Directorate: Curriculum

FET

LIFE SCIENCES
REVISION BOOKLET
2021 TERM 1

Grade 11

This revision program is designed to assist you in revising the critical

content and skills that you have covered during the 1 st term. The
purpose is to prepare you to understand the key concepts and to
provide you with an opportunity to establish the required standard
and the application of the knowledge necessary to succeed in the
examination.

The revision program covers the following topics:

 Biodiversity and classification of microorganisms (29 marks in
Paper 2 in Final Examination)
 Biodiversity of plants (29 marks in Paper 2 in Final Examination)
2
Life Sciences Grade 11 Term 1

 Biodiversity of animals (18 marks in Paper 2 in Final

Examination)

Table of Contents
1. EXAMINATION WRITING TIPS:..........................................................................5
1.1 GENERAL TIPS FOR WRITING LIFE SCIENCES:...............................................5
1.2 HOW TO APPROACH YOUR LIFE SCIENCES EXAMINATION:...........................5
TERM 1 CONTENT.................................................................................................. 6
2. BIODIVERSITY OF MICROORGANISMS..............................................................6
2.1 Introduction:................................................................................................. 6
2.1.1 Viruses:..................................................................................................... 6
2.1.2 Bacteria:.................................................................................................... 6
2.1.3 Protista:..................................................................................................... 7
2.1.4 Fungi:........................................................................................................ 8
2.2 Study the following roles of viruses, bacteria, Protista and fungi in
maintaining balance in the environment:.............................................................9
2.2.1 Their role as producers in food chains:.....................................................9
2.2.2 Role in maintaining oxygen and carbon dioxide levels:............................9
2.2.3 Role as decomposers:............................................................................... 9
2.2.4 Role in the nitrogen cycle:........................................................................9
2.3 Study the role of microorganisms in symbiotic relationships:......................9
2.3.1 Nitrogen-fixing bacteria in plants:.............................................................9
2.3.2 Bacteria in the human intestines:...........................................................10
2.4 Study the diseases caused by microorganisms:.........................................10
2.4.1 HIV/AIDS as an example of a disease that is caused by VIRUSES:..........10
2.4.2 TUBERCULOSIS as an example of a disease that is caused by BACTERIA:
11
2.4.3 MALARIA as an example of a disease that is caused by PROTISTS:........11
2.4.4 THRUSH as an example of a disease that is caused by FUNGI:...............12
2.5 Immunity:................................................................................................... 12
2.5.1 Immune responses in plants:..................................................................12
2.5.2 Immune responses in animals:................................................................13
2.6 Vaccinations:.............................................................................................. 13
2.6.1 The use of microorganisms to produce medicine:...................................13
3. BIODIVERSITY OF PLANTS:.............................................................................14
3
Life Sciences Grade 11 Term 1

3.1 Study the following information on the four plant groups i.e. Bryophytes,
Pteridophytes, Gymnosperms and Angiosperms:................................................14
3.2 The characteristics of the four plant groups:..............................................15
3.3 Reproduction in plants:.............................................................................. 15
3.3.1 Asexual reproduction:.............................................................................16
3.3.2 Advantages of asexual reproduction:......................................................16
3.3.3 Disadvantages of asexual reproduction:.................................................16
3.3.4 Sexual reproduction:...............................................................................16
3.3.5 Advantages of sexual reproduction:........................................................16
3.3.6 Disadvantages of sexual reproduction:...................................................16
3.4 FLOWERS AS REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS:.....................................................17
3.4.1 The structures of the flowers of dicotyledonous and monocotyledonous
plants to understand pollination.........................................................................17
3.4.2 What is pollination and define the different types of pollination?...........18
3.4.3 How are different flowers adapted for pollination?.................................19
3.4.4 Adaptations of a wind pollinated flower:.................................................19
3.4.5 Adaptations of an insect pollinated flower:.............................................19
3.4.6 Adaptations of a bird pollinated flower:..................................................20
4. BIODIVERSITY OF ANIMALS:...........................................................................20
4.1 Key features of body plans of animals:......................................................21
4.1.1 Symmetry and cephalisation:..................................................................21
4.1.2 Tissue layers:.......................................................................................... 21
4.1.3 Openings in the gut:................................................................................ 21
4.1.4 Coelom and blood systems:....................................................................21
4.1.5 The body plans and mode of life of the six phyla:...................................22
5. REVISION QUESTIONS:................................................................................... 23
END OF DOCUMENT............................................................................................. 27
4
Life Sciences Grade 11 Term 1

List of figures (content only)

Figure 1: Structure of a bacteriophage (a virus) 6

Figure 2: Structure of a bacterium 7

Figure 3: Structure of an Amoeba (protist) 8

Figure 4: Structure of bread mould (Rhizopus) 8

Figure 5: Phylogenetic tree of evolution of plants 14
Figure 6 Structure of a flower of a dicotelydonous plant 17
Figure 7: Structure of a flower of a monocotelydonous plant 18
Figure 8: Diagram showing self-pollination 18
Figure 9: Diagram showing cross- pollination 19
Figure Phylogenetic tree of the Kingdom Animalia 20
10:

