ASE

SATIS 8-14
© Association for Science Education

First published in 1992 by

Association for Science Education
College Lane
Hatfield
Herts All09AA

Compiled and edited by

John Stringer

Designed, illustrated and produced by

Fieldwork Limited
2 Lower Brook Mews
Ipswich
Suffolk IP4 IRA

A catalogue record for this box is available-

from the British Library

Printed in England by
The Lavenham Press
Water Street
Lavenham
Suffolk

Box 3 ISBN 086357 1530

o
o
 Contents

Unit I A letter to Einstein ........................... 4

Unit! All to pot! ................................. IS

Unit 3 Audit your environment ..................... 24

Unit 4 Free soap .................................. 3 I

Unit 5 Hovercraft ................................. 39

Association for Science Education

 Science and Technology in Society 8-14 Team

Project Director John Stringer

Team Members Anabel Curry Polly Fenn Gerald Haigh

Rob Johnsey John Slade

Resources Grant Burleigh

Secretary Anne Tole

The material in this book may be copied only within the purchasing
institution. The permission of the publishers must be obtained before
reproducing the material for any other purpose.
A letter to
What are children's ideas about scientists? Do they have a stereotype
in mind? Albert Einstein might be seen to be close to that stereotype
- a shock-haired, eccentric character - yet there is an approachability
in his gentle, sympathetic face that many children warm to and find
attractive.

Einstein had many thousands of letters written to him in his lifetime;

the learned, the offensive and the cranky. Above all, he kept a huge
collection of letters from children; and he wrote back to them. Some
examples are reproduced.

Through 'Writing to Einstein' children can share their own thoughts

about science and scientists. Possibly they can consider some of the
'bigger' issues of science and technology.

Contents Part A
'Writing (a letter) to Einstein' or another scientist.

PartB
'Einstein the plumber' - career choices.
PartC
'A letter to the President' - discussing Einstein's prediction about the
dangers of misusing nuclear power.

By using the unit pupils will gain more understanding of the work of scientists.

recognise that scientists share ordinary human characteristics.

recognise the futility of racial stereotyping.

Curriculum focus To communicate, to apply and to investigate scientific and

technological knowledge and ideas, and to understand the history of
scientific ideas, are essential elements of a developing experience of
science.
Pupils should be given opportunities to develop their knowledge and
understanding of how scientific ideas change through time. They
should study the development of some important ideas in science.

Managing the unit You might like to reproduce the pictures of Einstein, or make them
available.

You could read extracts from some of the letters, or make them
available to pupils.

Pupils will need writing materials; notepaper (rather than file

paper or exercise books) might help to simulate letter-writing.

A LETTER TO EINSTEIN 3.1 © ASE 1992

Teacher notes

Part A PartC
Writing to Einstein A letter to the President
Through reading the letters and replies of Einstein Some of Einstein's famous letter of 1939 fore-
to a schoolchild, pupils are encouraged to write to: warning about the dangers of the nuclear bomb is
given to discuss. This leads to questions about
Einstein himself, or
prejudice - against science, against the able, and
a famous scientist - living or dead, or against people because of their racial or cultural
background.
a local scientist, who might be willing to reply.
In all parts, pupils could use word processing.

Part B
Random facts about Albert Einstein
Einstein the plumber
He had some of the most brilliant ideas about
After Einstein's declaration that, given his life
science and mathematics this century.
again, he would choose to be 'a plumber or a
pedlar', pupils are asked to write to Einstein and He had difficulty learning to play the violin. His
present their views on his decision. teacher once said, 'Albert you will never learn to
play until you learn to count!'

He was appalled to see his ideas applied to the

development of the atomic bomb.

He had a staggeringly high measured IQ.

This photograph shows Einstein as most of us But this is Albert Einstein as a young man - lively,
imagine him - a white-haired old man. vigorous, with a brilliant mind - perhaps the
greatest scientist of this century.

A LETTER TO EINSTEIN 3.1 © ASE 1992

PART A: PUPIL

Writing to Einstein

Einstein received many letters from children. He replied to them all.

Here are just two.
Tyfanwy Williams wrote to him from a school in South Africa.

St. Cyprian's School

Cape Town
South Africa
10th July 1946
Dear Sir,
I trust you will not consider it impertinence, but as you are the greatest scientist
that ever lived, I would like your autograph. Please do not think that I collect
famous people's autographs I do not. But I would like yours; if you are too busy, it
does not matter.
I probably would have written ages ago, only I was not aware that you were still alive.
I am not interested in history, and I thought that you had lived in the 18th century,
or somewhere round that time. I must have been mixing you up with Sir Isaac Newton or
someone. Anyway, I discovered during Maths one day that the mistress (who we can
always sidetrack) was talking about the most brilliant scientists. She mentioned that
you were in America, and when I asked whether you were buried there, and not in
England, she said, Well, you were not dead yet. I got so excited when I heard that,
that I all but got a Maths detention!
I am awfully interested in Science, so are quite a lot of people in my form at school.
My best friends are the Woodrow twins. Every night after Lights Out at school, Pat
Woodrow and I call out of our cubicle windows, which are next to each other and discuss
Astronomy, which we both prefer to anything as far as work goes. Pat has a telescope
and we study those stars that we can see. For the first part of the year we had the
Pleiades, and the constellation of Orion, then Castor and Pollux, and what we thought
to be Mars and Saturn. Now they have all moved over, and we usually have to creep past
the prefect's room to other parts of the building to carry on our observations. We
have been caught a few times now though, so its rather difficult.
Pat knows much more about the theoretical side than I do. What worries me mostly is
How can Space go on for Ever? I have read many books on the subject, but they all say
they could not possibly explain, as no ordinary reader would understand. If you do not
mind me staying so, I do not really see how it could be spiral. But then, of course,
you obviously know what you are saying, and I could not contradict!
I must apologise once more if I have taken up some of your valuable time. I am sorry
that you have become an American citizen, I would much prefer you in England.
I trust you are well, and will continue to make many more great Scientific discoveries.

I remain.
Yours Obediently,

Tyfanwy Williams

A LETTER TO EINSTEIN 3.1 © ASE 1992

Writing to Einstein

August 25,1946

Miss Tyfanwy Williams

St.Cyprian's School
Cape Town,
So. Africa

Dear Tyfanwy!

Thank you for your letter of July 10th. I have to apologize to you that I
am still among the living.

There will be a remedy for this, however.

Be not worried about "curved space". You will understand at a later time
that for it this status is the easiest it could possibly have. Used in the
right sense the word "curved" has not exactly the same meaning as in
everyday language.

I hope that yours and your friend's future astronomical investigations will
not be discovered anymore by the eyes and ears of your school-government.
This is the attitude taken by most good citizens toward their government
and I think rightly so.

Yours sincerely,

Albert Einstein.

