to the literal meaning and feeling of Ger. um…zu, Dut.
om…te, Afr. om…te. Observe the following examples:

Ger. Sie ist gekommen, um etwas zu lernen.

Dut. Ze is gekomen om iets te leren.

Afr. Sy het gekom om iets te leer.

- She has come (in order) to learn something.

Ger. Wir gehen in die Stadt, um einen Hut zu kaufen.

Dut. We gaan naar de stad om een hoed te kopen.

Afr. Ons gaan stad toe om 'n hoed te koop.

- We are going to town (in order) to buy a hat.

• When a sentence begins with an infinitive clause, where “to” also means “in order to”, Ger. um…zu,
Dut. om…te, Afr. om…te is also used:

Ger. Um eine Fremdsprache gut zu lernen, muss man im Land leben.

Dut. Om een vreemde taal goed te leren, moet je in het land wonen.

Afr. Om 'n vreemde taal goed te leer, moet jy die land woon.

- (In order) To learn a foreign language well, you must live the country.

It should be said that in Dutch and Afrikaans, when a separable verb occurs in such an infinitive
clause, the Dut. om…te, Afr. om…te is placed between the prefix and the infinitive and the three are
written separately, for example:

Dut. Het is tijd om op te staan.

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 CHAPTER 6: VERBS

Afr. Dit is tyd om op te staan.

- It is time to get up.

NOTE:
In German, however, the zu is used between the prefix and the infinitive and the
three must be written together, for instance:

Ger. Es ist Zeit aufzustehen.

- It is time to get up.

Use of The Infinitive

The infinitive is generally used:

• As a noun
In German, Dutch and Afrikaans, when a verb functions as a noun, the infinitive must be used,
whereas in English the gerund (the “-ing” form of a verb) is used in this case. Such nouns are always
neuter in German and Dutch, for example:

Infinitive Infinitive Used as Noun

German kochen —> das Kochen

Dutch koken —> het koken

Afrikaans kook —> die kook

English to cook —> cooking

NOTE:
In German, verbs used as nouns are capitalized.

The infinitive can be used as the subject of a sentence or the object of another verb or preposition
in German, Dutch and Afrikaans. Study the following:

Ger. Das Reisen ist angenehm und lehrreich.

Dut. Het reizen is prettig en leerzaam.

Afr. Die reis is aangenaam en leersaam.

- Travelling is pleasant and educational.

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 CHAPTER 6: VERBS

Ger. Wir sind gegen (das) Rauchen.

Dut. Wij zijn tegen (het) roken.

Afr. Ons is teen (die) rook.

- We are against smoking.

• After conjugated verbs without a preposition

If one verb follows another, the second verb takes the infinitive when the subject of the first verb
is the same as that of the second in the West Germanic languages.

It is common for the modal verbs (e.g. can, should, must), which are usually followed by an
infinitive with no in-between preposition and also for verbs expressing feelings, necessity, and
accomplishment in German, Dutch and Afrikaans. Observe the following:

Ger. Ich kann mit ihm reden.

Dut. Ik kan met hem praten.

Afr. Ek kan met hom praat.

- I can talk to him.

• After expression with “to be” plus an adjective:

In German, Dutch and Afrikaans, expressions with the link verb Ger. sein, Dut. zijn, Afr. wees -
“to be” + an adjective are usually followed by Ger. um…zu, Dut. om…te, Afr. om…te + an infinitive.

Observe the formula:

German sein + zu

Dutch zijn + adjective + om te + infinitive

Afrikaans wees + om te

For instance:

Ger. Es ist leicht zu singen.

Dut. Het is gemakkelijk om te zingen.

Afr. Dit is maklik om te sing.

- It is easy to sing.

Ger. Es ist schwierig, diesen Text zu übersetzen.

Dut. Het is moeilijk om deze tekst te vertalen.

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Afr. Dit is moeilik om hierdie teks te vertaal.

- It is difficult to translate this text.

Ger. zu, Dut. te, Afr. om te + Infinitive: the “Verbable”

There are several Dutch, German and Afrikaans equivalents of the suffix “-able”, the most
common being Ger. -sam/-bar Dut. -zaam/-baar, Afr. -saam/-baar (See Adjective-forming
Suffixes in Germanic Languages p. 165).

When we want to say that something is “verb-able” (e.g. to understand -> understandable), we
can also use with the link verbs Ger. sein/bleiben, Dut. zijn/blijven, Afr. wees/bly - “to be/to stay” +
the particle Ger. zu, Dut. te, Afr. om te + an infinitive to express such constructions.

Observe the formula:

German sein/bleiben + zu

Dutch zijn/blijven + om te + infinitive

Afrikaans wees/bly + om te

Note that these constructions are considered to be adjectives. They do not have a present, past, or
perfect tense, nor does the infinitive function as an independent verb (See also Making Adjectives
from Verbs p. 167). Compare the word order of adjectives with the “verbable” constructions:

Example 1 (Adjective) Example 2 (Verbable)

German Das ist verständlich. Das ist zu verstehen.

Dutch Dat is begrijpelijk. Dat is te begrijpen.

Afrikaans Dit is verstaanbaar. Dit is om te verstaan.

English - That is understandable. - That can be understood.

Ger. lassen, Dut. laten, Afr. laat in Causative

Constructions
In the West Germanic languages the verb Ger. lassen, Dut. laten, Afr. laat is used to express the
causative, which indicates the idea of having someone do something or having something made or done,
and which corresponds to English causative construction “make someone do something or have
something done or made”.
Note that in Dutch and Afrikaans, these verbs, when followed by another verb, act as copulas, i.e.
the infinitives dependent on them are not preceded by Ger. zu; Dut., Afr. (om) te. Study the following:

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Ger. Ich lasse die Kinder essen.

Dut. Ik laat de kinderen eten.

Afr. Ek laat die kinders eet.

- I make (have) the children eat dinner.

NOTE:
In German, Dutch and Afrikaans, the verb Ger. lassen, Dut. laten, Afr. laat
can also mean “to let” (See p. 585), for example:

Ger. Ich lasse ihn fahren.

Dut. Ik laat hem rijden.
Afr. Ek laat hom ry.
- I am letting him drive.

It should be mentioned that if the object is a noun or a pronoun, they are placed before the
infinitive in German, Dutch and Afrikaans. For example:

Ger. Ich lasse die Kinder essen. - Ich lasse sie essen.

Dut. Ik laat de kinderen eten. - Ik laat ze eten.

Afr. Ek laat die kinders eet. - Ek laat hulle eet.

- I make (have) the children eat. - I make (have) them eat.

If either one or more of the objects is a pronoun, the object pronouns must follow the verb Ger.
lassen, Dut. laten, Afr. laat in German, Dutch and Afrikaans. If necessary, revise object pronouns (See
p. 263). Study the following:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

Die Mutter lässt ihre De moeder laat haar Die ma laat haar dogter The mother has her
Tochter den Text lesen. dochter de tekst lezen. die teks lees. daughter read the text.

Die Mutter lässt ihre De moeder laat haar Die ma laat haar dogter The mother has her
Tochter es lesen. dochter het lezen. dit lees. daughter read it.
Die Mutter lässt sie den De moeder laat haar de Die ma laat haar die teks The mother has her read
Text lesen. tekst lezen. lees. the text.

Die Mutter lässt sie es De moeder laat haar het Die ma laat haar dit lees. The mother has her read
lesen. lezen. it.

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Let and Verbs of Perception + the Infinitive in West

Germanic languages
In the West Germanic languages, after the verb Ger. lassen, Dut. laten, Afr. laat to express “to
let someone do something” and after the verbs of perception the infinitive is used.

Note that the particle Ger. zu, Dut. te, Afr. om te is omitted before the infinitive in this case. A
few common verbs of perception are:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

hören horen hoor to hear

sehen zien sien to see

zuhören luisteren luister to listen

fühlen voelen voel to feel

Unlike in English, in German, Dutch and Afrikaans, the infinitive follows the noun. The pronoun
is placed after the main verb. Study the following:

Ger. Ich lasse Paula die Lektion beenden -> Ich lasse sie die Arbeit beenden -> Ich lasse sie sie beenden.

Dut. Ik laat Paula de les beëindigen -> ik laat haar het werk beëindigen -> ik laat haar het beëindigen.

Afr. Ek laat Paula die les beëindig -> Ek laat haar die werk beëindig -> Ek laat haar dit beëindig.

- I let Paula finish the lesson -> I let her finish the work -> I let her finish it.

Ger. Ich sehe Ana lesen -> Ich sehe sie lesen.

Dut. Ik zie Ana lezen -> Ik zie haar lezen.

Afr. Ek sien Ana lees -> Ek sien haar lees.

- I see Ana reading -> I see her reading.

Ger. Er hörte seine Frau singen -> Er hörte sie singen.

Dut. Hij hoorde zijn vrouw zingen -> Hij hoorde haar zingen.

Afr. Hy het sy vrou hoor sing -> Hy het haar hoor sing.
- He heard his wife singing -> He heard her singing.

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 CHAPTER 6: VERBS

The Present Participle (Gerund)

Overview

The present participles (gerunds or -ing forms of the verb) also exist in German, Dutch and
Afrikaans, but are only used as attributive adjectives.

Generally speaking the present participle (gerund) expresses the concept of “while doing”, “in
doing” or “by doing” in the West Germanic languages. Below we will consider the formation of the
present participle (gerund) in German, Dutch and Afrikaans.

Formation of the Present Participle (Gerund)

In English, participial adjectives from present participles are formed by adding to a verb the
ending -ing, e.g. working, speaking etc.

In German, Dutch and Afrikaans, the present participle (gerund) is formed by adding Ger., Dut.-d
and Afr. -ende to the infinitive.

Below is a table showing how the present participle (gerund) of regular verbs is formed:

Infinitive Ending Present Part.

German singen + -d = singend

Dutch zingen + -d = zingend

Afrikaans sing + -ende = singende

English to sing + ing = singing

Observe the following example:

Did you know? Ger. Sie kam singend.

Rotterdam (lit. “The Dam on the River Dut. Ze kwam zingend.

Rotte”) is the second-largest city in the
Netherlands and has the largest seaport in Afr. Sy kom singende.
Europe.
- She came singing.

Ger. Der Junge ging weinend weg.

Dut. De jongen ging huilend weg.

Afr. Die seun is huilende weg.

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 CHAPTER 6: VERBS

- The boy went away crying.

When used as an attributive adjective, the present participle follows the rules of adjectives (See
The Present Participle as an Adjective p. 167 and Declension of Adjectival Endings p. 142).
To illustrate:

Ger. eine schlafende Katze.

Dut. een slapende kat.

Afr. 'n slapende kat.

- a sleeping cat.

Use of The Present Participle

The present participle is not as commonly used in German, Dutch and Afrikaans, as most English
“-ing” constructions are expressed in other ways. In German, Dutch and Afrikaans, the present participle
is used in the following instances:

• As an adjective

It is used as an attributive adjective that is formed from the present participle, in which case the
usual adjectival endings are added to the form in -d in German and Dutch if the adjective needs to be
inflected. An attributive adjective is put before a noun. Study the following example:

Ger. Ein arbeitender Mann ist produktiv.

Dut. Een werkende man is productief.

Afr. 'n Werkende man is produktief.

- A working man is productive.

Ger. Ich höre ein lachendes Kind.

Dut. Ik hoor een lachend kind.

Afr. Ek hoor 'n laggende kind.

- I hear a laughing child.

• As an adverb

In German, Dutch and Afrikaans, it is frequently used as an adverb of manner, in which case it
often has a direct parallel in English (See also Adverbs of Manner p. 181):

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Ger. Das Kind kommt lächelnd zurück.

Dut. Het kind komt glimlachend terug.

Afr. Die kind kom glimlaggende terug.

- The child is returning smiling.

• As an adjectival noun

It may also be used to form adjectival nouns (See also Adjectival Nouns p. 100):

Ger. ein Überlebender (Überleben)

Dut. een overlevende (overleven)

Afr.'n oorlewende (oorleef)

- a survivor (to survive)

No Use of Present Participle (Gerund)

There are some situations in which English uses words forms with “-ing” ending that cannot be
expressed by a gerund in German, Dutch and Afrikaans.

• As a verbal noun

The infinitive is used, rather than the gerund in order to form a verbal noun (See Use of the
Infinitive p. 581). Study the following:

Ger. Ich mag das Schwimmen.

Dut. Ik hou van het zwemmen.

Afr. Ek hou van die swem.

- I like swimming.

The Imperative Mood

The imperative mood is usually used to express orders or commands. The exclamation marks
must be used in the imperative (e.g. Stand up! Sit down!).

The West Germanic languages have several categories of commands that include both affirmative
and negative commands. They are: informal commands, formal commands, let’s commands and
indirect commands.

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1. Informal Commands
Affirmative informal commands, are used to tell your friend, family member or child to do
something.

In German, the singular form of the affirmative informal command is like the du form of the verb
in the present tense, but without the -st or -t ending. For example, the imperative that corresponds to du
gibst - “you give” becomes gib - “give!” in the imperative.

The plural form of the affirmative informal command is identical with the 2nd person plural of
the present indicative.

Unlike in German, in Dutch, we do not have the plural form of the imperative. Instead, we use the
present tense of the 1st person singular to form the imperative construction. For regular verbs, this is the
verb stem.

NOTE:
Unlike in German and Dutch, in Afrikaans, however, the imperative is identical
to the stem of the verb regardless of whether one is addressing someone in the
polite or familiar form or whether it is singular or plural.

Observe the example of the singular and plural forms of the affirmative informal commands in
the West Germanic languages:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

Sing. form of the Steh auf! Sta op! Staan op! Stand up!
informal command
Pl. form of the Steht auf! Sta op! Staan op! Stand up!
informal command

As you can see from the above example, some verbs are separable and the separable part of the
verb comes at the end (See also Verbal Prefixes p. 596):

Ger. aufstehen > steh auf!

Dut. opstaan > sta op!

Afr. opstaan > staan op!

- to stand > stand up!

NOTE:
In German, the du form of the imperative of all verbs, except those that change
e to i or ie, can add -e but this is usually dropped in spoken German, except
when the stem ends in -t, -d or -ig:

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Ger. Komme/komm hier!

- Come here!

It is worth noting that just as in English, in Afrikaans, it is possible to insert a second person
pronoun Afr. jy - “you” when uttering an emphatic imperative. However, in such cases, inversion of the
pronoun and the verb takes place in Afrikaans, for example:

Afr. Doen jy dit! (jy is stressed).

- You do it!

2. Formal Commands
In German, formal commands, or Ger. Sie commands are usually used while addressing people
you do not know very well, people older than you or people you show respect, such as teachers, bosses and
etc. With the Sie form, the imperative form is the same as the present tense form of the 3rd person plural.
Note that in this case we also add the personal pronoun Sie that is put after the verb.

In Dutch, if we want to be polite, we can use the present tense of the more formal 2nd person.
Note that if we use the polite imperative, we must add the personal pronoun u:

NOTE:
It should be remembered that in Afrikaans, the polite form of the imperative is
identical to the stem of the verb regardless of whether.

Study the example of the formal commands in German, Dutch and Afrikaans:

Ger. Bezahlen Sie an der Kasse!

Dut. Betaalt u aan de kassa.

Afr. Betaal by die kassier!

- Pay at the cashier!

3. “Let’s” Commands with the Verbs Ger. Lassen, Dut. Laten, Afr. Laat

There is another way to form the “let’s” commands in German, Dutch and Afrikaans, which is by
using the following construction:

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 CHAPTER 6: VERBS

German lassen + uns

Dutch laten + we
+ infinitive
Afrikans laat + ons

English let us

We must put the verb Ger. lassen (lass) in the 1st form singular of the present indicative (lass)
in German, and Dut. laten in the plural form (laten) in Dutch, for example:

Ger. Lass uns jetzt nach Hause gehen!

Dut. Laten we nu naar huis gaan!

Afr. Laat ons gaan nou huis toe!

- Let’s go home now!

4. Indirect Commands

Indirect commands are given to an unspecific recipient and are used in a general sense applying
to all listeners.

In order to form the indirect commands in German, Dutch and Afrikaans, we must use the
infinitive form of the verb. Such commands are generally used in public signs and instructions. Study the
following:

Ger. Drücken! Ger. Nicht rauchen!

Dut. Duwen! Dut. Niet roken!

Afr. Druk! Afr. Moenie rook nie!

- Push! - Do not smoke!

NOTE:
In Afrikaans, the negative of the imperative is expressed by the auxiliary monie
- “don’t” (See The Negative Imperative p. 592)

Irregular Imperative of Ger Sein, Dut. Zijn, Afr. Wees - “to Be”
The imperative of Ger sein, Dut. zijn, Afr. wees - “to be” is totally irregular and is particularly
common in German and Dutch. Unlike in German and Dutch, in Afrikaans the verb Afr. wees - “to be” is
regular in the imperative.

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Below is a table showing imperative forms of Ger sein, Dut. zijn, Afr. wees - “to be”:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

Sein Zijn Wees To be

(du) Sei! Wees! Wees! Be!
(Sie) Seid!
(sie) Seien!

For example:

Ger. Sei nicht böse!

Dut. Wees niet boos!

Afr. Moenie kwaad wees nie!

- Do not be angry!

Other Irregular Verbs in the Imperative in German

• In German, if irregular verbs change the e of their stem to i or ie in the present tense, they also apply
that change in the du form of the imperative (See List of Irregular Verbs in the Present Tense in
German p. 418), for example:

Ger. Geben > Gib es mir!

- To give > Give it to me!

• If irregular verbs change the a of their stem to ä in the present tense, they do not apply that change in
the du form of the imperative, for instance:

Ger. Du fährst. > Fahr schneller!

- You drive. > Drive faster!

The Negative Imperative

Negative commands are formed differently in the West Germanic languages, except German and
Dutch which have similar ways of forming negative commands. Thus, German and Dutch negative
commands should be regarded simultaneously while Afrikaans - separately.

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German and Dutch

In order to form German and Dutch negative commands, whether familiar or polite, one must
place a negative word Ger. nicht; Dut. niet after of the appropriate form the verb or at the end of the
phrase.

NOTE:
It should be mentioned that object pronouns are usually put after the verb in
negative commands in German and Dutch.

Ger. Geh nicht!

Dut. Ga niet!

- Do not go!

Did you know? Ger. Öffnen Sie das Buch nicht!

Stuttgart, capital of the German state of Dut. Open het boek niet!
Baden-Württemberg, is one of
Germany's largest wine-growing cities with - Do not open the book!
over 400 hectares of vine area and is the only
city in Germany where wine grapes are grown
within the urban area. Ger. Sag es nicht!

Dut. Zeg het niet!

- Do not say it!

Afrikaans
In Afrikaans, the negative commands are formed by placing monie in front of the verb and nie
after it or at the end of the phrase. In Afrikaans object pronouns can be placed before or after the verb in
negative commands. Observe the following:

Afr. Moenie gaan nie!

- Do not go!

Afr. Moenie die boek oopmaak nie!

- Do not open the book!

Afr. Moenie sê dit nie! (Moenie dit sê nie!)

- Do not say it.

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Softened Commands in the West Germanic Languages

In German, Dutch and Afrikaans there special formulas that can be used to soften the commands
to sound more polite.

Below are the most common patterns to use in polite speech:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

tu mir einen Gefallen doe me een plezier doen my 'n guns do me a favor

bitte alsjeblieft asseblief please

For instance:

Ger. Tu mir einen Gefallen, öffne das Fenster!

Dut. Doe me een plezier, open het raam!

Afr. Doen my 'n guns maak die venster oop!

- Do me a favor - open the window!

When adding Ger. bitte, Dut. alsjeblieft, Afr. asseblief - “please” to a command, it can go in
different places in German whereas in English it can only go at the beginning or the end; the third option
is the most common in German, e.g.

Ger. Bitte komm nicht zu spät nach Hause! (or Komm bitte nicht zu spät nach Hause!)

Dut. Alsjeblieft kom niet te laat thuis! (or Kom alsjeblieft niet te laat thuis!)

Afr. Asseblief, moenie kom nie te laat huis toe! (or Moenie kom alsjeblieft nie te laat huis toe!)

- Please, do not come home too late!

NOTE:
In Dutch, we can also add the words Dut. even or eventjes to make the
imperative or the order sound softer. These words literally mean “for a little
while” or “in a moment”:

Dut. Sta even op!

- Stand up!

Alternatively softened commands can be expressed as questions in the West Germanic languages.
For example:

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Ger. Kannst du mir etwas Wasser geben?

Dut. Kun je me wat water geven?

Afr. Kan jy vir my bietjie water gee?

- Can you give me some water?

Particles Used with Commands in Dutch

In Dutch, there special words that can be used to soften the commands to sound more polite or to
express frustration or impatience.

Below are the most common particles to use the imperative:

Dutch

even, eventjes

toch
nou eens

Even, Eventjes
• As it was mentioned previously, we can use the word even or its diminutive equivalent eventjes to
make the order sound less heavy in Dutch. These particles literally mean “for a little while” or “in a
moment”, for example:

Dut. Doe het raam even dicht!

- Close the window (lit. for a moment)!

Toch
• In order to express frustration, in Dutch, we can add the word toch to the imperative.

Dut. Doe het raam toch dicht!

- Close the window!

Nou eens
• To express impatience, the word nou eens is used. We can use this when someone is repeatedly (not)
doing something. This construction can also be used with the word toch.

Dut. Doe het raam nou eens dicht!

- Close the window!

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Reflexive Verbs
Reflexive verbs are dealt with under reflexive pronouns in German, Dutch and Afrikaans (See p.
276).

Verbal Prefixes
Overview
German, Dutch and Afrikaans have a complex system of verbal prefixes. These prefixes can be
separable or inseparable. We will explain this distinction below.

Separable Verbal Prefixes

In German, Dutch, and Afrikaans, separable prefixes offer a large number of possibilities for the
formation of new verbs. These prefixes may provide either a more precise, or a very different meaning of
the modified verb. Therefore, they serve as the “verb complement”.

NOTE:
Compared to German, Dutch and Afrikaans, English has a similar, but less
frequently applied concept. In English we use various prepositions that are
added to a verb.
Just like in German, Dutch, and Afrikaans, in English, the prepositions are used
to make a new verb with a distinct meaning.
Study, for example, what happens when different prepositions are added to a
verb like “to throw”: “to throw (something) away/out”, “to throw (money)
around”, “to throw up”.

To illustrate, let us take the verb Ger. stehen, Dut. staan, Afr. staan - “to stand”. Study the
following sentence:

Ger. Ich stehe neben dem Haus.

Dut. Ik sta vlakbij het huis.

Afr. Ek staan naby die huis.

- I am standing near the house.

If one adds a separable prefix, the meaning of the verb changes. For example:

German stehen > aufstehen gehen > weggehen

Dutch staan > opstaan gaan > weggaan

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Afrikaans staan > opstaan gaan > weggaan

English - to stand > to get up, to stand up - to go > to go away

As their name imply, separable prefixes can be detached, which means that one can sometimes
separate the prefix from a verb. If one conjugates the verbs with separable prefixes, the separable prefixes
must be separated and put at the end of the main clause or sentence in German, Dutch, and Afrikaans.
Study the following:

German Ich stehe sehr früh auf. Er geht heute weg.

Dutch Ik sta heel vroeg op. Hij gaat vandaag weg.

Afrikaans Ek staan baie vroeg op. Hy gaan vandag weg.

English - I get up very early. - He's going away today.

What follows is the full conjugation of a separable verb, Ger. aufstehen, Dut. opstaan, Afr.
opstaan - “to stand up”, in the present tense.

German Dutch Afrikaans English

ich stehe auf ik sta op ek staan op I get up

du stehst auf jij staat op jy staan op you get up

er, sie, es steht auf hij, zij, het, U staat op hy, sy, dit staan op he, she, it gets up

wir stehen auf wij staan op ons staan op we get up

ihr steht auf jullie staan op julle staan op you get up

sie, Sie stehen auf zij staan op hulle staan op they stand up

Other Characteristics of Separable Verbal Prefixes

• It is worth saying that in the future tense, which is formed with the auxiliary verb Ger. werden, Dut.
zullen, Afr. sal, the separable prefix remains attached to the main verb, and the main verb with the
separable prefix is put at the end of the main clause in German, Dutch, and Afrikaans (See The Future
Tense p. 531). Observe the following:

Ger. Ich werde sehr früh aufstehen.

Dut. Ik zal heel vroeg opstaan.

Afr. Ek sal baie vroeg opstaan.

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- I will get up very early.

NOTE:
German and Dutch
The auxiliary verb Ger. werden, Dut. zullen must be conjugated to form the
future tense in German and Dutch (See p. 532).
Afrikaans
Remember that, unlike in German and Dutch, in Afrikaans, verbs don't inflect in
person or number.

• It would also be important to mention how the separable prefixes function when one uses the
conjunction Ger. dass, Dut. dat, Afr. dat - “that” in West Germanic languages (See Conjunctions p.
753). Compare the following sentences:

Ger. Sie steht nicht sehr früh auf.

Dut.Ze staat niet heel vroeg op.

Afr. Sy staan nie baie vroeg op nie.

- She does not get up very early.

Ger. Ich weiß, dass sie nicht sehr früh aufsteht.

Dut. Ik weet dat ze niet heel vroeg opstaat.

Afr. Ek weet dat sy nie baie vroeg opstaan nie.

- I know that she doesn’t get up very early.

As seen from the second example, when the conjunction Ger. dass, Dut. dat, Afr. dat - “that” is
used in the sentence, the separable prefix is added again to the main verb in German, Dutch, and
Afrikaans.

NOTE:
German and Dutch
The main verb must be conjugated and is placed at the end of the subordinate
clause in German and Dutch.
Afrikaans
Unlike in German and Dutch, in Afrikaans, the main verb is not conjugated and
is placed before the second negative nie, which is always positioned at the end
of the sentence (See Negation p. 515).

• In the past participle, the separable verbal prefix is also attached. However, unlike the inseparable
prefixes, the separable prefixes do not replace the prefix ge- in West Germanic languages (See The
Past Participle p. 439, The Present Perfect p. 467, and Inseparable Verbal Prefixes p. 622):

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Ger. Ich bin sehr früh aufgestanden.

Dut. Ik ben heel vroeg opgestaan.

Afr. Ek het baie vroeg opgestaan.

- I have gotten up very early.

• In German, Dutch, and Afrikaans, when the verb is in the form of an infinitive with Ger. zu, Dut. (om)
te, Afr. om te, the Ger. zu, Dut. te, and Afr. te must come between the prefix and the main verb (See
The Infinitive p. 578). For example:

Ger. Ich werde versuchen sehr früh aufzustehen.

Dut. Ik zal proberen (om) heel vroeg op te staan.

Afr. Ek sal probeer om baie vroeg op te staan.

- I will try to get up very early.

NOTE:
Dutch and Afrikaans
Unlike in German, in Dutch and Afrikaans, the infinitive is used with om te in
this case, where om is put after the first verb, and te is placed between the
verbal prefix and the main verb in the form of three separate words: “op te
staan”.
In Dutch, however, om can be omitted in this case), e.g.:

Dut. Ik zal proberen heel vroeg op te staan.

- I will try to get up very early.

• In German, Dutch, and Afrikaans, many, not all, separable verbal prefixes are derived from prepositions
and retain much of the meaning that they had in that form (See Prepositions p. 676).

Observe the following:

Ger. auf (prep.) > aufstehen (v.)

Dut. op (prep.) > opstaan (v.)

Afr. op (prep.) > opstaan (v.)

- up, on, on top of, upward (prep.) > to get up, to stand up (v.)

• Verbs with separable or inseparable prefixes can also become nouns or adjectives and adverbs, for
instance:

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German Dutch Afrikaans English

der Aufsatz het opstel die opstel the essay

die Aufregung de opwinding die opwinding the excitement
aufdringlich opdringerig opdringerig intrusive (pushy)

aufmerksam oplettend oplettend observant

aufrichtig oprecht opreg sincerely

Examples of Separable Verbal Prefixes

The following prefixes belong to the separable verbal prefixes:

German Dutch Afrikaans

ab- af- af-

auf- op-, open- op-, oop-

an- aan- aan-

aus- uit- uit-

bei- bij- by-

durch- door- deur-

ein- in- in-

fest- vast- vas-

herein- binnen- binne-

herüber-/rüber- tegen- teen-

los- los- los-

mit- mee- mee-

nach- na- na-

nieder- neer- neer-

über- over- oor-

um- om- om-

vor- voor-, klaar- voor-

voraus- vooraf- vooraf-

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German Dutch Afrikaans

vorbei- voorbij-, langs- verby-

weg- weg- weg-

zu- toe- toe-

zurück- terug-, achter- terug-, agter-

zusammen- samen- saam-

• Ger. ab-, Dut. and Afr. af-:

The separable verbal prefix Ger. ab-, Dut. and Afr. af- usually, but not always, conveys the
meaning of “away from”.

Below are some common verbs in this category:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

abbrechen afbreken afbreek to break off

abbrennen afbranden afbrand to burn down

abtreten, abdanken aftreden aftree to resign, abdicate

abfallen afvallen afval to fall off, drop off

abfegen afvegen afvee to wipe off, brush off

abhacken afhakken afkap to chop off, hack off

abhängen (von) afhangen (van) afhang (van) to depend (on)

abhören afluisteren afluister to wiretap, eavesdrop

ablaufen aflopen afloop to expire, end, walk down

ablenken afleiden aflei to infer, distract

abnehmen afnemen afneem, afhaal to take off, remove,
decrease
abnehmen afvallen afval to lose weight

abschaffen afschaffen afskaf to abolish

abschließen afstuderen afstudeer to graduate, complete

(one’s studies)
absprechen afspreken afspreek to agree on, arrange

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German Dutch Afrikaans English

abtreiben afbreken afbreek to abort, break off

abstellen, abschalten afzetten afsit to switch off

abtrocknen afdrogen afdroog to dry off (of dishes by

means of a tea towel)
abwaschen afwassen afwas to wash up, do the dishes

abziehen aftrekken aftrek to subtract, deduct

Observe the following example:

Ger. Es hängt von mir ab. Ger. Sie lenkt mich ab.

Dut. Het hangt van mij af. Dut. Ze leidt me af.

Afr. Dit hang van my af. Afr. Sy lei my af.

- It depends on me. - She is distracting me.

Ger. Er nimmt seinen Hut ab.

Dut. Hij neemt zijn hoed af.

Afr. Hy haal sy hoed af.

- He is taking his hat off.

• Ger. auf-, Dut. op-/open-, Afr. op-/oop-:

The separable verbal prefix Ger. auf-, Dut. op-/open-, Afr. op- /oop- usually adds the
meanings “on”, “open”, “out”, “up”, or “un-”:

Below are some common verbs in this category:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

aufbrauchen opgebruiken opgebruik to use up

aufbauen opbouwen opbou to build up
aufblühen opbloeien, openbloeien opbloei to bloom, flourish

aufbrechen openbreken oopbreek to break open

aufdrehen opendraaien oopskroef to screw open,

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German Dutch Afrikaans English

aufrufen opbellen opbel to call up

aufessen opeten opeet to eat up, devour, finish off

auffliegen opvliegen opvlieg to fly up, take off

aufgeben opgeven opgee to give up

aufgehen opengaan oopmaak to open

aufgehen opgaan opgaan to rise, go up

aufkommen opkomen opstaan to come up, rise up

aufpassen opletten oplet to pay attention, watch

out, be careful
aufleuchten oplichten oplig to light up, flash up

auflösen oplossen oplos to resolve, solve, dissolve

aufmachen openmaken oopmaak to open

aufnehmen opnemen opneem to record, pick up

aufpumpen oppompen oppomp to pump up, inflate

aufräumen opruimen opruim to clean up, tidy up

aufrichten oprichten oprig to erect, raise

aufschließen opendoen oopmaak to unlock, open up

aufschneiden opengesneden oopsny to cut open

aufschrauben openschroeven oopskroef to unscrew, screw open

aufschreiben opschrijven opskryf to write down

aufbewahren opbergen, opslaan opberg, opslaan to store, preserve, save

aufstehen opstaan opstaan to get up, stand up

aufstoßen openduwen oopdruk to push open

auffallen opvallen opval to stand out, to be

noticeable
aufbringen opvoeden oprig to bring up, raise

aufsuchen, opzoeken, opkijken opkyk to look up

aufblicken
aufwachsen opgroeien opgroei to grow up

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German Dutch Afrikaans English

aufziehen opwinden opwind to wind up

auferlegen, opleggen, opdringen oplê, opdwing to impose, force upon

aufzwingen

Study the following examples:

Ger. Sie schreibt etwas auf. Ger. Stehst du spät auf?

Dut. Ze schrijft iets op. Dut. Sta je laat op?

Afr. Sy skryf iets op. Afr. Staan jy laat op?

- She writes something down. - Do you get up late?

• Ger. an-, Dut., Afr. aan-:

The separable verbal prefix Ger. an-, Dut. and Afr. aan- usually conveys the meanings “at”,
“begin”, “on”, “onward”, “to”, or “toward”:

Below are some common verbs in this category:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

anbeißen aanbijten aanbyt to bite, take the bait, bite

into (food)
anbieten aanbieden aanbied to offer

anbinden aanbinden aanbind to tie up

anbringen, anhängen aanbrengen, aanbring, aanheg to attach

aanhechten
anfahren aanrijden, opry to arrive driving,
aandrijven approach, drive up
anfangen aanvangen aanvang to begin, start, commence

anfassen aanraken aanraak to touch

angreifen aanvallen aanval to attack

anhaben aanhebben aanhê to have on (a piece of

clothing), wear (clothing)
anhalten aanhouden aanhou to stop, hold, keep from
moving
ankleiden aankleden aantrek to dress, get dressed

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German Dutch Afrikaans English

ankommen aankomen aankom to arrive, depend on

anlächeln aanlachen aanlag to smile at

anpacken, angehen aanpakken aanpak to tackle (a problem)

anpflanzen, anbauen aanplanten aanplant to plant, grow, cultivate

anschalten, aanzetten, aandoen aansit, aanskakel to switch on, turn on (a

anstellen, anmachen light)
anschauen aankijken aankyk to look at

anschießen aanschieten aanskiet to shoot at and wound

anschließen aansluiten aansluit to connect, join

anstellen, anwenden aanwenden, aanwerf to hire, employ

aanwerven
ansehen aanzien aansien to watch, view as, take for,
regard
ansprechen aanspreken aanspreek to address, appeal to

antippen aantikken aantik to tap

anziehen aantrekken aantrek to attract

anziehen aandoen, aantrekken aantrek put on (clothes)

anzünden aansteken aansteek to light, kindle

Study the following example:

Ger. Sie kommt morgen am Flughafen an. Ger. Er schaltet das Radio an.

Dut. Ze komt morgen op het vliegveld aan. Dut. Hij zet de radio aan.

Afr. Sy kom môre by die lughawe aan. Afr. Hy skakel die radio aan.

- She arrives at the airport tomorrow. - He turns on the radio.

Ger. Ich ziehe einen Pullover an.

Dut. Ik doe een trui aan.

Afr. Ek trek 'n trui aan.

- I am putting on a sweater.

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• Ger. aus-, Dut., Afr. uit-:

The separable verbal prefix Ger. aus-, Dut. and Afr. uit- means “out”, “outward”, “extended”,
“completely”, “missing”:

Below are common verbs in this category:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

aussortieren uitzoeken uitsorteer to sort out

ausschalten, ausstellen uitzetten uitsit to switch off

ausziehen uittrekken uittrek pull out (of a tooth), take off

(clothes)
aussteigen uitstappen uitgang to get off (a car, train)

ausschlafen uitslapen uitslaap sleep in, get a good sleep

einladen* uitnodigen uitnooi to invite

ausloggen uitloggen uitmeld to log out

auslegen uitleggen uitlegen to interpret

ausgehen uitgaan uitgaan to go out

ausmachen uitdoen uitsit to turn off

ausführen uitvoeren uitvoer to carry out (a plan, work)

aushelfen uithelpen uithelp to help out

auslassen, ausschließen uitsluiten uitsluit to exclude, leave out

ausleihen uitlenen uitleen to lend out

ausradieren, uitvegen, uitwissen uitvee, uitwis to erase, wipe out, rub out
auswischen
ausrotten uitroeien uitroei to eradicate, exterminate,
root out
ausrüsten uitrusten uitrus to equip

ausschütten uitstorten uitgooi to pour out

aussehen uitzien uitsien to look, seem, appear

auswechseln uitwisselen uitruil to swap out, replace,

exchange
ausfallen uitvallen uitval to fall out (hair), fail, drop out
(of a competition)

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German Dutch Afrikaans English

ausbleiben uitblijven uitbly to stay away, to fail to appear

ausbeuten uitbuiten uitbuit to exploit

ausbauen uitbreiden uitbrei to extend, expand

Study the following example:

Ger. Ich gehe heute Abend aus.

Dut. Ik ga vanavond uit.

Afr. Ek gaan vanaand uit.

- I am going out this evening.

NOTE:
German
The verb “to invite” is used with the ein- prefix: einladen (See p. ).

• Ger. bei-, Dut. bij-, Afr. by-:

The separable verbal prefix Ger. bei-, Dut. bij-, Afr. by- means “along”, “with”, or “additional”:

Below are common verbs in this category:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

beibehalten bijblijven, bijhouden byhou to keep up, maintain

beibringen bijbrengen bybring to teach

beitragen bijdragen bydraes to contribute

beifügen bijsluiten byvoeg to enclose, attach

beistehen bijstaan bystaan to assist

beiwohnen bijwonen bywoon to attend

Study the following example:

Ger. Ich trage bei.

Dut. Ik draag bij.

Afr. Ek dra by.

- I'm contributing.