List of tables (content only)

Table 1: Instructional verbs and meaning 5

Table 2: Comparative table of the four plant groups 15

Table 3: Comparative table of the six animal phyla 22
5
Life Sciences Grade 11 Term 1

1. EXAMINATION WRITING TIPS:

1.1 GENERAL TIPS FOR WRITING LIFE SCIENCES:

 The final external examination in Grade 11 consist of two (2) question
papers of 150 marks each. Each question paper covers a variety of
content topics. Ask your teacher for an outline of the content topics
and weighting of each topic in each question paper.
 The duration of each of the final question papers in Grade 11 is 2½
hours.
 All questions in each question paper are COMPULSORY.
 You need to do all your drawings and graphs in pencil and labels should
be in blue or black ink. You may not use graph paper when drawing
graphs.
 Make sure that you have all the necessary stationery for your
examination e.g. blue or black pens, a pencil, an eraser, a ruler, a non-
programmable calculator, protractor and a compass.
1.2 HOW TO APPROACH YOUR LIFE SCIENCES EXAMINATION:
 Each Life Sciences question paper consists of TWO sections i.e.
SECTION A (50 marks) and SECTION B (two questions of 50 marks)
 When answering a multiple choice question in Section A, read the
question and four options carefully, evaluate each option and eliminate
each incorrect option.
 In questions that require only a LETTER you only need to write down a
LETTER e.g. ‘Give only the LETTER of the part where pollen is produced
in the diagram of a flower’. Other questions might require you to write
down both the LETTER and a NAME e.g. ‘Give the LETTER and NAME of
the part of the flower in the diagram that receives the pollen’.
 Use the correct spelling when you use biological terminology in your
answers. Use scientific names in terminology and avoid using common
names.
 The instructional verbs (in italics) e.g. name, give, describe,
explain etc. and the mark allocation per question give an
indication of what and how much information you should provide in
your answer.
Table 1: Instruction verbs and meaning

Instructional Meaning
verb
Name Give the name of something
Differentiate Use differences to qualify between two or more categories
Tabulate Draw a table and indicate the answers as direct pairs.
Describe State in sentences the main points of a process
6
Life Sciences Grade 11 Term 1

Explain Give your answer in a cause-effect or statement and reason

sequence
Compare Give similarities and differences between concepts

TERM 1 CONTENT
Study the core content below on the topics biodiversity and classification of
microorganisms, biodiversity of plants and biodiversity of animals.

2. BIODIVERSITY OF MICROORGANISMS
2.1 Introduction:
Some living organisms are so small that they cannot be seen with the
naked eye and are known as microorganisms e.g. viruses, bacteria,
protists and fungi.
2.1.1 Viruses:
 Viruses are very small, do not consist of cells (are acellular) and have no
nucleus, cytoplasm or organelles
 A virus consists of a central nucleic acid (DNA or RNA – not both)
surrounded by a protein capsule
 Viruses do not perform any of the metabolic reactions of living organisms
 They are parasites and can reproduce inside cells of living organisms
 The shape of viruses varies from rod-shaped, spherical to more complex
shapes
 They are pathogens and cause diseases in plants and animals.

Figure 1: Diagram showing a bacteriophage (a virus)

2.1.2 Bacteria:
 Bacteria are small and are classified under the kingdom, Monera
 They are small, unicellular organisms and are classified as prokaryotes (do
not contain membrane-bound organelles such as a nucleus, chloroplasts
or mitochondria)
7
Life Sciences Grade 11 Term 1

 The bacterium cell is surrounded by a cell wall and a plasma membrane

that encloses the cytoplasm.
 In some bacteria the cell wall is surrounded by a slime layer or capsule
 Genetic material (DNA) is concentrated in a chromatin body known as the
nucleoid.
 Some bacteria move in liquids by means of long thread-like structures
called flagella
 Most bacteria reproduce asexually through binary fusion where a single
cell divides into two cells.
 Bacteria occurs in various shapes e.g. rod -shaped (bacillus), spherical
(coccus), spiral shaped (spirillum) and comma-shaped (vibrio)
 Some bacteria are autotrophic but the majority are heterotrophic

Figure 2: Diagram showing a bacterium

8
Life Sciences Grade 11 Term 1

2.1.3 Protista:
 Protists are unicellular (e.g. Amoeba) but some are multicellular (e.g.
algae)
 They are eukaryotes and have a true nucleus
 Algae are autotrophic and can photosynthesize because they have
chloroplasts in their cells
 Some protists e.g. Amoeba are heterotrophic and are dependent on other
organisms for food
 Protists have various locomotory structures e.g. pseudopodia (Amoeba),
cilia (Paramecium) and flagella (Euglena)
 Reproduction is mostly asexual and occurs through binary fusion but some
can reproduce sexually e.g. some algae

Figure 3: Diagram showing Amoeba (Protista)

2.1.4 MALARIA as an example of a disease that is caused by PROTISTS:

 Malaria is a parasitic disease caused by a protist of the genus Plasmodium
and is spread by the female Anopheles mosquito.
 Blood is sucked up by the mosquito when it bites an infected person.
 This blood contains malaria parasites and they develop in the mosquito.
 When the mosquito bites a next person, the parasites are injected into the
bloodstream of that person.