A LETTER TO EINSTEIN 3.1 © ASE 1992

Writing to Einstein

St. Cyprian's School

Cape Town
19.9.46

Dear Sir,
I cannot tell you how thrilled I was to receive your letter yesterday. I still find it
hard to believe that the most famous scientist in the world actually answered my
letter! Thank you very much. The news that I had your signature went round the school
in no time, and gave everyone something to talk about.
At the moment we are having a Mathematics lesson. The Maths mistress does not like our
form, so we are meant to be working on our own. (She has refused to teach us as we
talk too much). It seems like the middle of Summer today; just the kind of day one
cannot stay inside on. Outside birds are singing, and all that sort of thing, and here
we sit learning that x and y is equal to something divided by something else! I wish I
understood Maths, for it is needed in astronomical calculations I believe.
I forgot to tell you, in my last letter, that I was a girl. I mean I am a girl. I
have always regretted this a great deal, but by now I have become more or less resigned
to the fact. Anyway, I hate dresses and dances and all the kind of rot girls usually
like. I much prefer horses and riding.
Long ago, before I wanted to become a scientist, I wanted to be a jockey and ride
horses in races. But that was ages ago, now. I hope you will not think any the less
of me for being a girl.
You can see the Southern Cross fine from the window of the room I have at school this
term. I wonder if you have ever seen it: It is an awfully fine constellation, and
when I am feeling fed up at night, after a day at school, I look at it, and it cheers
me up no end. I have been lucky enough to have seen both Southern Cross and North
Star, but I prefer our Southern Cross.
I say, I did not mean to sound disappointed about my discovery that you were still
alive. In fact I was just the opposite, for it's much nicer for one's favourite
scientist in history alive, than to know that he died something like a century ago. I
still wonder about space going on for ever, but I was very much encouraged by your
saying I would one day understand the theory of curved space. I had almost given up
hope that I ever would. I have been told that one must be pretty well advanced both
astronomically and mathematically, to agree with such statements. I am afraid that
from a theoretical point of view, my astronomy is just about on a par with my Maths for
the moment, that is I hope to improve both some day.
There is not any news at school except that we won the After-school Hockey last
Saturday. Thank you once again, for your letter and signature.

Yours sincerely,

Tyfanwy Williams

A LETTER TO EINSTEIN 3.1 ©ASEI992

Writing to Einstein

Einstein's answer to the second letter was:

'I do not mind that you are a girl. But the main thing is that you yourself
do not mind. There is no reason for it.'

/ How would you write to Einstein? What would you like to ask him?
Remember that he was the greatest scientist of his time. Discuss this
as a group, and write a letter to Einstein.

2 Who is the most interesting scientist you know about? What would
you like to ask them? Write a letter to this person (living or dead) and
ask them the questions only they can answer.

3 Write a letter to a local scientist - a teacher at your school, a friend,

or a parent from your school. Ask them about their work, and about
the problems that puzzle you.

A LETTER TO EINSTEIN 3.1 ©ASEI992

PART B: PUPIL

Einstein the plumber

In 1954, when he was 75 years old, Einstein wrote to the editor of The
Reporter magazine. This was a time when many clever people - both
scientists and those in the arts - were being mistrusted and threatened in
America.

'If I were a young man again, and had to decide how to make my living, I
would not try to become a scientist or scholar or teacher. I would rather
choose to be a plumber or a pedlar in the hope to find that modest
degree of independence still available under present circumstances.'

One of the many humorous replies was from R. Stanley Murray of the
'Stanley Plumbing and Heating Company'.

STANLEY PLUMBING & HEATING CO

CONTRACTORS
1212 SIXTH AVENUE
NEW YORK 19, N.Y.

November 11, 1954

Dr. Albert Einstein
Princeton University
Princeton, New Jersey

Dear Dr. Einstein:

As a plumber, I am very much interested in

your comment made in the letter being published in
the Reporter Magazine. Since my ambition has
always been to be a scholar and yours seems to be
a plumber, I suggest that as a team we would be
tremendously successful. We can be possessed of
both knowledge and independence.

I am ready to change the name of my firm to

read: Einstein and Stanley Plumbing Co.

Respectfully yours,

\ ^^-rv^&ti r^tVt-'Z'-M-*^

R. Stanley Murray

Imagine you are Einstein. You receive this letter. Is it a joke, or a serious
proposal?

How will you reply?

Write a letter to Stanley Murray, thank him for his kind offer. Tell him
what you plan to do about it.

10 A LETTER TO EINSTEIN 3.1 ©ASEI992

PART C: PUPIL

A letter to the President

Einstein wrote this letter to the President of the United States, Franklin D
Roosevelt, in 1939, just before the Second World War. In it, he predicted
the invention of the atomic bomb. Most of his predictions in the letter
were correct; but one was wrong - can you find it?

Imagine you were President Roosevelt. How would you reply to Einstein's
letter? Is he right? Or is he just a crank? What can you say and do?

Albert Einstein
Old Grove Rd.
Nassau Point
Peconic, Long Island

August 2nd, 1939

F.D. Roosevelt,
President of the United States,
White House
Washington D.C.

Sir:

Some recent work by E. Fermi and L. Szilard, which has been communicated
to me in manuscript, leads me to expect that the element uranium may be
turned into a new and important source of energy in the immediate
future. Certain aspects of the situation which has arisen seem to call
for watchfulness and, if necessary, quick action on the part of the
Administration. I believe therefore that it is my duty to bring to your
attention the following facts and recommendations:

In the course of the last four months it has been made probable
through the work of Joliot in France as well as Fermi and Szilard in
America that it may become possible to set up a nuclear chain reaction
in a large mass of uranium, by which vast amounts of power and large
quantities of new radium-like elements would be generated. Now it
appears almost certain that this could be achieved in the immediate
future.
This new phenomenon would also lead to the construction of bombs, and it
is conceivable though much less certain that extremely powerful
bombs of a new type may thus be constructed. A single bomb of this
type, carried by boat and exploded in a port, might very well destroy
the whole port together with some of the surrounding territory.
However, such bombs might very well prove to be too heavy for
transportation by air.

A LETTER TO EINSTEIN 3.1 ©ASEI992 II

A letter to the President

The United States has only very poor ores of uranium in moderate
quantities. There is some good ore in Canada and the former
Czechoslovakia, while the most important source of uranium is The
Belgian Congo.

In view of this situation you may think it desirable to have some

permanent contact maintained between the Administration and the group of
physicists working on chain reactions in America. One possible way of
achieving this might be for you to entrust with this task a person who
has your confidence and who could perhaps serve in an unofficial
capacity. His task might comprise the following:

a) to approach Government Departments, keep them informed of the

further development, and put forward recommendations for Government
action, giving particular attention to the problem of securing a supply
of uranium ore for the United States.

b) to speed up the experimental work, which is at present being

carried on within the limits of the budgets of University laboratories,
by providing funds, if such funds be required, through his contacts with
private persons who are willing to make contributions for this cause,
and perhaps also by obtaining the co-operation of industrial
laboratories which have the necessary equipment.