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• Ger. durch-, Dut. door-, Afr. deur-:

The separable verbal prefix Ger. durch-, Dut. door-, Afr. deur- has the meaning of entering a
process with purpose and coming out the other end:

Below are a few common verbs in this category:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

durcharbeiten doorwerken deurwerk to work through

durchbrechen* doorbreken deurbreek to break through

durchbacken doorbakken deurbak to bake thoroughly

durchgehen* doorgaan deurgaan to go through

durchfahren doorrijden deurry to drive through

durchzukämmen doorkammen deurkam to comb through (hair)

durchlassen doorlaten deurlaat to let through, let pass

durchlaufen* doorlopen deurhardloop to run/go through

durchschneiden* doorsnijden deursny to cut through, cut in two

durchtrennen*
durchsprechen doorpraten deurpraat to talk through, talk over

durchbohren doorboren deurboor to pierce into, knock/drill

a hole through
durchsuchen* doorzoeken* deursoek* to search through

durchwählen doorbellen deurbel to dial through/directly

durchziehen doortrekken deurdring to pervade

Study the following example:

Ger. Sie arbeitet den ganzen Tag durch. Ger. Er lässt sie durch.

Dut. Ze werkt de hele dag door. Dut. Hij laat ze door.

Afr. Sy werk heeldag deur. Afr. Hy laat hulle deur.

- She works all day. - He is letting them through.

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NOTE:
In German, Dutch and Afrikaans, the verbs that are marked with an asterisk have
the inseparable prefix Ger. durch-, Dut. door-, Afr. deur- (See Inseparable
Verbal Prefixes p. 622). For example:

Ger. Die Polizei durchsucht sein Büro.

Dut. De politie doorzoekt zijn kantoor.
Afr. Die polisie deursoek sy kantoor.
- The police is searching his office.

• Ger. ein-, Dut., Afr. in-:

The separable verbal prefix Ger. ein-, Dut., Afr. in- designates “in”, “into”, “inward”.

Below are some common verbs in this category:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

einatmen inademen inasem to inhale, breathe in

einbiegen inleveren inhandig to turn in, turn into

einbrechen inbreken inbreek to break in (to steal

something)
eindringen indringen indring to intrude
einfahren inrijden inry to drive/ride into

eingehen ingaan ingaan to enter, go inside

eingehen, einlaufen inkrimpen inkrimp to shrink

einholen inhalen inhaal to catch up (with)

einkaufen inkopen inkoop to purchase, buy, shop

einladen inviteren (formal), uitnooi* to invite

uitnodigen* (neutral)
einlassen inlaten inlaat to let in

einleiten inleiden inlei to introduce, begin

einreichen inleveren inskakel to hand in, turn in

einnehmen innemen inneem to take (of meals or

medicine), swallow, conquer
einschneiden insnijden insny to cut into, carve into,
engrave on

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German Dutch Afrikaans English

einschreiben inschrijven inskryf to enroll, sign up, register,

enlist
einpacken inpakken inpak to pack up (a gift), wrap up

einparken inparkeren inparkeer to park in

einstürzen instorten ineenstort to collapse

einreiben insmeren insmeer to rub in, smear

einsteigen instappen inkom to get in/on (a vehicle),

board
einstellen inhuren inhuur to hire, employ

eintreten intreden ingaan to enter, go in

einwerfen inwerpen insit to throw in, insert (of a

coin), drop
eingeben invoeren invoer to input

einfüllen invullen invul to fill in

Study the following example:

Ger. Er nimmt diese Pillen ein. Ger. Packst du ihren neuen Laptop ein?

Dut. Hij neemt deze pillen in. Dut. Pak jij haar nieuwe laptop in?

Afr. Hy neem hierdie pille in. Afr. Pak jy haar nuwe skootrekenaar in?

- He takes these pills. - Are you wrapping up her new laptop?

NOTE:
German
Note that one of the verbs that mean “to intervene” is not used with the ein- prefix:
intervenieren.
Dutch
The verb “to invite” is used with the uit- prefix: uitnodigen in Dutch.

Ger. Wenn sie ihn einlädt, darf er kommen.

Dut. Als ze hem uitnodigt*, mag hij komen.
- If she invites him, he may come.

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• Ger. fest-, Dut., Afr. vas(t)-:

The separable verbal prefix Ger. fest-, Dut., Afr. vas(t)- indicates “firm” or “fixed”. It often
appears as an adverb or adjective, e.g. Ger. fest glauben, Dut. vast geloven - “to believe firmly”.

Below are some common verbs in this category:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

festsitzen vastzitten vasstaan to be stuck

festmachen vastmaken vasmaak to fasten firmly

festlegen vastleggen vasstel to set out, specify

festhalten vasthouden vashou to hold (onto firmly), retain

festbeißen vastbijten vasbyt to bite into firmly

Study the following example:

Ger. Halten Sie das bitte fest!

Dut. Houd dat alsjeblieft vast!

Afr. Hou dit asseblief vas!

- Hold that please!

• Ger. herein-, Dut. binnen-, Afr. binne-:

The separable verbal prefix Ger. herein-, Dut. binnen-, Afr. binne- indicates to “come in”, for
example into a real or metaphorical space that identifies the speaker's point of orientation:

Below are some common verbs in this category:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

hereinbringen binnenbrengen binnebring to bring in, come in

hereinkommen binnenkomen binnekom to come in

hereinschneien binnensneeuwen binnesneeu to snow into

hereinspazieren binnenlopen binnegaan to stroll in, go in, go inside

Study the following example:

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Ger. Warum kommst du nicht herein?

Dut. Waarom kom je niet binnen?

Afr. Hoekom kom jy nie binnen nie?

- Why don't you come in?

• Ger. los-, Dut., Afr. los-:

The separable verbal prefix Ger. los-, Dut., Afr. los- can designate the beginning of an action or
carry the sense of “away”, “off” or “un-”:

Below are a few common verbs in this category:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

loslassen loslaten loslaat to let go

losmachen losmaken losmaak to undo, make loose

Study the following example:

Ger. Du musst es loslassen.

Dut. Je moet het loslaten.

Afr. Jy moet dit loslaat.

- You need to let it go.

• Ger. mit-, Dut., Afr. mee-:

The separable verbal prefix Ger. mit-, Dut., Afr. mee- is attached to the verb to indicate joining
or participating in the activity. It is akin to the English “with” or “along”.

Below are some common verbs in this category:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

mitarbeiten meewerken meewerk to cooperate, collaborate

mitbringen meebrengen meebring to bring along, bring with

mitfahren meerijden meery to ride with, go with

mitgeben meegeven meegee to give along with

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German Dutch Afrikaans English

mithelfen meehelpen meehelp to help out

mitmachen meedoen meedoen to participate, take part

mitnehmen meenemen meeneem to take with, take away,

carry along
mitreden meepraten meepraat to have a say, join in a
conversation
mitsingen meezingen meesing to sing along

mitspielen meespelen meespeel to play along, join in the

game
mitteilen meedelen meedeel to communicate, inform

Study the following example:

Ger. Sie bringen selten Kinder mit. Ger. Sie singen immer mit.

Dut. Ze brengen zelden kinderen mee. Dut. Ze zingen altijd mee.

Afr. Hulle bring selde kinders mee. Afr. Hulle sing altyd mee.

- They rarely bring kids along. - They always sing along.

• Ger. nach-, Dut., Afr. na-:

The separable verbal prefix Ger. nach-, Dut., Afr. na- has a variety of meanings. When attached
to a verb of motion, it can mean to “follow after”.
In some cases, the act of “following” can indicate a testing or other kind of follow-up of a previous
action. Ger. nach- and Dut. na- can also designate imitation or reduction.

Below are some common verbs in this category:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

nachäffen, na-apen, nabootsen naboots to mimic, ape, imitate

nachahmen
nacherzählen navertellen navertel to recite, retell
nachdenken nadenken nadink to reflect, muse, ponder, think

nachfolgen navolgen navolg to succeed, come after, follow

nachforschen navorsen navors to investigate

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German Dutch Afrikaans English

nachgehen nastreven nastreef to pursue

nachmachen nadoen nadoen to imitate

nachspielen naspelen naspeel to reenact

nachprüfen, nakijken, nagaan nakyk, nagaan to check, review
nachsehen

Study the following example:

Ger. Die Kinder äffen ihren Lehrer nach.

Dut. De kinderen apen hun leraar na.

Afr. Die kinders boots hul onderwyser na.

- The children imitate their teacher.

• Ger. nieder-, Dut., Afr. neer-:

The separable prefix Ger. nieder-, Dut., Afr. neer- means “down” or “lower”.

Below are some common verbs in this category:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

niedergehen neergaan neergaan to go down

niederlegen neerleggen, neerzetten neerlê, neersit to lay down, put down

niederschießen neerschieten neerskiet to shoot down

niederschlagen neerslaan neerslaan to knock down, fall

down, suppress
niederschreiben neerschrijven neerskryf to write down

niederwerfen neergooien neergooi to throw down

Study the following example:

Ger. Der Lehrer legt den Stift nieder.

Dut. De leraar legt de pen neer.

Afr. Die onderwyser sit die pen neer.

- The teacher puts down the pen.

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• Ger. um-, Dut., Afr. om-:

The verbal prefix Ger. um-, Dut., Afr. om- is often separable. It has a variety of meanings:
“around”, “down”, “about”, and “over”. It also can designate substantial types of change:

Below are a few common verbs in this category:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

umbauen ombouwen ombou to convert, rebuild, remodel

umbenennen omdopen omdoop to rename

umbringen ombrengen ombring to kill, murder

umdrehen omdraaien omdraai to turn round

umfallen omvallen omverwerp to topple, fall over/down

herumfliegen* omvliegen omvlieg to fly around

umfassen omvatten omvat to encompass, comprise, include

umformen omvormen omvorm to reshape, transform

umgehen omgaan omgaan to go around

umkehren omkeren omkeer to turn around

umkommen omkomen omkom to perish, get killed

umleiten omleiden omlei to detour, redirect

umrechnen omrekenen omskep to convert (into different units)

umsehen omkijken, omzien omkyk to look back, look around

umschlagen omslaan omslaan to turn

umschreiben omschrijven omskryf to transliterate, transcribe

umschulen omscholen omskole to retrain

herumspringen* omspringen omspring to jump around

herumstehen* omstaan omstaan to stand around

umtauschen omwisselen omwissel to exchange

umwandeln, umsetzen omzetten omskep to convert, transform

umwerfen omverwerpen omverwerp to knock over

Study the following example:

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Ger. Sie baut ihr Schlafzimmer um. Ger. Er rechnet Fuß immer in Meter um.

Dut. Ze bouwt haar slaapkamer om. Dut. Hij zet voeten altijd in meters om.

Afr. Sy bou haar slaapkamer om. Afr. Hy skakel voete altyd na meters om.

- She is remodelling her bedroom. - He always converts feet to meters.

NOTE:
German
The verb “to jump around”, “to stand around”, and “fly around” are used with the
herum- prefix: herumspringen, herumstehen, herumfliegen respectively.

However, it should be noted that the verbal prefix Ger. um, Dut. om-, Afr. om- may also be
inseparable in German, Dutch, and Afrikaans.

German Dutch Afrikaans English

umbauen ombouwen ombou to wall, surround with

buildings, walls

• Ger. vor-, Dut., Afr. voor-:

The separable verbal prefix Ger. vor-, Dut. and Afr. voor- has the meanings “before”, “forward”,
“pre-”, and “pro-”:

Below are a few common verbs in this category:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

vorbereiten voorbereiden, voorberei to prepare, get ready

klaarmaken*
vorbehalten voorbehouden voorbehou to reserve

vorkommen voorkomen voorkom to happen, occur, appear

vorfahren voorrijden voorry to drive on ahead, drive up

in front
vorfallen voorvallen voorvalle to happen, occur

vorgeben voorgeven, voorgee to pretend

voorwenden
vorlegen voorleggen voorlê to submit

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German Dutch Afrikaans English

vorhaben voorhebben voorhê to intend, have something

planned
vorschlagen voorstellen voorstel to propose, suggest

vorsetzen voorzetten voorsit to place in front, put in front

vorsehen, vorsorgen voorzien voorsien to provide, supply

voraussehen, voorspellen, voorspel to foresee, predict

vorhersehen voorzien
vortragen voordragen voordra to propose, present, recite

vorziehen voortrekken, voorrtrek, to favour, prefer

verkiezen* verkies*

Study the following example:

Ger. Er bereitet das Frühstück vor. Ger. Dieses Tier kommt in Afrika nicht vor.

Dut. Hij bereidt het ontbijt voor. Dut. Dit dier komt niet in Afrika voor.

Afr. Hy berei die ontbyt voor. Afr. Hierdie dier kom nie in Afrika voor nie.

- He's preparing breakfast. - This animal does not occur in Africa.

NOTE:
Dutch and Afrikaans
The verbal prefix ver- in Dut. verkiezen, Afr. verkies - “prefer” is inseparable
(See Inseparable Verbal Prefixes p. 622). For example:

Dut. Hij verkiest haar boeken boven de mijne.

Afr. Hy verkies haar boeke bo myne.
- He prefers her books to mine.

Dutch
The separable verbal prefix Dut. klaar- can also be used in the verb klaarmaken
to mean “get ready, prepare” in Dutch. For example:

Dut. Hij maakt het ontbijt klaar.

- He's preparing breakfast.

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• Ger. voraus-, Dut., Afr. vooraf-:

The separable verbal prefix Ger. voraus-, Dut., Afr. vooraf- means “in advance” or
“beforehand”:

Below are a few common verbs in this category:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

vorausgehen voorafgaan voorafgaan to precede

Study the following example:

Ger. Der Blitz geht dem Donner voraus.

Dut. De bliksem gaat aan de donder vooraf.

Afr. Die weerlig gaan die donderweer vooraf.

- The lightning precedes the thunder.

• Ger. vorbei-, Dut. voorbij-, Afr. verby-:

The separable verbal prefix Ger. vorbei-, Dut. voorbij- and Afr. verby- means “past” or “just
beyond”:

Below are a few common verbs in this category:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

vorbeigehen voorbijgaan verbygaan to pass, go by, go pass

vorbeikommen voorbijkomen verbykom to come by, pass by, drop in

vorbeilassen voorbijlaten verbylaat to let pass, allow to pass

vorbeifahren voorbijrijden verbyry to drive past, pass (a vehicle)

Study the following example:

Ger. Ein Jahr geht schnell vorbei. Ger. Das Auto fährt vorbei, ohne anzuhalten

Dut. Een jaar gaat snel voorbij. Dut. De auto rijdt voorbij zonder te stoppen

Afr. 'n Jaar gaan vinnig verby. Afr. Die kar ry verby sonder om te stop
- A year goes by quickly. - The car is going/driving by without stopping.

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NOTE:
Dutch
The separable verbal prefix Dut. langs- can also mean “past” in Dutch:
Dutch English

langsgaan to pass, visit, drop by

langskomen to come by, pass by, drop in

• Ger., Dut., Afr. weg-:

The separable verbal prefix Ger., Dut. and Afr. weg- usually means “away”.

Below are some common verbs in this category:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

weggehen weggaan weggaan to go away

weggeben weggeven weggee to give away

wegwerfen weggooien weggooi to throw away

wegblasen wegblazen wegwaai to blow away

wegbleiben wegblijven wegbly to stay away

wegnehmen, wegbringen wegnemen wegneem to take away, move away

wegdenken wegdenken wegdink to imagine a situation

without
wegfahren wegrijden wegry to drive away. drive off

wegfegen wegvegen wegvee to sweep away

wegführen wegleiden weglei to carry away (off), lead

away (off)
wegjagen wegjagen wegjaag to chase away (off)

wegkommen wegkomen wegkom to get away

weglaufen wegrennen weghardloop to run away

weglegen wegleggen weglê to put away, lay aside

wegsehen, wegschauen wegkijken wegkyk to look away

wegwischen wegvagen wegvegen to wipe away/out

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Observe the following example:

Ger. Ich gehe heute weg. Ger. Ich führte das Kind von dem Hund weg.

Dut. Ik ga vandaag weg. Dut. Ik leidde het kind van de hond weg.

Afr. Ek gaan vandag weg. Afr. Ek het die kind van die hond af weggelei.

- I am going away today. - I led the child away from the dog.

• Ger. zu-, Dut., Afr. toe-:

The separable prefix Ger. zu-, Dut. and Afr. toe- means “closed”, “to”, “towards”, “upon”:

Below are some common verbs in this category:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

zunehmen toenemen toeneem to increase

zulassen, zubilligen toelaten, toestaan toelaat to allow, permit

zugeben toegeven toegee to admit

zugehören (dat.) toebehoren (aan) toebehoort (aan) to belong (to)

zuerkennen toekennen toeken to bestow, confer, grant

zuweisen toewijzen toewys to assign

zumachen toedoen, toemaken toedoen to close, shut

zuziehen toetrekken toetrek pull shut, close

zudecken toedekken toedek to cover up, truck in

zubinden toebinden toebind to tie up

Study the following example:

Ger. Warum lässt du das zu? Ger. Ben gibt das zu.

Dut. Waarom laat je dat toe? Dut. Ben geeft dat toe.

Afr. Hoekom laat jy dit toe? Afr. Ben gee dit toe.

- Why do you allow that? - Ben admits that.

• Ger. zurück-, Dut. terug-/achter-, Afr. terug-/agter-:

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The separable prefix Ger. zurück-, Dut. terug-/achter-, Afr. terug-/agter- means “back”,
“behind”, or “re-”:

Below are some common verbs in this category:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

zurückschlagen terugslaan terugslaan to hit/strike back

zurückgehen teruggaan teruggaan to go back, return

zurückbringen terugbrengen terugbring to bring back

zurückbleiben achterblijven agterbly to stay behind

zurückdrehen terugdraaien terugdraai to turn back, roll back

zurückschrauben terugschroeven terugskaal lower, wind down, reduce

zurückerhalten terugkrijgen terugkry to get back, regain

zurückkommen terugkomen terugkom to come back, return

zurücklassen achterlaten agterlaat to leave behind

zurückgeben teruggeven teruggee to give back, return

zurückschrecken, terugschrikken, terugdeins to shrink back, shy away,

zurückweichen terugdeinzen flinch, recoil
zurücksetzen terugzetten terugsit to wind back (a clock)

zurückweisen terugwijzen terugwys to reject

Study the following example:

Ger. Er brachte das Buch in die Bibliothek zurück. Ger. Sie kommt wieder zurück.

Dut. Hij bracht het boek naar de bibliotheek terug. Dut. Ze komt weer terug.

Afr. Hy het die boek teruggebring na die biblioteek. Afr. Sy kom weer terug.

- He brought (took) the book back to the library. - She is coming back again.

NOTE:
Dutch and Afrikaans
The verbs “to stay behind” and “to leave behind” are used with the prefix: Dut.
achter- , Afr. agter-, for example: Dut. achterblijven/achterlaten and Afr.
agterbly/agterlaat respectively in Dutch and Afrikaans.

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• Ger. zusammen-, Dut. samen-, Afr. saam-:

The separable prefix Ger. zusammen-, Dut. samen-, Afr. saam- means “together”.

Below are some common verbs in this category:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

zusammenfassen samenvatten opsom* to summarize

zusammenarbeiten samenwerken saamwerk to collaborate, work together

zusammenkommen samenkomen saamkom to come /get together

zusammenbringen samenbrengen saambring to bring together, assemble

zusammenführen samenvoegen saamsmelt to combine, merge, unite

zusammengehören samenhoren saambehoort to belong together

zusammenklappen samenvouwen saamvou to fold together

zusammenzählen, samentellen optel*, saamtel to add up

zusammenrechnen

Study the following example:

Ger. Ich fasse den Vortrag zusammen.

Dut. Ik vat de lezing samen.

Afr. Ek som die lesing op*.

- I am summarizing the lecture.

Ger. Klaus und ich arbeiten seit fünf Jahren zusammen.

Dut. Klaus en ik werken al vijf jaar samen.

Afr. Ek en Klaus werk al vyf jaar saam.

- Klaus and I have been working together for five years.

Inseparable Verbal Prefixes

In addition to the separable verbal prefixes, there are also inseparable or non-separable verbal
prefixes in German, Dutch, and Afrikaans. To illustrate, let us take the verb Ger. stehen, Dut. staan, Afr.
staan - “to stand”. Study the following sentence:

Ger.Er steht auf einer Insel.

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Dut. Hij staat op een eiland.

Afr. Hy staan op 'n eiland.

- He is standing on an island.

Just like with the separable prefixes, when one adds a non-separable prefix, the meaning of the
verb changes. For example:

Did you know? Ger. stehen > bestehen

Johannesburg, known as Jozi, Joburg Dut. staan > bestaan
or "The City of Gold", is the most
populous city in South Africa with over 5.5 Afr. staan > bestaan
million and is the most powerful commercial
centre on the African continent. - to stand > to exist, to consist

Unlike the separable prefixes, these prefixes are always attached to the verb and never get
separated from it in German, Dutch, and Afrikaans. Study the following:

Ger. Das Land besteht aus vielen Inseln.

Dut. Het land bestaat uit vele eilanden.

Afr. Die land bestaan uit baie eilande.

- The country consists of many islands.

NOTE:
It would not be correct to say:

Ger. Das Land steht aus vielen Inseln be.

Dut. Het land staat uit vele eilanden be.
Afr. Die land staan uit baie eilande be.

Remember that the prefix be- is always attached to the verb and never gets
separated from the verb in German, Dutch, and Afrikaans.

What follows is the full conjugation of an inseparable verb, Ger. bestehen, Dut. bestaan, Afr.
bestaan - “to exist, to consist”, in the present tense.

German Dutch Afrikaans English

ich bestehe ik besta ek bestaan I exist

du bestehst jij bestaat jy bestaan you exist

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German Dutch Afrikaans English

er, sie, es besteht hij, zij, het, U bestaat hy, sy, dit bestaan he, she, it exists

wir bestehen wij bestaan ons bestaan we exist

ihr besteht jullie bestaan julle bestaan you exist

sie, Sie bestehen zij bestaan hulle bestaan they exist

Other Characteristics of Inseparable Verbal Prefixes

• In the future tense, just like the separable verbal prefix, the inseparable verbal prefix stays attached to
the main verb, and the main verb is placed at the end of the main clause in German, Dutch, and
Afrikaans. For instance:

Ger. Das neue Buch wird aus drei Teilen bestehen.

Dut. Het nieuwe boek zal uit drie delen bestaan.

Afr. Die nuwe boek sal uit drie dele bestaan.

- The new book will consist of three parts.

• It is also worth saying how the inseparable prefixes function when we use the conjunction Ger. dass,
Dut. dat, Afr. dat - “that” in West Germanic languages (See Conjunctions p. 753).

Compare the following sentences:

Ger. Das Land besteht nicht aus vielen Inseln.

Dut. Het land bestaat niet uit veel eilanden.

Afr. Die land bestaan nie uit baie eilande nie.

- The country does not consist of many island.

Ger. Ich weiß, dass das Land nicht aus vielen Inseln besteht.

Dut. Ik weet dat het land niet uit veel eilanden bestaat.

Afr. Ek weet dat die land nie uit baie eilande bestaan nie.

- I know that the country does not consist of many island.

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As seen from the second example, when the conjunction Ger. dass, Dut. dat, Afr. dat - “that” is
used in the sentence, the separable prefix remains attached to the stem of the main verb in German,
Dutch, and Afrikaans.

NOTE:
German and Dutch
The main verb must be conjugated and is placed at the end of the subordinate clause
in German and Dutch.
Afrikaans
It should noted that, unlike in German and Dutch, in Afrikaans, the main verb is not
conjugated and is placed before the second negative nie, which is always positioned
at the end of the sentence (See Negation p. 515).

• In the past participle, the inseparable verbal prefixes are also attached. However, unlike the separable
prefixes, the inseparable prefixes replace the prefix ge- in West Germanic languages (See The Past
Participle p. 439, The Present Perfect p. 467, and Separable Verbal Prefixes p. 596).
Compare the following:

Separable verbs in the past participle Inseparable verbs in the past participle

Ger. Ich bin sehr früh aufgestanden. Ger. Das Land hat aus vielen Inseln bestanden.

Dut. Ik ben heel vroeg opgestaan. Dut. Het land heeft uit vele eilanden bestaan.

Afr. Ek het baie vroeg opgestaan. Afr. Die land het uit baie eilande bestaan.

- I have gotten up very early. - The country has consisted of many islands

Ger. Er hat die Frage richtig beantwortet.

Dut. Hij heeft de vraag goed beantwoord.

Afr. Hy het die vraag reg beantwoord.

- He has answered the question correctly.

• When the verb is in the form of an infinitive with Ger. zu, Dut. (om) te, Afr. om te, the zu (in
German), te (in Dutch), and te (in Afrikaans) must come before the inseparable prefix and the main
verb in German, Dutch, and Afrikaans (See The Infinitive p. 578). For example:

Ger. Das Land scheint aus vielen Inseln zu bestehen.

Dut. Het land lijkt uit vele eilanden te bestaan.

Afr. Die land lyk om uit baie eilande te bestaan.

- The country seems to consist of many island.

Ger. Sie hat versucht, die Geschichte zu erklären.

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Dut. Ze heeft geprobeerd het verhaal te verklaren.

Afr. Sy het probeer om die storie te verduidelik.

- She has tried to explain the story.

NOTE:
Afrikaans
Remember that in Afrikaans, the infinitive is formed using om te, where om is put
after the first verb, and te is placed before the inseparable verbal prefix and the
main verb.

• Remember that when spoken, the inseparable verbal prefix is unstressed. The first syllable of the stem
normally receives the stress.

• Verbs with prefixes (separable or inseparable) can often become nouns or adjectives and adverbs, for
example:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

die Befreiung de bevrijding die bevryding liberation

der Entwurf het ontwerp die ontwerp design, draft, sketch

Examples of Inseparable Verbal Prefixes

These inseparable prefixes are:

German Dutch Afrikaans

be- be- be-

ent- ont- ont-
er- er- er-

ge- ge- ge-

miss- mis- mis-

über- over- oor-

unter- onder- onder-
ver- ver- ver-
voll- vol- vol-
wider- weer- weer-

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• Ger. be-, Dut. be-, Afr. be-:

Just like in English (e.g. to belittle, to beknight, to bespeak, etc.), in German, Dutch and
Afrikaans, the inseparable prefix Ger. be-, Dut., Afr, be- makes a verb transitive:

Below are some common verbs in this category:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

beabsichtigen beogen, bedoelen beplan, beoog, bedoel to intend, aim

bearbeiten bewerken bewerk to work on, edit, rework

beantworten beantwoorden beantwoord to answer (a question)

bedecken bedekken bedek to cover

bedeuten betekenen, bedoelen beteken, bedoel to mean, imply, signify

bedienen bedienen bedien to serve

bedrohen bedreigen bedreig to threaten, menace

beflecken, besudeln bevlekken, bezoedelen bevlek, besoedel to stain, sully

befragen bevragen bevraagteken to question, interrogate

befreien bevrijden bevry to free, liberate

begehen begaan begaan to commit/make a

mistake
begreifen begrijpen begryp to comprehend

begrüßen begroeten begroet to welcome, greet

beherrschen beheersen beheer to control, master

bestätigen, bevestigen bevestig to confirm, affirm,

bekräftigen, bejahen approve
behaupten beweren beweer to claim, maintain,
assert
bekämpfen bestrijden bestry to fight against, combat

beschuldigen beschuldigen beskuldig to accuse, blame

Observe the following example:

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Ger. Was bedeutet die Nachricht? Ger. Er begeht einen Fehler.

Dut. Wat betekent het bericht? Dut. Hij begaat een fout.

Afr. Wat beteken die boodskap? Afr. Hy begaan 'n fout.

- What does the message mean? - He is making a mistake.

• Ger. ent-, Dut. ont-, Afr. ont-:

The inseparable prefix Ger. ent-, Dut., Afr. ont- has several meanings. It can mean to begin or
enter into an activity, to separate or remove. It can also indicate a systematic process or a reversed process
or activity:

Below are some common verbs in this category:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

entstehen ontstaan ontstaan to originate, arise

entwickeln, entstehen ontwikkelen ontwikkel to develop

entdecken ontdekken ontdek to discover

entgehen, entweichen, ontgaan, ontsnappen, ontsnap to escape, evade

entkommen ontkomen
entfalten ontvouwen ontvou to unfold

entwerfen ontwerpen ontwerp to design, sketch

entehren onteren onteer to dishonor

entladen ontladen, ontslaan ontslag to discharge

entlasten ontlasten ontlas to unburden, relieve, ease

entsäuern ontzuren ontsuur to deacidify, neutralize

entlassen ontslaan ontslaan to release, dismiss, fire

entzünden ontsteken aansteek* to inflame

Observe the following example:

Ger. Dieses Land entwickelt sich sehr schnell. Ger. Ich entwerfe Kleider.

Dut. Dit land ontwikkelt zich zeer snel. Dut. Ik ontwerp jurken.

Afr. Hierdie land ontwikkel baie vinnig. Afr. Ek ontwerp rokke.

- This country is developing very quickly. - I design dresses.

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• Ger. er-, Dut. er-, Afr. er-:

The inseparable prefix Ger. er-, Dut. er-, and Afr. er- designates origin or accomplishment:

Below are some common verbs in this category:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

erleben ervaren ervaar to experience, witness

Observe the following example:

Ger. Ich erlebe es oft.

Dut. Ik ervaar het vaak.

Afr. Ek ervaar dit dikwels.

- I often experience it.

• Ger. ge-, Dut. ge-, Afr. ge-:

The inseparable prefix Ger. ge-, Dut. ge-, and Afr. ge- can designate result or completeness and
often successful action:

Below are some common verbs in this category:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

gedeihen gedijen floreer* to flourish, prosper, thrive

gedenken gedenken, herdenken* herdenk* to remember, commemorate
gehorchen gehoorzamen gehoorsaam to obey
glauben* geloven glo* to believe
genesen herstellen* herstel* to recover, get well

Observe the following example:

Ger. Er gehorcht ihnen nicht. Ger. An diesem Tag gedenken wir der Königin.

Dut. Hij gehoorzaamt ze niet. Dut. Op deze dag herdenken* we de koningin.

Afr. Hy gehoorsaam hulle nie. Afr. Op hierdie dag herdenk* ons die koningin.
- He does not obey them. - On this day we commemorate the queen.

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NOTE:
German
The verb glauben does not have the prefix -ge.
Dutch
The verb herdenken is formed with the prefix -her, not -ge.
Afrikaans
The verbs floreer, herdenk, glo are not formed with the prefix -ge.

• Ger. miss-, Dut. mis-, Afr. mis-:

The inseparable prefix Ger. miss-, Dut. mis-, and Afr. mis- means “wrong” or “false”:

Below are some common verbs in this category:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

missfallen mishagen mishaag to displease, misplease

irreführen* misleiden mislei to mislead

missbrauchen misbruiken misbruik to misuse, abuse, maltreat

misslingen, missglücken mislukken misluk to fail

missverstehen misverstaan, misverstaan to misunderstand
misvatten

Observe the following example:

Ger. Er missbraucht unser Vertrauen. Ger. Alle seine Versuche missglücken.

Dut. Hij misbruikt ons vertrouwen. Dut. Al zijn pogingen mislukken.

Afr. Hy misbruik ons vertroue. Afr. Al sy pogings misluk.

- He abused our trust. - All his attempts fail.

• Ger. über-, Dut. over-, Afr. oor-:

The verbal prefix Ger. über-, Dut. over-, Afr. oor- is often inseparable in German, Dutch, and
Afrikaans. It means “over”, “past”, "too much”, or “fail to”.

Below are some common verbs in this category:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

überarbeiten overwerken oorwerk to overwork

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German Dutch Afrikaans English

überbelichten overbelichten oorbelig to overexpose

überbieten overbieden oorbied to outbid
überfallen overvallen oorval to raid
überfluten overstromen oorstroom to flood
überfüttern overvoeren oorvoed to overfeed
übergeben overgeven, oorhandig to hand over, vomit,
overhandigen throw up
überladen overladen oorlaai to overload
überleben overleven oorleef to survive

übernachten overnachten oornag to stay overnight

übersehen overzien oorsien to overlook, oversee

übertreiben overdrijven oordryf to exaggerate

übertreffen overtreffen oortref to surpass, outdo

überwältigen overweldigen oorweldig to overwhelm

überwinden overwinnen oorkom to overcome
überzeugen overreden, overtuigen oorreed, oortuig to convince, persuade

Study the following example:

Ger. Ich übernachte im Haus meines Freundes. Ger. Er übertrifft unsere Erwartungen.

Dut. Ik overnacht in het huis van mijn vriend. Dut. Hij overtreft onze verwachtingen.

Afr. Ek oornag by my vriend se huis. Afr. Hy oortref ons verwagtinge.

- I'm staying overnight in my friend's house. - He is surpassing our expectations.

Ger. Sie überwindet die Schwierigkeiten.

Dut. Ze overwint de moeilijkheden.

Afr. Sy oorkom die moeilikhede.

- She overcomes the difficulties.

Note that the following verbs have the inseparable prefix über- in German and the separable
prefix over- and oor- in Dutch and Afrikaans respectively.

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German Dutch Afrikaans English

überfliegen overvliegen oorvlieg to fly over

überweisen, overmaken, oorbring, oordra to transfer, convey,

übermitteln, overbrengen, transmit
übertragen overdragen
überspringen overslaan oorslaan to skip

Observe the following:

Ger. Sie überweisen das Geld. Ger. Caroline überspringt die Klasse.

Dut. Zij maken het geld over. Dut. Caroline slaat de klas over.

Afr. Hulle dra die geld oor. Afr. Caroline slaan die klas oor.

- They are transferring the money. - Caroline is skipping the grade.

It should be mentioned that the verbal prefix Ger. über, Dut. over- may also be separable in
German, Dutch, and Afrikaans. When an inseparable prefix, it means “over” or “across” (See Separable
Verbal Prefixes p. 596):

German Dutch Afrikaans English

überladen overladen oorlaai to transfer goods, load goods

from one vehicle to another
overlaten überlassen oorlaat to leave over

überlaufen overlopen, oorloop to overflow

overstromen
überbleiben overblijven oorbly to remain, be left over

überkochen overkoken oorkook to boil over

übernehmen overnemen oorneem to take over

Study the following example:

Ger. Lass auch ein Stück vom Kuchen für mich über! Ger. Kleine Töpfe laufen schnell über.

Dut. Laat ook een stukje van de taart voor mij over! Dut. Kleine potten lopen snel over.

Afr. Los vir my ook 'n stukkie van die koek oor! Afr. Klein potte loop vinnig oor.
- Leave a piece of the cake over for me as well! - Small pots overflow quickly.

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 CHAPTER 6: VERBS

• Ger. unter-, Dut. onder-, Afr. onder-:

The verbal prefix Ger. unter-, Dut., Afr. onder- is almost always inseparable. It has a number of
meanings, including “below”, “beneath”, “down”, “under, “lower”, or “sub-”:

Below are some common verbs in this category:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

unterbelichten onderbelichten onderbelig to underexpose

unterbrechen onderbreken onderbreek to disrupt, interrupt

unterlegen onderdoen onderdoen to place underneath, put under

untermauern onderheien onderlê to underpin

unterschreiben ondertekenen onderteken to sign, put a signature under

untervermieten onderhuren onderverhuur to sublet, sublease

untersuchen onderzoeken ondersoek to investigate, examine

unterteilen onderverdelen onderverdeel to subdivide, divide

Study the following example:

Ger. Du unterbrichst mich. Ger. Der Arzt untersucht das Kind.

Dut. Je onderbreekt me. Dut. De dokter onderzoekt het kind.

Afr. Jy onderbreek my. Afr. Die dokter ondersoek die kind.

- You are interrupting me. - The doctor examines the child.

NOTE:
The prefix Ger. unter-, Dut. onter- in the following verbs is separable in German
and Dutch:
German Dutch English

unterbringen onderbrengen to accommodate, host, lodge

untergehen ondergaan to go down

untertauchen onderduiken to submerge, plunge, hide

unterziehen ondergaan to undergo

For example:

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Ger. Er bringt uns in seinem Haus unter.

Dut. Hij brengt ons in zijn huis onder.
- He accommodates us in his house.

Ger. Die Welt geht deswegen nicht unter.

Dut. De wereld gaat daardoor niet ten onder.
- The world won’t go down because of that.

• Ger. ver-, Dut. ver-, Afr. ver-:

The inseparable prefix Ger. ver-, Dut. ver-, Afr. ver- conveys a variety of meanings. It generally
denotes a change. It can also have the connotation of “making things worse”. It can also denote a reversed
process or that the action of the verb miscarried. This prefix is sometimes equivalent to the English
prefixes “fore-“ or “fore-“:

Below are some common verbs with the pre x Ger. ver-, Dut. ver-, and Afr. ver-:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

verändern veranderen verander to change

verarmen verarmen verarm to impoverish, become

poor
verbergen, verbergen, verberg to hide, conceal
verstecken verstoppen
verbessern verbeteren verbeter to improve, correct

verbieten verbieden verbied to forbid

verbleiben verblijven verbly to stay, remain, reside

verdrehen verdraaien verdraai to twist, distort

vereinfachen vereenvoudigen vereenvoudig to simplify

verfallen vervallen verval to expire, decay

verfälschen vervalsen vervals to falsify

verfluchen vervloeken vervloek to curse

verformen vervormen vervorm to deform

vergeben vergeven vergewe to forgive

vergehen vergaan vergaan to die (off), pass, expire

vergessen vergeten vergeet to forget

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German Dutch Afrikaans English

vergiften vergiftigen vergiftig to poison

vergolden vergulden verguld to gild

vergöttern verafgoden verafgod to idolize

verhindern verhinderen verhinder to prevent, inhibit, hider

verjüngen verjongen verjong to rejuvenate

verkaufen verkopen verkoop to sell

verkürzen verkorten verkort to shorten

verlängern verlengen verleng to lengthen, extend

sich verlieben, verlieven, verliefd verlief, verlief wees to fall in love, be in love
verliebt sein worden, verliefd zijn
verlieren verliezen verloor to lose

vermieten verhuren verhuur to rent out

vermissen vermissen vermis to miss

vernichten vernietigen vernietig to destroy

vernachlässigen verwaarlozen, verwaarloos to neglect

verzuimen
sich verschlafen zich verslapen verslaap to oversleep

verschlechtern, verslechteren, versleg, vererger to worsen, deteriorate

verschlimmern verergeren
verspielen verspelen verspeel to gamble away, lose

verzweifeln vertwijfelen vertwyfel to despair

verwundern verwonderen verwonder to amaze

Observe the following example:

Ger. Ich verbessere mein Deutsch jeden Tag. Ger. Wir verkaufen Bücher.

