RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Research is the systematic gathering and analysis of data to advance knowledge and
answer intellectual or practical questions. It is a journey of discovery driven by human
inquisitiveness. According to Webster's Dictionary, research involves the investigation
and interpretation of facts or revision of theories, while Clifford Woody defines it as a
process of defining problems, formulating hypotheses, collecting and analysing data, and
testing conclusions. Research, as an academic activity, seeks truth through observation,
comparison, and experimentation, contributing original insights and solving problems
through objective and systematic methods.

OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH

The primary objective of research is to uncover hidden truths through scientific methods
The objectives of research include:
Gaining familiarity or new insights into a phenomenon (exploratory or formulative
research).
Accurately describing the characteristics of individuals, situations, or groups (descriptive
research).
Determining the frequency of occurrences or associations (diagnostic research).

Testing hypotheses about causal relationships between variables (hypothesis-testing

research).

TYPES OF RESEARCH
Types of research include:
Descriptive vs Analytical Research: Descriptive focuses on identifying facts, while
analytical tests hypotheses using collected data.
Applied vs Fundamental Research: Applied solves practical problems, while fundamental
satisfies intellectual curiosity without immediate application.
Qualitative vs Quantitative Research: Qualitative explores non-measurable aspects, while
quantitative involves measurement and analysis.
Conceptual vs Empirical Research: Conceptual develops or interprets ideas through
reasoning, while empirical relies on verifiable data from observation or experiments.
Other Types of Research:
Time-based: One-time research studies a single time-period, while longitudinal spans
several periods.
Environment-based: Field-setting, laboratory, or simulation research.
Clinical/Diagnostic Research: Uses in-depth approaches or case studies to explore
causes.
Exploratory vs Formalized Research: Exploratory develops hypotheses; formalized tests
specific hypotheses.
Historical Research: Utilises historical documents and sources to study past events or
philosophies.
Conclusion-oriented vs Decision-oriented Research: Conclusion-oriented allows
flexibility in problem design, while decision-oriented supports specific decisions, such as
operations research.

RESEARCH APPROACHES
Research approaches are divided into:
Quantitative Approach: Involves data in quantitative form for rigorous analysis.
Inferential Research: Studies a sample to infer population characteristics, often
through surveys.
Experimental Research: Manipulates variables to observe their effects under
controlled conditions.
Simulation Research: Creates artificial environments to observe dynamic behaviours
or predict future conditions using numerical models.
Qualitative Approach: Focuses on subjective assessment of attitudes, opinions, and
behaviour. Results are non-quantitative and rely on techniques like focus group
interviews, projective techniques, and depth interviews.

RESEARCH METHODS VS METHODOLOGY:

Research Methods: Refer to techniques used to conduct research, including data
collection, statistical analysis, and result evaluation. These methods are grouped into:
1. Data collection methods.
2. Techniques for linking data with unknowns.
3. Methods for evaluating result accuracy.
Research Methodology: The systematic study of how research is conducted, including
the logic behind methods and techniques used. It evaluates decisions, ensures
relevance, and provides justification for chosen methods, making results reliable and
evaluable.
Methodology encompasses methods but also explains the rationale behind each step,
such as problem definition, hypothesis formulation, data collection, and analysis
techniques, ensuring the research process is transparent and scientifically valid.