I understand that Germany has actually stopped the sale of uranium from
the Czechoslovakian mines which she has taken over. That she should
have taken such early action might perhaps be understood on the ground
that the son of the German Under-Secretary of State, von Weizsacker, is
attached to the Kaiser-Wilhelm-Institut in Berlin where some of the
American work on uranium is now being repeated.

Yours very truly,

(Albert Einstein)

|2 A LETTER TO EINSTEIN 3.1 ©ASEI992

A letter to the President

Here is President Roosevelt's reply:

THE WHITE HOUSE

WASHINGTON

October 19,1939

My dear Professor:

I want to thank you for your recent letter and the most
interesting and important enclosure.

I found this data of such import that I have convened a Board

consisting of the head of the Bureau of Standards and a chosen
representative of the Army and Navy to thoroughly investigate the
possibilities of your suggestion regarding the element of
uranium.

I am glad to say that Dr. Sachs will cooperate and work with this
Committee and I feel this is the most practical and effective
method of dealing with the subject.

Please accept my sincere thanks.

Very sincerely yours,

Dr. Albert Einstein,

Old Grove Road,
Nassau Point,
Peconic, Long Island,

Einstein's letter encouraged the Americans to launch the 'Manhattan

Project' which built the atomic bomb and led to the destruction of
Hiroshima and Nagasaki.

Einstein spoke out passionately against nuclear weapons. He was a pacifist

who rejected war and violence, believing that disputes should be settled
by peaceful means.

Albert Einstein died in 1 955, one week after signing a letter urging
scientists to get together to prevent nuclear war.

A LETTER TO EINSTEIN 3.1 ©ASEI992 13

A letter to the President

Questions for development

/ Is there such a person as 'a scientist'? What are they like? What
makes them different from ordinary people?

2 Is possible to develop scientific ideas without the danger that

someone will use them wrongly?

3 What are the big questions facing us today? What problems would you
like Einstein to tackle for us?

4 Do all scientists have to be super-intelligent? Is there a place for very

ordinary people in science and technology? Are they likely to make
great discoveries?

5 Einstein answered all his letters - especially those from children. Yet he
was a very busy man. What does that tell us about him?

6 Einstein was harshly treated by some people because of his racial

background. These people hated all jews, whoever they might be.
Why is it senseless to hate a whole group of people? What does
learning about Einstein tell us about individuals and groups?

|4 A LETTER TO EINSTEIN 3.1 ©ASEI992

All to pot!
Clay is an excellent subject for a materials study. Widely available,
varied, and with practical uses, it can be prepared and fired in most
schools. This unit looks at its chemistry, and the changes it
undergoes to produce a usable artefact.
There is a short amateur video to accompany this unit, called 'All to
pot'. It traces the stages of work in a small pottery.

Contents Part A
'All to pot!' - a factsheet on clays and clay products.
PartB
Exploring clay. Recording practical activities.
PartC
Making a pot.

By using the unit pupils will learn about the chemistry of clay, and the chemical changes
that produce pottery.

make their own observations of clay and its properties.

learn about the work of a commercial pottery.

make their own pots!

Curriculum focus Pupils should have the opportunity to compare and study a range of
physical properties, including density, and thermal and electrical
conductivity of materials. The materials could be man-made or
naturally occurring, and should be studied in everyday uses. This
study should involve working with solids, liquids and gases and
include ... ceramics.
Pupils should be made aware of the range of sources of raw
materials, including those derived from the air, rocks, fossil fuels and
living things. The work should illustrate ways in which chemical
reactions lead to the formation of new materials and relate to
everyday processes ...
They should investigate some natural material (rock or soil) and link
the properties of minerals and rocks to their uses as raw materials in
construction.

Managing the unit Parts A and B are concerned with the physical and chemical
properties of clay; Part C - coil, slab and slip pot making - is
optional, and might be an activity for the art department. Earth clay
is available in solid form or in plastic form. You are advised to buy it
in solid form as it is messy to make up from powder. Pieces of clay

ALL TO POT 3.1 ©ASEI992

can be sliced off this hunk easily with a string or wire tied to two
empty cotton reels. Interesting textures can be made by scraping and
pressing objects into the clay.

Clay is messy. Desk and table tops can be protected with a plastic bin
liner that has been cut open and taped down. (The plastic liner can
be thrown away afterwards.)

Save all excess clay in an airtight container to prevent it drying out.

If storing for longer than a few days, make a hole in the clay with a
thumb and fill the hole with water.

Clay can clog drains so scrape the excess into a storage container.

Children need to wear some protective clothing when working with

clay - an old shirt is ideal. If clay does find its way onto school
clothing then it should be allowed to dry completely and brushed off.

Pupils may wish to save the clay objects they have made. Allow the
objects to dry thoroughly and they can be painted with poster paints
and varnished. Of course, this will not make them waterproof.

It is not advisable to fire the clay products made by young pupils as

any air bubbles trapped in the clay - or escaping combined with
water - will explode and someone will be very disappointed.

The teacher factsheet on clay may be appropriate for some pupils.

The Gladstone Pottery Museum

Uttoxeter Road
Longton
Stoke on Trent
ST31PQ

0782 319232

encourages visitors to its working museum. Contact the Curator,

Angela Lee.

See 'Changing substances' in The Material World ( Nelson Balanced

Science ) by John Holman for more detail.

ALL TO POT 3.1 ©ASEI992

Teacher notes

Part A Part B
All to pot! Exploring clay
Pupils are asked to read a factsheet on clay. A This part asks pupils to observe and explore the
number of key words are given in bold. They are qualities of clay. It helps to have more than one
asked to draw up flowcharts to explain how a clay available. Pupils will ask you for water, fired
flowerpot and a china plate are made. clay, and glazed and coloured pottery. These
should be available from your art department.
The sheet introduces the chemistry of clay, and
deals with the changes that take place when clay is Question 9 asks the reasons for choosing slip
dried and fired. casting for industrial pottery. The answers are:
Clay has a giant layer structure. Water molecules Slip casting does not need skilled potters.
separate the layers of silicon, aluminium, oxygen
Using moulds, all the pots will be identical in size.
and hydrogen atoms when the clay is wet; that's
why the clay is malleable. Drying the clay Higher rates of production are possible.
evaporates these water molecules, and the clay
becomes crumbly instead of slippery. Firing the Note that slip casting can produce complex and
clay joins the layers together. The clay is hard; the irregular shapes, too. But slip moulds are
change is irreversible. expensive to produce.

PartC
Making a pot
Using a small amount of clay, pupils are asked to
make a coil or slab pot. It is sufficient to air dry
this. Note the precautions above about firing.