Dut. Ek verbeter my Duits elke dag. Dut. Wij verkopen boeken.

Afr. Ek verbeter my Duits elke dag. Afr. Ons verkoop boeke.

- I improve my German every day. - We sell books.

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Ger. Er vermietet das Zimmer an Studenten.

Dut. Hij verhuurt de kamer aan studenten.

Afr. Hy verhuur die kamer aan studente.

- He rents out the room to students.

• Ger. voll-, Dut. vol-, Afr. vol-:

The verbal prefix Ger. voll-, Dut. vol-, Afr. vol- is often inseparable in German, Dutch, and
Afrikaans. It usually means “full”, “complete”, or “finished”.

Below are some common verbs in this category:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

vollbringen volbrengen volbring to accomplish

vollenden voltooien voltooi to complete, finish

Study the following example:

Ger. Ich vollende die Aufgabe.

Dut. Ik voltooi de taak.

Afr. Ek voltooi die taak.

- I am completing the task.

It should be mentioned that the verbal prefix Ger. voll, Dut. vol-, Afr. vol- may also be separable
in German, Dutch, and Afrikaans.

German Dutch Afrikaans English

vollladen volladen vollaai to load up

vollgießen volgieten volgooi to pour full, fill up
vollstopfen volstoppen, volproppen volstop to stuff full, pack full

Study the following example:

Ger. Diana lädt ihren Teller voll.

Dut. Diana laadt haar bord vol.

Afr. Diana laai vol haar bord vol.

- Diana is loading her plate.

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 CHAPTER 6: VERBS

• Ger. wider-, Dut. weer-, Afr. weer-:

The inseparable prefix Ger. wider-, Dut. weer-, Afr. weer- usually conveys the meaning of
“against”, or “back”:

Below are some common verbs in this category:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

widerlegen weerleggen weerlê to refute, disprove, prove wrong

widerstehen weerstaan weerstaan to resist, withstand

Observe the following example:

Ger. Ich habe sie widerlegt. Ich widerlege ihn immer.

Dut. Ik weerlegde haar. Ik weerleg hem altijd.

Afr. Ek het haar weerlê. Ek weerlê hom altyd.

- I always prove him wrong.

Ger. Sie kann Schokolade nicht widerstehen.

Dut. Ze kan chocolade niet weerstaan.

Afr. Sy kan nie sjokolade weerstaan nie.

- She cannot resist chocolate.

Distinction between Separable and Inseparable Verbs in German, Dutch,

and Afrikaans

In the case of separable verbs, when spoken, the separable verbal prefix is always emphasized in
German, Dutch, and Afrikaans. Observe the following:

Ger. aufstehen, Dut. opstaan , Afr. opstaan.

In the case of non-separable verbs, the inseparable verbal prefix is unstressed. The word stem is
normally emphasized instead, for instance:

Ger. bestehen, Dut. bestaan , Afr. bestaan.

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CHAPTER 7: NUMBERS, TIME AND DATE

Numbers
Overview

In West Germanic languages, numerals can be in four forms, i.e. cardinals (e.g. one, two, three,
four, etc.), ordinals (e.g. first, second, third, fourth, etc.), fractions (e.g. half, one third, etc.) and
collectives (e.g. a couple, a dozen).

Cardinal Numbers
In German, Dutch and Afrikaans, the cardinal numbers are as follows:

German Dutch Afrikaans

0 Null nul nil

1 eins één een

2 zwei twee twee

3 drei drie drie

4 vier vier vier

5 fünf vijf vyf

6 sechs zes ses

7 sieben zeven sewe

8 acht acht agt

9 neun negen nege

10 zehn tien tien

11 elf elf elf

12 zwölf twaalf twaalf

13 dreizehn dertien dertien

14 vierzehn veertien veertien

15 fünfzehn vijftien vyftien

16 sechzehn zestien sestien

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German Dutch Afrikaans

17 siebzehn zeventien sewentien

18 achtzehn achttien agttien

19 neunzehn negentien negentien

20 zwanzig twintig twintig

21 einundzwanzig eenentwintig een-en-twintig

22 zweiundzwanzig tweeëntwintig twee-en-twintig

23 dreiundzwanzig drieëntwintig drie-en-twintig

24 vierundzwanzig vierentwintig vier-en-twintig

25 fünfundzwanzig vijfentwintig vyf-en-twintig

26 sechsundzwanzig zesentwintig ses-en-twintig

27 siebenundzwanzig zevenentwintig sewe-en-twintig

28 achtundzwanzig achtentwintig agt-en-twintig

29 neunundzwanzig negenentwintig nege-en-twintig

30 dreißig dertig dertig

31 einunddreißig eenendertig een-en-dertig

32 zweiunddreißig tweeëndertig twee-en-dertig

33 dreiunddreißig drieëndertig drie-en-dertig

40 vierzig veertig veertig

50 fünfzig vijftig vyftig

60 sechzig zestig sestig

70 siebzig zeventig sewentig

80 achtzig tachtig tagtig

90 neunzig negentig negentig

100 (ein)hundert honderd (’n) honderd or eenhonderd

101 (ein)hunderteins honderdéén (’n) honderd-en-een or

honderd-en-een
102 (ein)hundertzwei honderdtwee (’n) honderd-en-twee or
eenhonderd-en-twee

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German Dutch Afrikaans

103 (ein)hundertdrei honderddrie (’n) honderd-en-drie or

eenhonderd-en-drie
120 (ein)hundert-zwanzig honderdtwintig ’n honderd/eenhonderd-en-
twintig
121 (ein)hundert-einundzwanzig honderdeenen-twintig ’n honderd/eenhonderd een-
en-twintig
122 (ein)hundert-zweiundzwanzig honderdtweeën-twintig ’n honderd/eenhonderd twee-
en-twintig
200 zweihundert tweehonderd tweehonderd

201 zweihunderteins tweehonderdeen tweehonderd-en-een

202 zweihundertzwei tweehonderdtwee tweehonderd-en-twee

300 dreihundert driehonderd driehonderd

400 vierhundert vierhonderd vierhonderd

500 fünfhundert vijfhonderd vyfhonderd

600 sechshundert zeshonderd seshonderd

700 siebenhundert zevenhonderd sewehonderd

800 achthundert achthonderd agthonderd

900 neunhundert negenhonderd negehonderd

1000 (ein)tausend duizend ('n) duisend or eenduisend

1001 (ein)tausendeins duizend één ('n) duisend-en-een/

eenduisend-en-een
1002 (ein)tausendzwei duizend twee ('n) duisend-en-twee/
eenduisend-en-twee
1050 (ein)tausendfünfzig duizendvijftig ('n) duisend/eenduisend-en-
vyftig
1100 (ein)tausend-einhundert duizend honderd eenduisend eenhonderd

1101 (ein)tausendein-hunderteins duizend honderd en één eenduisend eenhonderd-en-een

1200 (ein)tausendzwei-hundert duizend tweehonderd ('n) duisend/eenduisend

tweehonderd
1250 (ein)tausendzwei- duizend twee-honderdvijftig ('n) duisend/eenduisend
hundertfünfzig tweehonderd vyftig
1251 (ein)tausendzwei-hundert- duizend tweehonderd- ('n) duisend/eenduisend
einundfünfzig eenenvijftig tweehonderd een-en-vyftig
2 000 zweitausend tweeduizend tweeduisend

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German Dutch Afrikaans

10 000 zehntausend tienduizend tienduisend

20 000 zwanzigtausend twintigduizend twintigduisend

100 000 hunderttausend honderdduizend honderdduisend

200 000 zweihundert-tausend tweehonderd-duizend tweehonderd duisend

1 000 eine Million (een) miljoen ’n miljoen or eenmiljoen

000
2 000 zwei Millionen twee miljoen tweemiljoen
000
10 000 zehn Millionen tien miljoen tienmiljoen
000
100 000 ein hundert Millionen honderd miljoen honderd miljoen
000
1 000 eine Millarde (een) miljard eenmiljard
000 000
2 000 zwei Milliarden twee miljard tweemiljard
000 000
1 000 eine Billion (een) biljoen een biljoen
000 000
000
2 000 zwei Billionen twee biljoen tweebiljoen
000 000
000

Note that in German, Dutch and Afrikaans, unlike in English, numbers between 21 and 99 that
are not multiples of ten (20, 30, 40, 50 etc.) are expressed in reverse: one-and-thirty, two-and-thirty,
three-and-thirty, and so on. This pattern also covers numbers in the hundreds place, thousands place,
millions place.

Unlike in Dutch and Afrikaans, in German the raw numeral eins - “one” is predominantly used
while counting. When followed by a noun, it is identical in form to the indefinite article “a/an” and agrees
in case and gender with a noun (See Indefinite Articles p. 218).

Compare the following:

German Ich habe nur einen Sohn. Ich habe nur eine Tochter. Ich habe nur ein Haus.
(masc. acc.) (fem. acc.) (neut. acc.)
Dutch Ik heb maar één zoon. Ik heb maar één dochter. Ik heb maar één huis.

Afrikaans Ek het net een seun. Ek het net een dogter. Ek het net een huis.

English I have only one son. I have only one daughter. I have only one house.

It should be mentioned that in German and Afrikaans, just like in English, Ger. ein and Afr. een/
‘n - “one/a” can be used before Ger. hundert and tausend and Afr. honderd and duisend.

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NOTE:
In Dutch, however, één is not added to honderd and duizend.

Study the following:

Ger. einhundert / eintausend Bücher.

Dut. honderd / duizend boeken.

Afr.(’n) honderd (eenhonderd)/('n) duisend (eenduisend) boeke.

- a (one) hundred / a (one) thousand books.

German, Dutch and Afrikaans use dots to separate thousands while English uses a comma, and a
comma is used to mark the decimal in the West Germanic languages whereas English utilizes a point.
Observe the following:

German, Dutch and Afrikaans English

1.250.300 1,250,300
2,50 2.50

Peculiarities of Spelling Rules of Cardinal Numbers in the West Germanic

Languages

Despite a certain number of common rules, each West Germanic language has its own set of
peculiar spelling rules of cardinal numbers, which ought to be regarded individually.

German

1. Note that in compound numerals like 21 - einundzwanzig etc. the -s is dropped in German:

21 einundzwanzig 61 einundsechzig

31 einunddreißig 71 einundsiebzig

41 einundvierzig 81 einundachtzig

51 einundfünfzig 91 einundneunzig

2. In colloquial German, zwei - “two” is frequently pronounced zwo, particularly when spelling out
numbers, for example:

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Ger. Meine Postleitzahl ist fünf zwo sieben zwo.

- My post code is 5272.

3. Note that the -s of sechs - “six” is omitted in numbers 16 and 60:

16 sechzehn 60 sechzig

4. Furthermore, the -en of sieben - “seven” is dropped in numbers 17 and 70, for example::

17 siebzehn 70 siebzig

5. Remember that only number 30 (dreißig) ends in -ßig rather than -zig like numbers 20, 40, 50 etc.
Observe the following:

20 zwanzig 60 sechzig

30 dreißig 70 siebzig

40 vierzig 80 achtzig

50 fünfzig 90 neunzig

6. In German, hundert and tausend mean “a hundred” and “a thousand”. Einhundert and
eintausend render “one hundred” and “one thousand”. Note that “hundreds of/thousands of” is
translated as follows:

hunderte/tausende Äpfel or hunderte/tausende von Äpfeln

- hundreds/thousands of apples

7. With numerals after 101 German drops “and” between the hundreds and the tens, just like in American
English:

101 (ein)hunderteins 201 zweihunderteins

102 (ein)hundertzwei 202 zweihundertzwei

103 (ein)hundertdrei 203 zweihundertdrei

104 (ein)hundertvier 204 zweihundertvier

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8. It is worth saying that all German numbers below a million are written out as a single word. Million,
Milliarde, and Billion, however, are written separately, for example:

85 200 790:

Ger. fünfundachtzig Millionen zweihunderttausendsiebenhundertneunzig

Dutch

1. Note that numerals 13, 14, 30, 40 and 80 have irregular spelling in Dutch:

13 dertien (but 3 - drie) 30 dertig

14 veertien (but 4 - vier) 40 veertig

80 tachtig (but 8 - acht)

2. In spoken Dutch, zeven, zeventien, zeventig are often pronounced zeuven, zeuventien,
zeuventig (the stressed e is pronounced as ø). Also, zeventig is pronounced as seventig (the initial
sound is s). Note that this pronunciation is only heard in the Netherlands.

Dut. Mijn postcode is zeuven twee zeuven twee.

- My post code is 7272.

3. Dutch doesn’t add één to honderd and duizend - “hundred” and “thousand”, neither does it add en
- “and” between hundreds and the rest of the number or thousands and the rest of the number:

100 honderd 1000 duizend

101 honderdéén 1001 duizend één

102 honderdtwee 1002 duizend twee

103 honderddrie 1003 duizend drie

4. It is worth saying that honderd and duizend - “hundred” and “thousand” are written separately in
Dutch, for example:

1.555:

Dut. duizend vijfhonderd vijfenvijftig

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15.325:

Dut. vijftienduizend driehonderd vijfentwintig

Afrikaans

1. Just like in Dutch, in Afrikaans numerals 13, 14, 17, 19, 30, 40, 70, 80 and 90 have irregular spelling for
historical reasons:

13 dertien (but 3 - drie) 30 dertig

14 veertien (but 4 - vier) 40 veertig

17 sewentien (but 7 - sewe) 70 sewentig

19 negentien (but 9 - nege) 90 negentig

80 tagtig (but 8 - agt)

2. Furthermore, in spoken Afrikaans, nege, negentien, negentig are often pronounced with /x/ but /g/
is also heard.

Also, the variants neëntien/neëntig - “nineteen/ninety” are also very frequent, as is neën when
used as a cardinal numeral in combination with tens, for example:

29:

Afr. neën-en-twintig

3. Like in English and German, in Afrikaans ’n honderd and ’n duisend mean “a hundred” and “a
thousand”, whereas eenhonderd or eenduisend render “one hundred” and “one thousand”.

4. Furthermore, unlike Dutch, Afrikaans add en - “and” and a hyphen between 100 and 1-19, but not to
other numerals, for example:

101 ’n honderd-en-een or honderd-en-een

102 ’n honderd-en-twee or eenhonderd-en-twee

103 ’n honderd-en-drie or eenhonderd-en-drie

However, between 100 and 21-99 the numerals are written without a hyphen. Study the following:

121 ’n honderd een-en-twintig or eenhonderd een-en-twintig

122 ’n honderd twee-en-twintig or eenhonderd twee-en-twintig

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123 ’n honderd drie-en-twintig or eenhonderd drie-en-twintig

5. It is worth saying that like hundreds, all multiples of a thousand are written using en - “and” and a
hyphen between 1000 and 1-19 in Afrikaans, for example:

2.018:

Afr. tweeduisend-en-agttien

4.050:

Afr. vierduisend-en-vyftig

NOTE:
In Afrikaans, however, the following alternatives are possible:

2.200:

Afr. twee duisend driehonderd, twee duisend drie honderd, tweeduisenddriehonderd

6. Note that “hundreds of/thousands of” is translated as follows:

honderde mense/duisende mense

- hundreds of people/thousands of people

Phrases of Approximation Used with Cardinal Numbers

Following are phrases of approximation which are used with cardinal numbers in the West
Germanic languages:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

ungefähr, etwa ongeveer ongeveer approximately, about,

roughly
fast, nahezu, beinahe, bijna, haast, vrijwel byna, amper, vrywel almost
bald
rund, gegen rond rond around

mehr oder weniger min of meer min of meer more or less

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German Dutch Afrikaans English

oder so ähnlich of zoiets of so iets something like that

Ger. Ich habe etwa dreißig Euro.

Dut. Ik heb ongeveer dertig euro.

Afr. Ek het ongeveer dertig euro.

- I have about thirty euros.

Did you know?

Ger. Zwanzig Kilometer oder so ähnlich.
Stuttgart, capital and largest city of
southwest Germany’s Baden- Dut. Twintig kilometer of zoiets.
Württemberg state, is a very important Afr. Twintig kilometer of so iets.
financial center. The Stuttgart Stock Exchange
is the second largest in Germany (after - Twenty kilometres or something like that.
Frankfurt).

Ger. Er ist etwa fünfzig Jahre alt.

Dut. Hij is ongeveer vijftig jaar oud.

Afr. Hy is ongeveer vyftig jaar oud.

- He is around fifty years old.

Use of Cardinal Numbers

In German, Dutch and Afrikaans, cardinal numbers are generally used:

• To count:

Ger. eins, zwei, drei…

Dut. één, twee, drie…

Afr. een, twee, drie…

- one, two, three…

• For prices:

Ger. Wie viel kostet es? - Es kostet dreißig Euro.

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Dut. Hoeveel kost het? - Het kost dertig euro.

Afr. Hoeveel kos dit? - Dit kos dertig euro.

- How much does it cost? - It costs thirty euros.

Ger. Wie viel kostet dieser Mantel? - Dieser Mantel kostet neunzig Euro.

Dut. Hoeveel kost deze jas? - Deze jas kost negentig euro.

Afr. Hoeveel kos hierdie jas? - Hierdie jas kos negentig euro.

- How much does this coat cost? - This coat costs ninety euros.

• To indicate age (See Age p. 675):

In the West Germanic languages, one must conjugate the verb Ger. sein, Dut. zijn, Afr. wees -
“to be” to the subject in order to indicate the age of a person. For example:

Ger. Wie alt bist du? - Ich bin 25 (fünfundzwanzig) Jahre alt.

Dut. Hoe oud ben je? - Ik ben 25 (vijfentwintig) jaar oud.

Afr. Hoe oud is jy? - Ek is 25 (vyf-en-twintig) jaar oud.

- How old are you? - I am 25 (twenty five) years old.

Ger. Mein Bruder ist dreißig Jahre alt.

Dut. Mijn broer is dertig jaar oud.

Afr. My broer is dertig jaar oud.

- My brother is thirty years old.

• To tell the time of day (See Time p. 668):

In German, Dutch and Afrikaans, hours are normally expressed by using the pronoun Ger. es,
Dut. het, Afr, dit - “it” + the verb Ger. sein, Dut. zijn, Afr. wees - “to be” + a cardinal number + the
word Ger. Uhr, Dut. uur, Afr. uur - “hour(-s)”.

The table below shows the idea of how to tell the time of day in the West Germanic
languages:

German Es + ser (ist) + a cardinal number + Uhr

Dutch Het + zijn (is) + a cardinal number + uur

Afrikaans Dit + wees (is) + a cardinal number + uur

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Observe the following:

Ger. Wie spät ist es? - Es ist ein Uhr (es ist vier Uhr).

Dut. Hoe laat is het? - Het is één uur (Het is vier uur).

Afr. Hoe laat is dit? Dit is eenuur (Dit is vieruur).

- What time is it? It is one o'clock (It is four o'clock)

NOTE:
In Afrikaans, the word uur and a cardinal number are written as one word.
However, if a cardinal number ends in a vowel, the word uur and this cardinal
number are hyphenated:

Afr. Dit is twee-uur (Dit is drie-uur)

- It is two o'clock (It is three o'clock)

• To read years:

In Dutch and Afrikaans, the years are generally read just like in English. So 1975 would be Dut.
negentienvijfenzeventig, Afr. negentien vyf-en-sewentig - “nineteen seventy-five.”

In German, however, when you name the century, you must add Ger. “hundert”, which means
“hundred”. Therefore, 1975 would be Ger. neunzehn-hundert-fünf-und-siebzig means seventeen-
hundred. Study more examples:

Ger. 1473 – Vierzehn-hundert-drei-und-siebzig

Dut. 1473 – veertiendrieënzeventig

Afr. 1473 – veertien drie-en-sewentig

Ger. 1998 – Neunzehn-hundert-acht-und-neunzig

Dut. 1998 – negentienachtennegentig

Afr. 1998 – negentien agt-en-negentig

NOTE:
In German, Dutch and Afrikaans, all the years from 2000 upwards are
pronounced as follows:

Ger. 2024 – Zwei-Tausend-vier-und-zwanzig

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Dut. 2024 – twee­duizend­vierentwintig

Afr. 2024 – tweeduisend vier-en-twintig

Ordinal Numbers

Ordinal numbers are numbers that indicate the order of nouns and just like cardinal numbers,
ordinal numbers are also adjectives.

However, unlike cardinal numbers, ordinal numbers must agree both in number and in gender
with the noun they modify in German and Dutch, and in case in German.

Also, ordinal numbers usually precede nouns in the West Germanic languages.

NOTE:
In German, the ordinal numbers are given in the nominative masculine below.

The table below shows the German, Dutch and Afrikaans ordinal numbers:

German Dutch Afrikaans

1st erster eerste eerste

2nd zweiter tweede tweede

3rd dritter derde derde

4th vierter vierde vierde

5th fünfter vijfde vyfde

6th sechster zesde sesde

7th siebter zevende sewende

8th achter achtste agtste

9th neunter negende negende

10th zehnter tiende tiende

11th elfter elfde elfde

12th zwölfter twaalfde twaalfde

13th dreizehnter dertiende dertiende

14th vierzehnter veertiende veertiende

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German Dutch Afrikaans

15th fünfzehnter vijftiende vyftiende

16th sechzehnter zestiende sestiende

17th siebzehnter zeventiende sewentiende

18th achtzehnter achttiende agttiende

19th neunzehnter negentiende negentiende

20th zwanzigster twintigste twintigste

21st einundzwanzigster eenentwintigste een-en-twintigste

22nd zweiundzwanzigster tweeëntwintigste twee-en-twintigste

23rd dreiundzwanzigster drieëntwintigste drie-en-twintigste

24th vierundzwanzigster vierentwintigste vier-en-twintigste

25th fünfundzwanzigster vijfentwintigste vyf-en-twintigste

26th sechsundzwanzigster zesentwintigste ses-en-twintigste

27th siebenundzwanzigster zevenentwintigste sewe-en-twintigste

28th achtundzwanzigster achtentwintigste agt-en-twintigste

29th neunundzwanzigster negenentwintigste nege-en-twintigste

30th dreißigster dertigste dertigste

31st einunddreißigster eenendertigste een-en-dertigste

32nd zweiunddreißigster tweeëndertigste twee-en-dertigste

33rd dreiunddreißigster drieëndertigste drie-en-dertigste

40th vierzigster veertigste veertigste

50th fünfzigster vijftigste vyftigste

60th sechzigster zestigste sestigste

70th siebzigster zeventigste sewentigste

80th achtzigster tachtigste tagtigste

90th neunzigster negentigste negentigste

100th hundertster honderdste honderdste

101st hunderterster honderd eerste honderd-en-eerste

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German Dutch Afrikaans

102nd hundertzweiter honderd tweede honderd-en-tweede

103rd hundertdritter honderd derde honderd-en-derde

120th hundertzwanzigster honderd twintigste honderd-en-twintigste

121st hunderteinund-zwanzigster honderd eenen-twintigste honderd-een-en-twintigste

122nd hundertzweiund-zwanzigster honderd tweeën-twintigste honderd-twee-en-twintigste

200th zweihundertster tweehonderdste tweehonderdste

201st zweihunderterster tweehonderd eerste tweehonderd-en-eerste

202nd zweihundertzweiter tweehonderd tweede tweehonderd-en-tweede

300th dreihundertster driehonderdste driehonderdste

400th vierhundertster vierhonderdste vierhonderdste

500th fünfhundertster vijfhonderdste vyfhonderdste

600th sechshundertster zeshonderdste seshonderdste

700th siebenhundertster zevenhonderdste sewehonderdste

800th achthundertster achthonderdste agthonderdste

900th neunhundertster negenhonderdste negehonderdste

1000th tausendster duizendste duisendste

1001st tausenderster duizend eerste duisend-en-eerste

1002nd tausendzweiter duizend tweede duisend-en-tweede

1050th tausendfünfzigster duizend vijftigste duisend-en-vyftigste

1100th tausendhundertster duizend honderdste duisend honderdste

1101st tausendhunderterster duizend honderd eerste duisend honderd-en-eerste

1200th tausendzweihundertster duizend tweehonderdste duisend tweehonderdste

1250th tausendzwei- duizend tweehonderd duisend tweehonderd

hundertfünfzigster vijftigste vyftigste
1251st tausendzwei-hundert- duizend tweehonderd- duisend tweehonderd een-en-
einundfünfzigster eenenvijftigste vyftigste
2 000th zweitausendster tweeduizendste tweeduisendste

10 000th zehntausendster tienduizendste tienduisendste

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German Dutch Afrikaans

20 000th zwanzigtausendster twintigduizendste twintigduisendste

100 hunderttausendster honderd duizendste honderdduisendste

000th
200 zweihundert-tausendster tweehonderd duizendste tweehonderd duisendste
000th
1 000 millionster miljoenste miljoenste
000th

For example:

Ger. Es ist das zweite Haus, das sie gekauft hat.

Dut. Het is het tweede huis dat ze heeft gekocht.

Afr. Dit is die tweede huis wat sy gekoop het.

- It is the second house that she has bought.

Ger. Der erste Arbeitstag.

Dut. De eerste werkdag.

Afr. Die eerste dag van werk.

- The first day of work.

The English abbreviations “1st’, 2nd, 3rd, 4th” used with ordinal numbers are all expressed in
German by placing a full-stop, in Dutch and Afrikaans by adding -ste, -d after the numeral.

NOTE:
However, in Dutch, the -e is added instead after all numerals nowadays.

Observe the following example:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

1., 2., 3., 4. 1e, 2e, 3e, 4e 1ste, 2de, 3de, 4de 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th

Peculiarities of Spelling Rules of Ordinal Numbers in West Germanic

Languages

West Germanic languages have their own set of exceptions and special spelling rules of ordinal
numbers, which we will consider below.

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German

1. Note that all ordinals end in -er, -e, -es etc. in German. Ordinals are used as both adjectives and
adjectival nouns and thus must be inflected like all other adjectives.

Below is the table demonstrating the declension of the ordinal number erste(-r/-s). - “the
first”:

German

Strong declension (without article)

masculine feminine neuter plural

nom. erster erste erstes erste

gen. ersten erster ersten erster

acc. ersten erste erstes erste

dat. erstem erster erstem ersten

Weak declension (with definite article)

nom. der erste die erste das erste die ersten

gen. des ersten der ersten des ersten der ersten

acc. den ersten die erste das erste die ersten

dat. dem ersten der ersten dem ersten den ersten

Mixed declension (with indefinite article)

nom. ein erster eine erste ein erstes ersten

gen. eines ersten einer ersten eines ersten ersten

acc. einen ersten eine erste ein erstes ersten

dat. einem ersten einer ersten einem ersten ersten

For example:

Ger. Erstes Lebensjahr. (Strong dec., nom., neut.)

- First year of life.

Ger. Ich feiere den ersten Arbeitstag. (Weak dec., acc., masc.)

- I celebrate the first day of work.

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Ger. Er hat einen ersten Kunden eingeladen. (Mixed dec., acc., masc.)

- He has invited a first client.

Dutch

1. Note that ordinals 1st and 8th end in -ste in Dutch:

1st eerste 8th achtste

2. The ordinal number tweede - “second” is spelled with double ee, even if the /e/ sound occurs in an
open syllable in Dutch.

Afrikaans

1. The n that is added in the cardinals 17, 19, 7o and 90 is also used in the ordinals 7 and 9, for example:

7 sewende (but 7 - sewe) 70 sewentigste

9 negende (but 9 - nege) 90 negentigste

17 sewentiende

19 negentiende

2. In Afrikaans, inclusion or omission of en - “and” in the ordinals over 100th corresponds with where it
is used with cardinal numerals (See p. 645).

Use of Ordinal Numbers

In German, Dutch and Afrikaans, cardinal numbers are generally used:

• To indicate dates (See Dates p.511):

In German, Dutch and Afrikaans, ordinal numbers can be used to indicate dates. For example:

Below is a table demonstrating the formation of a full date in the West Germanic languages:

the definite article (Ger. der, Dut. de, Afr. die) + ordinal number + month

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Study the following example:

Ger. Heute ist der fünfte Mai.

Dut. Het is vandaag de vijfde mei.

Afr. Dit is vandag die vyfde Mei.

- Today is the fifth of May.

NOTE:
In Dutch, a cardinal number is often used in dates. Remember that the -e is
added instead after all numerals nowadays. To illustrate:

Dut. Zaterdag veertien februari.

- Saturday, February fourteenth.

Furthermore, if the month is not given, the ordinal numbers must be used in
Dutch:

Dut. Zaterdag de veertiende.

- Saturday the fourteenth.

The usual way of writing dates is to use the numeral, which then precedes the name of the month.
This order is kept when the date is written entirely in numbers.

Note that in Dutch and Afrikaans, the abbreviations -ste, -d - “1st’, 2nd, 3rd, 4th etc.” used with
ordinal numbers are omitted. In German, however, a full-stop must be placed in this case. Observe the
following:

Ger. 25. Juli 2023 Ger. Ich bin am 25. September geboren.

Dut. 25 juli 2023 Dut. Ik ben op de 25 september geboren.

Afr. 25 Julie 2023 Afr. Ek is op die 25 September gebore.

- 25 July 2023 - I was born on September 25th.

NOTE:
In Dutch, unlike in German and Afrikaans, the names of the months are not
capitalized (See Months p. 663)

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Adverbial Ordinals in the West Germanic Languages

Most common adverbial forms and combinations of ordinals are as follows in the West Germanic
languages:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

zuerst ten eerste ten eerste, eerstens firstly

an erster Stelle in de eerste plaats in die eerste plek in the first place

zweitens ten tweede ten tweede, tweedens secondly

an zweiter Stelle in de tweede plaats in die tweede plek in the second place

drittens ten derde ten derde, derdens thirdly

an dritter Stelle in de derde plaats in die derde plek in the third place

zuletzt ten slotte, ten laatste ten laaste, laastens lastly

For instance:

Ger. Ich war in Amsterdam, dann in Düsseldorf und zuletzt in Berlin.

Dut. Ik was in Amsterdam, vervolgens in Düsseldorf en ten slotte in Berlijn.

Afr. Ek was in Amsterdam, toe in Düsseldorf, en laastens in Berlyn.

- It is the second house that she has bought.

Fractions
Generally, fractions are used to express a portion or part of a whole. To form fractions, the
cardinals and the ordinals are used together in the West Germanic languages. However, there are also
special forms, which must be remembered.

German Dutch Afrikaans

1/2 (a half) die Hälfte, ein halber* een half, de helft ’n half, die helfte

1/3 ein Drittel (n.) een derde ’n/een derde

1/4 ein Viertel (n.) een kwart ’n kwart

1/5 ein Fünftel (n.) een vijfde ’n/een vyfde

1/6 ein Sechstel (n.) een zesde ’n/een sesde

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German Dutch Afrikaans

1/7 ein Siebtel (n.) een zevende ’n/een sewende

1/8 ein Achtel (n.) een achtste ’n/een agtste

1/9 ein Neuntel (n.) een negende ’n/een negende

1/10 ein Zehntel (n.) een tiende ’n/een tiende

2/3 zwei Drittel (n.) twee derde twee derdes

3/4 drei Viertel (n.) drie vierde drie vierdes

NOTE:
In German the noun and the adjective of the word “half" are different words,
i.e. die Hälfte (noun), halb (adj.). Study the following examples:

Ger. die Hälfte (noun) der Menschen

- half the people.

Ger. die halbe (adj.) Tasse

- half the cup.

In Dutch and Afrikaans, the adjective Dut. een half, Afr. 'n half - “half” is
usually inflected when used attributively, for example:

Dut. een halve appel.

Afr. ’n halwe appel.
- half an apple.

But: Dut. een half uur; Afr. 'n halfuur - half an hour.

It is worth mentioning that Ger. die Hälfte, ein halber; Dut. een half, de helft; Afr. ’n half,
die helfte are primarily used in non-arithmetical context. Look at the example:

Ger.Ich habe das halbe Buch (or die Hälfte des Buches) gelesen.

Dut. Ik heb de helft van het boek gelezen.

Afr. Ek het (die) helfte van die boek gelees.

- I have read half the book.

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Ger. Sie haben die halbe Flasche (or die Hälfte der Flasche) ausgetrunken.

Dut. Ze hebben de helft van de fles gedronken.

Afr. Hulle het (die) helfte van die bottel gedrink.

- They drank half the bottle.

NOTE:
In Afrikaans, even though the noun die helfte - “half” is usually used with the
definite article, the article can often be omitted in cases where it is not used in
English, for example:

Afr. Ek het (die) helfte van my lewe in Nederland gewoon.

- I lived in the Netherlands half my life.

In German, from 1/11 onwards fractions are formed by adding -(s)tel to cardinal numbers. Note
that from 2 to 19, the ending-tel is added (ex. viertel (1/4), drittel (1/3) etc.); from 20 and above -stel is
added (ex. zwanzigstel (1/20) etc.)

In Dutch and Afrikaans, ordinal numbers are used in this case. Observe the following:

German Dutch Afrikaans

1/12 ein Zwölftel een twaalfde een twaalfde

1/13 ein Dreizehntel een dertiende een dertiende

1/14 ein Vierzehntel een veertiende een veertiende

1/15 ein Fünfzehntel een vijftiende een vyftiende

1/60 ein Sechzigstel een zestigste een sestigste

Decimals

In German, Dutch and Afrikaans, decimal fractions are expressed through the word Ger.
Komma, Dut. and Afr. komma - “comma”. Study the following examples:

German Dutch Afrikaans

0,1 null Komma eins nul komma één nil komma een

0,2 null Komma zwei nul komma twee nil komma twee

0,7 null Komma sieben nul komma zeven nil komma sewe

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German Dutch Afrikaans

3,4 drei Komma vier drie komma vier drie komma vier

4,151 vier Komma eins fünf eins vier komma één vijf één vier komma een vyf een

NOTE:
In Afrikaans, however, one can regularly hear decimal fractions expressed by a
punt:
Afrikaans

3,4 or 3.4 drie komma vier or drie punt vier

Arithmetical Operations

It must be remembered that in German, Dutch and Afrikaans, the verb Ger. sein (ist), Dut. zijn
(is), Afr. wees (is) - “to be” is used meaning “is/equals”.

The following are the basic arithmetical calculations in the West Germanic languages:

German Dutch Afrikaans

Addition

5+4=9 5 plus 4 ist 9 5 plus 4 is 9 5 plus 4 is 9

Subtraction

6-2=4 6 minus 2 ist 4 6 min 2 is 4 6 minus 2 is 4

Multiplication

5 x 10 = 50 5 mal 10 ist 50 5 maal/keer 10 is 50 5 maal 10 is 50

Division

20 ÷ 2 = 10 20 geteilt durch 2 ist 10 20 gedeeld door 2 is 10 20 gedeel deur 2 is 10

NOTE:
In German, Dutch and Afrikaans, to multiply one uses Ger. mal, Dut. maal or
keer, Afr. maal to mean “times” .
However, one can also hear Ger. multipliziert mit, Dut. vermenigvuldigd
met, Afr. vermenigvuldig met - “multiplied by”. For example:

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German Dutch Afrikaans

Multiplication

5 x 10 = 50 5 multipliziert 5 vermenigvuldigd 5 vermenigvuldig

mit 10 ist 50 met 10 is 50 met 10 is 50

In German, the expression Ger. dividiert durch - “divided by” is also used:
German

Division

20 ÷ 2 = 10 20 dividiert durch 2 ist 10

Collective Numbers
Collective numbers are considered to be nouns and are used to express an approximate quantity
of something or specify groups in the West Germanic languages.

Below are some common of the collective numbers:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

ein Paar ’n paar een paar a pair

ein Dutzend ’n dosyn een dozijn a dozen

Observe the following:

Ger. Sie kaufte ein Dutzend Eier.

Dut. Ze kocht een dozijn eieren.

Afr. Sy het 'n dosyn eiers gekoop.

- She bought a dozen of eggs.

Multiple Numerals

German uses the suffix -mal, Dutch and Afrikaans use the word keer, which is the English
equivalent of -fold/times (e.g. tenfold/ten times). Therefore, the combination of cardinal number + Ger.
-mal, Dut. and Afr. keer - “fold/times” is used:

German Dutch and Afrikaans

cardinal number + -mal cardinal number + keer

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Observe the following:

Ger. Die Bevölkerung Spaniens ist viermal größer als die Portugals.

Dut. De bevolking van Spanje is vier keer groter dan die van Portugal.

Afr. Die bevolking van Spanje is vier keer groter as van Portugal.

- The population of Spain is four times bigger than of Portugal.

Dates
Days
German Dutch Afrikaans English

Montag maandag Maandag Monday

Dienstag dinsdag Dinsdag Tuesday

Mittwoch woensdag Woensdag Wednesday

Donnerstag donderdag Donderdag Thursday

Freitag vrijdag Vrydag Friday

Samstag/Sonnabend* zaterdag Saterdag Saturday

Sonntag zondag Sondag Sunday

NOTE:
In Dutch, unlike in German and Afrikaans, the days of the week are not
capitalized.
In German, Sonnabend - "Saturday" is typically North German. However,
Samstag, even though originally southern German, is widely used.