RESEARCH PROCESS

The research process involves a series of interconnected steps that guide the systematic
investigation of a topic. These steps often overlap rather than following a strict
sequence.
Here’s an itemized breakdown of the research process and steps mentioned:
1. Formulating the Research Problem
Identify the problem or topic of interest.
Narrow down the problem into specific, operational terms.
Resolve ambiguities and consider feasibility.
Discuss with colleagues or experts for better clarity.
Review available literature to guide formulation
2. Extensive Literature Survey
Gather and review academic journals, books, conference proceedings, and reports.
Focus on conceptual literature (theories, concepts) and empirical literature (previous
studies).
Identify relevant data and material for the study.
3. Developing the Hypothesis
Create a tentative assumption to test.
Discuss with colleagues and examine available data.
Review similar studies and engage in personal investigations.
Hypotheses should be specific, clear, and limited to the research at hand.
4. Preparing the Research Design
Define the conceptual framework for conducting the research.
Choose appropriate research designs (exploration, description, diagnosis,
experimentation).
Consider the methods of data collection, time, and financial resources.
Ensure efficiency and minimal expenditure of effort.
5. Determining Sample Design
Decide how to select the sample from the population.
Use probability or nonprobability sampling methods (e.g., simple random, stratified,
quota, etc.).
Choose the most suitable sample design based on the study's purpose.
6. Collecting the Data
Collect primary data through surveys, experiments, or observations.
Use methods like interviews, telephone surveys, mailing questionnaires, and schedules.
Consider time, resources, and the scope of the study when choosing methods.
7. Execution of the Project
Implement the research plan while ensuring adherence to the design and timeline.
Ensure data is collected accurately and systematically.
8. Analysis of Data
Organize and analyze the collected data using appropriate statistical techniques.
Interpret the results to draw meaningful conclusions.
9. Hypothesis Testing
Test the validity of the hypothesis against the collected data.
Use statistical tests to assess whether the hypothesis holds true.
10. Generalizations and Interpretation
Make generalizations based on the data analysis.
Interpret findings in the context of the research problem.
11. Preparation of the Report or Presentation
Prepare a formal write-up of the research results, including conclusions and
recommendations.
Present findings to relevant stakeholders or publish the research.
Each of these steps is essential for ensuring the success and validity of the research
process.
Here’s an itemized breakdown of the report or thesis preparation process:
1. Preliminary Pages
Title and date of the report.
Acknowledgements.
Foreword.
Table of contents.
List of tables.
List of graphs and charts (if applicable).
 2. Main Text
Introduction:
Clear statement of research objectives.
Explanation of methodology.
Scope of study and limitations.
Summary of Findings:
Non-technical statement of findings and recommendations.
Summarization of extensive findings.
Main Report:
Logical sequence and sections in the body of the report.
Conclusion:
Clear and precise summary of research results.
3. End Matter
Appendices:
Include all technical data.
Bibliography:
List of consulted books, journals, reports, etc.
Index:
Especially for published research reports.
4. Writing Style
Concise and objective style.
Simple, clear language.
Avoid vague expressions like “it seems” or “there may be.”
Use charts and illustrations only when they enhance clarity.
5. Additional Elements
Mention calculated “confidence limits.”
State any constraints experienced during the research.
This structure ensures clarity, consistency, and professionalism in presenting the
research

CRITERIA FOR A GOOD RESEARCH

A good research maintains that all types of research share the scientific method as a
foundation, which ensures consistency and reliability across studies. It highlights that
good research must adhere to this common ground to maintain quality and credibility.
Good research must adhere to the scientific method and meet specific criteria:
1. The purpose and concepts should be clearly defined.
2. The research procedure must be detailed enough for replication.
3. The research design should yield objective results.
4. Flaws in the procedure should be honestly reported with their potential impact.
5. Data analysis should be adequate, with valid and reliable methods.
6. Conclusions must be based strictly on the data.
7. The researcher's experience and integrity contribute to its credibility.

Qualities of good research include being:

Systematic: Structured with clear steps, avoiding intuition.
Logical: Guided by logical reasoning (induction and deduction).
Empirical: Based on real-world data for external validity.
Replicable: Results must be verifiable through replication.

RESEARCH PROBLEMS
A research problem is a situation that causes confusion or concern, defined by its context
—who or what it involves, where, when, and why it occurs. Research problems arise from
personal or shared experiences, gaps in scientific literature, or shortcomings in theories.
They aim to clarify, correct, reconcile, or solve theoretical or practical issues.
Defining a research problem involves several steps:
1. State the problem in general terms with clarity and feasibility.
2. Understand its nature and origin through discussions and background study.
3. Survey available literature to identify data, methods, and challenges.
4. Engage in discussions to refine ideas and explore techniques or solutions.
5. Rephrase the problem into clear, specific terms for hypothesis development.

This systematic approach ensures the problem is well-defined and research goals are
focused.

PLAGIARISM
Plagiarism, as defined by Neville (2007, p. 28), involves knowingly taking another’s work
and presenting it as one’s own, either directly or indirectly. The term originates from the
Latin “plagiarius,” meaning “kidnapper” (MenagerBeeley & Paulos, 2006). It
encompasses using another’s ideas, words, or one’s prior work without proper citation,
constituting academic dishonesty and an ethical offense. Often equated with intellectual
theft, terms like theft, kidnap, and stealing are commonly used to describe it (Akbar,
2018). Plagiarism often arises from ignorance of citation practices or a lack of ethical
understanding. Despite clear guidelines on originality, paraphrasing, and citation, many
fail to follow them, making plagiarism widespread. Scientific research depends on strict,
universal standards to ensure academic integrity and credibility, regardless of cultural or
personal differences (Ober et al., 2013).
TYPES OF PLAGIARISM

The four types of plagiarism are:

Accidental Plagiarism: Occurs when sources are misquoted, omitted, or paraphrased

incorrectly without proper attribution, and is penalised like other forms.