ALL TO POT 3.1 ©ASEI992 17

Factsheet on clay

There are many different clays. Earthenware is made from natural clay and is
fired at lower temperatures (950 °C and 1150 °C).
Kaolin is a natural, white clay containing mainly The fired clay is red brown, matt, and will not
silica and alumina. It is like a crystal in structure, hold a liquid. Originally, this was the name given
which makes it very strong. to any local clay. For the last two hundred years,
Kaolin is a primary clay; you find it where it was we have used it for a mixture of ball clay (25 %),
made. This clay is used to produce white or light china clay (25 %), flint (35 %), and china stone
coloured finishes. It can withstand very high (15%).
temperatures. Porcelain is a specially prepared clay containing
Ball clay contains similar chemicals to kaolin, but kaolin, ball clay, feldspar and flint. The clay is
it is finer and more plastic. After firing it turns white, hard, won't absorb water, and is fired at a
almost white. Ball clay has been moved - perhaps high temperature (1450 °C). This clay is not very
by water - from where it was made to where you plastic and is hard to work.
find it. It is a secondary clay. Bone china is the type of porcelain used in
Fireclay is similar to kaolin but contains more Britain. It is made of 25 % china clay, 25 % china
iron which gives the clay a buff colour when fired. stone, and 50% bone. Bone china is hard,
This clay can withstand high heat and so it is used intensely white, and allows light to pass through it.
as firebrick and as lining and shelves for kilns.
Stoneware is a mixture of several clays plus silica
and alumina. This mix results in a clay with good
properties of plasticity, colour, and firing
temperature. When fired, this clay becomes hard
and vitreous (it has a glass-like finish) and is able
to hold water without being glazed. After firing it
usually turns light grey. It's very like earthenware,
but fired at a higher temperature.

18 ALL TO POT 3.1 ©ASEI992

PART A: PUPIL

All to pot!

What is clay?
Try this

Read this carefully. Then draw Clay is a granite-type rock that has decomposed into tiny particles over
a flow chart of the stages in millions of years. It might be found in the same areas as the 'parent' rocks,
making or at the bottom of lakes or lagoons where they have been washed from
some high rock formation. Most clay, as it comes out of the ground, is
• a flowerpot. mixed with rocks, pebbles and sand. It must be made pure before it can
be used.
• a china plate.
The potter prepares clay for working by benching or wedging the clay. A
lump of clay is cut in half with a piece of wire. One half is lifted up and
slammed hard onto the table, then the other half is thrown on top of the
first. The process is repeated over and over again, until the cut clay is
completely smooth and free from air bubbles.

Benching clay takes a good deal of strength. It removes all the air trapped
in the clay. If any air is left in the clay then it will expand in the kiln. The
pot is likely to crack or even explode while drying or being fired. Now
the potter shapes the pot and leaves it to dry.

When the clay dries, water leaves the clay and the tiny particles are left
stuck together. A clay pot usually takes about two or three days to dry at
normal temperatures.

The first potters discovered that dried clay pots could not be used for
their cooking because the clay cracked over an open fire. Water and
other liquids can seep through the tiny pores in the dried clay. Slow
heating and cooling hardens clay that is free of air bubbles, so that it soaks
up water without going soft - like a flowerpot!

Fired clay is hard or brittle. But it is not waterproof. It needs to be glazed.

A glaze is a mixture of chemicals which, at a very high temperature,

react together to form the shiny, colourful surface that you have seen on
pottery.

The glaze is liquid, and the fired clay is dipped into the liquid or the glaze
may be painted onto the pot. The method used will depend on the size of
the pot, and the type of pattern the potter wants to create.

One of the first glazes was made from galena, or lead sulphide. Many
glazes use potentially harmful or poisonous.

The glazed pot is fired in a kiln heated either by electricity, gas or oil.
During firing the chemicals in the glazes will be oxidised or reduced.

Oxidation is the addition of oxygen to a substance. If the kiln

atmosphere is rich in oxygen, the glaze appears clear and bright.

ALL TO POT 3.1 ©ASEI992 19

All to pot!

Reduction is the removal of oxygen from a substance. Oxygen is

removed from the metal oxides and they become metal elements. The
glaze appears shiny and lustrous.

Reduction firing releases carbon into the kiln. The carbon takes the
oxygen from iron and copper oxides in reduction glazes. The normally
green copper then becomes a ruby red and the iron oxide a grey-green
colour.

You can make pots from slip by pouring the creamy mixture of clay and
water into special plaster of Paris moulds. The moulds absorb the water
from the slip, and so the clay builds up as a cast.

But why doesn't this layer stop the rest of the water being absorbed from
the clay? The answer is that alkalis, added to the slip, make it very liquid,
although it doesn't contain much water. This is because it acts as a
deflocculent - it stops the clay particles sticking together.

20 ALL TO POT 3.1 ©ASEI992

PART B: PUPIL

Exploring clay

The craft of pottery is more than seven thousand years old. Things that
are made from clay and then dried and baked hard in a hot oven called a
kiln are known as ceramic materials. They include bricks and tiles as well
as pottery.

Look closely at a lump of clay. How would you describe it? Think about
its colour.

/ Describe your day.

Is it hard or is it soft?

Is it smooth or is it rough?

Is it warm or is it cold?

What is its smell?

What is in clay and where does it come from?

Clay, like sand, is formed from rocks which have been broken down by
the action of wind, rain, rivers and even glaciers. Clay particles are much
smaller than sand particles and contain a different mixture of chemicals.
Soil contains groups of clay, and sand particles stuck together forming
crumbs of soil.

When you touched your lump of clay did you notice how soft and wet it
felt? This is because the tiny clay particles are covered with a layer of
water and this makes them stick together more strongly than sand
particles.

2 Add a little water to your lump of clay and 'work it' with your fingers. Try
stretching the day. What do you notice?

The plasticity of clay (being able to stretch and squeeze it) is very
important to the potter.

3 Take a small piece of the clay (about the size of your little finger) and add
more water to it What has happened to the clay?

The added water trickles into the tiny gaps between the clay particles and
is held there. Liquid (or runny) clay is called slip.

Ask your teacher for a piece of dried clay.

Compare it with the lump of clay you had at the start. Try snapping the
dried clay with your fingers.

Clay that has been left to dry in the air becomes hard. But it is not very
strong and can break easily.

4 Ask your teacher for a piece of day that has been baked or 'fired'. Is it the
same colour as the air-dried day?

ALL TO POT 3.1 ©ASEI992 21

Exploring clay

5 Does it have a gloss (shine) or is it matt (dull)?

During the firing process the colour of the clay changes because the
different chemicals in the clay are changed into new substances which
have a different colour.

6 Place a few drops of water onto the fired clay. What do you notice
happening?

7 Does the fired clay become soft when water is added to it?

The hard fired clay will never again become soft, even if left in water for
hundreds of years.

How do potters make their wares waterproof?