• In Dutch and Afrikaans, the days of the week can be used with the preposition op, while in German, the
preposition am is placed in front of the day of the week to express “on a certain day”:

Ger. Ich gehe am Freitag zu einer Geburtstagsfeier.

Dut. Ik ga op vrijdag naar een verjaardagsfeestje.

Afr. Ek gaan op Vrydag na 'n verjaarsdagpartytjie.

- I am going to a birthday party on Friday.

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NOTE:
However, when we refer to a specific date, we use the preposition am in
German, and the preposition op in Dutch and Afrikaans.:

Ger. Wir gehen am 10. Juni zu einem Konzert.

Dut. We gaan op 10 jun naar een concert.
Afr. Ons gaan op 10 Junie na 'n konsert.
- We are going to a concert on 10 June.

• It is also possible to use the demonstrative pronoun Ger. diesen, Dut. deze, Afr. hierdie to mean
“this particular day”. For example:

Ger. Ich sehe ihn diesen Montag.

Dut. Ik zie hem deze maandag.

Afr. Ek sien hom hierdie Maandag.

- I see him this Monday.

• Below are some useful expressions related to the days of the week:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

jeden Tag elke dag elke dag every day

einmal/zweimal pro één/twee keer per een/twee keer per once/twice per week
Woche week week

Ger. Ich gehe zweimal pro Woche ins Fitnessstudio.

Dut. Ik ga twee keer per week naar de sportschool.

Afr. Ek gaan twee keer per week na die gimnasium.

- I go to the gym twice per week.

Months

German Dutch Afrikaans English

Januar januari Januarie January

Februar februari Februarie February

März maart Maart March

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German Dutch Afrikaans English

April april April April

Mai mei Mei May

Juni juni Junie June

Juli juli Julie July

August augustus Augustus August

September september September September

Oktober oktober Oktober October

November november November November

Dezember december Desember December

• In order to say “in a particular month”, the prepositions Ger. im, Dut. and Afr. in are used in the West
Germanic languages. Study the following example:

Ger. Ich fliege im Februar nach Südafrika.

Dut. Ik vlieg in februari naar Zuid-Afrika.

Afr. Ek vlieg in Februarie na Suid-Afrika.

- I am flying to South Africa in February.

NOTE:
However, when we refer to a specific date, we use the preposition am in
German, and the preposition op in Dutch and Afrikaans.:

Ger. Wir gehen am 10. Juni zu einem Konzert.

Dut. We gaan op 10 jun naar een concert.
Afr. Ons gaan op 10 Junie na 'n konsert.
- We are going to a concert on 10 June.

Remember that the days of the week and the months of the year are capitalized in German and
Afrikaans, but not capitalized in Dutch. In the West Germanic languages dates are usually written as
follows:

Ger. Heute ist Donnerstag, der zehnte März.

Dut. Het is vandaag donderdag, de tiende maart.

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Afr. Dit is vandag Donderdag, die tiende Maart.

- Today is Thursday, the 10th of March.

NOTE:
It must be remembered that a complete date in German, Dutch and Afrikaans is
formed by placing a day of the week + the definite article: Ger. der, Dut. de,
Afr. die + an ordinal number + month.

Below is a table showing the formation of complete dates in the West Germanic languages:

German, Dutch and Afrikaans

day + Ger. der, Dut. de, Afr. die + ordinal number + month.

Study the following example:

Ger. Welcher Tag ist heute? - Heute ist Sonntag, der fünfte Mai.

Dut. Welke dag is het vandaag? Het is vandaag zondag, de vijfde mei.

Afr. Watter dag is dit vandag? Dit is vandag Sondag, die vyfde Mei.

- What day is it today? - Today is Sunday, the fifth of May.

NOTE:
In German, dates at the top of letters are must be expressed in the accusative
case, for example:

Ger. den 19. Oktober 2023

In Dutch, a cardinal number is often used in dates:

Dut. Zaterdag vijftien februari.

- Saturday, February fifteenth.

Furthermore, if the month is not given, the ordinal numbers must be used in
Dutch:

Dut. Zaterdag de vijftiende.

- Saturday the fifteenth.

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The usual way of writing dates is to use the numeral, which then precedes the name of the month.
This order is kept when the date is written entirely in numbers.

Note that in Dutch and Afrikaans, the abbreviations -ste, -d - “1st’, 2nd, 3rd, 4th etc.” used with
ordinal numbers are omitted when the date is written in numbers. In German, however, a full-stop must
be placed in this case. Observe the following:

Ger. 25. Juli 2023

Dut. 25 juli 2023

Afr. 25 Julie 2023

- 25 July 2023

Ger. Ich bin am 25. September geboren.

Dut. Ik ben op de 25 september geboren.

Afr. Ek is op die 25 September gebore.

- I was born on September 25th.

It is worth mentioning that in German, Dutch and Afrikaans, when abbreviated, the dates follow
the British, not the American, system of “day-month-year”. Remember that this order is kept when the
date is written purely in numbers, for example:

14.11.2023 (i.e. 14th of November)

When reading out years in dates, in Dutch and Afrikaans, the years are generally read just like in
English. So 1978 would be Dut. negentienachtenzeventig, Afr. negentien agt-en-sewentig -
“nineteen seventy-eight.”

German, however, never omits the word hundert, which means “hundred”. Therefore, 1978
would be Ger. neunzehn-hundert-acht-und-siebzig means seventeen-hundred. Observe one more
example:

Ger. Er ist im Jahr neunzehnhundertachtundfünfzig geboren.

Dut. Hij is in het jaar negentienachtenvijftig geboren.

Afr. Hy is in die jaar negentien agt-en-vyftig gebore.

- He is born in nineteen (hundred and) fifty-eight.

NOTE:
In German, Dutch and Afrikaans, all the years after 2000 are expressed in
thousands, for example:

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Ger. 2024 – Zwei-Tausend-vier-und-zwanzig

Dut. 2024 – twe duizen vierentwintig

Afr. 2024 – tweeduisend vier-en-twintig

Ways to Ask the Date in the West Germanic Languages

In order to ask what day it is today one can use the following phrases in German, Dutch and
Afrikaans:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

Der wievielte ist Welke datum is het Wat is die datum What is the date today?
heute? vandaag? vandag?
Welcher Tag ist Welke dag is het Watter dag is dit What day is it today?
heute? vandaag? vandag?

Seasons
German Dutch Afrikaans English

Der Sommer de zomer die somer summer

Der Herbst de herfst die herfs fall

Der Winter de winter die winter winter

Der Frühling / de lente die lente spring

Das Frühjahr

Observe the prepositions used with the seasons in the West Germanic languages:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

im Sommer in de zomer in die somer summer

im Herbst in de herfst in die herfs fall

im Winter in de winter in die winter winter

im Frühling in de lente in die lente spring

For example:

Ger. Im Winter gehen wir zum Skifahren in die Berge.

Dut. In de winter gaan we skiën in de bergen.

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Afr. In die winter gaan ons ski in die berge.

- In winter, we go skiing in the mountains.

Ger. Im Sommer reise ich nach Spanien.

Dut. In de zomer reis ik naar Spanje.

Afr. In die somer reis ek na Spanje.

- In summer, I travel to Spain.

Time
The phrase for “What time is it?” is expressed as follows in the West Germanic languages:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

Wie spät ist es?/ Hoe laat is het? Hoe laat is dit? What time is it?
Wie viel Uhr ist es?

In German, Dutch and Afrikaans, hours are normally expressed by using the pronoun Ger. es,
Dut. het, Afr, dit - “it” + the verb Ger. sein, Dut. zijn, Afr. wees - “to be” + a cardinal number + the
word Ger. Uhr, Dut. uur, Afr. uur - “hour(-s)”.

The table below shows the idea of how to tell the time of day in the West Germanic
languages:

German Es + ser (ist) + a cardinal number + Uhr

Dutch Het + zijn (is) + a cardinal number + uur

Afrikaans Dit + wees (is) + a cardinal number + uur

Observe the following:

Ger. Wie spät ist es? - Es ist ein Uhr (es ist vier Uhr).

Dut. Hoe laat is het? - Het is één uur (Het is vier uur).

Afr. Hoe laat is dit? Dit is eenuur (Dit is vieruur).

- What time is it? It is one o'clock (It is four o'clock)

NOTE:
In Afrikaans, the word uur and a cardinal number are written as one word.

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However, if a cardinal number ends in a vowel, the word uur and this cardinal
number are hyphenated:

Afr. Dit is twee-uur (Dit is drie-uur)

- It is two o'clock (It is three o'clock)

It is worth mentioning that in Germany, The Netherlands, Belgium, Austria, Switzerland and
South Africa, as well as other countries where German, Dutch and Afrikaans are spoken, the 24-hour time
is used widely.

It is always used in official contexts and is quite common in informal conversation as well. Study
the entire 24-hour system:

German Dutch Afrikaans

1 Es ist ein Uhr Het is een uur Dit is eenuur It’s 1 A.M.

2 Es ist zwei Uhr Het is twee uur Dit is twee-uur It’s 2 A.M.

3 Es ist drei Uhr Het is drie uur Dit is drie-uur It’s 3 A.M.

4 Es ist vier Uhr Het is vier uur Dit is vieruur It’s 4 A.M.

5 Es ist fünf Uhr Het is vijf uur Dit is vyfuur It’s 5 A.M.

6 Es ist sechs Uhr Het is zes uur Dit is sesuur It’s 6 A.M.

7 Es ist sieben Uhr Het is zeven uur Dit is sewe-uur It’s 7 A.M.

8 Es ist acht Uhr Het is acht uur Dit is agtuur It’s 8 A.M.

9 Es ist neun Uhr Het is negen uur Dit is nege-uur It’s 9 A.M.

10 Es ist zehn Uhr Het is tien uur Dit is tienuur It’s 10 A.M.

11 Es ist elf Uhr Het is elf uur Dit is elfuur It’s 11 A.M.

12 Es ist zwölf Uhr Het is twaalf uur Dit is twaalfuur It’s 12 A.M.

13 Es ist dreizehn Uhr Het is dertien uur Dit is dertienuur It’s 1 P.M.

14 Es ist vierzehn Uhr Het is veertien uur Dit is veertien uur It’s 2 P.M.

15 Es ist fünfzehn Uhr Het is vijftien uur Dit is vyftienuur It’s 3 P.M.

16 Es ist sechzehn Uhr Het is zestien uur Dit is sestienuur It’s 4 P.M.

17 Es ist siebzehn Uhr Het is zeventien uur Dit is sewentienuur It’s 5 P.M.

18 Es ist achtzehn Uhr Het is achttien uur Dit is agtienuur It’s 6 P.M.

19 Es ist neunzehn Uhr Het is negentien uur Dit is negentienuur It’s 7 P.M.

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German Dutch Afrikaans

20 Es ist zwanzig Uhr Het is twintig uur Dit is twintig uur It’s 8 P.M.

21 Es ist einundzwanzig Uhr Het is eenentwintig uur Dit is een-en-twintig uur It’s 9 P.M.

22 Es ist zweiundzwanzig Uhr Het is tweeëntwintig uur Dit is twee-en-twintig uur It’s 10 P.M.

23 Es ist dreiundzwanzig Uhr Het is drieëntwintig uur Dit is drie-en-twintig uur It’s 11 P.M.

24 Es ist vierundzwanzig Uhr Het is vierentwintig uur Dit is vier-en-twintig uur It’s 12 P.M.

• In the West Germanic languages, minutes are usually added after the hour. Note that the word
“minute(-s)” is not normally used:

Ger. Der Zug fährt um achtzehn Uhr fünf ab.

Dut. De trein vertrekt om achttien uur vijf.

Afr. Die trein vertrek om agtienuur vyf.

- The train leaves at 6.o5 P.M.

NOTE:
In Dutch, when the 24-hour timetable is used, the u is used instead of uur (i.e.
18.o5 u) for the English 6.05 P.M. However, the Dutch will say achttien uur ’s
middags (See Adverbs of Time p. 184).

• The half hour or quarter (15 minutes) can be expressed in two ways in German, Dutch and Afrikaans.
Study the following:

German Dutch and Afrikaans English

Viertel kwart quarter

halb half half

Ger. Es ist Viertel nach drei. (Es ist Viertel vor vier.)

Dut. Het is kwart over drie. (Het is kwart voor vier.)

Afr. Dit is kwart oor drie. (Dit is kwart voor vier.)

- It is a quarter past three. (It is a quarter to four.)

Ger. Es ist halb sechs.

Dut. Het is half zes.

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Afr. Dit is halfses.

- It is half past five.

• Normally, after the half hour, the minutes must be subtracted from the next hour by utilizing the words
Ger. vor; Dut. and Afr. voor - “to”. Observe the following:

Did you know? Ger. Es ist Viertel vor vier.

The Johannesburg Securities Exchange Dut. Het is kwart voor vier.

(JSE) is Africa's largest stock exchange
and it rates as one of the top 20 exchanges in the Afr. Dit is kwart voor vier.
world in terms of market capitalization. - It’s a quarter to four.

Ger. Es ist zwanzig vor acht.

Dut. Het is twintig voor acht.

Afr. Dit is twintig voor agt.

- It’s twenty to eight.

• Before the half hour, the words Ger. nach; Dut. over, and Afr. oor - “past” are used in German, Dutch
and Afrikaans respectively. For example:

Ger. Es ist fünf nach zwei.

Dut. Het is vijf over twee.

Afr. Dit is vyf oor twee.

- It is five past two.

• In order to ask the question: “At what time?” one can say the following:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

Um wieviel Uhr? Hoe laat? Hoe laat? At what time?

While answering such question, it is necessary to utilize the preposition um (in German) and om
(in Dutch and Afrikaans) - at before the specified time (See also p. 712):

Ger. Um wie viel Uhr verlässt du? - Ich verlasse um zwei Uhr.

Dut. Hoe laat vertrek je? - Ik vertrek om twee uur.

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Afr. Hoe laat vertrek jy? - Ek vertrek om twee-uur.

- At what time do you leave? - I leave at two o’clock.

Ger. Um wie viel Uhr kommt der Zug? - Der Zug kommt um fünf Uhr.

Dut. Hoe laat komt de trein? - De trein komt om vijf uur.

Afr. Hoe laat kom die trein? - Die trein kom om vyfuur.

- At what time does the train come? - The train comes at five o’clock.

• The word “sharp”, “exactly” would be as follows in German, Dutch and Afrikaans:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

genau, pünktlich precies presies sharp, exactly

Study the following:

Ger. Ich stehe pünktlich um sieben Uhr auf.l.

Dut. Ik sta precies om zeven uur op.

Afr. Ek staan presies sewe-uur op.

- I get up at exactly seven o’clock.

Below we will consider some adverbs and prepositions of time that are frequently used in the
West Germanic languages.

Adverbs of Time

• If you use the 12-hour system, which is more common in spoken German, Dutch and Afrikaans, you can
use the following adverbs and adverbial expressions of time to express A.M. or P.M. and to clarify what
time of day you actually mean:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

morgens, vormittags ’s morgens, soggens/smôrens, in the morning (10 A.M.)

in de ochtend (in) die oggend
nachmittags ’s middags, smiddags/smiddae, in the afternoon (from
in de middag (in) die middag 12 P.M. to 5 P.M.)
abends ’s avonds, saans, in the evening
in de avond (in) die aand (5 P.M. till late P.M.)

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German Dutch Afrikaans English

nachts, in der Nacht ’s nachts, snags, in die nag in the morning

in de nacht (1 A.M.)

For instance:

Ger. Es ist ein Uhr morgens.

Dut. Het is één uur ’s morgens/in de ochtend.

Afr. Dit is eenuur soggens/(in) die oggend.

- It is one o’clock in the morning (1.oo A.M.).

Ger. Es ist zwei Uhr nachmittags.

Dut. Het is twee uur ’s middags/in de middag.

Afr. Dit is twee-uur smiddags/(in) die middag.

- It is two in the afternoon (2.oo P.M.).

Ger. Es ist acht Uhr abends.

Dut. Het is acht uur ’s avonds/in de avond.

Afr. Dit is agtuur saans/(in) die aand.

- It’s eight in the evening (8.oo P.M.).

NOTE:
In Dutch and Afrikaans, if you want to say “this morning, this afternoon, this
evening or tonight”, you can use the following words:
Dutch Afrikaans English

vanochtend vanoggend this morning

vanmiddag vanmiddag this afternoon

vanavond vannaand this evening

vannacht vannag tonight

Study the following:

Dut. Vanavond ga ik naar een theater.

Afr. Vanaand gaan ek teater toe.
- This evening I am going to a theatre.

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Furthermore, in Afrikaans, the above expressions with in (i.e. in die oggend -

“in the morning” etc.) usually omit the preposition, for example:

Afr. Dit is eenuur die oggend.

- It is one o’clock in the morning.

Prepositions of Time

• In order to express the time when an event starts and ends, one must use the following structure in the
West Germanic languages:

German Dutch and Afrikaans English

von (Uhr) … bis (Uhr) van (uur) … tot (uur) from (hour) … to (hour)

Ger. Der Unterricht dauert von neun Uhr bis zwölf Uhr.

Dut. De les duurt van negen uur tot twaalf uur.

Afr. Die les duur van nege-uur tot twaalfuur.

- The lesson lasts from nine o'clock to twelve o'clock.

• To express “towards/by”, “around”, “before” and “after” what time an event starts and/or ends, one
can use the following prepositions in German, Dutch and Afrikaans:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

gegen tegen teen towards, by

ungefähr ongeveer, omstreeks ongeveer, omstreeks about

rund rond rond around

vor voor voor before

nach na na after

kurz nach kort na kort na shortly after

For example:

Ger. Sie kommt vor/nach sechs Uhr.

Dut. Ze komt voor/na zes uur.

Afr. Sy kom voor/na sesuur.

- She is coming before/after six o’clock.

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Ger. Kannst du gegen zehn Uhr kommen?

Dut. Kun je tegen tien uur komen?

Afr. Kan jy teen tienuur kom?

- Can you come towards ten o’clock?

Age
• To ask the question: “How old are you?” one can say the following:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

Wie alt bist du? Hoe oud ben je? Hoe oud is jy? How old are you? (informal)

Wie alt sind Sie? Hoe oud bent u? Hoe oud is u? How old are you? (formal)

• In the West Germanic languages, one must conjugate the verb Ger. sein, Dut. zijn, Afr. wees - “to be”
to the subject in order to indicate the age of a person. For example:

Ger. Wie alt bist du? - Ich bin 25 (fünfundzwanzig) Jahre alt.

Dut. Hoe oud ben je? - Ik ben 25 (vijfentwintig) jaar oud.

Afr. Hoe oud is jy? - Ek is 25 (vyf-en-twintig) jaar oud.

- How old are you? - I am 25 (twenty five) years old.

Ger. Mein Bruder ist dreißig Jahre alt.

Dut. Mijn broer is dertig jaar oud.

Afr. My broer is dertig jaar oud.

- My brother is thirty years old.

NOTE:
If you’re asked your age and you don’t want to give it, you can say the following
phrase in German, Dutch and Afrikaans:

Ger. Das ist ein Geheimnis

Dut. Dat is een geheim
Afr. Dit is 'n geheim
- That’s a secret.

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CHAPTER 8: PREPOSITIONS
Overview
Like the English prepositions “with”, “of”, “to”, “from”, German, Dutch and Afrikaans
prepositions are used to express many types of connections or relationships between two words or
different parts of the sentence by means of connecting them together. They normally demonstrate
direction, location, time, purpose, means, cause and so on.

Study the following examples:

German Sie ist in der Kirche.

Dutch Ze is in de kerk.

Afrikaans Sy is in die kerk.

English - She is in the church.

NOTE:
In German, unlike in English, Dutch and Afrikaans, the use of prepositions
determine the case used for nouns, articles, adjectives and pronouns (See Case
in German p. 112).

It is notable that German, Dutch and Afrikaans prepositions must be followed by a noun or noun
group or a pronoun. Study the following:

Ger. Ich spiele mit meinem Sohn. > Ich spiele mit ihm. (dative)

Dut. Ik speel met mijn zoon. > Ik speel met hem.

Afr. Ek speel met my seun. > Ek speel met hom.

- I play with my son. > I play with him.

Ger. Nach dem Spiel gingen wir in den Nachtclub. (accusative)

Dut. Na de wedstrijd gingen we naar de nachtclub.

Afr. Na die wedstryd is ons na die nagklub toe.

- After the game we went to the night club.

In the West Germanic languages, the prepositions, especially the most common ones, have
several meanings in English, and the right translation usually depends on the context in the phrase.

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Therefore, the correct uses of different prepositions must be memorized and learned through
practice since there are no strict rules. It is advised to learn each combination individually by means of
using a dictionary to find more examples of the uses of prepositions.

Most Commonly Used Prepositions

Below is a list of the most frequent prepositions in German, Dutch and Afrikaans:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

an (acc. or dat.) aan aan at, on, from, to

hinter (acc./dat.) achter agter behind

hinter (acc./dat.) voorbij verby past, beyond

außer (dat.) behalve behalwe except

bei (dat.) bij by at, with, by, close

innerhalb (gen.) binnen binne within, inside of

über (acc./dat.) boven bo above, beyond

außerhalb (gen.) buiten buite outside of, out of

durch (acc.) door deur through

in (acc./dat.) in in in

entlang (gen.) langs langs along

mit (dat.) met met with

nach (dat.) na na after, past

nach (dat.) naar (na)…toe toward

nahe (dat./gen.) nabij, vlakbij naby, vlakby near

neben (acc./dat.) naast naas, langs next to, in addition to

um (acc.) om om around

unter (acc./dat.) onder onder under, among

auf (acc./dat.) op op on

über (acc./dat.) over oor over

per (acc./dat.) per per by, per, a/an

rund um (acc.) rond(om) rond(om) (all) around

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German Dutch Afrikaans English

seit (dat.) sinds sedert since

zu (dat.) te te to

gegen, wider (acc.) tegen teen against

gegenüber (dat.) tegenover teenoor, oorkant opposite, towards, across

bis (acc.) tot tot until, till, up to

zwischen (acc./dat.) tussen tussen between

aus (dat.) uit uit out of

von (dat.) van van from, of, off

ab (dat.) vanaf vanaf starting from

für (acc.) voor vir for

vor (acc./dat.) voor voor in front of

ohne (acc.) zonder sonder without

statt (gen.), in plaats van in plaas van instead of, in place of

anstelle (gen.)
während (gen.) tijdens tydens during

wegen (gen.), vanwege, as gevolg van, weens, because of, due to

aufgrund (gen.) door vanweë
dank (gen.) dankzij danksy thanks to

entsprechend (dat.), volgens volgens according to

laut (gen.)
abgesehen von (dat.) afgezien van afgesien van apart from, other than

namens, im Namen namens namens on behalf of

(gen.)
trotz (gen.) ondanks ondanks in spite of, despite

unabhängig von (dat.) ongeacht ongeag regardless of

anlässlich (gen.) ter gelegenheid van met die geleentheid on the occasion of
van
betreffend (acc), betreffende, met betreffende, met with regard to, with
hinsichtlich (gen.), betrekking tot betrekking tot respect to, concerning
bezüglich (gen.)

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Uses of Prepositions

Preposition an (Ger.), aan (Dut. Afr.)

The preposition Ger. an, Dut., and Afr. aan is very common and usually occurs in a wide
spectrum of contexts and is used:

• to express that something is placed “on” a vertical surface:

Ger. Das Gemälde hängt an der Wand. (dative)

Dut. Het schilderij hangt aan de muur.

Afr. Die skildery hang aan die muur.

- The painting hangs on the wall.

• to express “on” or “at” the edge of things:

Ger. an der Küste (dative)

Dut. aan de kust

Afr. aan die kus

- on the coast

Ger. am* Tisch (dative)

Dut. aan tafel

Afr. aan tafel

- at the table

NOTE:
In German, am is the contraction of the preposition an and the masculine
article dem in the dative (See also Contraction of Articles p. 238):
an + dem = am - “at the”

• to mean “to” when indicating the recipient of an action:

Ger. ein Brief an Anna

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Dut. een brief aan Anna

Afr. 'n brief aan Anna

- a letter to Anna

• with verbs to express “from, of, because of, as a result of”:

Ger. Er ist an Krebs gestorben.

Dut. Hij is aan kanker overleden.

Afr. Hy is aan kanker dood.

- He died of cancer.

• to mean “on” in expressions of time in German:

Ger. an meinem Geburtstag (dative)

- on my birthday

Ger. am Sonntag (dative)

- on Sunday

NOTE:
In Dutch and Afrikaans, the preposition op is used in this case (See p. 705).
For instance:

Dut. op mijn verjaardag

Afr. op my verjaarsdag
- on my birthday

Dut. op zondag
Afr. op Sondag
- on Sunday

• in the following expressions:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

ein Mangel an een gebrek aan ’n gebrek aan a lack of

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German Dutch Afrikaans English

ein Bedarf an een behoefte aan ’n behoefte aan a need for

am Anfang der aan het begin van het aan die begin van die at the beginning of the
Geschichte verhaal storie story
am Ende der Geschichte aan het eind van het aan die einde van die at the end of the story
verhaal storie
auf der einen Seite* aan de ene kant aan die een kant on the one hand

NOTE:
In German, the preposition auf is used in the phrase auf der einen Seite - “on
the one hand” (See p. 705).

• with verbs (on, to):

Ger. Ich arbeite an meinem Projekt. (dative)

Dut. Ik werk aan mijn project.

Afr. Ek werk aan my projek.

- I am working on my project.

Below is the list of some frequently used verbs that are used with the preposition Ger. an,
Dut. and Afr. aan:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

an etw. arbeiten aan iets werken aan iets werk to work on sth.

an jdm./etw. (dat) aan iets hangen aan iets hang to hang on sth.
hängen
an einer Krankheit (dat) aan een ziekte sterven aan 'n siekte sterf to die from (an illness)
sterben
an etw. (dat) aan iets deelnemen aan iets deelneem to participate in sth.
teilnehmen

Preposition hinter (Ger.), achter (Dut.), agter (Afr.)

The preposition Ger. hinter, Dut. achter, Afr. agter means “behind”. It corresponds almost
exactly to its English equivalent:

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Ger. Der Hund sitzt hinter dem Baum. (dative)

Dut. De hond zit achter de boom.

Afr. Die hond sit agter die boom.

- The dog is sitting behind the tree.

Ger. Das Kind versteckt sich hinter der Tür. (dative)

Dut. Het kind verstopt zich achter de deur.

Afr. Die kind kruip agter die deur weg.

- The child is hiding behind the door.

Preposition hinter (Ger.), voorbij (Dut.), verby (Afr.)

The preposition Ger. hinter, Dut. voorbij, Afr. verby means “past, beyond, further away
than”. Study the following examples:

Ger. Sie wohnt hinter der Kirche. (dative)

Dut. Ze woont voorbij de kerk.

Afr. Sy woon verby die kerk.

- She lives past/beyond the church.

Preposition außer (Ger.), behalve (Dut.), behalwe (Afr.)

The preposition Ger. außer, Dut. behalve and Afr. behalwe means “except, besides, apart
from”, for example:

Ger. Alle außer ihm sind hier. (dative)

Dut. Iedereen behalve hij is hier.

Afr. Almal behalwe hy is hier.

- Everyone except him is here.

Ger. Sie spricht alles außer Französisch.

Dut. Ze spreekt alles behalve Frans.

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Afr. Sy praat alles behalwe Frans.

- She speaks everything except French.

Preposition bei (Ger.), bij (Dut.), by (Afr.)

The preposition Ger. bei, Dut. bij and Afr. by means “by, at, near, close to”. Generally, it is used:

• to denote location (by, near, next to):

Ger. Die Schule bei der Kirche. (dative)

Dut. De school bij de kerk.

Afr. Die skool by die kerk.

- The school by/near the church.

• with an organization or a company (at, in, for, with):

Ger. Ich arbeite bei Mercedes-Benz.

Dut. Ik werk bij Mercedes-Benz.

Afr. Ek werk by Mercedes-Benz.

- I work at Mercedes-Benz.

• with a person, a professional or a shop (at, with):

Ger. Sie ist bei Emma.

Dut. Ze is bij Emma

Afr. Sy is by Emma.

- She is with Emma (at her home)

Ger. Sie ist bei Victoria's Secret.

Dut. Ze is bij Victoria's Secret.

Afr. Sy is by Victoria's Secret.

- She’s at Victoria's Secret (a chain store)

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Ger. Ich bin beim Friseur/Arzt/Bäcker.

Dut. Ik ben bij de kapper/dokter/bakker.

Afr. Ek is by die haarkapper/dokter/bakker.

- I am at the hairdresser’s/doctor’s/baker’s.

NOTE:
In German, beim is the contraction of the preposition bei and the masculine
article dem in the dative (See Contraction of Articles p. 238):
bei + dem = beim - “at the”

• with a continuing activity in German (during, while):

The German preposition bei is also used to mean “during”, in the sense of time:

Ger. bei der Arbeit. (dative)

- during work.

Ger. bei einem Film. (dative)

- during a film.

Preposition innerhalb (Ger.), binnen (Dut.), binne (Afr.)

The preposition Ger. innerhalb, Dut. binnen and Afr. binne means “within, inside of”. It is
used:

• to denote location (within, inside of):

This preposition usually means within or inside of something literally and figuratively, for
example:

Ger. Es liegt innerhalb der Grenzen. (genitive)

Dut. Het ligt binnen de grenzen.

Afr. Dit is binne die grense.

- It is within the borders.

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Ger. innerhalb des Hauses. (genitive)

Dut. binnen het huis.

Afr. binne die huis.

- inside of the house.

Ger. innerhalb unserer Möglichkeiten. (genitive)

Dut. binnen onze mogelijkheden.

Afr. binne ons vermoëns.

- It is within the borders.

• to indicate time (within, in):

The preposition Ger. innerhalb, Dut. binnen and Afr. binne is also used as a temporal
preposition. It corresponds to English “within, in the space of”. Observe the following:

Ger. innerhalb eines Monats. (genitive)

Dut. binnen een maand

Afr. binne 'n maand

- within a month

Ger. innerhalb weniger Augenblicke. (genitive)

Dut. binnen enkele ogenblikken.

Afr. binne enkele oomblikke.

- within/in a few moments.

Preposition von ( Ger.), van (Dut. Afr.)

This preposition is rather frequent and has a lot of meanings. It can be used:

• to express possession or ownership (of):

The preposition von (Ger.), van (Dut. Afr.) usually corresponds to the English apostrophe s (’s)
or the preposition of:

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Ger. Die Schwester von Anna.

Dut. De zus van Anna.

Afr. Die suster van Anna.

- Anna’s sister. (lit. the sister of Anna.)

Ger. Es ist das Auto von meinem Vater. (dative)

Dut. Het is de auto van mijn vader.

Afr. Dit is die kar van my pa.

- It is my father’s car.

NOTE:
In German, the preposition von is used colloquially and often replaces the
genitive case in order to avoid repetition (See Informal Possession with
Von in German p. 308). For example:

Ger. das Haus meines Vaters

- my father’s house. (the house of my father.)

In Dutch, the preposition van is a common way of expressing the possessive

and is often used in spoken language (See also Informal Possession with
Van in Dutch p. 305).
In Afrikaans, however, the possessive form with van is not as common as in
Dutch. Instead, the particle se is used (See also Alternative Constructions
for Possessives p. 310):

Afr. Anna se jas. (more usual)

Afr. Die jas van Anna (less usual)
- Anna's coat.

• to express general association when ‘of’ is not possessive:

Ger. Der Zug von neun Uhr.

Dut. De trein van negen uur

Afr. Die trein van nege-uur

- The train of nine o'clock

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Ger. Das ist sehr nett von dir. (dative)

Dut. Dat is erg aardig van je.

Afr. Dit is baie mooi van jou.

- That is very nice of you

• to indicate a place of departure (from):

This preposition is usually equivalent to the English from:

Ger. Ich reise von Berlin nach Hamburg.

Dut. Ik reis van Berlijn naar Hamburg.

Afr. Ek reis van Berlyn na Hamburg.

- I'm travelling from Berlin to Hamburg.

• to indicate a place of origine in Dutch and Afrikaans (from):

This preposition is also equivalent to the English from:

Dut. Hij komt van Zuid-Afrika.

Afr. Hy kom van Suid-Afrika.

- He is from South Africa.

NOTE:
In German, the preposition aus is used with words for settlements, territories
and countries to indicate where one is from (See also p. 702):

Ger. Er kommt aus Südafrika.

- He's from South Africa.

• to express the material from which something is made in Dutch and Afrikaans:

This preposition is also equivalent to the English of, out of, with:

Dut. De tafel is van hout gemaakt.

Afr. Die tafel is van hout gemaak.

- The table is made of wood.

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NOTE:
In German, the preposition aus is used in this case:

Ger. Der Tisch ist aus Holz gefertigt.

- The table is made of wood.

• to indicate a starting point in time (from):

Ger. von Tag zu Tag

Dut. van dag tot dag

Afr. van dag tot dag

- from day to day

• to express that something is created “by” someone:

Ger. ein Gemälde von Picasso

Dut. een schilderij van Picasso

Afr. 'n skildery van Picasso

- a painting by Picasso

• with various verbs (from, of, on):

Ger. Es hängt von dir ab. (dative)

Dut. Het hangt van jou af.

Afr. Dit hang van jou af.

- It depends on you.

Below is the list of some frequently used verbs that are used with the preposition Ger. von,
Dut. and Afr. van:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

von etw. (dat) abhängen van iets afhangen van iets afhang to depend on sth.

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German Dutch Afrikaans English

von etw. (dat) absehen van iets afzien, van iets afsien, van to refrain from, waive
van iets afstand doen iets afstand doen sth.
von etw. (dat) van iets afstammen van iets afstam to descend from sth.
abstammen
von etw. (dat) van iets de vruchten van iets die vrugte to benefit from sth.
profitieren plukken pluk
von etw. (dat) träumen van iets dromen van iets droom to dream of sth.

Preposition ab ( Ger.), vanaf (Dut. Afr.)

Like the preposition Ger. von, Dut., Afr. van, the preposition Ger. ab, Dut., Afr. vanaf can be
used:

• to indicate a starting point in time (starting from):

Ger. Ab elf Uhr ist sie in ihrem Büro.

Dut. Vanaf elf uur is ze in haar kantoor.

Afr. Vanaf elfuur is sy in haar kantoor.

- Starting from eleven o’clock She’ll be in her office.

Ger. Das Produkt ist ab Montag verfügbar.

Dut. Het product is vanaf maandag verkrijgbaar.

Afr. Die produk is vanaf Maandag beskikbaar.

- The product is available starting from Monday.

Preposition in (Ger. Dut. Afr.)

This common preposition has a range of meanings and usually means in, by, into or about, which
depends on the context. It is used:

• to denote location (in, at, on):

This preposition usually means inside of or at a place.

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Ger. Die Schlüssel sind in meiner Tasche. (dative)

Dut. De sleutels zitten in mijn tas.

Afr. Die sleutels is in my tas.

- The keys are in my bag.

Ger. Letztes Jahr habe ich in Kapstadt gelebt.

Dut. Vorig jaar heb ik in Kaapstad gewoond.

Afr. Verlede jaar het ek in Kaapstad gewoon.

- Last year I lived in Cape Town.

Ger. Sie ist in einem Café. (dative)

Dut. Ze is in een koffieshop.

Afr. Sy is in 'n koffiewinkel.

- She is at a coffee shop.

• to indicate time (in):

The preposition Ger., Dut. and Afr. in is used to indicate the time after which a thing is done or
completed. It corresponds to English “in”. Observe the following:

Ger. Er wird es in einer Stunde tun. (dative)

Dut. Hij zal het in een uur doen.

Afr. Hy sal dit in een uur doen.

- He will do it in one hour.

NOTE:
In Dutch and Afrikaans, the preposition Dut. over and Afr. oor can also be
used to mean “in” when referring to time (See also p. 709):

Dut. Ik vlieg over twee weken naar Noorwegen.

Afr. Ek vlieg oor twee weke Noorweë toe.
- I flying to Norway in two weeks.

• with months and days of the week (in):

Ger., Dut. and Afr. in is also used to indicate when something is going to happen (See also
Months p. 663 and Seasons p. 667):

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Ger. Ich fliege im Februar nach Südafrika.

Dut. Ik vlieg in februari naar Zuid-Afrika.

Afr. Ek vlieg in Februarie na Suid-Afrika.

- I am flying to South Africa in February.

Ger. Ich reise im Sommer nach Argentinien.

Dut. Ik reis in de zomer naar Argentinië.

Afr. Ek reis in die somer na Argentinië.

- I travel to Argentina in the summer.

NOTE:
In German, im is the contraction of the preposition in and the masculine article
dem in the dative (See also Contraction of Articles p. 238):
in + dem = im - “to the”

In Dutch and Afrikaans, the preposition in is also used with adverbial

expressions of time (See also Adverbs of Time p. 184).
Dutch Afrikaans English

in de ochtend in die oggend in the morning

in de middag in die middag in the afternoon

in de avond in die aand in the evening

in de nacht in die nag at night

For example:

Dut. Ik werk in de morgen.

Afr. Ek werk in die oggend.
- I work in the morning

• in certain expressions:

Ger., Dut. and Afr. in is used in the following expressions:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

in Wirklichkeit in werkelijkheid in werklikheid in reality

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German Dutch Afrikaans English

in wenigen Worten in een paar woorden in 'n paar woorde in a few words

insgesamt in totaal in totaal in total

but: anstatt in plaats van in plaas van in place of

• with verbs followed by the preposition “in”:

Ger. Er hat die Pizza in vier Stücke geteilt.

Dut. Hij heeft de pizza in vier stukken verdeeld.

Afr. Hy het die pizza in vier stukke verdeel.

- He has divided the pizza into four pieces.