Effects of malaria:

 After infection, the parasites move in the bloodstream to the liver of the
infected person where they multiply.
 New parasites enter the blood and multiply in the red blood cells.
 The red blood cells may burst because of the multiplication of the
parasites and this can lead to anaemia
 Other symptoms of malaria include: fever and shivering, headache, joint
pain, vomiting.
9
Life Sciences Grade 11 Term 1

 If left untreated, malaria may lead to the infected person falling into a
coma, followed by death.

Management of malaria:

 The best way to manage malaria is to avoid being bitten by mosquitoes in

areas where malaria occurs.
 Anti-malarial drugs can be taken before entering a malaria area.

2.1.5 Fungi:
 Some fungi are unicellular (e.g. yeasts) and some are multicellular (e.g.
mushrooms and moulds)
10
Life Sciences Grade 11 Term 1

 All fungi have true nuclei and are eukaryotic

 Cell walls consist of chitin
 Fungi have no chloroplasts and are heterotrophic
 Most fungi are saprophytes (live on dead organic plant or animal matter)
e.g. bread mould and mushrooms
 Some fungi are parasites and feed on living material
 The bodies of multicellular fungi are made up of threads called hyphae.
All the hyphae together form a mycelium. The hyphae are often
multinucleate (have many nuclei).
 Fungi reproduce both sexually and asexually.
 Asexual reproduction in unicellular fungi such as yeasts is by budding.
 In multicellular fungi asexual reproduction is by means of spores.
Figure 4: Diagram showing bread mould (Rhizopus)

2.1.6 THRUSH as an example of a disease that is caused by FUNGI:

 Thrush is caused by a fungus called Candida albicans.
 Thrush can grow on all surfaces of the human body but favours moist
areas such as the mouth, vagina and upper parts of the digestive tract.

Effects of thrush:

 Oral thrush (in the mouth) is characterised by white sores on the tongue
and in the mouth
 Symptoms include difficulty with eating and an uncomfortable burning in
the mouth.

Management of thrush:

 Improved hygiene
 Following a balanced diet
 Controlled stress levels
11
Life Sciences Grade 11 Term 1

2.2 Study the following roles of viruses, bacteria, Protista and fungi in
maintaining balance in the environment:
2.2.1 Their role as producers in food chains:
 Autotrophic bacteria and protists (algae) produce their own organic
nutrients through photosynthesis.
 Chemosynthetic bacteria also act as producers and they use energy from
chemical reactions instead of sunlight to produce sugars and various by-
products.
 Energy is stored in carbohydrates produced and it is available to the next
trophic level i.e. the consumers.
12
Life Sciences Grade 11 Term 1

2.2.2 Role in maintaining oxygen and carbon dioxide levels:

 Autotrophic bacteria and algae use carbon dioxide and release oxygen
during photosynthesis.
 In this way the oxygen and carbon dioxide balance in the environment is
maintained.

2.2.3 Role as decomposers:

 Decomposition bacteria, saprophytic fungi and protists break down dead
organic matter.
 Water, carbon dioxide, ammonia and energy are released into the soil,
water and air during decomposition
 Elements such as carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus etc. are recycled and are
made available for plants.

2.2.4 Role in the nitrogen cycle:

 Bacteria play an important role in the recycling of nitrogen.
 Atmospheric nitrogen is converted into nitrates through lightning and by
nitrogen-fixing bacteria in the soil.
 Plants remove the nitrates in the soil and animals obtain the nitrogen by
eating plants.
 When plants and animals die, the proteins in their bodies are broken down
into ammonia by decomposition bacteria.
 The ammonia that is released by the decomposition bacteria is processed
by the nitrifying bacteria into nitrates which can be absorbed by plants.
 Nitrates in the soil can also be converted to free nitrogen in the
atmosphere by denitrifying bacteria.

2.3 Study the role of microorganisms in symbiotic relationships:

2.3.1 Nitrogen-fixing bacteria in plants:
 Nitrogen is needed by all organisms because it forms part of proteins.
 Nitrogen in the atmosphere cannot be used by most organisms.
 Mutualistic nodule bacteria on the roots of legumes (peas, beans) absorb
nitrogen gas from the air spaces between soil particles and convert the
nitrogen to nitrates that the plant can absorb.
 The legumes provide food and a secure habitat for the bacteria.

2.3.2 Bacteria in the human intestines:

 Escherichia coli (E. coli) bacteria lives in the large intestines of humans
 E. coli produce vitamin K which plays an important role in blood clotting in
humans.
 In exchange, E. coli obtain nutrients from the human intestine and the
intestine environment protects the bacteria.
13
Life Sciences Grade 11 Term 1

2.4 Study the diseases caused by microorganisms:

Note: You are required to study the effect and management of ONE
disease of each of the four groups listed below. This resource material only
covers ONE of the diseases of each of the groups. Ask your teacher
which FOUR diseases will be covered at your school.