The earliest potters found that when their air-dried pots were slowly
These chemicals are used to make
baking, impurities in the clay, such as fine sand or even soot from the
glazes:
fires, formed a layer that strengthened and waterproofed the pots. These
Chemical Colour of glaze potters had made an important discovery. They had discovered the first
Vanadium Oxide Yellows glazes.
Chromium Oxide Greens (pink in
This glazed surface, as well as looking pretty, makes a waterproof coating
some glazes)
for both the inside and the outside of the pot. It is the glazed finish inside
Manganese Oxide Purple Brown
a coffee cup that keeps the liquid there until it has been drunk!
Iron Oxide Browns and
Blacks Have a look at the samples of glazed pottery.
Cobalt Oxide Blues
Nickel Oxide Greys
8 What chemicals were used to glaze your pottery samples?
Copper Oxide Greens, Purples
(Reds in some The first potters moulded the clay into shape with their hands, or coiled
glazes)
long 'snakes' of clay round and round to build up the sides of bowls and
Uranium Oxide Yellows and Reds
jugs. The pots were then decorated by scratching patterns or by pressing
Tin Oxide White cord or matting on the wet clay. Patterns were also painted on with
different coloured clays.

Slip casting
Imagine you are a potter. You've just had an order for five hundred
celebration drinking mugs from a school. They must be identical. They
must be well shaped. And they must be ready by the end of next week.
You haven't enough skilled potters to make them.

You think of slip casting.

Slip casting uses hollow moulds. There is no need to throw and mould
pots. Pots can be produced very quickly. You call in some casual labour.
Now you can do the job!

9 Explain why you would choose slip casting, rather than throwing pots.

Mould making is a skilled job. Moulds are expensive. Nothing is without cost!

22 ALL TO POT 3.1 © ASE 1992

PART C: PUPIL

Making a pot

Try this

Use your lump of clay to make

a model or pot. Here are some
ideas you might like to use:

Slab pots Roll out your lump

of clay using a roller or bottle
to form a flat slab. Cut five
equal squares from the slab
and fix them together as
shown in the picture.

Coil pots Squeeze the lump

of clay in your hands to make a
sausage shape. Flatten some of
the clay to make a bottom for
your pot about six centimetres
in diameter. Break off a piece
of the sausage and roll it on
the workboard until it is about
I cm thick. Coil the clay around
the base to make a pot.

Slip pots You will need a

mould and access to a kiln for
this.

slip poured into mould I ayer of clays builds up

cast dries mould removed

excess slip poured away

When you have finished ask your teacher if you can watch the video
called ALL TO POT!

ALL TO POT 3.1 © ASE 1992 23

Audit your environment
This unit introduces some fresh ways of looking at your own
environment. How is environmental quality judged? What constitutes
an environment in need of protection? How far should we go to
protect and preserve that environment?

Contents Part A
Float a frisbee! Using a toy as a quadrat.
PartB
Triple-ess eye. Sites of Special Scientific Interest.

PartC
All along the line. A simple transect.
PartD
Moving a meadow. Rescuing a wildflower environment.
PartE
Adopt an area. Improving an area near you.

By using the unit pupils will develop a better understanding and appreciation of their own
environment.
understand how a simple environment may show small local
differences.
learn how animals and plants show adaptations to their
surroundings.
consider ways of improving environments without damage.
appreciate that different environments make different demands on
animals and plants.

Curriculum focus Pupils should consider the benefits and drawbacks of applying
scientific and technological ideas to themselves, industry, the
environment and community. Through this study they should begin
to understand how science shapes and influences the quality of their
lives.
Pupils should study a variety of habitats at first hand and make use of
secondary sources to investigate the range of seasonal and daily
variation in physical factors, and the features of organisms which
enable them to survive these changes. They should come to
appreciate that beneficial products and services need to be balanced
against any harmful effects on the environment.

24 AUDIT YOUR ENVIRONMENT 3.1 © ASE 1992

Teacher notes

Part A laying it; ensuring that the plants will grow;

Float a frisbee! aftercare.

This part asks pupils to look very closely at their

PartE
area using a modification of the 'random quadrat'.
A frisbee, paper or plastic plate, thrown at Adopt an area
random, will disclose different plants and animals. Pupils are asked to think of ways in which they
If pupils are set the challenge of finding different would record the changes in an area during a day;
plants and animals with every throw, they quickly the instruments to use, where and how to place
learn to throw into varied areas - longer grass, them.
path edges - where different species will be found.
They are asked to design an experiment to
Where collecting will not cause damage, specimens discover whether light, or changing temperature,
can be taken back for identifying and for study. causes daisies to open and close daily.

Both are examples of experimental design; an

Part B
obvious follow-up is to try them in practice.
Triple-ess eye
An SSSI ('Triple-ess eye') - a Site of Special Teacher information
Scientific Interest - is subject to restrictions and The Nature Conservancy Council was split in
controls. This part looks at the reasons for April 1991 into:
selecting an SSSI, and the effects on the owner
and visitors. The Nature Conservancy Council for England
(English Nature);
A paired roleplay between a farmer and a
naturalist tackles some of the issues of declaring an The Nature Conservancy Council for Scotland,
which merged with the Countryside Commission
SSSI.
to form the Scottish Natural Heritage Council;

PartC The Countryside Council for Wales, formed from

All along the line the Nature Conservancy Council for Wales and
the Countryside Commission for Wales; and
String and a hand lens (magnifying glass) are used
for a simple transect. Pupils are asked to record The Joint Nature Conservation Committee
the plants and animals they discover. A good 'overseas, national and international issues'.
transect will cross some changes - a path edge, or This was a result of the Environmental Protection
a hedgerow. Act of September 1990.

PartD
Moving a meadow
A real life story of how a wildlife meadow was
moved and relaid. Pupils are asked to write (or
draw) a flow chart of the proces.

They need to think about planning; matching the

area; clearing the site; matching the soils and
aspect; cutting and transporting the meadow;

AUDIT YOUR ENVIRONMENT 3.1 © ASE 1992 25

PART A: PUPIL

Float a frisbee!

How can you find out what plants and animals live on a piece of land? A
You will need
fun way is to get some friends to throw a frisbee with you! Only don't try
A frisbee to catch it!
A safe, clean, open space
Each time the frisbee lands, look under it, and try to find something new -
something that you haven't seen before; a leaf, a seed, a small plant.

/ How many can you find in one small area?

2 Does rt matter where you throw the frisbee?

3 What could you use instead of a frisbee? A plastic plate, perhaps?

MI
•••

26 AUDIT YOUR ENVIRONMENT 3.1 © ASE 1992

PART B: PUPIL

'Triple-ess eye*

You will find every piece of land you look at is special. But not every piece
of land can be left just as it is. We need land for building, and for farming.
How can we protect the extra-special sites - the ones with unique plants
and animals, or too precious to damage?