Ger. Er steckt den Schlüssel ins Schloss.

Dut. Hij steekt de sleutel in het slot.

Afr. Hy steek die sleutel in die slot.

- He inserts the key into the lock.

NOTE:
In German, ins is the contraction of the preposition in and the neuter article
das in the accusative (See Contraction of Articles p. 238):
in + das = ins - “(in)to the”

Below is the list of some frequently used verbs that are used with the preposition Ger., Dut.,
Afr. in:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

in etw. (acc) einbauen iets in iets steken iets in iets steek to insert sth. into sth.

jdn./etw. (acc) in etw. iem./iets in iets iets in iets integreer to integrate sb./sth. in
(dat) integrieren integreren sth
sich (acc) in jdn. verliefd worden op verlief raak op iem. to fall in love with sb.
verlieben iem.
etw. (acc) in etw. (acc) iets in iets verdelen iets in iets verdeel to divide sth. into sth.
einteilen

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German Dutch Afrikaans English

etw. (acc) in etw. (acc) iets in iets breken iets in iets breek to break sth. into sth.
zerbrechen
etw. (acc) in etw. (acc) iets in iets veranderen iets in iets verander to transform sth. into
verwandeln sth.
etw. (acc) in etw. (acc) iets in iets omzetten iets in iets omskep to convert sth. into sth.
umsetzen

NOTE:
In Dutch and Afrikaans, the preposition op is used instead in the following
phrase (See also p. 705):

Dut. Hij is verliefd op haar geworden.

Afr. Hy het op haar verlief geraak.
- He fell in love with her.

Preposition entlang (Ger.), langs (Dut. Afr.)

The preposition Ger. entlang, Dut., Afr. langs means “along” in all contexts. It is used to
express:

• to denote location or movement (along):

Ger. Entlang des Flusses liegen zwei Dörfer. (genitive)

Dut. Langs de rivier liggen twee dorpen.

Afr. Langs die rivier is daar twee dorpies.

- Along the river there are two villages.

Ger. Wir gehen entlang des Flusses. (genitive)

Dut. We lopen langs de rivier.

Afr. Ons stap langs die rivier.

- We are walking along the river.

NOTE:
In German, it is also common to use the preposition entlang in combination
with an (+ the dative case) with the same meaning. In this case, entlang is put

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at the end of the phrase:

Ger. Wir gehen am Fluss entlang.

- We are walking along the river.

Preposition ohne (Ger.), zonder (Dut.), sonder (Afr.)

The prepositions Ger. ohne, Dur. zonder, Afr. sonder stand for without and are placed before
nouns or verbs. These prepositions are used:

• to indicate a lack (without):

Ger. Ich bevorzuge den Tee ohne Zucker.

Dut. Ik geef de voorkeur aan de thee zonder suiker.

Afr. Ek verkies die tee sonder suiker.

- I prefer the tea without sugar.

Ger. Ohne dich kann ich keine Entscheidung treffen. (accusative)

Dut. Zonder jou kan ik geen beslissing nemen.

Afr. Sonder jou kan ek geen besluit neem nie.

- I can't make any decision without you.

NOTE:
In German, Dutch and Afrikaans, the preposition Ger. ohne, Dur. zonder, Afr.
sonder is never followed by an indefinite article (See Articles p. 218):

Ger. Er ist ohne Hut.

Dut. Hij is zonder hoed.
Afr. Hy is sonder hoed.
- He is without a hat.

• as a conjunction in constructions with an infinitive:

Ger. ohne, Dut. zonder, Afr. sonder - “without” is also used as a conjunction and is followed by
an infinitive clause or by Ger. dass, Dut. dat, Afr. dat - “that” (See p. 761). Observe the following:

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Ger. Sie ist eingetreten, ohne mich anzusehen. (accusative)

Dut. Ze is binnengekomen zonder naar mij te kijken.

Afr. Sy het ingegaan sonder om na my te kyk.

- She entered without looking at me.

Preposition seit (Ger.), sinds (Dut.), sedert (Afr.)

The prepositions Ger. seit, Dut. sinds and Afr. sedert mean “since”. It is used the way one uses
its English equivalent:

Ger. Ich habe sie seit letzter Woche nicht gesehen. (dative)

Dut. Ik heb haar sinds vorige week niet gezien.

Afr. Ek het haar nie sedert verlede week gesien nie.

- I have not seen her since last week.

Ger. Sie ist seit gestern krank.

Dut. Ze is sinds gisteren ziek.

Afr. Sy is sedert gister siek.

- She has been ill since yesterday.

Preposition zu (Ger.), te (Dut. Afr.)

The preposition Ger. zu; Dut., Afr. te means “to, towards, in, at, on” in all contexts. It is used:

• in certain expressions:

Ger. zu; Dut. and Afr. te is used in the following expressions:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

zu Fuß te voet te voet on foot

zu Pferde te paard te perd on horseback

zu Hause but: thuis but: tuis at home

zum Beispiel but: bijvoorbeeld but: byvoorbeeld for example

For example:

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Ger. Wir reiten zu Pferd.

Dut. Wij rijden te paard.

Afr. Ons ry te perd.

- We ride on horseback.

• to indicate direction in German (to, towards):

The German preposition zu is used when we are heading “to” a specific place:

Ger. Ich gehe zum Bahnhof.

- I am going to the train station.

Ger. Sie geht zum Flughafen.

- She is going to the airport.

NOTE:
In German, zum is the contraction of the preposition zu and the masculine
article dem in the dative:
zu + dem = zum - “to the”

This also extends to places of work, business, as well as a person’s profession in German. Study
the following:

Ger. Wir gehen zum Arzt.

- We are going to the doctor.

It is worth noting that in Dutch and Afrikaans, the preposition Dut. naar; Afr. (na)…toe is used
in all of these cases (See also p. 726). Compare the following:

Dut. Ik ga naar het treinstation.

Afr. Ek gaan na die treinstasie toe.

- I am going to the train station/to the airport.

Dut. Ze gaat naar het vliegveld.

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Afr. Sy gaan na die lughawe toe.

- She is going to the airport.

Dut. We gaan naar de dokter.

Afr. Ons gaan na die dokter toe.

- We are going to the doctor.

NOTE:
In Afrikaans, the combination na...toe that shows motion “to” a place is
normally replaced by a post-positioned toe. When toe is used in this way, the
definite article must be dropped, for example:

Afr. Ek gaan treinstasie toe.

- I am going to the train station.

Afr. Ek gaan lughawe toe.

- She is going to the airport

Afr. Ons gaan dokter toe.

- We are going to the doctor.

• as a temporal preposition referring to religious festivities in German (at, on):

The German preposition zu is used as a temporal preposition and is translated as “at, on”. It is
used with reference to religious festivities, celebrations or events in German:

Ger. Was können wir zu Weihnachten kochen? (dative)

- What can we cook on Christmas?

Ger. Was machst du zu Silvester?

- What are you doing on New Year’s Eve?

NOTE:
In Dutch and Afrikaans, however, the preposition op is used in this case (See
also p. 705):

Ger. Wat kunnen we op Kerstmis koken?

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Afr. Wat kan ons op Kersfees kook?

- What can we cook on Christmas?

Dut. Wat doe jij op oudejaarsavond?

Afr. Wat doen jy op Oujaarsaand?

- What are you doing on New Year’s Eve?

• with meals in German (for):

The German preposition zu + the definite article is used with meals to express “for breakfast/
lunch/dinner” in German:

Ger. Was isst du zum Frühstück/zum Mittagessen?

- What do you eat for breakfast/for lunch?

NOTE:
In Dutch and Afrikaans, the preposition Dut. voor; Afr. vir is used in this case
(See also p. 716):

Dut. Wat eet je voor ontbijt/voor lunch?

Afr. Wat eet jy vir ontbyt/vir middagete?
- What do you eat for breakfast/for lunch?

It is worth noting that if the preposition zu is used without the definite article while referring to
meals, it doesn’t change its form in German. To compare:

Ger. Wann isst du zu Mittag?

- When do you have lunch?

• with infinitives (See The Infinitive p. 578)

Preposition gegen (Ger.), tegen (Dut.), teen (Afr.)

The preposition Ger. gegen, Dut. tegen, Afr. teen literally and figuratively means “against” in
all contexts. It is used to express:

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• location or juxtaposition (against, next to):

Ger. Er hat den Tisch gegen die Wand gestellt. (accusative)

Dut. Hij heeft de tafel tegen de muur gezet.

Afr. Hy het die tafel teen die muur gesit.

- He has put the table is against the wall.

• opposition (against):

Ger. Sie sind gegen den Krieg. (accusative)

Dut. Ze zijn tegen de oorlog.

Afr. Hulle is teen die oorlog.

- They are against the war.

• protection (against, from):

Ger. Das ist die Medizin gegen die Grippe. (accusative)

Dut. Dat is het medicijn tegen de griep.

Afr. Dit is die medisyne teen griep.

- That is the medicine against the flu.

• “toward(s), about” with time and numerical quantities:

Ger. Sie kommt gegen acht Uhr.

Dut. Ze komt tegen acht uur.

Afr. Sy kom teen agtuur.

- She comes towards eight o’clock.

• with verbs followed by the preposition “against”:

Ger. Sie protestieren gegen diese Entscheidung. (accusative)

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Dut. Zij protesteren tegen dit besluit.

Afr. Hulle protesteer teen hierdie besluit.

- They protest against this decision.

Below is the list of some frequently used verbs that are used with the preposition Ger., Dut.,
Afr. in:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

gegen etw. (acc) tegen iets protesteren teen iets protesteer to protest against sth.
protestieren
gegen etw. (acc) tegen iets teen iets beskerm to protect against sth.
schützen beschermen
gegen etw. (acc) tegen iets vechten teen iets veg to fight against sth.
kämpfen

Preposition gegenüber (Ger.), tegenover (Dut.), teenoor/oorkant

(Afr.)
The preposition Ger. gegenüber, Dut. tegenover, Afr. teenoor/oorkant literally and
figuratively means “opposite, towards, across”. It is used to express:

• location or juxtaposition (opposite, towards, across):

Ger. Das Krankenhaus liegt gegenüber dem Bahnhof. (dative)

Dut. Het ziekenhuis ligt tegenover het treinstation.

Afr. Die hospitaal is teenoor (or oorkant) die treinstasie.

- The hospital is opposite/across the railroad station.

• “toward(s), about” with ideas, movements, feelings:

Ger. Ich habe Verständnis gegenüber diese Bewegung. (dative)

Dut. Ik sta sympathiek tegenover deze beweging.

Afr. Ek is simpatiek teenoor hierdie beweging.

- I am sympathetic towards this movement.

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NOTE:
Unlike in Dutch and Afrikaans, in German the preposition gegenüber must
always be used as a postposition with pronouns. To compare:

Ger. Er ist mir gegenüber freundlich. (dative)

Dut. Hij is vriendelijk tegen mij.
Afr. Hy is vriendelik teenoor my.
- He is friendly towards me.

Preposition bis (Ger.), tot (Dut. Afr.)

The preposition Ger. bis, Dut. and Afr. tot means “until, till, (up) to”. Study the following
examples:

Ger. Mein Mann arbeitet bis fünf Uhr.

Dut. Mijn man werkt tot vijf uur.

Afr. My man werk tot vyfuur.

- My husband works until five o'clock.

Did you know? Ger. Er wartet bis Montag.

Groningen is the largest city as well as Dut. Hij wacht tot maandag.
the economic, educational and cultural
hub in the northern part of the Netherlands. It is Afr. Hy wag tot Maandag.
often referred to as the “Metropolis of the
North" with over 200,000 residents. - He waits till Monday.

Ger. Ich bin von Montag bis Mittwoch beschäftigt.

Dut. Ik ben van maandag tot woensdag bezig.

Afr. Ek is van Maandag tot Woensdag besig.

- I am busy from Monday to Wednesday.

Ger. Mein Sohn liest 5 bis 10 Bücher pro Jahr.

Dut. Mijn zoon leest 5 tot 10 boeken per jaar.

Afr. My seun lees 5 tot 10 boeke per jaar.

- My son reads 5 to 10 books per year.

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Preposition zwischen (Ger.), tussen (Dut. Afr.)

The prepositions Ger. zwischen, Dut. and Afr. tussen generally mean between, among. It is
used the way one uses its English equivalent:

Ger. Es gibt keinen Unterschied zwischen dir und mir. (dative)

Dut. Er is geen verschil tussen jou en mij.

Afr. Daar is geen verskil tussen jou en my nie.

- There is no difference between you and me.

Ger. Ich muss mich zwischen diesen zwei Produkten entscheiden. (dative)

Dut. Ik moet tussen deze twee producten kiezen.

Afr. Ek moet tussen hierdie twee produkte kies.

- I have to choose between those two products.

NOTE:
In German, the preposition zwischen takes either the accusative or the dative
case (See p. 748):

Preposition aus (Ger.), uit (Dut. Afr)

The preposition Ger. aus, Dut. and Afr. uit normally means from, out of. It can be used in a
number of ways depending on the context. This preposition is used:

• to indicate a place of origine (from):

This preposition is equivalent to the English from:

Ger. Sie kommt aus Österreich.

Dut. Ze komt uit Oostenrijk.

Afr. Sy kom uit Oostenryk.

- She comes from Austria.

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NOTE:
In Dutch and Afrikaans, the preposition van can also be used in this context
(See also p. 685):

Dut. Ze komt van Oostenrijk.

Afr. Sy kom van Oostenryk af.
- She comes from Austria.

• to express the material from which something is made (out of):

This preposition is also equivalent to the English “out of”:

Ger. Der Tisch aus Holz.

Dut. De tafel uit hout.

Afr. Die tafel uit hout

- The table made of wood.

• to express “out of/from” the inside of something:

Ger. Kannst du die Tasse aus dem Schrank nehmen? (dative)

Dut. Kun jij het kopje uit de kast pakken?

Afr. Kan jy die beker uit die kas haal?

- Can you take the cup from the cupboard?

Ger. Sie rannte aus dem Haus. (dative)

Dut. Ze rende uit het huis.

Afr. Sy het uit die huis gehardloop

- She ran out of the house

• in certain expressions (out of, from, by):

Ger. aus; Dut. and Afr. uit is used in some expressions to mean that something is done because
of a feeling or inner quality.

Below are some common expression that are used with the preposition Ger., aus Dut., Afr.
uit:

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German Dutch Afrikaans English

aus Feigheit uit lafheid uit lafhartigheid out of cowardice

aus Freundschaft uit vriendschap uit vriendskap out of friendship

aus Gewohnheit uit gewoonte uit gewoonte out of habit

aus Angst uit angst uit vrees from/out of fear

aus dem Leben uit het leven uit die lewe out of life

aus Gier uit hebzucht uit gierigheid out of greed

aus dem Kopf, uit mijn hoofd uit my kop by heart

auswendig

For example:

Ger. Ich weiß es aus dem Kopf.

Dut. Ik ken het uit mijn hoofd.

Afr. Ek ken dit uit my kop.

- I know it by heart.

Ger. Ich habe es aus Freundschaft getan.

Dut. Ik heb het uit vriendschap gedaan.

Afr. Ek het dit uit vriendskap gedoen.

- I have done it out of friendship.

• with verbs followed by the preposition “from, of”:

Below is the list of some common verbs that are used with the preposition Ger., aus Dut., Afr.
uit:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

aus (dem Deutschen) uit (het Duits) iets uit (Duits) iets vertaal to translate sth. from
etw. (acc.) übersetzen vertalen (German)
aus (Belgien) kommen uit (België) komen uit (België) kom to come from (Belgium)

aus (der Tasse) uit (de beker) drinken uit (die beker) drink to drink from (the cup)
trinken
aus etw. (dat.) uit iets bestaan uit iets bestaan to consist of sth.
bestehen

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For instance:

Ger. Er übersetzt Bücher aus dem Dänischen. (dative)

Dut. Hij vertaalt boeken uit het Deens.

Afr. Hy vertaal boeke uit Deens.

- He translates books from Danish.

Ger. Das Land besteht aus zwei Inseln.

Dut. Het land bestaat uit twee eilanden.

Afr. Die land bestaan uit twee eilande.

- The country consists of two island.

Preposition auf (Ger.), op (Dut. Afr)

The preposition Ger. auf, Dut. and Afr. op normally means on, about or over. It can be used in a
number of ways depending on the context. Thus, preposition is used:

• to mean location (on, upon, over, at):

Ger. Ich habe ein Buch auf den Tisch gelegt. (accusative)

Dut. Ik heb een boek op de tafel gelegd.

Afr. Ek het 'n boek op die tafel gesit.

- I have put a book on the table.

Ger. Du kannst auf dem Stuhl sitzen. (dative)

Dut. Je kunt op de stoel zitten.

Afr. Jy kan op die stoel sit.

- You can sit on the chair.

• to mean “on” in expressions of time:

1. In Dutch and Afrikaans, the days can be used with the preposition op, while in German, the preposition
an is placed in front of the day of the week to express “on a certain day”:

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Ger. Ich gehe am Sonntag zur Party.

Dut. Ik ga op zondag naar het feest.

Afr. Ek gaan op Sondag die partytjie toe.

- I am going to the party on Sunday.

NOTE:
In German, am is the contraction of the preposition an and the masculine
article dem in the accusative (See Contraction of Articles p. 238):
an + dem = am - “on the”

Study more examples:

Ger. Ich reise an meinem Geburtstag

Dut. Ik reis op mijn verjaardag

Afr. Ek reis op my verjaarsdag

- I travel on my birthday

2. When we refer to a specific date, we also use the preposition op in Dutch and Afrikaans and the
preposition an in German:

Ger. Wir gehen am 10. Juni zu einem Konzert.

Dut. We gaan op 10 jun naar een concert.

Afr. Ons gaan op 10 Junie na 'n konsert.

- We are going to a concert on 10 June.

• to mean “in”, “on”, “at” with certain nouns:

The preposition Ger. auf, Dut., Afr. op is also used with nouns that indicate open spaces, public
areas, events etc., for example:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

auf der Straße op straat op (die) straat on/in the street

auf der Terrasse op het terras op die terras on the terrace

im Urlaub op vakantie op vakansie on vacation

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German Dutch Afrikaans English

auf der Insel op het eiland op die eiland on the island

auf See op zee op see at sea

auf der Bank op de bank op die bank in the bank

auf der Post op het postkantoor op die poskantoor at the post office

auf dem Markt op de markt op die mark at the market

auf der Party op het feest op die partytjie at the party

For example:

Ger. Ich bin auf der Insel (dative)

Dut. Ik ben op het eiland

Afr. Ek is op die eiland

- I am on the island

Did you know? Ger. Das Schiff ist auf See.

Stuttgart is the sixth largest city in Dut. Het schip is op zee.
Germany. It offers a mix of history,
technology, science and natural beauty, which Afr. Die skip is op see.
makes it a very popular destination with its
local cuisine, wine and beer festivals, museums, - The ship is at sea.
picturesque landscapes and agricultural fairs.

Ger. Er wartet auf der Straße. (dative)

Dut. Hij wacht op straat.

Afr. Hy wag op straat.

- He is waiting on/in the street.

NOTE:
However, in German, Dutch and Afrikaans, the preposition in is used with the
following nouns (See Preposition “in” p. 689):
German Dutch Afrikaans English

im Park in het park in die park in the park

im Wald in het bos in die woud in the forest

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German Dutch Afrikaans English

im Garten in de tuin in die tuin in the garden

• in certain expressions:

Ger. auf, Dut. and Afr. op is used in the following expressions:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

auf dem Weg op pad op pad on the way

auf Flitterwochen op wittebrood op huwelijksreis on honeymoon

Hoffnung auf eine hoop op een goede hoop op 'n goeie hope of a good future
gute Zukunft toekomst toekoms
im Hintergrund op de achtergrond op die agtergrond in the background

auf Diät sein op dieet zijn op (’n) dieet wees to be on a diet

auf meine (diese) op mijn (deze) op my (hierdie) in my (this) way

Weise manier manier
auf niederländische op de Nederlandse op die Nederlandse the way the Dutch do it
Art manier manier
auf demokratische op een democratische op 'n demokratiese in a democratic way
Weise manier wyse
auf eigene Gefahr op eigen risico op eie risiko at your own risk

For example:

Ger. Ich habe es auf meine Weise getan.

Dut. Ik heb het op mijn manier gedaan.

Afr. Ek het dit op my manier gedoen.

- I did it (in) my way.

• with verbs:

The preposition Ger. auf, Dut., Afr. op is also used with various verbs, for example:

Ger. Ich konzentriere mich auf meine Arbeit.

Dut. Ik concentreer me op mijn werk.

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Afr. Ek konsentreer op my werk.

- I concentrate on my work.

Below is the list of some important verbs that are used with the preposition Ger. auf, Dut., Afr.
op:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

auf jdn. (acc) warten op iem. wachten op/vir iem. wag to wait for sb.

auf etw. (acc) achten aan iets aandacht op iets aandag staan to pay attention to sth.
besteden
auf etw. (acc) op iets antwoorden op iets antwoord to reply to sth.
antworten
auf etw. (acc) zich op iets op iets konsentreer to concentrate on sth.
konzentrieren concentreren
auf etw. (acc) op iets schieten op iets skiet to shoot at sth.
schießen

Preposition über (Ger.), over (Dut.), oor (Afr.)

The prepositions Ger. über, Dut. over, Afr. oor mean “about, on, across, over, through, in,
past”. They are used:

• to mean subject or topic (about, on, concerning, with regard to):

The preposition Ger. über, Dut. over, Afr. oor is used to show formal treatment of a subject or
topic:

Ger. Dieser Autor hat ein Buch über die orientalische Küche geschrieben. (accusative)

Dut. Deze auteur een boek over de oosterse keuken schreef.

Afr. Hierdie skrywer het 'n boek oor die Oosterse kookkuns geskryf.

- This author wrote a book about/on oriental cuisine.

Ger. Es ist eine Konferenz über Pädagogik.

Dut. Het is een conferentie over pedagogiek.

Afr. Dit is 'n konferensie oor pedagogie.

- It is conference about/on pedagogy.

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• to express “across” or “over”:

The preposition Ger. über, Dut. over, Afr. oor can also be used to refer to a movement “across”
or “over” places:

Ger. Das Auto fährt über die Brücke. (accusative)

Dut. De auto rijdt over de brug.

Afr. Die motor ry oor die brug.

- The car is driving over/across the bridge

Ger. Wir reisen mit dem Schiff über die Ostsee. (accusative)

Dut. We reizen met het schip over de Oostzee.

Afr. Ons reis met die skip oor die Oossee.

- We travel on the ship across the Baltic Sea.

• to render “through” or “via”:

The preposition Ger. über, Dut. over, Afr. oor also translates “via” or “through” with reference
to places, for example:

Ger. Wir fahren über Österreich nach Deutschland.

Dut. We rijden naar Duitsland over Oostenrijk.

Afr. Ons ry na Duitsland oor Oostenryk.

- We are driving to Germany through/via Austria.

NOTE:
In Dutch and Afrikaans, the preposition via is also used in this context. To
compare:

Dut. We rijden naar Duitsland via Oostenrijk.

Afr. Ons ry na Duitsland via Oostenryk.
- We are driving to Germany via Austria.

• to refer to time in Dutch and Afrikaans (in, past):

In Dutch and Afrikaans, the preposition Dut. over, Afr. oor is used to mean “in” when referring
to time. To demonstrate:

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Dut. Mijn vrienden reizen over drie dagen naar Denemarken.

Afr. My vriende reis oor drie dae na Denemarke toe.

- My friends travel to Denmark in three days.

NOTE:
In German, the preposition in should be used in this case (See p. 689). Observe
the following:

Ger. Meine Freunde reisen in drei Tagen nach Dänemark.

- My friends travel to Denmark in three days.

Below is the list of some time expressions that are used with the preposition Ger. in/über,
Dut. over, and Afr. oor:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

in einer Stunde over een uur oor een uur in an hour

in zwei Stunden over twee uur oor twee uur in two hours

in einem Monat over een maand oor een maand in a month

in drei Monaten over drie maanden oor drie maande in three months

in einem Jahr over een jaar oor een jaar in a year

in vier Jahren over vier jaar oor vier jaar in four years
über das Wochenende over het week-end oor die naweek over the weekend

über die Jahre over de jaren heen oor die jare heen over the years

über die Jahrhunderte over de eeuwen heen oor die eeue heen over the centuries

Furthermore, in Dutch and Afrikaans, before the half hour, the prepositions Dut. over, and Afr.
oor - “past” are used respectively. For instance:

Dut. Het is vijf over twee.

Afr. Dit is vyf oor twee.

- It is five past two.

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NOTE:
In German, however, the preposition nach is used in this context (See p. 724,
726), for example:

Ger. Es ist fünf nach zwei.

- It is five past two.

Preposition um (Ger.), om (Dut. Afr.)

The preposition Ger. um, Dut., Afr. om means “at, around”. It is used:

• to refer to the physical position (around):

The preposition Ger. um, Dut., Afr. om is used to refer to a location, for example:

Ger. Um die Ecke. (accusative)

Dut. Om de hoek

Afr. Om die draai

- Around the corner.

• to refer to time (at):

The preposition Ger. um, Dut., Afr. om is used to mean “at” when referring to time. To
illustrate:

Ger. Um wie viel Uhr kommt dein Zug? - Mein Zug kommt um sieben Uhr.

Dut. Hoe laat komt jouw trein? - Mijn trein komt om zeven uur.

Afr. Hoe laat kom jou trein? - My trein kom om sewe-uur.

At what time does thou train come? - My train comes at seven o’clock.

• with verbs:

Ger. um, Dut. and Afr. om are also used with verbs. Observe the following example:

Ger. Ich bitte um Ihre Hilfe.

Dut. Ik vraag om uw hulp.

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Afr. Ek vra om u hulp.

- I ask for your help.

Preposition per (Ger. Dut. Afr.)

The preposition Ger., Dut., Afr. per means “by, per, by means of”. It is used:

• with modes of transport (by, by means of):

The prepositions Ger., Dut., Afr. per can be used to express “by, by means of” various modes of
transport. For example:

Ger. Ich habe den Brief per Flugzeug verschickt.

Dut. Ik heb de brief per vliegtuig verzonden.

Afr. Ek het die brief per lug gestuur.

- I sent the letter by air.

Below is the list of some common modes of transport that are used with the preposition per:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

per Auto per auto per kar/motor by car

per Zug per trein per trein by train

per Flugzeug per vliegtuig per vliegtuig by plane

per Schiff per schip per skip by ship

NOTE:
In German, Dutch and Afrikaans, the preposition Ger. mit, Dut., Afr. met can
also be used with modes of transport (See p. 721):
German Dutch Afrikaans English

mit dem Auto met de auto met die kar/ by car

motor
mit dem Zug met de trein met die trein by train

mit dem met de fiets met die fiets by bike

Fahrrad

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German Dutch Afrikaans English

mit dem met het met die by plane

Flugzeug vliegtuig vliegtuig
mit dem Schiff met het schip met die skip by ship

mit dem Boot met de boot met die boot by boat

Ger. Er reist mit dem Zug.

Dut. Hij reist met de trein.

Afr. Hy ry met die trein.

- He travels by train.

• in some other expressions (by, by means of):

Ger., Dut., Afr. per is used in the following expressions:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

per Brief per brief per brief by letter

but: aus Versehen per ongeluk per ongeluk by mistake

For example:

Ger. Ich habe es aus Versehen getan.

Dut. Ik heb het per ongeluk gedaan.

Afr. Ek het dit per ongeluk gedoen.

- I did it by mistake.

• to express “for each, for every, each” (a/an, per):

Ger. Der Zug fährt 200 Kilometer pro* Stunde.

Dut. De trein rijdt 200 kilometer per uur.

Afr. Die trein ry 200 kilometer per uur.

- The train goes 200 kilometres per/an hour.

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NOTE:
In German, the preposition pro must be used in this case. Compare one more
example:

Ger. Die Äpfel kosten einen Dollar pro Stück.

Dut. De appels kosten één dollar per stuk.
Afr. Die appels kos een dollar per stuk.
- The apples cost one dollar each. (lit. per piece)

Preposition rund um (Ger.), rondom (Dut. Afr.)

The preposition Ger. rund um, Dut., Afr. rondom means “(all) around”. It is used:

• to refer to the physical position (all around):

Note that the preposition Ger. rund um, Dut., Afr. rondom means “all around” (on all sides
of), as opposed to Ger. um, Dut., Afr. om, which expresses simply “around” (See p. 712). For example:

Ger. Rund um das Dorf liegen Berge. (accusative)

Dut. Rondom het dorp zijn bergen.

Afr. Rondom die dorp is berge.

- All around the village are mountains.

Preposition unter (Ger.), onder (Dut. Afr.)

The preposition Ger. unter, Dut., Afr. onder means “under, among”. It corresponds very closely
to its English equivalent:

Ger. Die Schuhe liegen unter dem Tisch. (dative)

Dut. De schoenen liggen onder de tafel.

Afr. Die skoene is onder die tafel.

- The shoes are under the table.

Ger. Die Katze ist unter den Tisch gelaufen. (accusative)

Dut. De kat is onder de tafel gerend.

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Afr. Die kat het onder die tafel ingehardloop.

- The cat ran under the table.

Ger. unter Deutschen.

Dut. onder Duitsers.

Afr. onder Duitsers

- among Germans.

Preposition für (Ger.), voor (Dut.), vir (Afr.)

The prepositions Ger. für, Dut. voor, Afr. vir mean “for, of, in favour of, by the standards of”.

• to express purpose (for, in favour of, by the standards of):

Ger. Dieses Geschenk ist für dich. (accusative)

Dut. Dit cadeau is voor jou.

Afr. Hierdie geskenk is vir jou.

- This gift is for you.

Ger. Ich bin für diese Option. (accusative)

Dut. Ik ben voor deze optie.

Afr. Ek is vir hierdie opsie.

- I'm for (in favour of) this option.

Ger. Für eine Ausländerin spricht sie sehr gut Englisch. (accusative)
Dut. Voor een buitenlander spreekt ze heel goed Engels.

Afr. Vir 'n buitelander praat sy baie goed Engels.

- For (By the standards of) a foreigner, she speaks English very well.

• to express purpose (of):

Ger. Dies ist ein Institut für Geographie.

Dut. Dit is een Instituut voor Geografie.

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Afr. Dit is 'n Instituut vir Geografie

- This is an Institute of Geography

• in certain expressions (by):

Ger. für, Dut. voor, Afr. vir is used in the following expressions:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

Wort für Wort woord voor woord woord vir woord word by (for) word

Tag für Tag dag voor dag dag vir dag day by (after) day

Stück für Stück stuk voor stuk stukkie vir stukkie piece by piece

Schritt für Schritt stap voor stap stap vir stap step by step

For instance:

Ger. Das ist Wort für Wort, was ich gesagt habe.

Dut. Dat is woord voor woord wat ik heb gezegd.

Afr. Dit is woord vir woord wat ek gesê het.

- That is word by word what I said.

• with verbs:

The preposition Ger. für, Dut. voor, Afr. vir is also used with various verbs, for example:

Ger. Eltern sorgen immer für ihre Kinder.

Dut. Ouders zorgen altijd voor hun kinderen.

Afr. Ouers sorg altyd vir hul kinders.

- Parents always take care of their children.

Below is the list of some important verbs that are used with the preposition Ger. für, Dut.
voor, Afr. vir:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

für jdn. (acc) sorgen voor iem. zorgen vir iem. sorg to take care of sb.

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German Dutch Afrikaans English

sich (acc.) für etw. zich voor iets vir iets verskoning to apologize for sth.
(acc.) entschuldigen verontschul-digen vra
auf etw. (acc) voor iets opkomen vir iets staan to be responsible for sth.
konzentrieren
Geld für etw. (acc) geld voor iets geld vir iets spandeer to spend money for sth.
ausgeben uitgeven

• with a personal indirect object in Afrikaans (to):

• The Afrikaans preposition vir can also be used with a personal indirect object where the preposition
mens “to”, whether English uses a preposition in this case or not, for example:

Afr. Ek het (vir) my pa beloof dat...

- I promised my father that…

Afr. Hy gee dit vir my.

- He gives it to me.

In general, where the preposition “to” can be inserted in English, we should use vir in Afrikaans.

Remember that when the indirect object follows the direct object, the preposition must be
included. However, when the indirect object precedes the direct object, it can also be used in Afrikaans,
while in English, it is not possible. Compare the following:

Afrikaans

Vir is optional Vir is obligatory

Gee (vir) my die pen. - Give me the pen. Gee die pen vir my. - Give the pen to me.

• Furthermore, the preposition vir used with the indirect object, can also be use with the verbs of
perception in Afrikaans, for example:

Below is the list of some verbs of persecution that are used with the preposition vir in
Afrikaans:

Afrikaans English

lyk to look/seem

klink to sound

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Afrikaans English

ruik to smell

smaak to taste

voel to feel

For example:

Afr. Dit lyk (klink/ruik/smaak/voel) vir my…

- It seems (sounds/smells/tastes/feels) to me like…

Afr. Die jas lyk vir my mooi.

- The coat looks nice to me.

Afr. Die koek smaak vir my heerlik.

- The cake tastes delicious to me.

Preposition vor (Ger.), voor (Dut. Afr.)

The preposition Ger. vor, Dut., Afr. voor means “in front of, before, ago”. They are used:

• to refer to the physical position (in front of):

The preposition Ger. vor, Dut., Afr. voor is used to refer to physical location in space:

Ger. Ich warte vor der Schule. (dative)

Dut. Ik wacht voor de school.

Afr. Ek wag voor die skool.

- I am waiting in front of the school.

• to refer to time (before, to):

The preposition Ger. vor, Dut., Afr. voor is used to refer to location in time, in which case it
translates “before”:

Ger. Es ist vor Mittwoch passiert.

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Dut. Het is voor woensdag gebeurd.

Afr. Dit het voor Woensdag gebeur.

- It happened before Wednesday.

• The preposition Ger. vor, Dut., Afr. voor is also used to translate “to” when telling the time (See also
Time p. 668). Observe the following:

Ger. Es ist Viertel vor fünf.

Dut. Het is kwart voor vijf.

Afr. Dit is kwart voor vyf.

- It’s a quarter to five.

Did you know? Ger. Es ist zwanzig vor neun.

The University of Groningen Dut. Het is twintig voor negen.

(Rijksuniversiteit Groningen) is the
second oldest and one of the most prestigious Afr. Dit is twintig voor nege.
universities in the Netherlands. It was founded
in 1614. - It’s twenty to nine.

• to refer to location in the past relative to the present (ago):

The preposition Ger. vor, Dut., Afr. voor is used to translate “ago” when referring to the location
in the past relative to the present:

Ger. Vor fünf Jahren lebte ich noch in meiner Wohnung.

Dut. Voor vijf jaar woonde ik nog in mijn appartement.

Afr. Voor vyf jaar het ek nog in my woonstel gewoon.

- Five years ago I was still living in my apartment.

• with verbs and adjectives:

The preposition Ger. vor, Dut., Afr. voor is also used with various verbs and adjectives, for
example:

Ger. Er hat Angst vor Hunden.

Dut. Hij is bang voor honden.

Afr. Hy is bang voor honde.

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- He is afraid of dogs.

Below is the list of some common verbs that are used with the preposition Ger. vor, Dut., Afr.
voor:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

vor etw. (dat) Angst voor iets bang zijn voor (or vir) iets bang to be afraid of sth.
haben wees
jdn. vor etw. (dat) iem. voor iets iem. voor (or van) iets to warn sb. of/against
warnen waarschuwen waarsku sth.

Preposition mit (Ger.), met (Dut., Afr.)

The prepositions Ger. mit, Dut., Afr. met generally correspond to “with”. They are used:

• to express a person is “with” another person:

Ger. Die Mutter spielt mit ihrem Kind. (dative)

Dut. De moeder speelt met haar kind.

Afr. Die ma speel met haar kind.

- The mother is playing with her child.

• with modes of transport (by):

The prepositions Ger. mit, Dut. and Afr. met can also be used to express “by” various modes of
transport.

Below is the list of some common modes of transport that are used with the preposition Ger.
mit, Dut., Afr. met:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

mit dem Auto met de auto met die kar/motor by car

mit dem Zug met de trein met die trein by train

mit dem Fahrrad met de fiets met die fiets by bike

mit dem Flugzeug met het vliegtuig met die vliegtuig by plane

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German Dutch Afrikaans English

mit dem Schiff met het schip met die skip by ship

mit dem Boot met de boot met die boot by boat

For example:

Ger. Er reist mit dem Auto. (dative)

Dut. Hij reist met de auto.

Afr. Hy ry met die motor.

- He travels by car.

NOTE:
In German, Dutch and Afrikaans, the preposition per can also be used with
modes of transport to mean “by means of” (See p. 713). Study the following:
German Dutch Afrikaans English

per Auto per auto per kar/motor by car

per Zug per trein per trein by train

per Flugzeug per vliegtuig per vliegtuig by plane

per Schiff per schip per skip by ship

For instance:

Ger. Kommst du per Auto?

Dut. Kom je per auto?
Afr. Kom jy per motor?
- Are you coming by car?

• with a holiday/festivity in Dutch and Afrikaans (at, for):

The Dutch and Afrikaans preposition met is also used as a temporal preposition and is translated
as “at, on”. It is used with reference to festivities, celebrations or events:

Dut. Met Pasen eten wij altijd veel paaseieren.

Afr. Met Paasfees eet ons altyd baie paaseiers.

- At Easter we always eat many Easter eggs.

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Dut. Bezoekt u ons met Kerstmis?

Afr. Besoek u ons met Kersfees?

- Are you visiting us for Christmas?

NOTE:
In German, however, the preposition zu is used in this case (See also p. 695):

Ger. Zu Ostern essen wir immer viele Ostereier.

- At Easter we always eat many Easter eggs.

Ger. Besuchen Sie uns zu Weihnachten?