Virusses – rabies/HIV and AIDS/influenza

Bacteria – blight, cholera, tuberculosis, anthrax

Protists – malaria

Fungi – rusts, thrush, ringworm, athlete’s foot

2.4.1 HIV/AIDS as an example of a disease that is caused by VIRUSES:

 Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) is a sexually transmitted
disease caused by the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)
 The virus infects and destroys cells of the immune system which are
known as the CD4 – cells. This weakens the body’s immune system.
 The HI virus is spread mainly through the transfer of body fluids such as
semen and blood from an infected person to another person.
14
Life Sciences Grade 11 Term 1

Effects of HIV/AIDS:
 A lack of symptoms during the first phase of infection which can last
years.
 Flu like symptoms which include headaches, fever, tiredness, and the
swelling of lymph glands in the armpits, throat or groin can occur.
 As the immune system weakens symptoms such as repeated cold-sore
infections, prolonged fevers, night sweats, etc. occur. Extreme weight loss
can also occur.
 A weakened immune system allows secondary or opportunistic infections
to occur. These include respiratory infections, pneumonia, epilepsy,
dementia, skin cancers, lymph cancer and tuberculosis.
 In the final phase of HIV infection, the disease is known as AIDS. Death can
occur in this phase due to secondary infections.
 HIV/AIDS affects families e.g. if both parents are infected and die, their
children become orphans.
 The economy of a country is also affected by HIV/AIDS.
Management of HIV/AIDS:
 Testing for the virus in people who are at high risk (e.g. health workers,
prostitutes, drug users).
 Counselling and treatment for infected people with antiviral drugs.
 Strengthening the immune system of infected persons.
 Treatment of secondary infections.
 Education and the prevention of infection by not having sexual intercourse
or using protection such as a condom.
2.4.2 TUBERCULOSIS as an example of a disease that is caused by
BACTERIA:
 Tuberculosis (TB) is an infectious disease caused by the bacterium,
Mycobacterium tuberculosis.
 TB mainly affects the lungs but can also affect other parts of the body
such as the kidneys, brain and spinal cord.
 TB is spread through the air when infected people cough or sneeze.
Effects of TB
 When TB bacteria is inhaled, they reproduce and cause infection in the
lungs
 Symptoms of TB include:
 extreme tiredness and weakness
 loss of appetite and weight
 fever and sweating at night
 excessive coughing
 chest pains
 coughing up blood
Management of TB:

 Identification of infections through X-rays, skin tests or tissue cultures.

15
Life Sciences Grade 11 Term 1

 Educating patients regarding the completion of treatment. Treatment

involves an aggressive course of antibiotics over a few months.

2.4.3 MALARIA as an example of a disease that is caused by PROTISTS:

 Malaria is a parasitic disease caused by a protist of the genus Plasmodium
and is spread by the female Anopheles mosquito.
 Blood is sucked up by the mosquito when it bites an infected person.
 This blood contains malaria parasites and they develop in the mosquito.
 When the mosquito bites a next person, the parasites are injected into the
bloodstream of that person.

Effects of malaria:

 After infection, the parasites move in the bloodstream to the liver of the
infected person where they multiply.
 New parasites enter the blood and multiply in the red blood cells.
 The red blood cells may burst because of the multiplication of the
parasites and this can lead to anaemia
 Other symptoms of malaria include: fever and shivering, headache, joint
pain, vomiting.
 If left untreated, malaria may lead to the infected person falling into a
coma, followed by death.

Management of malaria:

 The best way to manage malaria is to avoid being bitten by mosquitoes in

areas where malaria occurs.
 Anti-malarial drugs can be taken before entering a malaria area.

2.4.4 THRUSH as an example of a disease that is caused by FUNGI:

 Thrush is caused by a fungus called Candida albicans.
 Thrush can grow on all surfaces of the human body but favours moist
areas such as the mouth, vagina and upper parts of the digestive tract.

Effects of thrush:

 Oral thrush (in the mouth) is characterised by white sores on the tongue
and in the mouth
 Symptoms include difficulty with eating and an uncomfortable burning in
the mouth.

Management of thrush:

 Improved hygiene
 Following a balanced diet
 Controlled stress levels

2.5 Immunity:
 Immunity refers to the way in which a plant or animal is able to fight an
infection.
16
Life Sciences Grade 11 Term 1

 By means of the immune system, the human body monitors the exposure
to harmful elements and provides defence.

2.5.1 Immune responses in plants:

 The first line of defence in plants includes the waxy cuticle, bark and the
closely packed epidermal cells which protects them from invading micro-
organisms.
 If a plant is injured, it can produce sticky gums and resins in an attempt to
seal the wound and prevent infection.
 The second line of defence occurs when a plant becomes infected by a
pathogen and its natural immune response is activated.
 It releases chemical compounds such as salicylic acid which are
transported in the phloem to cells which are not affected.
 The unaffected cells respond by producing various chemical defences to
protect themselves.