They may be chosen as an SSSI - a Site of Special Scientific

Interest. Possible SSSIs are surveyed by scientists. If they find out that
the area is special - it has plants and animals on it that are rare, or there
are special conditions that support an unusual population of plants or
animals - then they ask that it be made an SSSI.

For three months, there are discussions between the owners of the land,
and the scientists. All the evidence is heard. Then, if it is agreed that the
site should be protected, it becomes an SSSI, and building, farming,
trapping of animals, and picking or damaging of plants, is controlled.

5671 sites in Great Britain had been chosen as SSSIs in March 1991.
English Nature, the Scottish Natural Heritage Council, or the Countryside
Council for Wales will tell you if there is one near you!

Try this

Read this with a friend. Each take one side, and argue for it.

You are a farmer, and the owner of a piece of meadowland that you
have been using for grazing for some years.

Recently, a rare plant was discovered growing on the land, and now
scientists want to make it an SSSI.

You don't want to damage the plants, either, but you have a business to
run, and your land has to work for you. You can still let animals graze the
meadow, but now you want to put down herbicide and fertilizer to
improve the grass, and the scientists won't let you.

Perhaps they would buy the field from you and you could buy land
elsewhere?

You are a scientist with English Nature, the Scottish Natural Heritage
Council, or the Countryside Council for Wales.

You have been told that a population of very rare plants is growing on a
local meadow. There are very few in the country, and you want to make
the meadow an SSSI.

The farmer is being difficult; he uses the meadow for grazing but now he
wants to put down herbicide and fertilizer, and you know that the rare
plants will be destroyed.

You have very little money to spend on the project.

Write a report on what you each had to say.

AUDIT YOUR ENVIRONMENT 3.1 ©ASEI992 27

PART C: PUPIL

All along the line

An area of land is not the same all over. Differences in conditions can
You will need
provide places for different sorts of plants and animals. A hedge, a path or
5m of string its edge, some uncut grass, or a few stones, can make a different living place.
A hand lens
Try this

One easy way to see this is to stretch a piece of string across some
ground. Five metres of string will do.

Start at one end, and go along it slowly, bending or crouching down.

Look carefully at everything that touches the string. You might need a
magnifying glass.

You could draw a line in your notebook, and draw or mark the plants on
it. Mark any animals, too. You might be able to name some. If not, give the
plants names or labels of your own. The most important thing is to look
for change.

Why do the living things change as you go along the line?

28 AUDIT YOUR ENVIRONMENT 3.1 © ASE 1992

 PART D: PUPIL

Moving a meadow

When TESCO planned to open a new store in Solihull, near Birmingham,

they chose a site called Shelly Green Hay Meadow, which had many rare
wild flowers.

To save the meadow, volunteers from Warwickshire's Nature

Conservation Trust cut thousands of turves from the meadow, together
with the wild flower roots, put them on wooden palletts, and moved the
meadow to a new site by lorry.

The Trust chose a site with conditions as close to the original meadow as
possible. They tried to match the original soil, the direction of the field to
the sun, and the original slope. There, they lay down the cut turves like a
huge chessboard.

It wasn't possible to use the meadow as it had been before - with a hay
crop in the summer, and cattle grazing on it in the winter. Then there was
wet weather, and there were problems with drainage. These all affected
the meadow. It wasn't possible to save all the different types of wild
flowers in these changed conditions.

Here is a flow chart for putting on

your shoes and socks!

Find pair of shoes

Y
find matching socks

Y
sit down

Y
put on left sock

Y
put on right sock

Y
put on left shoe
Areas like Shelly Green Hay Meadow are very delicate; moving them is a
Y
difficult and expensive business. The Trust expects it to be some years - if
put on right shoe
ever - before the meadow can be quite as beautiful as it once was.
Y
stand up!
Try this

Read 'Moving a meadow'. Write a flow chart for all the stages needed to
move the meadow. You might start with 'measure the meadow' or
'choose a new place to put it'!

Will your flow chart ensure that the new meadow is a success?

AUDIT YOUR ENVIRONMENT 3.1 © ASE 1992 29

PART E: PUPIL

Adopt an area

You aren't likely to have an SSSI - a Site of Special Scientific Interest - in

your school grounds. And you probably haven't got a meadow worth
putting on a lorry to save! But you can find out more about your special
area. In particular, you can find out how it changes!

It will change with the seasons, of course; in summer or winter, with the
rain, sun, and snow. The summer is warmer, and the days are longer. The
sun is brighter, and it's probably drier. The trees will have leaves, shading
the ground.

/ Can you think of any other seasonal differences?

But there are daily changes, too. Changes in temperature, brightness,

wetness; and others.

2 How would you test for them?

3 How would you make a graph of the changes on a piece of the school
grounds through a school day?

Make an action plan.

List the materials - especially the instruments you would use.

4 Where would you put the instruments?

5 How would you read them - and how often?

6 How would you record your results?

A friend notices that daisies are open in the day; but the same daisies are
closed at night.

7 Write an action plan to find out if it is light, or temperature, or a mixture of

both, that opens and closes the daisies.

You could use datalogging to record your results.

30 AUDIT YOUR ENVIRONMENT 3.1 © ASE 1992

 Free soap
This unit was one product of the Harare Generator, an international
curriculum development project that took place in January 1991.

Its development was the result of a SATIS-like activity. Teachers

told each other science based stories and this was one that emerged.

Lizzy and Tendai's experiences with 'Free Soap' offer a cross-

cultural context for science activities. People who come into African
cities looking for work are usually without money. Their only option
is to squat - to put up a temporary shelter. This is illegal in most
cities. Many African countries lack the funds to support them.

When squatter camps are bulldozed, no alternative is provided.

People are told to return to the rural areas.

Contents Part A
'White hands' - a story and questions.

PartB
Testing the water samples.

PartC
'What to do?' Discussion, role play, and design.

By using the unit pupils will learn that chemical pollution is an international problem.

discuss a strategy for investigation.

practically analyse water samples.

investigate pH and neutralisation.

devise a range of ways for resolving the pollution problem.

Curriculum focus Pupils should be given opportunities to develop their awareness of

the importance of science in everyday life, and, building on their
earlier experience, their growing knowledge and understanding, and
their increasing maturity, to study how science is applied in a variety
of contexts. Through this study they should begin to understand how
science shapes and influences the quality of their lives.

Pupils should be encouraged to develop investigative skills and

understanding of science through activities which ... are set within
their everyday experience and in wider contexts, and which require
the deployment of their investigative skills, and the use and
development of scientific knowledge.

Using indicators, they should classify aqueous solutions as acidic or

alkaline on the basis of their pH and investigate the reaction between
acids and bases.
FREE SOAP 3.1 © ASE 1992 31
 Pupils should investigate practically, and by the use of secondary
sources, the properties of water, the water cycle, conservation of
water resources, and the effect of water on the Earth's surface.