- Are you visiting us for Christmas?

• with verbs:

Ger. mit, Dut. and Afr. met are also used with verbs. Study the following example:

Ger. Ich muss mit meinem Lehrer reden. (dative)

Dut. Ik moet met mijn leraar praten.

Afr. Ek moet met my onderwyser praat.

- I need to talk to my teacher.

Below is the list of some important verbs that are used with the preposition Ger. nach, Dut.,
Afr. na:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

mit jdn. (dat) reden met iem. praten met iem. praat to talk to/with sb.

etw. (acc) mit jdn. (dat) iets met iem. delen iets met iem. deel to share sth. with sb.
teilen
sich mit jdn. (dat) met iem. ontmoeten met iem. ontmoet to meet with sb.
treffen
mit etw. (dat) met iets bezig zijn met iets besig wees to be busy with sth.
beschäftigt sein
mit etw. met iets vermenig- met iets vermenig- to multiply by sth.
multiplizieren vuldigen vuldig

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German Dutch Afrikaans English

jdn. (acc) mit etw. (dat) but: iem. van iets but: iem. van iets to supply sb. with sth.
versorgen voorzien voorsien

Preposition nach (Ger.), na (Dut., Afr.)

The prepositions Ger. nach, Dut. and Afr. na mean “after, past”. They are used:

• to refer to time (after, past):

The prepositions Ger. nach, Dut. and Afr. na are used to refer to location in time, in which case
it translates “after”:

Ger. Es ist nach Mittwoch passiert.

Dut. Het is na woensdag gebeurd.

Afr. Dit het na Woensdag gebeur.

- It happened after Wednesday.

Ger. Nach dem Abendessen spielen wir mit den Kindern. (dative)

Dut. Na het avondeten spelen we met de kinderen.

Afr. Na aandete speel ons met kinders.

- After supper we play with children.

Did you know? Ger. Nach Juli folgt August.

Münster is an independent city Dut. Na juli volgt augustus.

(Kreisfreie Stadt) in western Germany.
Afr. Na Julie volg Augustus.
It is often referred to as the "Bicycle Capital of
Germany" with more than 500 kilometers of - After July comes August
cycle paths.

• Remember that in German, before the half hour, the preposition Ger. nach is used to express “past”.
For example:

Ger. Es ist fünf nach zwei.

- It is five past two.

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NOTE:
In Dutch and Afrikaans, the preposition Dut. over; Afr. oor is used in this case
(See also p. 709):

Dut. Het is vijf over twee.

Afr. Dit is vyf oor twee.
- It is five past two.

• in certain expressions:
Ger. nach, Dut. and Afr. na is used in the following expressions:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

Meiner Meinung nach naar mijn mening na my mening in my opinion

meinem Urteil nach in mijn oordeel na my oordeel in my judgement

meines Wissens nach naar mijn weten na my wete to my knowledge

For example:

Ger. Meiner Meinung nach ist dies der beste Coffeeshop.

Dut. Naar mijn mening is dit de beste coffeeshop.

Afr. Na my mening is dit die beste koffiewinkel.

- In my opinion, this is the best coffeeshop.

• with verbs:
Ger. nach, Dut. and Afr. na is also used with some verbs. Study the following example:

Ger. Es riecht nach Käse.

Dut. Het ruikt naar kaas.

Afr. Dit ruik na kaas

- It smells like cheese.

Below is the list of some important verbs that are used with the preposition Ger. nach, Dut.,
Afr. na:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

sich nach etw. (dat) sehnen naar iets verlangen na iets verlang to long for sth.

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German Dutch Afrikaans English

nach etw. (dat) riechen naar iets ruiken na iets ruik to smell of/like sth.

nach etw. reisen naar iets reizen na iets reis to travel to sth.

Preposition nach (Ger.), naar (Dut.), (na)…toe (Afr.)

The prepositions Ger. nach, Dut. naar, Afr. (na)…toe mean “toward, to”. They are used:

• to introduce a destination to countries (to, towards):

The prepositions Ger. nach, Dut. naar, Afr. (na)…toe are used when we are going “to, toward”
specific places (e.g. countries, cities, or continents) that do not have an article.

Ger. Wir fahren nach Belgien.

Dut. Wij rijden naar België.

Afr. Ons ry (na) België toe.

- We are driving to Belgium.

Ger. Wann fliegen sie nach Südafrika?

Dut. Wanneer vliegen ze naar Zuid-Afrika?

Afr. Wanneer vlieg hulle (na) Suid-Afrika toe?

- When are they flying to South Africa?

NOTE:
In Afrikaans, the combination na...to that indicates motion “to” a place is
normally replaced by a post-positioned toe, for instance:

Afr. Ons ry België toe.

- We are driving to Belgium.

Afr. Wanneer vlieg hulle Suid-Afrika toe?

- When are they flying to South Africa?

• to introduce a destination to places in Dutch and Afrikaans (to, towards):

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Unlike in German, in Dutch and Afrikaans, the prepositions Dut. naar, Afr. (na)…toe are also
used when we are going “to, toward” a specific place (e.g. a market, a school, a library, an airport etc.)
that have an article.

Dut. Ik ga naar het vliegveld.

Afr. Ek gaan na die lughawe toe. (or Ek gaan lughawe toe).

- I am going to the airport.

NOTE:
In German the preposition zu is used in this case (See also p. 695). Compare
the following:

Ger. Sie geht zum Flughafen.

- She is going to the airport.

• to indicate a direction (to):

The prepositions Ger. nach, Dut. naar, Afr. na are used with adverbs of direction, for example:

Ger. Ich gehe nach rechts/nach links.

Dut. Ik ga naar rechts/naar links.

Afr. Ek gaan na regs/na links.

- I am going to the right/to the left.

• to indicate a place of arrival (to):

This preposition is usually equivalent to the English to:

Ger. Ich reise von Berlin nach Hamburg.

Dut. Ik reis van Berlijn naar Hamburg.

Afr. Ek reis van Berlyn na Hamburg.

- I'm travelling from Berlin to Hamburg.

Ger. Die Sonne wandert von Ost nach West

Dut. De zon beweegt van oost naar west

Afr. Die Son beweeg van Oos na Wes

- The Sun moves from East to West.

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• with verbs:

Ger. nach, Dut. naar and Afr. (na)…toe is also used with some verbs. Study the following
example:

Ger. Er geht nach Kapstadt.

Dut. Hij gaat naar Kaapstad

Afr. Hy gaan Kaapstad toe

- He is going to Cape Town

Ger. Morgen fliege ich nach Hause.

Dut. Morgen vlieg ik naar huis.

Afr. Môre vlieg ek huis toe.

- Tomorrow I’m flying home.

Below is the list of some important verbs that are used with the preposition Ger. nach, Dut.
naar, Afr. (na)…toe:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

nach etw. fahren naar iets rijden (na) iets ry toe to drive to sth.

nach etw. gehen naar iets gaan (na) iets gaan toe to go to sth.

nach etw. fliegen naar iets vliegen (na) iets vlieg toe to fly to sth.

Preposition nahe (Ger.), nabij/vlakbij (Dut.), naby/vlakby (Afr.)

The prepositions Ger. nahe, Dut. nabij/vlakbij and Afr. naby/vlakby mean “near”. Observe
the following example:

Ger. Potsdam ist eine kleine Stadt nahe Berlin.

Dut. Potsdam is een kleine stad nabij (or vlakbij) Berlijn.

Afr. Potsdam is 'n klein stad naby (or vlakby) Berlyn.

- Potsdam is a small town near Berlin.

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Preposition neben (Ger.), naast (Dut.), langs/naas (Afr.)

The prepositions Ger. neben, Dut. naast and Afr. langs/naas mean “next to, in addition to”.
They correspond to their English equivalents:

Ger. Der Stuhl steht neben dem (or den) Tisch. (acc. or dat.)

Dut. De stoel staat naast de tafel.

Afr. Die stoel staan langs (or naas) die tafel.

- The chair stands next to the table.

Ger. Neben ihm gibt es noch einen Koch. (acc. or dat.)

Dut. Naast hem is er nog een kok.

Afr. Naas hom is daar nog 'n kok.

- In addition to him, there is another cook.

Preposition statt, anstelle (Ger.), in plaats van (Dut.),

in plaas van (Afr.)

The prepositions Ger. statt/anstelle, Dut. in plaats van and Afr. in plaas van mean “instead
of”, “in place of”. Observe the following example:

Ger. Wir haben die Pizza statt (anstelle) der Suppe gegessen. (genitive)

Dut. Wij hebben de pizza in plaats van de soep gegeten.

Afr. Ons het die pizza in plaas van die sop geëet.

- We ate the pizza instead of the soup.

Preposition während (Ger.), tijdens (Dut.), tydens (Afr.)

The prepositions Ger. während, Dut. tijdens and Afr. tydens mean “during”. Study the
following example:

Ger. Während des Krieges lebten sie in Berlin. (genitive)

Dut. Tijdens de oorlog woonden ze in Berlijn.

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Afr. Tydens die oorlog het hulle in Berlyn gewoon.

- During the war they lived in Berlin.

Preposition wegen, aufgrund (Ger.), vanwege, door (Dut.),

as gevolg van, weens, vanweë (Afr.)

The prepositions Ger. wegen/aufgrund, Dut. vanwege/door and Afr. as gevolg van/
weens/vanweë mean “because of”, “due to”. For example:

Ger. Wegen (Aufgrund) eines Fehlers. (genitive)

Dut. Vanwege (Door) een fout.

Afr. As gevolg van (weens/vanweë) 'n fout

- Because of a mistake

Ger. Wegen meiner Arbeit. (genitive)

Dut. Vanwege mijn werk.

Afr. As gevolg van (or weens/vanweë) my werk.

- Because of my work.

NOTE:
In Afrikaans, weens and vanweë are quite formal. In the spoken language,
the preposition “because of” is more likely to be expressed by as gevolg van.

Preposition dank (Ger.), dankzij (Dut.), danksy (Afr.)

The preposition Ger. dank, Dut. dankzij, Afr. danksy means “thanks to”. For example:

Ger. Dank ihrer Arbeit kann sie viel reisen. (genitive)

Dut. Dankzij haar werk kan ze veel reizen.

Afr. Danksy haar werk kan sy baie reis.

- Thanks to her work she can travel a lot.

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Preposition über (Ger.), boven (Dut.), bo (Afr.)

The preposition Ger. über, Dut. boven, Afr. bo means “above, beyond”. For example:

Ger. Das Flugzeug fliegt über den Wolken. (dative)

Dut. Het vliegtuig vliegt boven de wolken.

Afr. Die vliegtuig vlieg bo die wolke.

- The airplane is flying above the clouds.

Ger. Das Foto hängt an der Wand über der Couch. (dative)

Dut. De foto hangt aan de muur boven de bank.

Afr. Die foto hang aan die muur bo die rusbank.

- The photo hangs on the wall above the couch.

Preposition außerhalb (Ger.), buiten (Dut.), buite (Afr.)

The preposition Ger. außerhalb, Dut. buiten and Afr. buite means “outside of, out of”. For
example:

Ger. Ich lebe außerhalb der Stadt. (genitive)

Dut. Ik woon buiten de stad

Afr. Ek woon buite die stad.

- Thanks to her work she can travel a lot.

Ger. Ihre Tochter spielt außerhalb des Hauses. (genitive)

Dut. Haar dochter speelt buiten het huis.

Afr. Haar dogter speel buite die huis.

- Her daughter plays outside of the house.

Preposition durch (Ger.), door (Dut.), deur (Afr.)

• The preposition Ger. durch, Dut. door and Afr. deur means “through, by means of, by”. For instance:

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Ger. Sie fahren durch den Wald. (accusative)

Dut. Ze rijden door het bos.

Afr. Hulle ry deur die bos.

- They are driving through the forest.

Did you know? Ger. eine Reise durch Österreich.

The Market Theatre in Johannesburg, Dut. een reis door Oostenrijk.

South Africa, is a renowned performing
arts venue that holds a wide range of Afr.'n reis deur Oostenryk.
performances and productions from theatre to
- a trip through Austria.
music and dance.

• The preposition Ger. durch, Dut. door and Afr. deur - “by” is also used in the construction of the
passive voice:

Ger. Das Unternehmen wird durch den Banken finanziert. (accusative)

Dut. Het bedrijf wordt door de banken gefinancierd.

Afr. Die maatskappy word deur die banke gefinansier.

- The company is financed by the banks.

• The preposition Ger. durch, Dut. door and Afr. deur - “by” can also be used in arithmetical
operations (See Arithmetical Operations p. 660)

The following is the arithmetical calculation that is used with the preposition Ger. dutch, Dut.
door, Afr. deur:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

20 geteilt durch 2 ist 10 20 gedeeld door 2 is 10 20 gedeel deur 2 is 10 20 divided by 2 is 10

Preposition entsprechend, laut (Ger.), volgens (Dut., Afr.)

The preposition Ger. entsprechend/laut Dut., Afr. volgens means “according to”. For
example:

Ger. Laut der Meldung… (genitive)

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Dut. Volgens het rapport…

Afr. Volgens die verslag…

- According to the report…

Preposition abgesehen von (Ger.), afgezien van (Dut.),

afgesien van (Afr.)

The preposition Ger. abgesehen von, Dut. afgezien van, Afr. afgesien van means “apart
from, other than”. For example:

Ger. Abgesehen von der Tatsache… (dative)

Dut. Afgezien van het feit…

Afr. Afgesien van die feit…

- Other than the fact…

Preposition namens/im Namen (Ger.), namens (Dut.), namens (Afr.)

The preposition Ger. namens/im Namen, Dut., Afr. namens means “on behalf of”. For
example:

Ger. Im Namen des Kapitäns… (genitive)

Dut. Namens de kapitein...

Afr. Namens die kaptein...

- On behalf of the captain...

Preposition trotz (Ger.), ondanks (Dut. Afr.)

The preposition Ger. trotz, Dut., Afr. ondanks means “in spite of, despite”. For example:

Ger. Trotz des Wetters gehen wir trotzdem an den Strand. (genitive)

Dut. Ondanks het weer gaan we toch naar het strand.

Afr. Ondanks die weer gaan ons tog strand toe.

- Despite the weather we're going to the beach anyway.

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Preposition unabhängig von (Ger.), ongeacht (Dut.), ongeag (Afr.)

The preposition Ger. unabhängig von, Dut. ongeacht, Afr. ongeag expresses “regardless of”.
For example:

Ger. unabhängig von den Konsequenzen. (dative)

Dut. ongeacht de gevolgen

Afr. ongeag die gevolge.

- regardless of the consequences

Preposition anlässlich (Ger.), ter gelegenheid van (Dut.), met die

geleentheid van (Afr.)

The preposition Ger. anlässlich, Dut. ter gelegenheid van, Afr. met die geleentheid van
conveys “on the occasion of”:

Ger. Sie hat mir anlässlich meiner Pensionierung gratuliert. (genitive)

Dut. Zij heeft mij ter gelegenheid van mijn pensionering gefeliciteerd.

Afr. Sy het my met die geleentheid van my aftrede gelukgewens.

- She have congratulated me on the occasion of my retirement.

Preposition bezüglich, hinsichtlich, betreffend (Ger.), betreffende,

met betrekking tot (Dut. Afr.)

The prepositions Ger. bezüglich, hinsichtlich, betreffend Dut., Afr. betreffende, met
betrekking tot express “with regard to, with respect to, concerning”. For instance:

Ger. Ich habe die Neuigkeiten bezüglich der Feier gehört. (genitive)

Dut. Ik heb het nieuws betreffende de viering gehoord.

Afr. Ek het die nuus betreffende die viering gehoor.

- I have heard the news regarding the celebration.

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Prepositions and Cases in German

Below is a list of the most common prepositions that take accusative and/or dative and
genitive cases in German:

Accusative Accusative/Dative Dative Genitive

bis an ab statt, anstelle

durch auf abgesehen von außerhalb

entlang (as a hinter aus dank

postposition)
für in außer entlang

gegen, wider neben bei innerhalb

ohne per entsprechend namens, im Namen

rund um pro gegenüber trotz

um über mit während

unter nach wegen, aufgrund

vor nahe laut

zwischen seit anlässlich

unabhängig von bezüglich, hinsichtlich,

betreffend
von

zu

Prepositions with Accusative

The following nine prepositions require any noun or pronoun that follows them to be in the
accusative case:

Below is the table that shows prepositions that are used with the accusative case in German:

Geman English

bis until, by

durch through, by

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Geman English

entlang (as a postposition)* along

für for

gegen, wider against

ohne without

um around

rund um (all) around

* Note that the preposition entlang is used as a postposition, which means it must follow the sentence’s
object. For example:

Ger. Wir gehen die Straße entlang.

- We are walking along the street.

NOTE:
It is worth mentioning that in Dutch and Afrikaans, unlike in German, the
preposition langs is placed before the sentence’s object, e.g.:

Dut. We lopen langs de straat.

Afr. Ons stap langs die straat.
- We are walking along the street.

Noun and Article Change with Prepositions in the Accusative

Remember that in German, only the articles for masculine nouns der change when used with a
preposition in the accusative. The articles for female and neuter nouns remain the same (See also
Articles p. 218).

Below is the table that shows the declension of the definite article when used with
prepositions in the accusative case (direct object) in German:

Masculine Feminine Neuter Plural

Nominative der die das die

(subject)
Accusative den die das die
(direct object)

Compare the following examples:

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Ger. Er arbeitet für das Unternehmen in Köln. (das Unternehmen)

- He works for the enterprise in Cologne. (the enterprise)

Ger. Ich habe Blumen für den Freund gekauft. (der Freund)

- I bought flowers for the friend. (the friend)

Unlike the first example, where the neuter article for “das Unternehmen” stays the same in the
accusative, the second example shows how the definite masculine article for “der Freund” changes to
“den Freund” when in the accusative.

NOTE:
It is worth reminding that Dutch and Afrikaans have no accusative.
It means that, unlike in German, all of the articles do not change after these
prepositions in the direct object in Dutch and Afrikaans:
Dutch Afrikaans English

tot tot until

door deur through, by

langs langs along

voor vir for

tegen teen against

zonder sonder without

om om around

rond(om) rond(om) (all) round

Compare the same example:

Dut. Hij werkt voor de onderneming in Keulen. (de onderneming)

Afr. Hy werk vir die onderneming in Keulen. (die onderneming)

- He works for the enterprise in Cologne. (the enterprise)

Dut. Ik heb bloemen gekocht voor de vriend. (de vriend)

Afr. Ek het blomme vir die vriend gekoop. (die vriend)

- I bought flowers for the friend. (the friend)

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Pronoun Change with Prepositions in the Accusative

Note that in German, only the third person singular and plural feminine and neuter pronouns sie
and es stay the same when used with a preposition in the accusative. All of the other pronouns must
change their form when used in the accusative (direct object). (See Pronouns p. 241).

Below is the table that shows the declension of pronouns when used with prepositions in the
accusative case (direct object) in German:

Nominative (subject) Accusative (direct object)

1st per. s. ich - I mich - me

2nd per. s. du (inf.) - you dich - you

3rd per. s. er/sie/es - he/she/it ihn/sie/es - him/her/it

1st per. pl. wir - we uns - us

2nd per. pl. ihr - you euch - you

3rd per. pl. sie - they sie - them

Compare the following examples:

Ger. Ich habe ein Geschenk für sie gekauft.

- I bought a gift for her.

Ger. Ich habe ein Geschenk für dich gekauft.

- I bought a gift for you.

As we can see from the first example, the third person singular feminine pronoun “sie” stays the
same when used with the preposition in the accusative.

The second example, however, shows how the second person singular pronoun “du” changes to
“dich” when in the accusative.

Common Verbs Used with Accusative Case

Below is the list of some frequently used verbs that are used with a speci c preposition and
the accusative pronouns or nouns after them in German:

German English

für etw. (acc.) eintreten to stand up for sth.

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 CHAPTER 8: PREPOSITIONS

German English

jdn./etw. (acc.) für jdn./etw. (acc.) halten to take sb./sth. for sb./sth.

für jdn./etw. (acc.) sorgen to take care of sb./sth./to care for sb./sth.

für jdn. (acc.) sprechen to speak on behalf of sb.

für jdn./etw. (acc.) stimmen to vote for sb./sth.

gegen etw. (acc.) protestieren to protest against sth.

gegen etw. (acc.) verstoßen to violate sth./to infringe sth.

um etw. (acc.) bitten jdn. to ask for sth./to beg for sth.

Prepositions with Dative

Dative forms of the personal pronouns or nouns must be used after the following prepositions in
German:

Below is the table that shows prepositions that are used with the dative case in German:

Geman English

ab starting from

aus out of, from

außer apart from, except for, besides

bei at

entsprechend according to

mit with

nach toward, after, past

seit since

von from, of, off

zu to

gegenüber opposite, towards

abgesehen von apart from, other than

unabhängig von regardless of

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Noun and Article Change with Prepositions in the Dative

In German, the articles for masculine, feminine and neuter singular and plural nouns change
when used with a preposition in the dative (indirect object) (See also Articles p. 218).

Below is the table that shows the declension of definite articles when used with prepositions
in the dative case (indirect object) in German:

Masculine Feminine Neuter Plural

Nominative der die das die

(subject)
Dative dem der dem den
(indirect object)

For instance:

Ger. Ich fahre mit dem Zug in die Stadt. (der Zug)

- I go to the city by train. (the train)

Ger. Wir essen nach dem Konzert. (das Konzert)

- We are eating after the concert. (the concert)

The examples shows how the masculine article for “der Zug” and the neuter article for “das
Konzert” change to “dem Zug” and “dem Konzert” respectively when used with the dative preposition
“mit”.

NOTE:
Since Dutch and Afrikaans have no dative, the articles do not change after these
prepositions in the indirect object:
Dutch Afrikaans English

vanaf vanaf starting from

uit uit out of, from

behalve behalwe except (for)

bij by at, with, by, close

volgens volgens according to

met met with

na na after, past

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 CHAPTER 8: PREPOSITIONS

Dutch Afrikaans English

naar (na)…toe toward

sinds sedert since

van van from, of, off

te te to

tegenover teenoor, oorkant opposite, towards

afgezien van afgesien van apart from, other than

Compare the same example:

Dut. Ik ga met de trein naar de stad. (de trein)

Afr. Ek gaan met die trein stad toe. (die trein)

- I go to the city by train. (the train)

Dut. We eten na het concert. (het concert)

Afr. Ons eet na die konsert. (die konsert)

- We are eating after the concert. (the concert)

Pronoun Change with Prepositions in the Dative

Note that in German, pronouns must change their form when used in the accusative (indirect
object). (See Pronouns p. 241).

Below is the table that shows the declension of pronouns when used with prepositions in the
dative case (indirect object) in German:

Nominative (subject) Dative (indirect object)

1st per. s. ich - I mir - me

2nd per. s. du (inf.) - you dir - you

3rd per. s. er/sie/es - he/she/it ihm/ihr/ihm - him/her/it

1st per. pl. wir - we uns - us

2nd per. pl. ihr - you euch - you

3rd per. pl. sie - they ihnen/ihnen - them

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Study the following examples:

Ger. Sie reist mit mir.

- She is travelling with me.

NOTE:
Remember that Dutch, Afrikaans and English make no distinction between
direct and indirect object pronouns (accusative and dative). So, in this case, you
need to add object pronouns (direct/indirect) after above-mentioned
prepositions.

Below is the table that demonstrates the declension of Dutch and Afrikaans pronouns when
used with prepositions in the direct or indirect object (accusative/dative case):

Dutch Afrikaans

Nominative (subject) Accusative/Dative Nominative (subject) Accusative/Dative

(direct/indirect object) (direct/indirect object)

1st per. s. ik mij (me) ek my

2nd per. s. jij (je)/u jou (je)/u jy/u jou/u

3rd per. s. hij/zij (ze)/het hem/haar/het hy/sy/dit hom/haar/dit

1st per. pl. wij (we) ons ons ons

2nd per. pl. jullie/u jullie/u julle/u julle

3rd per. pl. zij (ze) hen/hun hulle hulle

Compare the following examples:

Direct object (accusative) Indirect object (dative)

Dutch Ik heb een cadeau voor haar gekocht Ik reis met haar.
Afrikaans Ek het 'n geskenk vir haar gekoop. Ek reis saam met haar.

English - I bought a gift for her - I am travelling with her

Note that in Dutch and Afrikaans, the examples shows how the third person singular pronoun
“haar” remain the same when used with the prepositions Dut. voor, Afr. vir and Dut., Afr. met in the
direct object (accusative) and in the indirect object (dative) respectively.

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Common Verbs Used with Dative Case

Below is the list of verbs which are used with a speci c preposition and the dative case
pronouns or nouns in German.

German English

aus etw. (dat) bestehen to consist of sth.

aus etw. (dat) folgen to result from sth.

bei jdm./etw. (dat) bleiben to stick with sb./sth.

bei etw. (dat) fest bleiben to stand firm on sth.

mit etw. (dat) beginnen to start with sth.

mit etw. (dat) anfangen to go ahead with sth.

mit jdm. (dat) einen Streit anfangen to start an argument with sb.

mit etw. (dat) aufhören to finish sth.

mit jdm./etw. (dat) handeln to deal in sth./to deal with sb.

mit jdm./etw. (dat) rechnen to count on sb./sth.

mit jdm. (dat) schimpfen to scold sb.

jdn./etw. mit jdm./etw. (dat) vergleichen to compare sb./sth. with sb./sth.

mit jdm. (dat) verhandeln to negotiate with sb.

jdn. mit etw. (dat) versorgen to supply sb. with sth.

mit etw. (dat) zusammenhängen to be related to sth.

jdn./etw. mit jdm./etw. (dat) in to associate sb./sth. with sb./sth.

Zusammenhang bringen
mit jdm. (dat) zusammenstoßen to bump into sb.

nach jdm./etw. (dat) fragen to ask about sb./sth.

nach etw. (dat) riechen to smell of sth.

nach etw. (dat) schmecken to taste/to savour of sth.

nach jdm./etw. (dat) suchen to search for sb./sth.

von etw. (dat) absehen to refrain from

von etw. (dat) ausgehen to come from sth.

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 CHAPTER 8: PREPOSITIONS

German English

von etw. (dat) profitieren to benefit from sth.

von etw.(dat) am meisten profitieren to get the most out of sth.

von etw. (dat) schwärmen to rave about sth.

von jdm./etw. (dat) träumen to dream of

vor jdm./etw. (dat) fliehen to escape from sb./sth.

vor jdm./etw. (dat) flüchten to flee from sb./sth.

vor etw. (dat) schützen to protect against sth.

jdn. vor etw. (dat) warnen to warn sb. against sth.

zu etw. (dat) beitragen to contribute to sth.

zu etw. (dat) führen to result in sth.

zu etw. (dat) gehören to belong to sth.

jdm. zum Geburtstag (dat) gratulieren to wish sb. a happy birthday

zu etw. (dat) neigen to tend to sth.

jdn. zu etw. (dat.) überreden to talk sb. into sth.

zu etw. (dat) zählen to rank among sth.

zwischen jdm./etw. (dat) unterscheiden distinguish between sb./sth.

For example:

Ger. Ich verhandele mit ihnen.

- I am negotiating with them.

Ger. Ich unterhalte mich mit dem Freund.

- I am talking to the friend.

NOTE:
Unlike in German, in Dutch and Afrikaans, you add object pronouns or nouns
(direct/indirect) after above-mentioned verbs and prepositions:

Dut. Ik onderhandel met hen.

Afr. Ek onderhandel met hulle.
- I am negotiating with them.

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 CHAPTER 8: PREPOSITIONS

Dut. Ik praat met de vriend.

Afr. Ek praat met die vriend.
- I am talking to the friend.

Prepositions with Accusative and Dative

The following prepositions require any noun or pronoun that follows them to be in the accusative
and in the dative:

Below is the table that shows prepositions that are used with the accusative and dative case
in German:

Geman English

an at, on, from, to

auf on

hinter behind, past, beyond

in in

neben next to, in addition to

per by, per, a/an

pro per, each

über above, beyond, over

unter under, among

vor in front of

zwischen between

Note that these prepositions are used in the accusative if they indicate movement and dative if
they indicate a state (of rest).

Below are some verbs that always indicate movement and other that always indicate a state
of rest in German:

Verbs of movement (regular and transitive) Verbs of state (irregular and intransitive)

stellen (to place vertically) stehen (to stand)

legen (to place horizontally) liegen (to be lying down)

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 CHAPTER 8: PREPOSITIONS

Verbs of movement (regular and transitive) Verbs of state (irregular and intransitive)

setzen (to set, sit) sitzen (to be seated)

hängen (to hang) hängen (to be hung)

Compare the following examples:

Verbs of movement (used in the accusative) Verbs of state (used in the dative)

Example 1 Example 1
German Er stellt die Tasse auf den Tisch. Die Tasse steht auf dem Tisch.

English - He puts the cup on the table. - The cup is on the table.

Example 2 Example 2
German Sie legt das Buch auf den Tisch. Das Buch liegt auf dem Tisch.

English - She puts the book on the table. - The book is (lying) on the table.

As we can see from the examples 1 and 2, the movement is putting the cup and the book on the
table. It means that the masculine article for “der Tisch” changes to the accusative “den Tisch”.

In the examples 3 and 4, the movement has already taken place. The cup and the book are on the
table, which means that the masculine article for “der Tisch” changes to the dative “dem Tisch”.

NOTE:
Remember that since Dutch and Afrikaans do not distinguish between direct
and indirect objects (accusative and dative), there is no difference between
verbs movement and those of state, like in German.
In this case, the articles do not change when we add the object (direct/indirect)
after these prepositions and verbs:
Dutch Afrikaans English

aan aan at, on, from, to

op op on
achter agter behind

voorbij verby past, beyond

in in in

naast naas, langs next to, in addition to

per per by, per, a/an

boven bo above, beyond

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 CHAPTER 8: PREPOSITIONS

Dutch Afrikaans English

over oor over

onder onder under, among

voor voor in front of

tussen tussen between

Compare the same example:

Verbs of movement Verbs of state

Example 1 Example 1
Dutch Hij zet de beker op (de) tafel. De beker staat op (de) tafel.

Afrikaans Hy sit die beker op (die) tafel. Die beker staan op (die) tafel.

English - He puts the cup on the table. - The cup is on the table.

Example 2 Example 2
Dutch Ze legt het boek (op) de tafel. Het boek ligt op (de) tafel.

Afrikaans Sy lê die boek op (die) tafel. Die boek lê op (die) tafel.

English - She puts the book on the table. - The book is (lying) on the table.

Common Verbs Used with Accusative/Dative Case

Below is the list of verbs which are used with a preposition in the accusative/dative case
pronouns or nouns in German.

German English

an etw. (dat) arbeiten to work on sth.

an etw. (acc) denken to think of sth.

an etw. (dat) erkranken to come down with sth.

an jdn./etw. (acc) glauben to believe in sb./sth.

an jdm./etw. (dat) hängen to be attached to sb./sth. (used in passive form)

an einer Krankheit (dat) sterben to die from (an illness)

an etw. (dat) teilnehmen to participate in sth.

auf etw. (acc/dat) basieren to be based on sth.

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 CHAPTER 8: PREPOSITIONS

German English

auf etw. (dat) beharren to insist on sth.

auf etw. (dat) beruhen to be based on sth.

auf etw. (acc/dat) bestehen to insist on sth.

auf etw. (acc) stoßen to come across sth.

auf jdn./etw. (acc) verzichten dispense with sb./sth.

auf jdn./etw. (acc) warten to wait for sb./sth.

auf (eine Frage) (acc) antworten to answer to (a question)

auf jdn./etw. (acc) eingehen to mention sth./to discuss sth./to react to sth./sb.

auf jdn./etw. (acc) einwirken to impact on sth./to act upon sth./sb.

auf jdn./etw. (acc) verweisen to point sth. out/to refer to sb./sth.

in etw. (acc.) einwilligen to agree to sth.

über jdn./etw. (acc.) berichten to report on/about sb./sth.

über etw. (acc.) entscheiden to decide upon sth.

über etw. (dat) hängen to hang over sth.

über etw. (acc.) klagen to complain about sth.

über etw. (acc.) lachen to laugh at sth.

über etw. (acc.) nachdenken to reflect upon sth./to think about sth.

über etw. (acc.) verfügen to have sth. at one's disposal/to have sth. available
vor jdm./etw. (dat) fliehen to escape from sb./sth.

vor jdm./etw. (dat) flüchten to flee from sb./sth.

vor etw. (dat) schützen to protect against sth.

jdn. vor etw. (dat) warnen to warn sb. against sth.

zwischen jdm./etw. (dat) unterscheiden distinguish between sb./sth.

Prepositions with Genitive

It should be noted that German prepositions in the genitive as well as the genitive case itself is the
“dying case” because in colloquial German or in everyday conversations the dative is used instead.

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 CHAPTER 8: PREPOSITIONS

In particular, when writing letters or when speaking in more formal contexts, the following
prepositions that take the genitive case must be used in German.

Below are some common genitive prepositions:

German English

statt, anstelle instead of, in place of

anlässlich on the occasion of

außerhalb outside of, out of

bezüglich, hinsichtlich with regard to

innerhalb within, inside of

laut according to

trotz despite, in spite of

während during

wegen*, aufgrund because of, due to

* Note that if the preposition wegen is used in combination with a personal pronoun, the special forms
are used (See p. 751).

Noun and Article Change with Prepositions in the Genitive

In German, the articles and nouns for masculine, feminine and neuter singular and plural nouns
change when used with a preposition in the genitive (See also Articles p. 218).

Below is the table that shows the declension of de nite articles when used with prepositions
in the genitive case in German:

Masculine Feminine Neuter Plural

Nominative der die das die

Genitive des der des der

For instance:

Ger. Ich lebe außerhalb des Dorfes. (das Dorf)

- I live outside the village.

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 CHAPTER 8: PREPOSITIONS

Ger. Trotz des Wetters gehen wir spazieren. (das Wetter)

- In spite of the weather, we are going for a walk

Since the prepositions are in the genitive, the articles and nouns das Dorf - “the village” and das
Wetter - “the weather” change to their genitive form which is des Dorfes and des Wetters.

Note some specials rules below:

• In spoken German, some of these prepositions (e.g. wegen, während, trotz, laut, statt) are often
used with the dative. Study the following example:

Dative case Genitive case

German Während dem Film Während des Films

English - During the movie

However, it should be noted that the correct form is with the genitive, which is “während des
Films”.

• Furthermore, remember that the genitive and dative forms of feminine nouns are identical (See the
Dative Case p. 121). For example:

Ger. Wir essen nach der Show. (die Show) (dative)

- We eat after the show. (the show)

Ger. Ich lebe außerhalb der Stadt. (die Stadt) (genitive)

- I live outside the city. (the city)

NOTE:
Unlike in German, in Dutch and Afrikaans the articles and nouns do not change
their forms after these prepositions in the genitive:
Dutch Afrikaans English

in plaats van in plaas van instead of, in place of

ter gelegenheid van met die geleentheid van on the occasion of

buiten buite outside of, out of

betreffende, met betreffende, met with regard to, with

betrekking tot betrekking tot respect to, concerning

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 CHAPTER 8: PREPOSITIONS

Dutch Afrikaans English

binnen binne within, inside of

volgens volgens according to

ondanks ondanks in spite of, despite

tijdens tydens during

vanwege, door as gevolg van, weens, because of, due to

vanweë

Compare the same example:

Dut. Ik woon buiten het dorp.

Afr. Ek woon buite die dorp.

- I live outside the village.

Dut. Ondanks het weer gaan we wandelen.

Afr. Ondanks die weer gaan ons stap.

- In spite of the weather, we are going for a walk.

Pronoun Change with the Genitive Preposition Wegen

Note that in German, when the preposition wegen is used in combination with a personal
pronoun, rather than a noun, the following forms are used:

German English

meinetwegen - because of me, for my sake

deinetwegen - because of you, for your sake

seinetwegen - because of him, for his sake

ihretwegen - because of her, for her sake

unseretwegen - because of us, for our sake

euretwegen - because of you, for your sake

Ihretwegen - because of you, for your sake

ihretwegen - because of them, for their sake

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 CHAPTER 8: PREPOSITIONS

Study the following examples:

Ger. Das ist meinetwegen passiert.

- This happened because of me.

NOTE:
In German, colloquially, the following combinations of the preposition wegen
with personal pronouns in the dative can also be used:
German English

wegen mir - because of me

wegen dir - because of you

wegen ihm - because of him

wegen ihr - because of her

wegen uns - because of us

wegen euch - because of you

wegen Ihr - because of you

wegen ihr - because of them

For example:

Ger. Das ist wegen mir passiert.

- This happened because of me.

Common Verbs Used with Genitive Case

In German, a certain number of verbs and expressions require a genitive object.

Below are some common verbs and expression that are used with the genitive case in
German:

German English

bedürfen etw. (gen) to be in need of

gedenken jds./etw.(gen) to think of sb./sth.

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 CHAPTER 9: CONJUNCTIONS

CHAPTER 9: CONJUNCTIONS
Overview
Like the English conjunctions “and”, “or”, “if”, “as well as”, “but” German, Dutch and Afrikaans
conjunctions are the words which connect two parts of a sentence together. Observe the following:

Ger. Sie spricht sehr gut Französisch und Deutsch.

Dut. Ze spreekt heel goed Frans en Duits.

Afr. Sy praat baie goed Frans en Duits.

- She speaks French and German very well.

In the West Germanic languages, conjunctions are divided into three major groups:
coordinating, subordinating and correlative:

Coordinating Conjunctions
Coordinating conjunctions join similar words or group of words, for example:

Ger. Ich lese, aber sie schläft.

Dut. Ik lees, maar ze slaapt.

Afr. Ek lees, maar sy slaap.

- I read but she sleeps.