2.5.2 Immune responses in animals:

 Animals have two types of immunity i.e. natural immunity which is
present at birth, and acquired immunity which develops after exposure
to pathogens.
 The human body’s first line of defence against pathogens is the external
barrier (e.g. the skin) that prevents harmful substances from entering the
body.
 If pathogens penetrate the barriers and infiltrate the body, the first
response is inflammation and fever which prevent the multiplication and
spread of pathogens.
 Pathogens that have penetrated the body tissues are actively destroyed
and the body stores a memory of the response.
 The white blood cells (leucocytes) recognize the pathogens as foreign cells
as soon as they enter the bloodstream and they destroy the pathogens.
 The immune system involves two types of white blood cells i.e.
lymphocytes and phagocytes.

2.6 Vaccinations:
 A vaccine consists of dead or weakened micro-organisms or their toxins,
that will stimulate the production of antibodies by the lymphocytes.
 Vaccinations or immunisation is the process of giving a vaccine either by
injection or orally (by mouth) to prevent disease.

2.6.1 The use of microorganisms to produce medicine:

Antibiotics:

 Antibiotics are chemical substances that fight infections caused by

bacteria.
 Most antibiotics are obtained from fungi.
 The best-known antibiotic is penicillin which is produced by the fungus
Penicillium.
17
Life Sciences Grade 11 Term 1

 Antibiotics usually target a specific part of a bacterium e.g. they prevent

cell walls from forming, damage cell membranes and stop protein
synthesis.

Production of insulin:

 Biotechnology refers to the use of micro-organisms to make substances

which are useful to humans. These include medicines such as antibiotics
and insulin as well as foods such as bread, wine and cheese.
 Human insulin is produced by bacteria in the following way:
 a plasmid is removed from a bacterium
 the plasmid is cut open using an enzyme
 a piece of DNA containing the gene for making insulin is extracted from a
chromosome taken from a human pancreas cell
 the DNA is joined to the plasmid from the bacterium to form recombinant
DNA
 the recombinant DNA is inserted into a bacterium
 the genetically engineered bacteria reproduce rapidly
 the insulin gene is replicated as the bacteria reproduces
 Large numbers of bacterial cells with the gene coding for insulin
production is formed
 the insulin is then extracted from the bacteria and purified.

Traditional technology:

 Micro-organisms such as yeast can undergo alcoholic fermentation

(respire in the absence of oxygen).
 During this process glucose is changed into alcohol, carbon dioxide and
energy.
 This type of fermentation is used in the production of beer, wine and
cheese.

3. BIODIVERSITY OF PLANTS:
3.1 Study the following information on the four plant groups i.e.
Bryophytes, Pteridophytes, Gymnosperms and Angiosperms:

 All plants are thought to have evolved from simple unicellular algae.
 The kingdom Plantae is divided into four main groups or divisions:
 Bryophytes – mosses
 Pteridophytes – ferns
 Gymnosperms – conifers, cycads
 Angiosperms – flowering plants

Figure 5: Diagram showing a phylogenetic tree of the evolution of

plants
18
Life Sciences Grade 11 Term 1

The characteristics used to place a plant into one of the four groups
depends on:
 the presence or absence of true conducting tissues such as xylem and
phloem
 the presence or absence of true, roots, stems and leaves
 the type of reproduction and reproductive structures formed and
 the degree of dependence on water for reproduction.

3.2 The characteristics of the four plant groups:

Table 2: Comparative table of the characteristics of the four plant
groups:

Characterist Bryophytes Pteridophyt Gymnosper Angiosperm

ic es ms s
Vascular No true Has well - Has well - Has well -
tissue i.e. conducting developed developed developed
xylem and tissues vascular vascular vascular
tissues (xylem tissues (xylem
phloem tissues (xylem
and phloem) and phloem)
and phloem)
True leaves Thallus - no Has true roots, Has true roots Has true roots,
and roots true roots, an (tap root stems and
stems and underground system, with leaves
lateral roots),
leaves. stem and large
woody stems
Rhizoids compound and small
anchor the leaves leaves (needle
plant in the shaped)
ground
Seeds or Produces Produces Produces cones Produces
spores and spores, no spores, no with seeds flowers with
fruit seeds seeds without a seeds enclosed
protective and protected
covering. Has by a fruit. Has
separate male separate male
spores (in spores (in
19
Life Sciences Grade 11 Term 1

pollen grain) pollen grain)

and female and female
spores (in spores (in
ovule) ovule)
Dependence Depends on Depends on Does not Does not
on water for water for water for depend on depend on
reproduction fertilisation of fertilisation of water for water for
gametes gametes fertilisation of fertilisation of
gametes gametes

3.3 Reproduction in plants:

 Both animals and plants are capable of asexual and sexual reproduction.
Study the definitions, advantages and disadvantages of asexual and
sexual reproduction below:

3.3.1 Asexual reproduction:

 In asexual reproduction only one parent is involved and all the offspring
have the same genetic composition as the parent.
 No gametes (sex cells) i.e. sperm and ova are involved and the process
occurs by mitosis.
 Examples of asexual reproduction include binary fusion, vegetative
reproduction, formation of spores, budding and cloning.