Managing the unit Do not attempt Parts B and C until Part A has been done. Part A
could easily be done for homework the night before they tackle the
experiment in Part B. Preparation of the role play in Part C could
also be a valuable homework activity.
Trial schools extended the unit by
finding ways to neutralise the effluent.
making soap.
The unit fitted well into environmental care projects. Part C was
enjoyably explored by one expressive arts department.

32 FREE SOAP 3.1 ©ASEI992

Teacher notes

For Part B you will need two prepared water 8 The excess alkali could be neutralized with acid.
samples, labelled 'upstream' and 'downstream'. At its simplest, this could be done by collecting
batches of effluent water and adding enough
Remind pupils that the water samples must dilute acid to give a neutral pH. A more
not be tasted or allowed on the skin. Eye sophisticated system might involve a continuous
protection must be worn. flow of dilute acid controlled automatically by a
device linked to a pH sensor.
Upstream water sample
You will need plain tap water at room temperature. Pupils will also need
Each group will need 20 cm3 . Add a little sand to
simulate river water. small beakers or large test tubes to put the water
samples in,
Downstream water sample universal indicator paper,
To 500cm3 of tap water in a 1000cm3 beaker, add
5 cm3 of bench(2 @ mol dm-3) Sodium Hydroxide thermometers (0-100°C).
solution and about a spatula load of soap flakes (or
parings from a soap bar). Stir until the soap has
Part C can be developed as a roleplay, with each of
dissolved to give a cloudy solution. Just before the
five people playing prepared roles. Alternatively,
start of the lesson, warm to about 10 °C above
they can design a system which would resolve the
room temperature. Add a little sand. Each group
pollution problem.
will need about 20 cm3 of solution. Prepare in
advance of Part B.

Answers to some of the questions

2 At this stage, pupils will only be able to suggest

that some kind of effluent from the factory is
involved.
3 Tests will need to be done on the effluent water,
comparing it with control samples of water from
upstream of the factory.
4 & 5 The downstream sample is cloudier,
warmer and has a more alkaline pH.
6 & 7 Soap manufacture involved boiling fats and
oils with an alkali, usually sodium or potassium
hydroxide. This is saponification. It is likely that
some of the excess alkali is being discharged
with the effluent.

FREE SOAP 3.1 ©ASEI992 33

PART A: PUPIL

White hands

DIRECTION
OF FLOW

34 FREE SOAP 3.1 © ASE 1992

White hands

Tendai lives in a squatter camp in Kenya. There are many camps like this,
usually outside big cities. Poor people without houses live in shelters built
from corrugated zinc, wood and cardboard.

This is a story told by Tendai:

'One day as I was getting ready to go to school, two large bulldozers

drove into our squatter camp. Over a loud speaker, we were told to
move out immediately. The area was to be used for building a new
housing complex. So my parents, my sister, Lizzy, and I together
with all the other people living in the camp, had to leave and look for
a new place to live.

I must say that we were lucky! Old Mahobho found a very nice place
for us along the Makodozi river. The place was not far from a soap
factory. We could hardly believe our luck, when we discovered that
the water in the river was soapy! We had actually discovered "Free
Soap"! We would wash as much as we wanted and my mother did
not have to buy washing soap.

About two weeks later, Lizzy's hands began to turn white. Nobody in
the family worried much about it because she had always been sickly.
Three days later two other women also developed white hands.
When more than twenty other people developed the same problem,
we became alarmed. By this time Lizzy's hands had started to crack
and develop sores. This rapid spread of the disease reminded us of
the measles epidemic of the previous year which had killed several
children.'

/ What would you have done if you had developed white hands?

2 What do you suspect was the cause of the white hands?

3 Suppose you are a scientist who has been asked to investigate the
problem. What would you do?

FREE SOAP 3.1 ©ASEI992 35

PART B: PUPIL

Testing the water samples

This is what the squatters decided to do:

Mahobho brought all the affected people together and accompanied them
to the health clinic. The sister in charge had no treatment for white hands
and so referred them to a doctor at the city hospital. The doctor
suggested sending scientists to the area to investigate the cause of the
epidemic.

Now imagine that you are one of the scientists and your task is to test
the river water. You have been given two samples of water. One from the
upstream and one from downstream.

Try this

For each sample:

DOWNSTREAM

a Observe the appearance.What does it look like?

b Test the pH using Universal Indicator paper.

c Measure the temperature.

Then complete the table below:

Upstream Downstream
water sample water sample

Appearance

Temperature

PH

/ Is there any difference between the two water samples?

2 If there is a difference, what is the difference?

3 What could have caused this difference?

4 How do you think the substance got into the water?

5 a How could the problem be cured so the downstream river water is

safe to use?

b Use your idea from (a) to design a simple system that could be fitted
into the outlet for the discharge water.

36 FREE SOAP 3.1 ©ASEI992

 PART C: PUPIL

What to do?

Actors

Mahobho
The doctor
The manager of the soap factory
The local councillor
The social welfare officer

Introduction

Eventually the scientists found the cause of the problem. Alkaline Sodium
hydroxide was being discharged into the river from the factory, mixed
with soapy water. The alkali could be neutralized by acid before the water
is discharged - but this will cost £5000 to set up. The factory owners say
they cannot afford it. This meeting is to decide what should happen.

Rolecard Rolecard

Mahobho The doctor

You are a community elder. The people listen to You work at the City Hospital. You were the first
you because of your wisdom and experience. You to recognise the seriousness of the villagers'
chose the squatter camp site because it was close illness. You suggested that Government Scientists
to clean water and the soap factory had work for be sent to the area. The latest tests show that the
the people of the camp. You are angry and water is safe, but will the problem happen again?
disappointed. The people will expect you to find Can you be sure that the people are receiving the
somewhere else. best possible health care?

The local councillor says that squatting is illegal. In You insist that the town council provide water for
the eyes of the councillor, you are not an the squatter camp that is clean and safe.
important person, just another illegal squatter.
The soap factory manager says the problem is
solved - but is that true?

Your people are poor, but they have a right to a

place to live - and to work.

FREE SOAP 3.1 ©ASEI992 37

Hovercraft
Over one hundred years ago an Englishman, John Thornecroft, took
out a patent for a hovercraft, rather like the ones we see today. The
hovercraft 'floats' above water or land, instead of touching it. With its
cushion of air, the craft travels rapidly because there is little friction.
Thornecroft's idea was not developed at the time, but in 1954
another Englishman, Christopher Cockerell, had the same idea. He
experimented with tin cans and a 'reversed' vacuum cleaner. When
air was blown in, the tins lifted and the working hovercraft had been
invented. He went on to make balsa wood models before the full size
prototype made its maiden voyage across the English Channel on
25th July 1959.

Hovercraft attributes can best be investigated by re-creating a

working model.

By using the following plans for an air-intake as a starting point,

investigations can be made into how to make the model work to its
best advantage. This can be related to wider issues about the history
and use of hovercraft.