Note that the two parts of the clause bare independent of each other and could easily be separated
by punctuation, in the West Germanic languages. Study the following:

German Ich lese, sie schläft. Ich lese. Sie schläft.

Dutch Ik lees, ze slaapt. Ik lees. Ze slaapt.

Afrikaans Ek lees, sy slaap. Ek lees. Sy slaap.

English - I read, she sleeps. - I read. She sleeps.

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 CHAPTER 9: CONJUNCTIONS

Below is a list of the most common coordinating conjunctions in the West Germanic
languages:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

und en en and

aber, sondern maar maar but

oder of of or

denn want want for, because, as

Conjunction and - und (Ger.), en (Dut.), en (Afr.)

Ger. Er raucht und liest Zeitung.

Dut. Hij rookt en leest een krant.

Afr. Hy rook en lees 'n koerant.

- He smokes and reads a newspaper.

Conjunction but - aber (Ger.), maar (Dut.), maar (Afr.)

Ger. Es regnet, aber ich gehe spazieren.

Dut. Het regent, maar ik ga wandelen.

Afr. Dit reën, maar ek gaan stap.

- It is raining, but I go for a walk.

NOTE:
In German, the conjunction sondern is used instead of aber to express “but” if
the main clause contains a negative and the but-clause contradicts the main
clause, for example:

Ger. Sie kommt nicht am Samstag zurück, sondern am Sonntag.

- She is not returning on Saturday, but on Sunday.

Conjunction or - oder (Ger.), of (Dut.), of (Afr.)

Ger. Kommt sie heute oder morgen?

Dut. Komt ze vandaag of morgen?

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 CHAPTER 9: CONJUNCTIONS

Afr. Kom sy vandag of môre?

- Is she coming today or tomorrow?

Conjunction because, as, for - denn (Ger.), want (Dut.), want (Afr.)

Ger. Er zahlt, denn er hat genug Geld.

Dut. Hij betaalt, want hij heeft genoeg geld.

Afr. Hy betaal, want hy het genoeg geld.

- He pays, for/because he has enough money.

NOTE:
In German, the conjunction sondern is used instead of aber to express ‘but’
when the main clause contains a negative and the but-clause contradicts the
main clause, for example::

Ger. Ich gehe heute nicht in den Park, sondern (Ich gehe) morgen.
- I am not going to the park today but (I am going) tomorrow.

Word Order in Coordinate Clauses

In German, Dutch and Afrikaans, the coordinating conjunctions Ger. und, aber/sondern,
oder, denn; Dut. and Afr. en, maar, of, want do not affect the word order of the following clause.

Take a look at the formula below:

First Clause + Coordinating Conjunction + Second Clause

(Subject + Object -> Conjugated verb)

Study the following example:

Ger. Ich mag Bananen und ich mag Äpfel.

Dut. Ik hou van bananen en ik hou van appels.

Afr. Ek hou van piesangs en ek hou van appels.

- I like bananas and I like apples.

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Word Order with Adverbs of Time in Coordinate Clauses

Note that if the first clause and the new/second clause contain an adverb of time, the word order
of these clauses changes.

In particular, when adverbs of time are placed at the beginning of a clause in German, Dutch and
Afrikaans, we must inverse the subject and the verb in both clauses.

Study the formula below:

First Clause + Coordinating Conjunction + Second Clause

(Adverb of time -> Conjugated verb -> Subject -> Object)

For example:

Ger. Gestern bin ich nach Pretoria gereist, aber morgen komme ich zurück.

Dut. Gisteren ben ik naar Pretoria gereisd, maar morgen kom ik terug.

Afr. Gister het ek Pretoria toe gereis, maar môre kom ek terug.

- Yesterday I travelled to Pretoria, but tomorrow I am coming back.

For word order with adverbs of time in German, Dutch and Afrikaans (See Word Order with
Adverbs of Time p. 194)

Subordinating Conjunctions
Subordinating conjunctions connect a dependent clause to a main clause. It is noticeable that
dependent clause cannot be used alone as its meaning is not complete without the main clause. Observe
the following:

Ger. Da er keine Zeit hat, kann er es nicht tun.

Dut. Omdat hij geen tijd heeft, kan hij het niet doen.

Afr. Aangesien hy nie tyd het nie, kan hy dit nie doen nie.

- Since/As he doesn't have time, he cannot do it.

The main clause is “he cannot do it”. The clause “Since he doesn't have time” is a dependent one
and is not complete without the main one. In fact the idea is not that he doesn’t want to do it, but he
cannot do it since he doesn’t have enough time.

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Word Order in Subordinate Clauses

It is noticeable that a vast majority of subordinating conjunctions require the conjugated verb to
be put at the end of the clause they introduce.

This clause is considered to be subordinate to the main clause, and is introduced by a

subordinating conjunction. In other words, a subordinating conjunction is usually placed at the beginning
of the clause it introduces in German, Dutch and Afrikaans.

Take a look at the formula below:

Main clause + Subordinating conjunction + Subordinate clause

(Subject -> Object -> Conjugated verb)

Observe the following example:

Ger. Ich weiß, dass sie viele Freunde hat.

Dut. Ik weet dat ze veel vrienden heeft.

Afr. Ek weet dat sy baie vriende het.

- I know (that) she has many friends.

NOTE:
In German, it is obligatory to place a comma before the conjunction to keep the
finite verbs of each clause apart.

In the above example, Ger. dass, Dut. dat and Afr. dat are subordinating conjunctions and Ger.
hat, Dut. heeft and Afr. het (the conjugated verb) must go to the end.

Special Rules of Word Order in Subordinate Clauses

• It is worth saying that in Dutch and Afrikaans, the conjugated verb placed at the end of the clause must
be put before the infinitive, if one is included. In German, however, the conjugated verb is placed after
the infinitive in this case. Study the following:

Ger. Sie kommt nicht, weil sie arbeiten muss.

Dut. Ze komt niet, omdat ze moet werken.

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 CHAPTER 9: CONJUNCTIONS

Afr. Sy kom nie omdat sy moet werk.

- She is not coming because she must work.

• Furthermore, in Dutch and Afrikaans, the conjugated verb placed at the end of the clause usually comes
before or after the past participle, while in German, the conjugated verb is forced to the end of the
clause. Study the following:

Ger. Ich komme zu dir nach Hause, nachdem ich gegessen habe.

Dut. Ik kom naar je huis nadat ik gegeten heb (or heb gegeten).

Afr. Ek kom na jou huis nadat ek geëet het (or het geëet).

- I am coming to your house after I have eaten.

• If a sentence starts with a subordinating conjunction, the main clause begins with the conjugated verb.
Compare the following:

Ger. Während du in Amsterdam bist, wird er dich anrufen.

Dut. Terwijl je in Amsterdam bent, zal hij je bellen.

Afr. Terwyl jy in Amsterdam is, sal hy jou bel.

- While you are in Amsterdam, he will call you.

In the above example, Ger. während, Dut. terwijl and Afr. terwyl is a subordinating
conjunction that introduces the subordinate clause and the conjugated verb Ger. wird, Dut. zal and Afr.
sal occupies the first position of the main clause in German, Dutch and Afrikaans.

• If there is a separable prefix verb in a subordinate clause, the prefix remains attached to the verb, and
the entire verb goes to the end of the clause, whereas normally the prefix would go to the end in
German, Dutch and Afrikaans (See Separable Verbal Prefixes p. 596).

For example:

Did you know? Ger. Ich bin immer müde, wenn ich früh aufstehe.

Münster, Germany, is home to Dut. Ik ben altijd moe als ik vroeg opsta.
Münster Cathedral or St. Paulus
Dom. This cathedral church was built in the Afr. Ek is altyd moeg as ek vroeg opstaan.
13th century in a mixture of late Romanesque
and early Gothic styles. It is one of the - I am always tired when I get up early.
symbols of the city.

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Most Common Subordinating Conjunctions

Below is a list of some frequently used subordinating conjunctions in German, Dutch and
Afrikaans:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

da aangezien aangesien, siende dat since, as, seeing

je nach(dem) (+ dative) afhankelijk van afhangende van depending on

als dan as than

dass dat dat that

indem doordat deurdat by … -ing

obwohl hoewel, ofschoon (al)hoewel, ofskoon although, though

wenn als as when, if, whenever

(describing present and
future)
als toen toe when (describing past
events)
weil omdat, daar omdat because, as, since

auch wenn, selbst zelfs als selfs as even if, even though
wenn
bis tot(dat) tot(dat) until, till

ob of of whether, if

als ob, alsof (as)of as if, as though

als wenn, als
seit(dem) sinds sedert, van(dat) since (time)

damit zodat/opdat sodat/opdat so that (purpose)

sodass zodat sodat so that (result)

sobald zodra sodra as soon as

solange zolang solank (as wat) as long as

soweit, sofern voor zover sover as far as

während terwijl terwyl while, whilst

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German Dutch Afrikaans English

nachdem nadat nadat, na after

bevor voordat, voor voordat, voor before

wie zoals soos as, just as

ohne dass zonder dat sonder dat without

anstatt dass in plaats van dat in plaas (daar)van instead of

dat
um zu om te om te in order to

falls ingeval ingeval in case, if

es sei denn tenzij tensy unless

Conjunction since, as, seeing - da (Ger.), aangezien (Dut.),

aangesien (Afr.)

The conjunction Ger. da, Dut. aangezien and Afr. aangesien expresses “since, as, seeing”,
which are completely synonymous with Ger. weil, Dut. omdat, Afr. omdat - “because” (See also
Conjunction “Because” p. 763)

Ger. Da sie nicht zu Hause ist, müssen wir sie anrufen.

Dut. Aangezien ze niet thuis is, moeten we haar bellen.

Afr. Aangesien sy nie by die huis is nie, moet ons haar bel.

- Seeing/Since she is not at home, we have to phone her.

NOTE:
In Afrikaans, the phrase siende dat - “seeing, as” is a commonly used
synonym, for example:

Afr. Siende dat sy nie by die huis is nie, moet ons haar bel.
- Seeing/Since she is not at home, we have to phone her.

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Conjunction depending on - je nach(dem) (Ger.), afhankelijk van

(Dut.), afhangende van (Afr.)

Ger. Je nachdem, in welcher Stimmung er ist, kann er sehr gesprächig sein.

Dut. Afhankelijk van de stemming waarin hij zich bevindt, kan hij erg spraakzaam zijn.

Afr. Afhangende van in watter bui hy is, kan hy baie spraaksaam wees.

- Depending on the mood he is in, he can be very talkative.

Conjunction than - als (Ger.), dan (Dut.), as (Afr.)

The conjunctions Ger. als, Dut. dan and Afr. as - “than” are used after comparatives and are
often followed by a noun or pronoun rather than a whole clause (See Comparatives p. 198):

Ger. Ich bin größer als du.

Dut. Ik ben langer dan jij.

Afr. Ek is langer as jy.

- I am taller than you.

Conjunction that - dass (Ger.), dat (Dut.), dat (Afr.)

The conjunctions Ger. dass, Dut. dat and Afr. dat - “that” are used to introduce a clause that
reports something or gives further information, for example::

Ger. Gabriela sagt, dass sie heute Abend zur Party geht.

Dut. Gabriela zegt dat ze vanavond naar het feest gaat.

Afr. Gabriela sê dat sy vanaand na die partytjie gaan.

- Gabriela says that she is going to the party tonight.

NOTE:
In English, the conjunction “that” is often omitted, but dass (in German) and
dat (in Dutch and Afrikaans) are never omitted, for example:

Ger. Ich weiß, dass er es niemals tun würde.

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 CHAPTER 9: CONJUNCTIONS

Dut. Ik weet dat hij het nooit zou doen.

Afr. Ek weet dat hy dit nooit sou doen nie.
- I know (that) he would never do it.

Conjunction by … -ing - indem (Ger.), doordat (Dut.), deurdat (Afr.)

The conjunction Ger. indem, Dut. doordat, and Afr. deurdat means “by” and shoes a clause
that expresses “by doing something”:

Ger. Andreas verdient Geld, indem er jedes Wochenende Seife verkauft.

Dut. Andreas verdient geld doordat hij elk weekend zeep verkoopt.

Afr. Andreas verdien geld deurdat hy elke naweek seep verkoop.

- Andreas earns money by selling soap every weekend.

Conjunction although, though - obwohl (Ger.), hoewel, ofschoon

(Dut.), (al)hoewel, ofskoon (Afr.)

The conjunctions Ger. obwohl, Dut. hoewel, ofschoon and Afr. (al)hoewel, ofskoon are
used to connect ideas that contrast:

Ger. Ich bin ziemlich klein, obwohl meine Schwester groß ist.

Dut. Ik ben vrij klein, hoewel mijn zus lang is.

Afr. Ek is redelik kort alhoewel my suster lank is.

- I am quite short although my sister is tall.

NOTE:
In Dutch, ofschoon is mainly used in the written language.
In Afrikaans, alhoewel, hoewel and ofskoon are synonymous and are used
in speech and writing. However, ofskoon is less common.

Conjunction when, if, whenever - wenn (Ger.), als (Dut.), as (Afr.)

The conjunction Ger. wenn, Dut. als and Afr. as expresses “when” with reference to the present
or future, for example:

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 CHAPTER 9: CONJUNCTIONS

Ger. Kannst du mir ein Souvenir kaufen, wenn du nach Berlin gehst?

Dut. Kun je een souvenir voor me kopen als je naar Berlijn gaat?

Afr. Kan jy vir my 'n aandenking koop as jy Berlyn toe gaan?

- Can you buy me a souvenir when you go to Berlin?

Remember that the conjunction Ger. wenn, Dut. wanneer and Afr. wanneer is more or less
synonymous with Ger. als, Dut. als and Afr. as in this sense but can have stronger connotations of
“whenever” (See also Conjunction When p. 763). Study the following example:

Ger. Kannst du mir ein Souvenir kaufen, wenn du nach Berlin gehst?

Dut. Kun je een souvenir voor me kopen wanneer je naar Berlijn gaat?

Afr. Kan jy vir my 'n aandenking koop wanneer jy Berlyn toe gaan?

- Can you buy me a souvenir whenever you go to Berlin?

NOTE:
In Dutch and Afrikaans, when referring to an action that took place in the past,
Dut. toen and Afr. toe - “when” is used, whether the verb is in the past or not.
In German, als is used in this case (See below).

Conjunction when (in describing past events) - als (Ger.), toen (Dut.),
toe (Afr.)

The conjunction Ger. als, Dut. toen and Afr. toe expresses “when” when describing an action
that took place in the past:

Ger. Als ich nach Berlin reiste, kaufte ich ein Souvenir.

Dut. Toen ik naar Berlijn reisde, kocht ik een souvenir.

Afr. Toe ek na Berlyn gereis het, het ek 'n aandenking gekoop.

- When I travelled to Berlin, I bought a souvenir.

Conjunction because - weil (Ger.), omdat/daar (Dut.), omdat (Afr.)

The conjunction Ger. weil, Dut. omdat and Afr. omdat - “because” is used to introduce a clause
that shows the cause of something, for example:

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 CHAPTER 9: CONJUNCTIONS

Ger. Er ist mit dem Bus gekommen, weil ein Taxi teuer ist.

Dut. Hij is met de bus gekomen omdat een taxi duur is.

Afr. Hy het met die bus gekom omdat 'n taxi duur is.

- He came by bus because a taxi is expensive.

NOTE:
In Dutch, the conjunction daar - “because/since” is mainly used in the written
language, for example:

Dut. Daar hij het druk heeft, komt hij niet.

- Since he is busy, he will not come

Conjunction even if, even though - auch wenn, selbst wenn (Ger.),
zelfs als (Dut.), selfs as (Afr.)

Ger. auch wenn/selbst wenn, Dut. zelfs als and Afr. selfs as - “even if/even though” are
used as subordinating conjunctions in the same way as “although/though” (See p. 762). Study the
following:

Ger. Auch wenn es regnet, gehen wir an den Strand.

Dut. Zelfs als het regent, gaan we naar het strand.

Afr. Selfs as dit reën, gaan ons na die strand.

- Even if it rains, we’ll go to the beach.

NOTE:
In German, auch wenn and selbst wenn are both used for hypothetical
situations.
However, in the case of selbst wenn the condition is implied to be more
improbable than in the case of auch wenn.

auch wenn selbst wenn

German Auch wenn es regnet, gehen Selbst wenn es regnete, gingen

wir an den Strand. wir an den Strand.
English Even if it rains, we’ll go to the Even if it rained, we would go
beach. to the beach.

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 CHAPTER 9: CONJUNCTIONS

Conjunction until, till - bis (Ger.), tot(dat) (Dut.), tot(dat) (Afr.)

Ger. bis, Dut. tot(dat) and Afr. tot(dat) - “until/till” is used as a subordinating conjunction to
connect an action or an event to a point in time, for instance:

Ger. Wir können hier bleiben, bis der Regen aufhört.

Dut. We kunnen hier blijven totdat de regen stopt.

Afr. Ons kan hier bly totdat die reën ophou.

- We can stay here until/till the rain stops.

NOTE:
In Dutch, the conjunction tot - “until/till” is mainly used in the written
language, for example:

Dut. We kunnen hier blijven tot de regen stopt.

- We can stay here until/till the rain stops.

Conjunction whether, if - ob (Ger.), of (Dut.), of (Afr.)

The conjunction Ger. ob, Dut. of and Afr. of - “if” introduces an indirect question or a a doubt.
Note that it can only be used when we can use “whether” in English as well:

Ger. Ich weiß nicht, ob sie noch bei der Arbeit ist.

Dut. Ik weet niet of ze nog aan het werk is.

Afr. Ek weet nie of sy nog by die werk is nie.

- I don't know if/whether she's still at work.

NOTE:
Otherwise the conjunction “if” is expressed by Ger. wenn, Dut. als, Afr. as
respectively (See p. 762):

Ger. Wenn du nach Berlin gehst, was wirst du dort machen?

Dut. Als je naar Berlijn gaat, wat ga je daar dan doen?

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 CHAPTER 9: CONJUNCTIONS

Afr. As jy na Berlyn gaan, wat sal jy daar doen?

- If you go to Berlin, what will you do there?

Conjunction as if, as though - als ob/als wenn/als (Ger.), alsof

(Dut.), (as)of (Afr.)

The conjunction Ger. als ob/als wenn/als, Dut. alsof and Afr. (as)of - “as if” are used to make
comparisons, for example:

Ger. Es sieht so aus, als ob er alles wüsste.

Dut. Het lijkt alsof hij alles weet

Afr. Dit lyk asof hy alles weet.

- It looks as if he knows everything.

NOTE:
In German, als ob, als wenn and als are synonymous. However, als ob is
more common.
Remember that when als is used, the verb will come after the conjunction, while
in the case of als ob and als wenn the conjugated verb in the clause is located
at the end.
To compare:

als ob/als wenn als

German Es sieht so aus, als ob er alles Es sieht so aus, als wüsste er

wüsste. alles.
English It looks as if he knows everything.

In Afrikaans, the conjunction of can also be used to express “as if”, for instance:

Afr. Dit lyk of hy alles weet.

- It looks as if he knows everything.

Remember that of can also mean “whether, if” (See p. 765)

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 CHAPTER 9: CONJUNCTIONS

Conjunction since (time) - seit(dem) (Ger.), sinds (Dut.), sedert/

van(dat) (Afr.)

The conjunction Ger. seit(dem), Dut. sinds and Afr. sedert/van(dat) - “since” is used to refer
back to a previous point in time, for instance:

Ger. Seitdem ich in Amsterdam lebe, habe ich einen guten Job gefunden.

Dut. Sinds ik in Amsterdam woon, heb ik een goede baan gevonden.

Afr. Sedert ek in Amsterdam woon, het ek 'n goeie werk gekry.

- Since I've been living in Amsterdam, I have found a good job.

NOTE:
In Afrikaans, conjunctions sedert and van(dat) - “since” are synonymous.
However, sedert can also be a preposition.
Furthermore, the conjunction sinds can also be used to mean “since”, but is not
common in either speech or writing in Afrikaans.

Conjunction so that (purpose) - damit (Ger.), zodat/opdat (Dut.),

sodat/opdat (Afr.)

The conjunction Ger. damit, Dut. zodat/opdat and Afr. sodat/opdat is used to mean “so that”
or “with the intention that” (i.e. purpose), for instance:

Ger. Sie lernt Deutsch, damit sie in Berlin arbeiten kann.

Dut. Ze leert Duits zodat ze in Berlijn kan werken.

Afr. Sy leer Duits sodat sy in Berlyn kan werk.

- She is learning German so that she can work in Berlin.

It is worth saying that the above example can also be expressed by the infinitive without using the
conjunction (See The Infinitive p. 578). Compare the following:

Ger. Sie lernt Deutsch, um in Berlin arbeiten zu können.

Dut. Ze leert Duits om in Berlijn te kunnen werken.

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 CHAPTER 9: CONJUNCTIONS

Afr. Sy leer Duits om in Berlyn te kan werk.

- She is learning German to be able to work in Berlin.

NOTE:
In Dutch and Afrikaans, the conjunction opdat can also be used to mean “so
that” indicating goal or intent.
However, in Dutch, it is mainly used in the written language, while in
Afrikaans, opdat is considered very formal.

Conjunction so that (result) - sodass (Ger.), zodat (Dut.), sodat (Afr.)

The conjunction Ger. sodass, Dut. zodat and Afr. sodat is used to express “with the result that”
(i.e. result), for example:

Ger. Es regnet, sodass ich nicht rausgehen kann.

Dut. Het regent, zodat ik kan niet uitgaan.

Afr.Dit reën, sodat ek nie kan uitgaan nie.

- It's raining so that I can't go out.

Conjunction as soon as - sobald (Ger.), zodra (Dut.), sodra (Afr.)

The conjunction Ger. sobald, Dut. zodra and Afr. sodra - “as soon as” can be used to connect
an action or an event to a point in time. Study the following:

Ger. Sobald ich nach Hause komme, werde ich zu Mittag essen.

Dut. Zodra ik thuiskom, ga ik lunchen.

Afr. Sodra ek by die huis kom, gaan ek middagete eet.

- As soon as I get home, I am going to have lunch.

NOTE:
In Afrikaans, the construction so gou as (wat) is also used to express “as soon
as”, for instance:

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 CHAPTER 9: CONJUNCTIONS

Afr. So gou as wat ek by die huis kom, gaan ek middagete eet.

- As soon as I get home, I am going to have lunch.

Conjunction as long as - solange (Ger.), zolang (Dut.), solank (as

wat) (Afr.)

The conjunction Ger. solange, Dut. zolang and Afr. solank (as wat) - “as long as” is used to to
refer to the intended duration of a plan or idea. Observe the following:

Ger. Solange du hier bleibst, kannst du mir helfen.

Dut. Zolang je hier blijft, kun je me helpen.

Afr. Solank jy hier bly, kan jy my help.

- As long as you stay here, you can help me.

NOTE:
In Afrikaans, the colloquial construction solank as wat is also used to mean
“as long as”, for example:

Afr. Solank as wat jy hier bly, kan jy my help.

- As long as you stay here, you can help me.

Conjunction as far as - soweit (Ger.), voor zover (Dut.), sover (Afr.)

The conjunction Ger. soweit, Dut. voor zover and Afr. sover - “as far as” is used to introduce
an opinion. To demonstrate:

Did you know? Ger. Soweit ich weiß, kommt sie nicht.

Stuttgart, capital of the German state of Dut. Voor zover ik weet komt ze niet.
Baden-Württemberg, is known as a
manufacturing hub and is often named as Afr. Sover ek weet kom sy nie.
Germany's "Autohauptstadt" ("car capital
city"). It is home to such well-known automobile - As far as I know, she is not coming.
museums as the Mercedes-Benz Museum and
Porsche Museum

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 CHAPTER 9: CONJUNCTIONS

Conjunction while, whilst - während (Ger.), terwijl (Dut.),

terwyl (Afr.)

The conjunction Ger. während, Dut. terwijl and Afr. terwyl - “while/whilst” is used to describe
a clause that demonstrates something that is happening at the same time as something else. To illustrate:

Ger. Sie schaut fern, während er kocht.

Dut. Ze kijkt tv terwijl hij kookt.

Afr. Sy kyk tv terwyl hy kook.

- She is watching TV while he is cooking.

Conjunction after - nachdem (Ger.), nadat (Dut.), nadat (Afr.)

The conjunction Ger. während, Dut. nadat and Afr. nadat - “after” is used to introduce a
clause that expresses something that happened after something else. Study the following:

Ger. Nachdem ich meine Arbeit erledigt hatte, ging ich in die Bar.

Dut. Nadat ik mijn werk gedaan had, ging ik naar de bar.

Afr. Nadat ek my werk gedoen het, het ek na die kroeg gegaan.

- After I had done my work, I went to the bar.

Conjunction before - bevor (Ger.), voordat (Dut.), voordat (Afr.)

The conjunction Ger. bevor, Dut. voordat and Afr. voordat - “before” is used to present a
clause that illustrates something that happened before something else.

Ger. Bevor der Film begann, kaufte sie Popcorn.

Dut. Voordat de film begon, kocht ze popcorn.

Afr. Voordat die film begin het, het sy springmielies gekoop.

- Before the film began, she bought popcorn.

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 CHAPTER 9: CONJUNCTIONS

Conjunction as, just as - wie (Ger.), zoals (Dut.), soos (Afr.)

The conjunction Ger. wie, Dut. zoals and Afr. soos means “as”, for example:

Ger. Wie du hören kannst, spricht er gut Niederländisch.

Dut. Zoals je kunt horen spreekt hij goed Nederlands.

Afr. Soos jy kan hoor, praat hy goed Nederlands.

- As you can hear, he speaks Dutch well.

The conjunction Ger. wie, Dut. zoals and Afr. soos can also be used to mean “ just like, just as”,
for example:

Ger. Ich spreche genau so gut Niederländisch wie du.

Dut. Ik spreek net zo goed Nederlands zoals jij.

Afr. Ek praat net so goed Nederlands soos jy.

- I speak Dutch just as well as you.

Conjunction without - ohne dass (Ger.), zonder dat (Dut.), sonder

dat (Afr.)

The conjunction Ger. ohne, Dut. zonder and Afr. sonder - “without” must be followed by Ger.
dass, Dut. dat, Afr. dat - “that” when the subject of the dependent clause is different from that of the
main clause.

Ger. Er gibt ihr Geld, ohne dass sie ihn darum bittet.

Dut. Hij geeft haar geld zonder dat ze hem erom vraagt.

Afr. Hy gee vir haar geld sonder dat sy hom daarvoor vra.

- He gives her money without her asking him for it.

NOTE:
It is worth noting that English uses a gerundial construction after “without”
while German, Dutch and Afrikaans uses a subordinate clause. Study the
formula below:

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 CHAPTER 9: CONJUNCTIONS

German ohne + subordinate clause + zu + infinitive

Dutch zonder + subordinate clause + te + infinitive

Afrikaans sonder om + subordinate clause + te + infinitive

English without + gerundial construction (verb-ing)

Compare the following phrase where there is only one subject and thus an
infinitive clause must be used:

Ger. Sie erhält Geld von ihm, ohne darum zu bitten.

Dut. Ze krijgt geld van hem zonder erom te vragen.

Afr. Sy kry geld van hom sonder om daarvoor te vra.

- She receives money from him without asking for it.

Conjunction instead of - anstatt dass (Ger.), in plaats van dat

(Dut.), in plaas (daar)van dat (Afr.)

As with Ger. ohne, Dut. zonder and Afr. sonder - “without” , the conjunction Ger. anstatt,
Dut. in plaats van and Afr. in plaas (daar)van - “instead of” must also be followed by Ger. dass, Dut.
dat, Afr. dat - “that” when the subject of the second clause is different from that of the first.

Study the following:

Ger. Er gibt ihr Geld, anstatt dass sie ihn darum bittet.

Dut. Hij geeft haar geld in plaats van dat zij hem erom vraagt.

Afr. Hy gee vir haar geld in plaas daarvan dat sy hom daarvoor vra.

- He gives her money instead of her asking him for it.

NOTE:
It is worth reminding that English uses a gerundial construction after “instead
of” while German, Dutch and Afrikaans uses a subordinate clause.
However, if the subject is the same, the following construction introduces the
second clause, which is an infinitive clause:
German Dutch Afrikaans

anstatt … zu + infinitive in plaats van … te + in plaas (daar)van om

infinitive … te + infinitive

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 CHAPTER 9: CONJUNCTIONS

Observe the following example:

Ger. Sie erhält Geld von ihm, anstatt es zu bitten.

Dut. Ze krijgt geld van hem in plaats van erom te vragen.

Afr. Sy kry geld van hom in plaas daarvan om daarvoor te vra.

- She receives money from him instead of asking for it.

Conjunction in order to - um zu (Ger.), om te (Dut.), om te (Afr.)

Ger. Ich bin gekommen, um zu helfen.

Dut. Ik ben gekomen om te helpen.

Afr. Ek het gekom om te help.

- I have come in order to help.

Conjunction in case - falls (Ger.), ingeval (Dut.), ingeval (Afr.)

Ger. Wir sollten das Fenster schließen, falls es anfängt zu regnen.

Dut. We moeten het raam sluiten, ingeval het begint te regenen.

Afr. Ons moet die venster toemaak, ingeval dit begin reën.

- We should close the window, in case it starts to rain.

Conjunction unless - es sei denn (Ger.), tenzij (Dut.), tensy (Afr.)

The conjunction Ger. es sei denn, Dut. tenzij and Afr. tensy - “unless” is used to express what
will or will not happen if something else does not happen or is not true, for example:

Ger. Er verlässt das Unternehmen, es sei denn, er erhält eine Gehaltserhöhung.

Dut. Hij verlaat het bedrijf, tenzij hij een salarisverhoging krijgt.

Afr. Hy verlaat die maatskappy, tensy hy 'n salarisverhoging kry.

- He is leaving the company, unless he gets a pay rise.

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 CHAPTER 9: CONJUNCTIONS

Correlative Conjunctions

Correlative conjunctions are pairs of conjunctions. In German, Dutch and Afrikaans, correlative
conjunctions connect two elements of the same kind.

Below is a list of some common correlative conjunctions in the West Germanic languages:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

entweder … oder óf... óf òf... ó; hetsy … hetsy/of either…or

weder … noch noch … noch nòg … nòg neither…nor

sowohl ... als auch zowel … als; sowel … as; (èn) … èn; both…and
en … en beide … en
nicht nur … sondern niet alleen … maar nie net … maar ook not only…but also
auch ook

Conjunction either … or - entweder … oder (Ger.), óf ... óf (Dut.),

òf … òf (Afr.)

Ger. Ich muss es entweder jetzt oder später tun.

Dut. Ik moet het óf nu óf later doen.

Afr. Ek moet dit òf nou òf later doen.

- I must either do it now or later.

NOTE:
In Afrikaans, the conjunction Afr. hetsy … hetsy/of can also be used, for
example:

Afr. Ek moet dit hetsy nou hetsy/of later doen.

- I must either do it now or later.

Conjunction neither … nor - weder … noch (Ger.), noch … noch

(Dut.), nòg … nòg (Afr.)

Ger. Er isst weder Fleisch noch Fisch.

Dut. Hij eet noch vlees, noch vis.

Afr. Hy eet nòg vleis, nòg vis.

- He eats neither meat nor fish.

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Conjunction both … and - sowie … als auch/sowohl ... als auch

(Ger.), zowel … als (Dut.), sowel … as (Afr.)

Ger. Sie spricht sowohl Deutsch als auch Niederländisch.

Dut. Ze spreekt zowel Duits als Nederlands.

Afr. Sy praat sowel Duits as Nederlands.

- She speaks both German and Dutch.

Ger. Sowohl der Lehrer als auch die Schüler lesen den Text.

Dut. Zowel de leraar als de leerlingen lezen de tekst.

Afr. Sowel die onderwyser as die studente lees die teks.

- Both the teacher and the students are reading the text.

NOTE:
In Dutch and Afrikaans, the conjunctions Dut. en … en and Afr. èn … èn can
also be used to indicate that two things are happening at the same time:

Dut. En de leraar en de leerlingen lezen de tekst.

Afr. Èn die onderwyser èn die studente lees die teks.
- Both the teacher and the students are reading the text.

In Afrikaans, the conjunction Afr. beide … en is also very common in speech

and writing:

Afr. Beide die onderwyser en die studente lees die teks.

- Both the teacher and the students are reading the text.

Conjunction not only … but also - nicht nur … sondern auch (Ger.),
niet alleen … maar ook (Dut.), nie net … maar ook (Afr.)

Ger. Sie ist nicht nur intelligent, sondern auch höflich.

Dut. Ze is niet alleen intelligent, maar ook beleefd.

Afr. Sy is nie net intelligent nie, maar ook beleefd.

- She is not only intelligent, but also polite.

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 CHAPTER 9: CONJUNCTIONS

Conjunctive Adverbs

Conjunctive adverbs in German, Dutch and Afrikaans are used to connect two independent
clauses. They demonstrate relationships such as time, reason, and result.
However, since they are considered to be conjunctive adverbs, and since they cause inversion of
the subject and finite verb that follow, like all adverbs in first position, they are treated as adverbs in this
book, not as conjunctions (See Adverbs p. 180).

Below is a list of some common conjunctive adverbs in the West Germanic languages:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

jedoch echter egter however

andererseits daarentegen daarenteen on the other hand

deshalb daarom daarom therefore

danach daarna daarna afterwards

außerdem bovendien buitendien besides

also dus dus thus, so

Conjunctive Adverb however - jedoch (Ger.), echter (Dut.),

egter (Afr.)

The conjunctive adverb Ger. jedoch, Dut. echter and Afr. egter - “however” is used to show a
contrast or opposition.

Ger. Wir wollen reisen, jedoch haben wir kein Geld.

Dut. We willen reizen, echter hebben we geen geld.

Afr. Ons wil reis, egter het ons geen geld nie.

- We want to travel, however we have no money.

NOTE:
In German, Dutch and Afrikaans, the adverbs Ger. jedoch, Dut. echter and
Afr. egter have almost the same meaning as the conjunction Ger. aber, Dut.
maar and Afr. maar.
Remember that as it is an adverb it must follow the rules for an adverb. For
instance, as an adverb, it is put before the verb and the verb comes right after it.

776
 CHAPTER 9: CONJUNCTIONS

Compare the following:

The adverb The conjunction

Ger. jedoch, Dut. echter, Afr. egter Ger. aber, Dut. maar, Afr. maar
German Wir wollen reisen, jedoch haben wir kein Wir wollen reisen, aber wir haben kein
Geld. Geld.
Dutch We willen reizen, echter hebben we geen We willen reizen, maar we hebben geen
geld. geld.
Afrikaans Ons wil reis, egter het ons geen geld nie. Ons wil reis, maar ons het geen geld nie.

English - We want to travel, however we have no We want to travel, but we have no money.
money.

Conjunctive Adverb on the other hand - andererseits (Ger.),

daarentegen (Dut.), daarenteen (Afr.)

The conjunctive adverb Ger. andererseits, Dut. daarentegen and Afr. daarenteen - “on the
other hand” is used to show another point of view.

Ger. Ja, es ist billig, andererseits müssen wir es kaufen?

Dut. Ja, het is goedkoop, daarentegen moeten we het kopen?

Afr. Ja, dit is goedkoop, daarenteen moet ons dit koop?

- Yes, it is cheap, on the other hand do we need to buy it?

Conjunctive Adverb therefore - deshalb (Ger.), daarom (Dut.),

daarom (Afr.)

The conjunctive adverb Ger. deshalb, Dut. daarom and Afr. daarom - “therefore” is used to
show a consequence.

Ger. Er hat nicht studiert, deshalb hat er die Prüfung nicht bestanden.

Dut. Hij heeft niet gestudeerd, daarom is hij voor het examen niet geslaagd.

Afr. Hy het nie gestudeer nie, daarom het hy nie die eksamen geslaag nie.

- He did not study, therefore he did not pass the exam.

777

 CHAPTER 9: CONJUNCTIONS

Conjunctive Adverb afterwards - danach (Ger.), daarna (Dut.),

daarna (Afr.)

The conjunctive adverb Ger. danach, Dut. daarna and Afr. daarna - “afterwards” is used to
express a sequence of events.

Ger. Zuerst hat sie ihre Hausaufgaben gemacht, danach ist sie spazieren gegangen.

Dut. Eerst heeft ze haar huiswerk gemaakt, daarna is ze gaan wandelen.

Afr. Eers het sy haar huiswerk gedoen, daarna het sy gaan stap.

- First, she has done her homework, afterwards she has gone for a walk.

Conjunctive Adverb besides - außerdem (Ger.), bovendien (Dut.),

buitendien (Afr.)

The conjunctive adverb Ger. außerdem, Dut. bovendien and Afr. buitendien - “besides” is
used to add something to what has already been said in German, Dutch and Afrikaans respectively.

Ger. Heute ist schönes Wetter, außerdem ist Feiertag.

Dut. Vandaag is het prachtig weer, bovendien is het vakantie.

Afr. Vandag is dit pragtige weer, buitendien is dit vakansie.

- It is beautiful weather today, besides it is the holiday.

Conjunctive Adverb thus, so - also (Ger.), dus (Dut.), dus (Afr.)

The conjunctive adverb Ger. also, Dut. dus and Afr. dus - “thus, so” is used to used to indicate a
conclusion.

Ger. Ich habe keinen Hunger, also möchte ich nicht essen.

Dut. Ik heb geen honger, dus ik wil niet eten.

Afr. Ek is nie honger nie, dus ek wil nie eet nie.

- I'm not hungry, so I don't want to eat.

778

 CHAPTER 10: INTERJECTIONS

CHAPTER 10: INTERJECTIONS

Overview

Like in English, in German, Dutch and Afrikaans, an interjection is a word that is used to express
emotion, feeling or spontaneous reaction in the spoken language and can indicate exclamations (wow!),
greetings (hey!), curses (bloody hell!) and etc. The use of these short words will make a speaker sound
more natural and authentic.