3.3.2 Advantages of asexual reproduction:

 A large number of offspring are rapidly produced.
 Energy expenditure is low because no gametes are produced.
 All the offspring are identical.
 Asexual reproduction does not rely on pollinators or dispersion agents.

3.3.3 Disadvantages of asexual reproduction:

 There is no genetic variation as all offspring are genetically identical. If
conditions become unfavourable, they will all die.
 Weak characteristics in the parents will be passed on to the offspring and
all the offspring share the same weak characteristics. Any change in the
environment changes may drastically reduce the offspring’s chances of
survival.
 Rapid multiplication by asexual reproduction may lead to overpopulation
and the competition for food and space increases.

3.3.4 Sexual reproduction:

 In this type of reproduction two parents are involved and their genetic
material combines.
 Gametes (sex cells) i.e. sperm and ova are produced by meiosis.
 Fertilisation takes place i.e. a haploid male gamete (sperm) and a
haploid female gamete (ovum) fuse to form a diploid zygote. The zygote
divides by mitosis to form an embryo and later, a new organism.
20
Life Sciences Grade 11 Term 1

3.3.5 Advantages of sexual reproduction:

 The offspring are genetically different and shows greater genetic variation
and are able to withstand a variety of conditions.
 The genetic material of the parents is reshuffled and this reduces the
chances of inheriting a disease or weak characteristic from a parent.
 Farmers can select organisms with desirable characteristics and cross-
breed with them.

3.3.6 Disadvantages of sexual reproduction:

 Sexual reproduction takes longer than asexual reproduction because
gamete formation takes time.
 Fewer offspring are produced and this decreases the chances of survival.
 Energy expenditure is higher than in asexual reproduction.
 Plants that reproduce sexually rely on pollinating agents e.g. wind or
insects and to spread their pollen and seeds.

3.4 FLOWERS AS REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS:

3.4.1 The structures of the flowers of dicotyledonous and
monocotyledonous plants to understand pollination.
Figure 6: Structure of a flower of a dicotyledonous plant e.g. Petunia

 All the parts of a flower are actually modified leaves arranged in whorls.
 Each whorl is specialized to perform a specific function.
 The four whorls are the:
 calyx
 corolla
 androecium
 gynoecium
 The outermost whorl is called the calyx and consists of a number of green
sepals.
 The sepals protect the flower in the bud stage.
 All the floral parts are attached to a receptacle.
21
Life Sciences Grade 11 Term 1

 The corolla is made up of coloured petals.

 The petals attract insects and birds (pollinators) to the flower for
pollination.
 The calyx and corolla are known collectively as the perianth.
 The stamens (androecium)are the male part of the flower.
 Each stamen consists of a filament and an anther with pollen sacs in
which pollen is formed.
 Pollen grains are haploid and are produced by meiosis.
 The female part of the flower usually consists of carpels fused together to
form one or more pistils (gynoecium).
 Each pistil consists of a stigma, style and ovary.
 The stigma is sticky so that pollen grains can stick to it.
 Ovules are formed inside the ovary by meiosis.

Figure 7: Structure of a flower of a monocotyledonous plant e.g. Aloe

 The perianth in monocotyledonous flowers is not differentiated into two

whorls.
 The calyx and corolla are fused to form a perigone.
 The aloe flower consists of six perigone leaves.
 Perigone leaves are orange in colour and are fused at the base to form a
narrow tube
 The six stamens are arranged in two whorles of three each
 The pistil consists of a stigma, a long style and an ovary

3.4.2 What is pollination and define the different types of pollination?

 Pollination can be defined as the transfer of pollen from an anther to the
stigma of the same or the stigma of a different flower of the same species.
 Self-pollination occurs when pollen is transferred between flowers of the
same plant or the anther and the stigma of the same flower.

Figure 8: Structure of a flower to show self-pollination

22
Life Sciences Grade 11 Term 1

 Cross-pollination occurs when pollen is transfer from the flower of one

plant to the flower of another plant of the same species.

Figure 9: Structure of a flower to show cross-pollination

3.4.3 How are different flowers adapted for pollination?

 Pollination occurs by means of various pollinators e.g. wind, insects, birds,
small mammals and water.

3.4.4 Adaptations of a wind pollinated flower:

Wind pollinated flowers have the following characteristics:

 They do not have a scent or nectar.

 Flowers are often small and either green or brown in colour because they
do not need to attract pollinators.
 The male flowers have long filaments and large anthers which release
large quantities of pollen
 Pollen grains are small and light and easily carried by wind
 The flowers are borne on flexible stalks that move in the wind.
 Lack a calyx and a corolla
 Enormous amounts of pollen are produced
 Stigmas are long and feathery
23
Life Sciences Grade 11 Term 1

3.4.5 Adaptations of an insect pollinated flower:

Flowers that are pollinated by insects often have the following
characteristics:

 Large petals in bright colours.

 Sweet scent to attract insects.
 It produces nectar as food for the insects
 Sticky or spiky pollen grains which stick to the insect’s body.
 Anthers and stigmas are inside the flower so that the insect must brush
past them to get to the nectar thus transferring the pollen
 Large quantities of pollen are produced because some will be eaten by the
visiting insect.