Self-Plagiarism: Involves reusing or combining one's prior works without permission, or

submitting the same work for multiple assignments without approval.

Intentional Plagiarism: Deliberately claiming someone else’s work, such as copying

from online sources, misusing media without credit, or fabricating references.

Unintentional Plagiarism: Results from poor scholarly practices, such as careless

paraphrasing, excessive quoting, or improper citation.
Copy-paste plagiarism is common, while intentional and self-plagiarism often stem from
ignorance or disregard for ethical standards.

Penalties for Plagiarism

For Teachers, Researchers, and Staff:

1. Warning: A formal caution about the misconduct.

2. Academic Funding Freezing: Suspension or restriction of academic funding.

3. Promotion/Increment Delay: Stoppage or postponement of promotions or salary

increments.

4. Suspended Service: Temporary suspension from duties or responsibilities.

5. Degree Withdrawal: Revocation of academic qualifications.

6. Suspension: Suspension for a semester or academic year.

7. Expulsion: Removal from the university or institution.

8. Debarment from Research: Prohibition from accessing research funding, travel

grants, and fellowships.

9. Blacklisting: The individual may be blacklisted, preventing future employment in

academic or research institutions.

10. Public Notification: Public announcement of the blacklisting, which may include
publishing the offender’s details in newspapers or online.

For Students:

1. Failure Grade: A failing grade for the subject where plagiarism occurred.

2. Suspension: Suspension for a semester or academic session.

3. Expulsion: Expulsion from the university.

4. Blacklisting: Removal from eligibility for future academic or research opportunities,

and publication of the offense.

5. Notification: Informing relevant academic and research bodies about the violation.

Catching Plagiarism

Extrinsic Plagiarism Analysis: Involves simple methods like Google search or

advanced plagiarism detection tools like Turnitin, iThenticate, and others. These tools
compare the submitted document against large databases of existing research to spot
similarities.

Intrinsic Plagiarism Analysis: Focuses on identifying inconsistencies in the writing

style. It looks for discrepancies that suggest parts of the document may not be original,
even if no specific reference corpus is used.
Pereira et al. (2010) Detection Method:

Proposed a five-phase plagiarism detection method:

1. Language Normalization: Standardizing text for comparison.

2. Retrieval of Candidate Documents: Searching for similar documents.

3. Classifier Training: Developing algorithms to identify plagiarism.

4. Plagiarism Analysis: Analyzing documents for similarities.

5. Post-Processing: Refining results and interpretations.

How to Avoid Plagiarism

To prevent plagiarism, it's essential to follow these five rules:

1. Do Not Copy: Never imitate someone else’s work verbatim unless it's quoted and
properly cited. Even short excerpts should be placed in quotation marks, and the source
should be credited.

2. Write in Your Own Words: Express ideas in your own language. Paraphrasing should
be minimal, and you must cite the source even when paraphrasing.

3. Cite When in Doubt: If uncertain about whether a piece of information requires a

citation, it's better to cite than omit. This includes both direct quotes and paraphrased
content.

4. Do Not Reuse Your Own Work: If you wish to reuse your own previously published
material, you must cite it and get permission. This prevents self-plagiarism.

5. Ask Permission for Using External Materials: Always seek permission to use
someone else's work, such as figures, tables, or data, especially if it's not in the public
domain.

Common Knowledge

Common knowledge refers to facts that are widely known and undisputed. Students do
not need to cite information considered common knowledge (e.g., "The Earth orbits the
Sun"). However, opinions or arguments, even if widely accepted, should always be cited.

Techniques for Integrating Researched Information

1. Quoting: Use quotes sparingly and always cite the source. Exact sentences or
phrases are enclosed in quotation marks and referenced.

2. Paraphrasing: Express another author’s ideas in your own words while maintaining
the original meaning. The source must be cited.

3. Summarizing: Condense a larger passage into a shorter version while retaining its
main points. Citation is required.
4. Citation: Always provide full citation details both within the text and in the reference
list. This includes author names, titles, publication year, and other relevant details.

Conclusion

By adhering to these practices, writers and researchers can ensure they respect
intellectual property and avoid the repercussions of plagiarism.