Types of Interjections
Below are the most common interjections that are used:

• To express greetings and farewell:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

Guten Morgen! Goedemorgen! Goeie môre! Good morning!

Guten Nachmittag! Goedemiddag! Goeie middag! Good afternoon!

Guten Abend! Goedenavond! Goeie aand! Good evening!

Gute Nacht! Goede nacht! Goeie nag! Good night!

Guten Tag! Goedendag! Goeie dag! Hello!, Good day!

Hallo!, Hi! Hallo!, Hoi! Hallo!, Hoi! Hi!

Wie geht es Ihnen?; Hoe gaat het met u? Hoe gaan dit met u? How are you? (formal)
Wie geht's Ihnen?
Wie geht es dir? Wie Hoe gaat het (me Hoe gaan dit met jou? How are you?
geht's dir? je?)? (informal)
Auf Wiedersehen! Tot ziens! Totsiens! Goodbye!

Tschüss!, Ciao! Doei!, Tot ziens! Totsiens! Bye!

Bis später! Tot later! Sien jou later! See you later!

Bis bald! Tot snel! Sien jou binnekort! See you soon!

Bis zum nächsten Tot de volgende keer! Sien jou volgende See you next time!
Mal! keer!
Bis morgen! Tot morgen! Sien jou môre! See you tomorrow!

779

 CHAPTER 10: INTERJECTIONS

• Used as a polite formula when the speaker is introduced to somebody:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

Es freut mich, Sie Aangenaam kennis te Dit is aangenaam om u Nice to meet you!;
kennenzulernen maken!; te ontmoet! (formal); It's a pleasure to meet
(formal); Leuk u te ontmoeten! Dit is lekker om jou te you!
Es freut mich, dich (formal); ontmoet! (informal)
kennenzulernen Leuk je te ontmoeten!
(informal) (informal)

• Used to answer the telephone:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

Hallo!, Ja, bitte? Hallo!, Met (your Hallo!, Met (your Hello!
name)! name)! Speaking!

• Used as greeting upon someone’s arrival:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

Willkommen! Welkom! Welkom! Welcome!

• To indicate gratitude or politeness in the West Germanic languages:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

Danke! Dank je! (informal) Dankie! Thank you!, Thanks!

Dank u! (formal)
Vielen Dank!, Dank je wel!, Baie dankie! Thank you very much!
Herzlichen Dank! Hartelijk dank!
Bitte schön!, Graag gedaan!, Dis ’n plesier!, You’re welcome!
Bitte! Alsjeblieft! (informal), Asseblief!
Alstublieft! (formal)
Gern geschehen!, Graag gedaan!, Dit was 'n plesier!, Don’t mention it!
Kein Problem! Geen probleem! Moenie daaraan dink
nie!
Bitte! (informal) Alsjeblieft! (informal) Asseblief! (informal) Please!
Bitte sehr! (formal) Alstublieft! (formal) Asseblief tog! (formal)

780

 CHAPTER 10: INTERJECTIONS

• To express: 1) a regret or sorrow; 2) a request for attention or request to pass; 3) a

request for someone to repeat something:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

Es tut mir leid! Het spijt me! Ek is jammer!, I’m sorry!

Vergewe my!
Verzeihung! Pardon!, Verskoon my!, Excuse me! (request for
Entschuldigung!, Excuseer! Jammer! attention or request to
Entschuldigen Sie! pass)
(formal)
Wie bitte? (lit. How Wat zeg je? (lit. What Wat sê jy? (lit. What Pardon? (interrogative)
please?), did you say?), are you saying?), (expressing surprise or
Entschuldigung? Sorry?, Pardon? Jammer?, Verskoon asking to repeat)
my?

• To mean praise and approval:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

Herzlichen Gefeliciteerd!, Geluk!, Congratulations!

Glückwunsch!, Proficiat! Gelukwensing!
Glückwunsch!
Bravo!, Bravo!, Bravo!, Bravo!
Gut gemacht! Goed gedaan! Goed gedoen! Well done!

• To say or write to someone who is celebrating something (his or her birthday or some
other holiday) in order to express the good wishes:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

Alles Gute zum Gefeliciteerd met je Veels geluk met jou Happy Birthday!
Geburtstag! verjaardag! (informal) verjaarsdag!
Gefeliciteerd met uw (informal)
verjaardag! (formal) Veels geluk met u
verjaarsdag!
(formal)
Frohe Weihnachten! Vrolijk Kerstfeest! Geseënde Kersfees! Merry Christmas!

Frohes neues Jahr! Gelukkig nieuwjaar! Gelukkige Nuwe Happy New Year!
Jaar!
Frohe Ostern! Vrolijk Pasen! Gelukkige Paasfees! Happy Easter!

781

 CHAPTER 10: INTERJECTIONS

• To wish something (e.g.: a nice day, safe trip, good night and etc.):

German Dutch Afrikaans English

Einen schönen Tag! Een fijne dag! ’n Lekker dag! Have a nice day!

Einen schönen Abend! Een fijne avond! ’n Goeie aand! Have a good evening!

Schlaf gut! Slaap lekker! Leker slaap! Sleep well!

Träum süß! Droom zacht! Lekker droom! Sweet dreams!

Gute Reise! Goede reis! Veilige reis! Have a safe journey!

Viel Erfolg!, Veel succes!, Veels geluk!, Sterkte! Good luck!

Viel Glück! Succes!
Schönen Urlaub! Fijne vakantie! Goeie vakansie! Have a good holiday!

Gesundheit!, Zum Gezondheid! Gesondheid! Bless you! (said after a

Wohl! sneeze)
Prost! Proost! Proost! Cheers! (toast when
drinking alcohol)
Guten Appetit! Eet smakelijk! Eet lekker! Enjoy your meal! Bon
appetit!

• To express agreement or disagreement:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

Ja! Ja! Ja! Yes!

Nein! Nee! Nee! No!

Okay!, In Ordnung! Okay!, Akkoord! Okee!, In orde! Okay!

Natürlich!, Selbst- Natuurlijk!, Natuurlik!, Seker! Of course!

verständlich! Uiteraard!, Zeker!
Das ist wahr!, Dat is waar!, Klopt! Dit is waar!, Waar! That’s true!
Stimmt! True!
Das ist es!, Genau! Dat is het!, Dat klopt! Dit is dit!, Dit is reg! That’s it! That’s right!

Genau!, Exakt! Precies!, Exact! Presies!, Net so! Exact! Exactly!

In der Tat!, Ja, genau! Inderdaad!, Zeker! Waarlik!, Inderdaad! Indeed!

782

 CHAPTER 10: INTERJECTIONS

• To indicate that someone does not consider the matter important enough:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

Unsinn!, Quatsch! Onzin! Onsin! Nonsense!

Egal! Maakt niet uit! Maak nie saak nie! Whatever!

Es spielt keine Rolle!, Het maakt niet uit!, Dit maak nie saak nie!, It doesn’t matter!
Es macht nichts aus! Het is niet belangrijk! Dit is nie belangrik nie!

• Used as a reply to an unimportant statement, which indicates indifference on the part of

the speaker:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

Und?, Na und? En?, Nou en? En dan?, So wat? So what?

• To express astonishment, admiration or surprise:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

Wow!, Unglaublich! Wow!, Wauw!, Wow!, Ongelooflik! Wow!

Ongelooflijk!
Oh!, Ach so! Oh!, Oei! Oh!, Ag! Oh!

Verdammt!, Komm Verdorie!, Verdoem!, Damn! Come on!

schon! Kom op! Kom aan! (express surprise, in
either a positive or
negative sense)
Mein Gott!, Mijn God!, My God!, My God!
Oh mein Gott! Oh mijn God! Ag my God!
Jesus Christus! Jezus! Jesus Christus! Jesus Christ! Good
Lord!
Mein Himmel!, Mijn hemel!, Goede My hemel!, Goeie Good heavens!
Du meine Güte! hemel! hemel!
Herr!, Ach du meine Heer!, Och hemel! Here!, Ag my Heer! Lord!
Güte!
Um Gottes willen!, Voor God's sake!, Vir God se ontwil!, For God’s sake!
Zum Teufel! Voor de liefde van Vir God se liefde!
God!

783

 CHAPTER 10: INTERJECTIONS

• To express pain or sorrow:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

Au! Au! Ai! Ouch!

Oh!, Ach! Ah!, Helaas! Ag!, Ach! Ah! Alas!

• To express encouragement:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

Lass uns…, Laten we…, Kom ons…, Let’s…,

Los geht's! Kom op!, Gaan! Kom ons gaan! Let’s go!

• To indicate exclamation to get attention:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

Hey!, Hallo! Hey!, Hoi! Hey!, Hallo! Hey!

• To express irritation, anger or annoyed remark:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

Verflixt! Verdorie! Verdorie! Darn!

Verdammt! Verdomme! Verdomme! Damn it!

Das ist ärgerlich! Dat is irritant! Dit is hinderlik! That's annoying!

Genug!, Genoeg!, Genoeg!, Enough!

Es reicht! Het is genoeg! Dit is genoeg!
Psst!, Still! Sst!, Stil! Sst!, Stil! Shh! Hush! (requesting
silence)
Still!, Ruhe! Stilte!, Rust! Stilte!, Rus! Silence!

Sei still! Wees stil! Wees stil! Be quiet!

Halt den Mund! Hou je mond! Hou jou mond! Keep your mouth shut!

784

 CHAPTER 10: INTERJECTIONS

• To tell someone to use his\her caution:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

Vorsicht! Wees voorzichtig!, Wees versigtig! Be careful!

Pas op!

• Used as a cry of distress or a request for assistance:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

Hilfe! Help! Hulp! Help!

• Used as acknowledgement of a mistake:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

Ups!, Hoppla! Oeps! Oeps!, Jammer! Oops!

• Used as a pause for thought to introduce a new topic or reinforcement of a question or

filler, which expresses hesitation or pause in speech:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

Äh…, Ähm... Uh…, Euh... Uh…, Euh... Uh…, Um…

Also... Dus... So... So…

Nun ja…, Also... Nou ja..., Wel... Wel... Well…

Also... Nou… Wel... Like…

Weißt du..., Weet je..., Jy weet..., You know…

Du weißt schon… Je weet wel... Weet jy...
Siehst du..., Zie je..., Jy sien..., You see…
Du siehst... Je ziet... Sien jy...
Das heißt... Dat wil zeggen..., Dat Dit wil sê... That is (to say)...
is te zeggen...
Verstanden? Begrepen? Verstaan? Understood?

Hä?, Nicht wahr? Hè?, Toch?, Hè?, Huh? (a tag question)

Nietwaar? Nie waar?

785

 CHAPTER 10: INTERJECTIONS

German Dutch Afrikaans English

OK?, Oder? OK? Toch? OK? Is dit nie? OK?, isn’t it?\doesn’t it?
(used as filler at the end
of a sentence)
Richtig?, Oder? Toch?, Nietwaar? Nie waar?, Reg? Right?

• To express the sound of a sneeze:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

Hatschi! Hatsjoe! Hatsjie! Artishoo! Achoo!

• To express animal sounds:

German Dutch Afrikaans English

Miau! Miauw! Miaaw! Meow! (cat’s sound)

Wuff-wuff!Vow-vow! Blaf-blaf! Woef-woef! Blaf-blaf! Bow-bow! Woof-woof!

Woef-woef! (dog’s sound)
Zwitscher! Piep! Tjilp! Piep! Kwetter! Piep! Tweet! Chirp! (bird’s
sound)
Grunz! Oink! Knor! Oink! Knor! Oink! Oink! (pig’s sound)

Muh! Boe! Moe! Moe! Moo! (cow’s sound)

Interjections with Exclamatory Words

(See Exclamations with Interrogative Words p. 336)

786

 INDEX

INDEX
ab (Ger.), 689, 739 (al)hoewel (Afr.), 762
aber (Ger.), 754, 755 almal (Afr.), 360, 386
abgesehen von (Ger.), 733, 739 als (Dut.), 544, 758, 762, 765
achter (Dut.), 681, 746 als (Ger.), 761, 763
adjectives: als ob/wenn (Ger.), 766
inflection of, 140 also (Ger.), 778
declension of, 142 alsof (Dut.), 766
rules for inflection in German, 143 am (Ger.), 679, 706
spelling rules for inflection in Dutch, 146 an (Ger.), aan (Dut., Afr.):
spelling rules for inflection in Afrikaans, to express that something is placed on a
149 vertical surface, 679
endings after indefinite pronouns, 153 to express on or at the edge of things, 679
indeclinable, 156 to mean to when indicating the recipient
prefixed, 164 of an action, 679
adjective-forming suffixes, 165 with verbs to express from, of, because of,
used with intensifiers, 166 as a result of, 680
making adjectives from verbs, 167-179 to mean on in expressions of time in
nationality adjectives, 179 German, 680
adverbs: in the following expressions, 680
formation of, 180-181 with verbs (on, to), 681
manner, 181 with predicate adjectives, 174
place, 182 aangesien (Afr.), 756, 760
time, 184 aangezien (Dut.), 760
interrogative, 186 ander(-e, -n) (Dut., Afr.), 370, 372
intensity, 190 andere(-r/-s) (Ger.), 370, 372
doubt, 192 andererseits (Ger.), 777
expressing affirmation, 192 anlässlich (Ger.), 734, 749
expressing exclusion, 193 anstatt dass (Ger.), 772
composed of several words, 193 anstelle (Ger.), 729, 749
adverbial phrases, 193 as (Afr.), 544, 758, 761, 762, 765
word order of, 194 as gevolg van (Afr.), 730, 751
comparison of, 198 (as)of (Afr.), 766
superlative of, 200 auch wenn (Ger.), 764
irregular comparatives and superlatives auf (Ger.), 174, 705, 745
of, 215-217 aufgrund (Ger.), 730, 749
afgesien van (Afr.), 733, 740 augmentatives, 89-91
afgezien van (Dut.), 733, 740 aus (Ger.), 687, 688, 702, 739
afhangende van (Afr.), 761 aus der/die/das (Ger.), 349
afhankelijk van (Dut.), 761 ausreichend (Ger.), 378
age, 675 außer (Ger.), 682, 739
agter (Afr.), 681, 746 außerdem (Ger.), 778
al (Dut., Afr.), 384 außerhalb (Ger.), 731, 749
al de (Dut.), 384 arithmetical operations, 660-661
al die (Afr.), 384 article, 218:
al wat ('n) (Afr.), 368 gender, 218-221
all(-e) (Ger., Dut.), 153, 384 indefinite:
albei (Afr.), 389, 393 use of, 221-222
allebei (de) (Dut.), 389, 393 omission of, 227-232
alles (Ger., Dut., Afr.), 355, 356, 387, 391 definite:
alleen (Dut., Afr.), 375, 377 use of, 222-227
alleen als (Dut.), 547 omission of, 232-234
allein(e) (Ger.), 375, 377 contraction of (in German), 238-240

787

 INDEX

declension of (in German), 234-238 causative constructions, 583-584

asking questions, 514-528 collective numbers, 661-662
conditional present tense:
baie (Afr.), 154, 166, 191, 379, 519 formation of, 537
behalve (Dut.), 682, 740 use of, 538
behalwe (Afr.), 682 conditional perfect tense:
bei (Ger.), bij (Dut.), by (Afr.): formation of, 541
to denote location (by, near, next to), 683 use of, 542
with an organization or a company (at, in, conditional clauses, 544
for, with), 683 conjunctions: 753–778
with a person, a professional or a shop coordinating, 753
(at, with), 683 correlative, 774
with a continuing activity in German subordinating, 756
(during, while), 684 conjunctive adverbs, 776
beide(-n) (Ger., Dut.), 389, 393 continuous tenses, 570-577
beim (Ger.), 571
betreffend (Ger.), 734 da (Ger.), 756, 760
betreffende (Dut., Afr.), 734, 750 daar (Afr.), 565, 763
bevor (Ger.), 770 daardie (Afr.), 317
bezüglich (Ger.), 734, 749 daarenteen (Afr.), 777
bij (Dut.), 740 daarentegen (Dut.), 777
binne (Afr.), 684, 751 daarna (Dut., Afr.), 778
binnen (Dut.), 684, 751 daarom (Dut., Afr.), 777
bis (Ger.), 701, 735, 765 damit (Ger.), 767
bleiben (Ger.): dan (Dut.), 761
past participle of, 456 danach (Ger.), 778
present perfect of, 475 dank (Ger.), 730
preterite of, 496 danksy (Afr.), 730
blijven (Dut.): dankzij (Dut.), 730
past participle of, 456 dass (Ger.), 757, 761
present perfect of, 475 dat (Dut., Afr.), 757, 761
preterite of, 496 dat/die/wat/wie/welke (Dut.), 340
bly (Afr.): dates, 662-668
past participle of, 456 days, 662
present perfect of, 475 de/het enige (Dut.), 376
preterite of, 475 de meeste (Dut.), 398
bo (Afr.), 731, 746 de rest (Dut.), 391
boven (Dut.), 731, 746 decimals, 659
bovendien (Dut.), 778 degene (Dut.), 389
buite (Afr.), 731, 750 demonstrative adjectives, 313-318
buiten (Dut.), 731, 750 forms of, 313
buitendien (Afr.), 778 declension of (German), 314
by (Afr.), 740 word order of, 318
demonstrative pronouns, 318-322
cardinal numbers, 638 forms of, 318
case: independent (neuter) forms of, 320
(in German), 112-113 denn (Ger.), 755
nominative, 113-115 der/die/das/was (Ger.), 340
genitive, 115-120 der/die/das/ einzige(-r/-s) (Ger.), 376
dative, 121-125 der Rest (Ger.), 391
accusative, 125-130 derjenige (Ger.), 389
(in Dutch and Afrikaans), 133 deshalb (Ger.), 777
nominative, 133-134 dessen/deren (Ger.), 347
genitive, 134-135 deur (Afr.), 731, 737
dative and accusative, 135-136 deurdat (Afr.), 762

788

 INDEX

deze/dit (Dut.), 316 eventjes (Dut.), 595

die/dat (Dut.), 317 exclamations with interrogative words, 336
die enigste (Dut.), 376
die meeste (Afr.), 398 falls (Ger.), 545, 547, 773
die meisten (Ger.), 398 fractions, 657-659
die res (Afr.), 391 future perfect tense, 535-537
diegene (Afr.), 389 future tense, 531-535
dieser/diese/dieses/diese (Ger.), 316 für (Ger.), voor (Dut.), vir (Afr.):
diminutives, 72-89 to express purpose (for, in favour of, by
direct object pronouns, 263-271 the standards of), 716
use of, 265 to express purpose (of), 716
peculiarities of, 265 in certain expressions (by), 717
word order of, 268 with verbs, 717
doch (Ger.), 515 with a personal indirect object in
doen (Dut.): Afrikaans (to), 718
present tense of, 424 with predicate adjectives, 174
preterite of, 502
door (Dut.), 730, 731, 737, 751 gaan (Dut., Afr.):
doordat (Dut.), 762 present tense of, 426, 427
durch (Ger.), 731, 735 past participle of, 458
dürfen (Ger.): present perfect of, 471
present tense of, 433 preterite of (Dut.), 497
past participle of, 457 future tense of, 534
preterite of, 496 ganz (Ger.), 390
dus (Dut., Afr.), 778 gerund, 586-588
geen (Dut., Afr.), 392, 517
echter (Dut.), 776 geeneen (Afr.), 393
een ander(-e) (Dut.), 371 gehen (Ger.):
een beetje (Dut.), 381 present tense of, 427
een paar (Dut.), 364, 383 past participle of, 458
egter (Afr.), 776 present perfect of, 471
ein bisschen (Ger.), 381 preterite of, 497
ein paar (Ger.), 364, 383 gegen (Ger.), 174, 674, 698, 736
ein wenig (Ger.), 381 gegenüber (Ger.), 175, 378, 700, 739
ein(-e) andere(-r/-s) (Ger.), 371 genoeg (Dut., Afr.), 154, 378
einander (Ger.), 282 genug (Ger.), 378
einig(e) (Ger.), 153, 363, 364 gerade dabei (Ger.), 571
elk(-e) (Dut., Afr.), 158, 368 gewiss (Ger.), 366
elkaar (Dut.), 282 goed (Dut., Afr.), 155
elkeen (Afr.), 361, 388
en (Dut., Afr.), 754 haben (Ger.):
enige (Afr.), 355 present tense of, 423
enigiets (Afr.), 355 past participle of, 458
enigiemand (Afr.), 357 preterite of, 498
enkele(n) (Dut.), 363 hebben (Dut.):
entlang (Ger.), 693, 736 present tense of, 423
entsprechend (Ger.), 732, 739 past participle of, 458
erg (Dut.), 166, 191, 519 preterite of, 498
er (Dut.), 565 hê (Afr.):
erst (Ger.), 377 present tense of, 423
es (Ger.), 565 past participle of, 458
es sei denn (Ger.), 773 preterite of, 504
etlike (Afr.), 363 heel (Dut.), 166, 191
etwas (Ger.), 354, 355 heelwat (Afr.), 154
even (Dut.), 595 heen/van (Dut., Afr.), 189

789

 INDEX

hele (Dut., Afr.), 390 past participle of, 456-465

hierdie (Afr.), 316 preterite of, 495-504
hin/her (Ger.), 189
hinsichtlich (Ger.), 734, 749 jede(-r, -s) (Ger.), 776, 368, 388
hinter (Ger.), 681, 682, 745 jedoch (Ger.), 776
hoe (Dut., Afr.), 331 jemand(-en, -es, -em) (Ger.), 357, 359
hoe gereeld (Afr.), 333 je nach(dem) (Ger.), 761
hoe lang (Dut.), 334 jener, jene, jenes, jene (Ger.), 317
hoe lank (Afr.), 334
hoe vaak (Dut.), 333 kan (Afr.):
hoe ver (Dut., Afr.), 334 present tense of, 431
hoekom (Afr.), 336 past participle of, 459
hoeveel (Dut., Afr.), 333 kein(-e/-r/-s) (Ger.), 392, 517
hoewel (Dut.), 762 kom (Afr.):
homself (Afr.), 568 past participle of, 459
present perfect of, 471
ieder (Dut., Afr.), 158, 360 komen (Dut.):
iedereen (Dut.), 360, 388 present tense of, 429
iets (Dut., Afr.), 154, 354, 355 past participle of, 459
iemand (Dut., Afr.), 154, 357 present perfect of, 471
im (Ger.), 691 kommen (Ger.):
im Namen (Ger.), 733 present tense of, 429
imperative, 588-595 past participle of, 459
ingeval (Dut., Afr.), 547, 773 present perfect of, 471
innerhalb (Ger.), 684, 749 können (Ger.):
in (Ger., Dut., Afr.): present tense of, 431
to denote location (in, at, on), 689 past participle of, 459
to indicate time (in), 690 preterite of, 498
with months and days of the week (in), kunnen (Dut.):
690 present tense of, 431
in certain expressions, 691 past participle of, 459
with verbs followed by the preposition preterite of, 498
“in”, 692
with predicate adjectives, 174 laat (Afr.), 583, 585
in der/die/das (Ger.), 348 langs (Dut., Afr.), 693, 729, 737, 746
in plaas (daar)van (dat) (Afr.), 729, 750, 772 lassen (Ger.), 583, 585
in plaats van (dat) (Dut.), 729, 750, 772 laten (Dut.), 583, 585
indirect object pronouns, 272-273 laut (Ger.), 732, 749
use of, 272
word order of, 274 mag (Afr.):
indefinite adjectives and pronouns, 352-398 present tense of, 433
indem (Ger.), 762 past participle of, 457
independent possessive pronouns, 295 man (Ger.), 255, 567
infinitive, 578-583 maar (Dut., Afr.), 377, 754
informal possession with van in Dutch, 305 meer (Dut., Afr.), 154
use of, 307 meerdere (Dut.), 368
informal possession with von in German, mehrere (Ger.), 153, 368
308 mekaar (Afr.), 282
use of, 309 men (Dut.), 255, 567
ins (Ger.), 692 (’n) mens (Afr.), 255, 567
interrogative pronouns and adverbs, met betrekking tot (Afr., Dut.), 734, 750
322-336 met die geleentheid van (Afr.), 734, 750
irgendjemand (Ger.), 357, 359 met wie (Afr., Dut.), 349
irregular verbs: min (Afr.), 154, 380
present tense of, 418-421 minder (Dut., Afr.), 154

790

 INDEX

mit (Ger.), met (Dut., Afr.): negation, 515-528

to express a person is “with” another weder…noch (Ger.), 524
person, 721 noch…noch (Dut.), 524
with modes of transport (by), 721 nie…of…nie (Afr.), 524
with a holiday/festivity in Dutch and nicht mehr (Ger.), 526
Afrikaans (at, for), 722 niet meer (Dut.), 526
with verbs, 723 nie meer…nie (Afr.), 526
with vol/voll, 178 nicht einmal (Ger.), 528
with predicate adjectives, 174 niet eens (Dut.), 528
mit der/die/das (Ger.), 349 nie eers…nie (Afr.), 528
mits (Dut., Afr.), 547 noch nicht (Ger.), 528
mixed verbs in German nog niet (Dut.), 528
past participle of, 465 nog nie…nie (Afr.), 528
preterite of, 506 net (as) (Afr.), 377, 547
modal verbs: nicht (Ger.), 516, 593
present tense of, 430-435 nichts (Ger.), 523, 355, 356
passive voice of, 564 nie (Afr.), 516, 593
moenie…nie (Afr.), 593 nie…of (Afr.), 397
moet (Afr.): nie(mals) (Ger.), 524
present tense of, 433 niet (Dut.), 516, 593
past participle of, 460 niets (Dut.), 154, 523, 355, 356
moeten (Dut.): niemand (Ger., Dut., Afr.), 154, 521, 359, 361
present tense of, 433 niks (Afr., Dut.), 154, 523, 355, 356
past participle of, 460 nix (Ger.), 356
preterite of, 499 noch eine(-r/-s) (Ger.), 372
mogen (Dut.): noch…noch (Dut.), 397
present tense of, 433 nog een (Dut., Afr.), 372
past participle of, 457 nooit (Dut., Afr.), 524
preterite of, 496 nou eens (Dut.), 595
mögen (Ger.): nouns:
past participle of, 460 gender of, 23-37
preterite of, 499 plural forms of, 37-71
mooi (Dut.), 140, 141 compound, 91-100
müssen (Ger.): adjectival, 100-104
present tense of, 433 in apposition, 105-106
past participle of, 460 noun nationalities, 106-111
preterite of, 499 case forms of (in German), 130-133
months, 663 declension of, 136-139
numbers, 638-675
’n ander (Afr.), 371 nur (Ger.), 377
’n bietjie (Afr.), 381 nur wenn (Ger.), 547
’n paar (Afr.), 364, 383
na (Dut., Afr.), 175, 674, 724, 740 ob (Ger.), 765
na…toe (Afr.), 696, 726, 740 obwohl (Ger.), 762
naar (Dut.), 175, 696, 726, 740 oder (Ger.), 515
naas (Afr.), 729, 746 of (Dut., Afr.), 515, 754, 765
naast (Dut.), 729, 746 ofskoon (Afr.), 762
nabij (Dut.), 728 ofschoon (Dut.), 762
naby (Afr.), 728 ohne (Ger.), 694, 736
nach (Ger.), 174, 674, 712, 724, 726, 739 ohne dass (Ger.), 771
nachdem (Ger.), 758, 770 om (te) (Dut., Afr.), 175, 712, 737, 773
nadat (Dut., Afr.), 758, 770 om te (Afr.), 569, 578, 773
nahe (Ger.), 728 omdat (Dut., Afr.), 756, 757, 763
namens (Ger., Dut., Afr.), 733 ondanks (Dut., Afr.), 733, 751
neben (Ger.), 729, 745 onder (Dut., Afr.), 715, 746

791

 INDEX

ongeacht (Dut.), 734 schön (Ger.), 140, 141

ongeag (Afr.), 734 se (Afr.), 137, 310, 686
or (Ger.), 754 seer (Afr.), 191
oor (Afr.), 175, 690, 709, 746 seasons, 667
oorkant (Afr.), 700, 740 sedert (Afr.), 438-439, 695, 740, 767
op (Dut., Afr.), 174, 693, 697, 705, 746 sehen (Ger.):
opdat (Dut., Afr.), 767 present tense of, 425
ordinal numbers, 650-657 past participle of, 462
over (Dut.), 175, 690, 709, 746 preterite of, 501
sehr (Ger.), 166, 191, 519
passive voice, 561-570 sein (Ger.), 140,
past participle, 439-467 present tense of, 422
per (Ger., Dut., Afr.): past participle of, 462
with modes of transport (by, by means present perfect of, 475
of), 713 preterite of, 501
in some other expressions (by, by means + gerade dabei, 571
of), 714 + beim, 571
to express “for each, for every, each” (a/ imperative of, 591
an, per), 714 seit (Ger.), 438-439, 695, 739
personal pronouns, 241 seit(dem) (Ger.), 767
possessive adjectives and pronouns, seit wann (Ger.), 334
288-310 seker (Afr.), 366
possession with “s” in German and Dutch, selbst wenn (Ger.), 764
137, 310 selfs as (Afr.), 764
possession with “s’n” in Afrikaans, 312 sich (Ger.), 568
pragtig (Afr.), 140, 141 sicher (Ger.), 366
pluperfect tense, 529-531 sien (Afr.):
prepositions, 676-734 past participle of, 462
prepositions and cases in German, 735-752 siende dat (Afr.), 760
present participle, 586-588 sinds (Dut.), 438-439, 695, 740, 767
present perfect, 467-481 sinds wanneer (Dut.), 334
present tense: slechts (Dut.), 377
of completely irregular verbs, 421-423 slegs (as) (Afr.), 377, 547
formation of, 401-403 so gou as (wat) (Afr.), 768
of irregular verbs in German, 415-418, 418-421 sobald (Ger.), 768
of other commonly used irregular verbs in sodass (Ger.), 768
German and Dutch, 423-430 sodat (Afr.), 767, 768
of regular verbs, 403-406 sodra (Afr.), 768
special use of, 438-439 sofern (Ger.), 547
verb spelling and vowel changes of, 406-415 solange (Ger.), 769
use of, 435-438 solank (as wat) (Afr.), 769
preterite, 481-513 solche(-r/-s) (Ger.), 366
pro (Ger.), 715, 745 sollen (Ger.):
pronouns, 241-398 present tense of, 432
sommige(n) (Dut., Afr.), 363
reflexive pronouns, 276-287 soos (Afr.), 771
use of, 277 sover (Afr.), 769
reflexive verbs, 596 soweit (Ger.), 769
relative pronouns and adverbs, 338-352 so (Ger., Afr.), 166, 338, 366
rondom (Dut., Afr.), 715, 737 so ’n (Afr.), 366
rund um (Ger.), 715, 736 sonder (Afr.), 694, 737
sonder dat (Afr.), 771
sal (Afr.): sondern (Ger.), 755
present tense of, 432 statt (Ger.), 729, 749
future tense of, 532 subjunctive, 547-560

792

 INDEX

sulke (Afr.), 366 pluperfect tense, 529-531

present perfect, 467-481
te (Dut.), 569, 578, 695, 740 present tense, 401-439
teen (Afr.), 674, 698, 737 subjunctive, 547-560
teenoor (Afr.), 700, 740 past, 481-513
tegen (Dut.), 674, 698, 737 past participle, 439-467
tegenover (Dut.), 700, 740 present, 549-552
tensy (Afr.), 773 verbal prefixes (Ger., Dut., Afr.), 596-637
tenzij (Dut.), 773 separable, 596-622
ter gelegenheid van (Dut.), 734, 750 inseparable, 622-637
terwijl (Dut.), 758, 770 verby (Afr.), 682, 746
terwyl (Afr.), 758, 770 verschieden(e) (Ger.), 153, 369
tijdens (Dut.), 729, 751 verschillende (Dut.), 369
time, 668-675 verskeie (Afr.), 368
toch (Dut.), 595 verskillende (Afr.), 369
toe (Afr.), 697, 763 veel (Dut., Afr.), 154, 379
toen (Dut.), 763 via (Dut., Afr.), 710
tot(dat) (Dut., Afr.), 701, 737, 765 viel(e) (Ger.), 153, 379
trotz (Ger.), 733, 749 vir (Afr.), 174, 698, 737
tun (Ger.): vlakbij (Dut.), 728
present tense of, 424 vlakby (Afr.), 728
preterite of, 502 vol (Dut., Afr.), 178
tussen (Dut., Afr.), 702, 746 voll (Ger.), 178
tydens (Afr.), 729, 751 voldoende (Dut., Afr.), 378
volgens (Dut., Afr.), 732, 740, 751
uit (Dut., Afr.), 702, 740 von (Ger.), van (Dut., Afr.):
über (Ger.), 174, 709, 731, 745 to express possession or ownership (of),
um (zu) (Ger.), 712, 736, 773 685
unabhängig von (Ger.), 734, 739 to express general association when ‘of’ is
und (Ger.), 754 not possessive, 686
unter (Ger.), 715, 745 to indicate a place of departure (from),
687
van (Dut.), 138. 174, 363 to indicate a place of origine in Dutch and
vanaf (Dut., Afr.), 689, 740 Afrikaans (from), 687
van(dat) (Afr.), 767 to express the material from which
van…tot (Dut., Afr.), 674 something is made in Dutch and Afrikaans, 687
van waar (Afr.), 335 to indicate a starting point in time (from),
van wanneer af (Afr.), 334 688
vanwege (Dut.), 730, 751 to express that something is created “by”
van wie (Dut.), 328, 347 someone, 688
vanweë (Afr.), 730, 751 with various verbs (from, of, on), 688
verbs: with predicate adjectives, 174
asking questions, 514-528 with proper nouns, 138
conditional perfect tense, 541-544 von…bis (Ger.), 674
conditional present tense, 537-541 vor (Ger.), 674, 719, 745
conditional clauses, 544-547 voor (Dut., Afr.), 175, 674, 698, 719, 737, 746
future perfect tense, 535-537 voor zover (Dut.), 769
future tense, 531-535 voorbij (Dut.), 682
imperative, 588-595 voordat (Dut., Afr.), 770
preterite tense, 481-513
mood: waar (Dut., Afr.), 334, 348
indicative, 401-547 waarin (Dut., Afr.), 348
subjunctive, 547-560 waarom (Dut., Afr.), 336
imperative, 588-595 waarvandaan (Dut., Afr.), 335, 349
passive voice, 561-570 waarheen (Dut., Afr.), 335

793

 INDEX

wann (Ger.), 334, 350 wieso (Ger.), 336

wanneer (Dut., Afr.), 334, 350, 763 wil (Afr.):
want (Dut., Afr.), 755 present tense of, 434
warum (Ger.), 336 past participle of, 464
was (Ger.), 324, 330, 354 willen (Dut.):
Was für (ein-) (Ger.), 338 present tense of, 434
wat (voor) (Dut., Afr.), 154, 324, 330, 337, 340, past participle of, 464
354, 355 preterite of, 503
watter (Afr.), 154, 329, 330, 331 wissen (Ger.):
während (Ger.), 729, 749, 758, 770 present tense of, 428
wees (Afr.), 140 past participle of, 464
present tense of, 422 preterite of, 503
past participle of, 462 wo (Ger.), 334, 348
present perfect of, 475 woher (Ger.), 335
preterite of, 504 wohin (Ger.), 335
subjunctive of, 551 wollen (Ger.):
+ aan die, 574 present tense of, 434
+ besig, 576 past participle of, 464
imperative of, 591 preterite of, 503
weder…noch (Ger.), 397 worden (Dut.):
wessen (Ger.), 328 present tense of, 427
weens (Afr.), 730, 751 past participle of, 464
wegen (Ger.), 730, 749, 751 present perfect of, 475
weil (Ger.), 757, 763 preterite of, 503
weinig (Dut.), 154, 380 word (Afr.):
welch (Ger.), 337 present tense of, 427
welcher (Ger.), 329, 330, 331 past participle of, 464
welk(-e) (Dut., Afr.), 158, 160, 329, 330, 331 present perfect of, 475
wenig(e) (Ger.), 153, 380 preterite of, 475
wenn (Ger.), 544, 758, 762, 765
wer (Ger.), 326 zeer (Dut.), 191
werden (Ger.): zeker (Dut.), 366
present tense of, 427 zelfs als (Dut.), 764
past participle of, 464 zichzelf (Dut.), 568
present perfect of, 475 zien (Dut.):
preterite of, 503 present tense of, 425
future tense of, 532 past participle of, 462
weet (Afr.): preterite of, 501
past participle of, 464 zijn (Dut.), 140
preterite of, 504 present tense of, 422
weten (Dut.): past participle of, 462
present tense of, 428 present perfect of, 475
past participle of, 464 preterite of, 501
preterite of, 503 + aan het, 574
wider (Ger.), 736 + bezig, 576
wie (Ger.), 771, 331 imperative of, 591
wie (Dut., Afr.), 326 zo (Dut.), 166, 338
wie kommt es (Ger.), 336 zo’n (Dut.), 366
wie lange (Ger.), 334 zoals (Dut.), 771
wie oft (Ger.), 333 zodat (Dut.), 767, 768
wie se (Afr.), 328, 347 zodra (Dut.), 768
wie viel(-e) (Ger.), 333 zonder (Dut.), 694, 737
wie weit (Ger.), 334 zonder dat (Dut.), 771
wiens (Dut.), 328, 347 zolang (Dut.), 769
wier (Dut.), 328, 347 zu (Ger.), 175, 569, 578, 695, 723, 727, 739

794

 INDEX

zulke (Dut.), 366

zullen (Dut.):
present tense of, 432
future tense of, 532
zum (Ger.), 230, 696
zwischen (Ger.), 702, 745

795