3.4.6 Adaptations of a bird pollinated flower:

Flowers pollinated by birds usually have the following characteristics:

 Flowers are brightly coloured to attract birds

 Little or no scent because birds have a poor sense of smell.
 Stamens and stigmas protrude beyond the petals.
 Produce large quantities of dilute nectar.
 Flowers are bigger than most insect pollinated flowers.
 The flowers are carried above the leaves so that birds can reach them.

4. BIODIVERSITY OF ANIMALS:
 The Kingdom Animalia can be divided into two main groups:
 Invertebrates – animals without a vertebral column
 Vertebrates – animals with a vertebral column
 The vertebrates and invertebrates can be subdivided into phyla according
to shared characteristics. The six phyla that you need to know in Grade 11
are:
 Phylum: Porifera e.g. sponges
 Phylum: Cnidaria e.g blue bottles, jelly fish, sea anemones
 Phylum: Platyhelminthes e.g. tapeworms, Planaria
 Phylum: Annelida e.g. earth worms
 Phylum: Arthropoda e.g. crab, spider, locust
 Phylum: Chordata e.g. fish, mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians.

Figure 10: Phylogenetic tree of the Kingdom Animalia

24
Life Sciences Grade 11 Term 1

4.1 Key features of body plans of animals:

 A body plan is structural characteristics of an organism that separates it
from other organisms or groups of organisms.

4.1.1 Symmetry and cephalisation:

 An organism is symmetrical when it can be cut into two equal and
identical halves through one or more plane.
 Asymmetry – animals that show no symmetry i.e. they cannot be divided
into two equal halve e.g. sponges
 Radial symmetry - animal can be cut through more than one vertical
plane to obtain two equal halves e.g. Cnidaria
 Bilateral symmetry – animal can be divided into two equal halves in only
one vertical plane to obtain two equal halves. i.e. they have a left side and
a right side that are identical e.g. crayfish. Animals that have bilateral
symmetry are usually more advanced and have cephalisation.
 Cephalisation is when most of the sense organs, feeding appendages
and the brain are near the anterior part of the body

4.1.2 Tissue layers:

 The first tissue layers formed in the embryo are called germ layers. The
germ layers differentiate into different organs.
 Different tissue layers (germ layers) can be distinguished i.e. the
ectoderm (outer germ layer), endoderm (inner germ layer) and the
mesoderm (germ layer between the ectoderm and the endoderm).
 Animals that only have two germ layers (ecto- and endoderm) are called
diploblastic animals.
 Animals that have three tissue layers (ecto-, endo- and mesoderm) are
called triploblastic animals.
25
Life Sciences Grade 11 Term 1

4.1.3 Openings in the gut:

Animals with two openings to the gut can consume food through a mouth
opening and excrete waste through another opening called the anus. This
type of gut is also called a through-gut.
4.1.4 Coelom and blood systems:
 A coelom is an internal fluid-filled cavity that develops in the mesoderm
of triploblastic animals.
 Acoelomate - Animals without a coelom.
 Pseudocoelomate - some triploblastic organisms have a body cavity that
is not surrounded by mesoderm.
 Coelomate - animals have a body cavity or true coelom in their
mesodermal tissue layer.

4.1.5 The body plans and mode of life of the six phyla:
Table 3: Comparative table of the body plans and mode of life of
the six animal phyla:

Phylum Symmetry Number Throug Coelom or Mode

and of tissue h -gut no coelom of life
cephalisati layers or not and blood
on system
Porifera Asymmetric No tissue No Acoelomate Aquatic,
al with no layers and opening with no sessile
cephalisatio functions s to gut blood
n at cellular system
level
Cnidaria Radial Diploblasti Only one Acoelomate Aquatic,
symmetry c opening with no sessile,
with no to the blood free-
cephalisatio gut that system living
n acts as
both the
mouth
and the
anus
Platyhelmint Bilaterally Triploblasti Only one Acoelomate Parasitic
hes symmetrical c opening with no ,
with to the blood aquatic,
cephalizatio gut system free-
n living
Annelida Bilaterally Triploblasti Have a Coelomate - Aquatic
symmetrical c through- coelom is a or
with gut fluid-filled terrestri
al in
cephalizatio cavity that
moist
n is used as a environ
hydrostatic ments,
26
Life Sciences Grade 11 Term 1

skeleton for highly

movement. mobile
Have a
closed blood
system as
blood is
restricted to
blood
vessels
Arthropoda Bilaterally Triploblasti Have a Coelomate Aquatic
symmetrical c through- and an open or
with gut blood terrestri
al,
cephalizatio system
free-
n where blood
living
is not only
restricted in
blood
vessels
Chordata Bilaterally Triploblasti Have a Coelomate In the
symmetrical c through- and a air,
with gut closed blood aquatic
or
cephalizatio system
terrestri
n al,
free-
living

5. REVISION QUESTIONS:
 Answer the questions below.
 Work through the questions in your lessons.
 Please note that HIGHER ORDER questions are in BOLD and marked
with a (*)

QUESTIONS ON BIODIVERSITY OF MICROORGANISMS:

1. A Grade 11 learner investigated the optimum (ideal) temperature for
growth of bread mould. The learner used the following method:
 The learner selected four black plastic containers with lids.
 A slice of bread was placed in each container.
 Before closing the containers, 30 ml of water was sprinkled over each
slice.
 Container A was placed in a fridge (cold), container B was placed in a
cupboard (cool), container C was kept at room temperature (mild) and
container D was placed on a window sill (warm).
 After a week the slices of bread were removed from the containers and
placed next to each other.
The results of the investigation are shown below.
27
Life Sciences Grade 11 Term 1

(*)1.1Identify
(a) the dependent and (1)
(b) the independent variable in this investigation.
(1)
1.2 State the relationship between the growth of bread mould and
temperature. (2)
(*)1.3State TWO ways in which the learner ensured the validity of the
results. (2)
(*)1.4State ONE way in which the learner could have ensured that the
results
were reliable? (1)

1.5 The table below shows the results i.e. the percentage cover of bread
mould in the different containers.
CONTAINER PERCENTAGE COVER OF
BREAD MOULD (%)
A 5
B 25
C 75
D 95

Draw a bar graph to represent the results of this investigation. (6)

2. A sample was taken from a patient suffering from a throat infection. The
bacteria on the swab were cultured on a nutrient agar in a petri-dish. A
multidisc with a different type of antibiotic at the end of each of its six
arms was then placed on top of the bacteria. The two halves of the petri-dish
were then sealed together and placed in an incubator at 30 ºC. The
following diagram shows the result of the investigation after 48 hours:
28
Life Sciences Grade 11 Term 1

2.1 State ONE difference in activity between antibiotics B and F. (2)

2.2 The patient was known to be allergic to antibiotic B.
(a) Which antibiotic should the patient be given?
(1)
(*) (b) Explain your answer to QUESTION 2.2 (a).
(2)
2.3 The organism causing this infection seems to be resistant to two of these
antibiotics.
(a) Which TWO antibiotics are referred to in the statement above? (2)
(*) (b) Explain your answer to QUESTION 2.3 (a).
(2)
(*)2.4Antibiotics are ineffective against viral diseases. Why then, are
antibiotics sometimes given to people suffering from viral infections,
such as influenza (flu)?
(2)

QUESTIONS ON BIODIVERSITY OF PLANTS

3. Study the diagram below showing the structure of a flower.

3.1 Name the type of pollination that can be linked to this flower? Give ONE
reason for your answer. (2)
3.2 Identify the parts labelled A, B and C.
(3)
3.3 Use the letters A to F only and identify the following:
(a) Part which receives pollen. (1)
(b) Structure where a seed can form. (1)
(c) Part where pollen is produced. (1)
(*)3.4Tabulate TWO differences between wind and bird pollinated
flowers. (5)
29
Life Sciences Grade 11 Term 1

4. The diagram below shows plants and their algal ancestors. A, B and C
indicate key structural features in the evolution of higher plants. Study the
diagram and answer the questions which follow.

(*)4.1 Name the most important adaptation(s) that evolved at

each of the
positions labeled A, B and C. (3)
4.2 Name the division of plants that is represented as non-vascular plants in
the
diagram. (1)
(*)4.3 Explain why seedless vascular plants are able to grow taller
than the non-vascular plants.
(2)
4.4 State how the seeds of gymnosperms are different to the seeds of
angiosperms. (2)

QUESTIONS ON BIODIVERSITY OF ANIMALS:

5. The diagram below shows a phylogenetic tree of different animals. Study

the diagram and answer the questions that follow.
30
Life Sciences Grade 11 Term 1

5.1 According to this phylogenetic tree, name the ancestor of the animal
kingdom? (1)
(*)5.2State how many phyla are depicted in the phylogenetic tree.
(1) 5.3 The first major split in the animal kingdom was into radial-
and bilateral symmetry:
(a) Which phylum does not form part of the split?
(1) (b) Which phylum has radial symmetry?
(1)
(*)5.4From the phylogenetic tree, identify THREE phyla that have a true
body cavity as well as bilateral symmetry.
(3)
6. The diagram below shows the relationships between animal phyla. The
letters (A to D) indicate the characteristics shared by the different phyla of
animals which follow the letter. The point where various phyla differ from
each other is indicated by the branching-off/split into new phyla.

6.1 Which characteristic is shared by all the organisms in the animal kingdom
according to the diagram? (1)
6.2 Which LETTER represents each of the following characteristics with
respect to the body plan:
31
Life Sciences Grade 11 Term 1

(a) Cephalisation (1)

(b) Triploblasty (1)
(c) Coelom (1)
(d) Bilateral symmetry (1)
(e) Segmentation (1)
(f) Vertebral column (1)
(g) Symmetry (1)
6.3 Explain ONE importance of the development of a coelom. (2)
6.4 Write down the names of the phyla that display the characteristic
represented by C but not the characteristic represented by D. (2)
6.5 State ONE role of arthropods in agriculture. (1)

END OF DOCUMENT