Contents Part A
Putting on the pressure; basic ideas behind hovercraft design.

Part B
Modelling a hovercraft.

PartC
Electric circuit.

PartD
Development file.

PartE
Cross-Channel choice.

PartF
Hovercraft history.

By using the unit pupils will model a working hovercraft.

explore air pressure.

model and test pneumatic systems.

apply basic electrics.

investigate hovercraft efficiency.

HOVERCRAFT 3.1 ©ASEI992 39

 Curriculum focus Pupils should be given opportunities to develop their awareness of
the importance of science in everyday life ... to study how science is
applied in a variety of contexts.
Pupils should be given opportunities to develop their knowledge and
understanding of how scientific ideas change through time. They
should study the development of some important ideas in science.
Pupils should investigate a wider range of components in electrical
circuits and appreciate the means of controlling electricity using a
variety of components such as ... switches. Their investigation should
be in the context of everyday applications and devices including
electric motors.
Pupils should discover that forces can act to change the shape of
things, to begin to move or stop them, and should investigate the
factors involved in producing and maintaining motion. This work
should make references to friction and be related to human and
vehicular movement with particular reference to road safety.

Managing the unit The basic hovercraft design given works very well. It can be
developed in a range of ways to improve load-carrying and investigate
cushion-of-air machines.
It is very heavy on batteries, and will quickly wear down even the
Duracell type. Running it on a lead from a battery box doesn't model
the real hovercraft.
Parts B and C detail the actual modelling. The other parts are
optional.

40 HOVERCRAFT 3.1 ©ASEI992

Teacher notes

Part A wire stripper,

Putting on the pressure glue,
You will need strong clear tape.
a range of plastic syringes of different sizes,
tight-fitting plastic tubes, Do not use thin wire with rechargeable
batteries - heating danger.
plastic tee-joints,
Small battery boxes ensure good contacts. Careful
vaseline to lubricate the syringe barrels.
placing of the batteries will balance the finished
hovercraft.
Part B
Modelling a hovercraft Part D
You will need Development file
copies of the design plan, Use this to record the model design, and the
thin, stiff card (cereal boxes are ideal), performance.
polystyrene ceiling tile or corriflute sheet,
PartE
thin plastic carrier bags,
Cross-Channel choices
glue,
You will need
strong clear tape,
a range of Cross-Channel brochures - including
scissors, the hoverspeed service - to compare times, costs,
craft knives, etc. Share experiences and opinions in groups.
cutting boards,
Part F
5" diameter (13 cm) plastic propellers,
small electric motor (3-4.5 volt, or 9 volt). Answers

1 John Thornecroft lacked the technology to

Care with craft knives. realise his idea. Sir Christopher Cockerell
applied skills of experiment and invention to his
Trying various hovercraft sizes is suggested; 10" by models, and was able to apply technology to the
12" (25 by 30 cm) is a good size. full size product.

2 There were few machines that could make the

PartC transition from water to land, and travel as
Electric circuit efficiently on both.
You will need 3 Hovercraft offer rapid access over rough and
thin bell wire, varied terrain; but are heavy on fuel.
a small on/off switch (directions are given to model Hovercraft are used to supply inaccessible parts of
one), the world. Pupils could discuss their efficiency and
batteries to match the motor - either a 9 volt cost-effectiveness.
powerpack, or four AA batteries,

HOVERCRAFT 3.1 ©ASEI992 41

PART A: PUPIL

Putting on the pressure

Air has great strength under pressure. The greater the pressure
difference between the air under pressure and the atmosphere, the
stronger the force is, and the more work it can do.

You can explore compressed air using these closed pressure (pneumatic)
systems.

plastic tee - joint

/ When air is squashed or compressed, do you think it could lift the

hovercraft?

2 Does doubling the area under the hovercraft double the weight it can
carry?

3 Does doubling the pressure have the same effect?

Basic principles for hovercraft design

hovercraft base

t.-t -f. Ji.^ f.-f I./v.1 ••'*:• rt 't.: f.-f-^:vVi V'M-f f 'W't \-\-\J-i <\\ i-t'f fi

42 HOVERCRAFT 3.1 ©ASEI992

PART B: PUPIL

Modelling a hovercraft

Air intake

Cut this from stiff card (cereal boxes are ideal) - score and fold it along the dotted lines.

\
\
\

\
\
\
\
\
\
\

HOVERCRAFT 3.1 ©ASEI992 43

Modelling a hovercraft

b
<^

44 HOVERCRAFT 3.1 ©ASEI992

PART C: PUPIL

Electric circuit

Power points

/ What is the voltage range of the motor?

2 Have you got the right batteries for the motor?

• More volts mean more power, but this means more (or bigger)
batteries.

• More batteries will mean more weight to be carried (if mounted on the
model).

• Propellers can have different diameters or number of blades. What

difference does that make?

• The pitch (amount of 'twist') can make a difference. Try it.

HOVERCRAFT 3.1 ©ASEI992 45

Prototype number Date 0 73
(D
Development team
TJ
H c
TJ
Batteries o
-o
volts

On board / Remote
3
CD
Total model weight (grams) 3

Propeller diameter cm

blades

Base area (cm 2)

Base material
Base plan: scale J 10cm

Skirt material

Performance notes

Surfaces, successful on

Next development
Surfaces, not successful on
PART E: PUPIL

Cross-Channel choices

The hovercraft is just one of several ways to cross the Channel. What do
these offer in terms of cost, time, safety, comfort and convenience?

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i n ii n ii ii ii II II II II II II llTH II II II

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Hovercraft

Ferry

Hydrofoil

Air

Rail Tunnel

HOVERCRAFT 3.1 ©ASEI992 47

PART F: PUPIL

Hovercraft history

John Thornecroft, an Englishman, thought up the hovercraft over a

hundred years ago; but he never built one.

Sir Christopher Cockerell made the first hovercraft. It could travel over
land and water.

Sir Christopher Cockerell trained as an engineer. He was fascinated by

the idea of a machine travelling on a cushion of air.

Other scientists had already shown that a machine like an upside-down

tea tray would float on an air cushion, pumped down from above; but the
air quickly escaped round the edges.

Cockerell tried experimenting with models made from old tins and a
vacuum cleaner. He found that air, blasted down from jets underneath,
could be stopped from escaping by a rubber skirt.

His first hovercraft tests in 1959 were very exciting. His experimental
hovercraft travelled along the water near Southampton at 30 knots then
climbed the beach and settled down in the sand dunes.

The hovercraft called SR-N I, built by Saunders-Roe, could cross the

Channel in two hours. The bigger SR-N4s take cars and passengers to
France.

But Cockerell's invention is of greatest use in countries with poor road

and rail systems, where it can travel up rivers and through deserts.

/ Why do you think John Thornecroft never built a working hovercraft?

2 Why was the first hovercraft so amazing to watch?

3 Hovercraft are used in countries with poor road and rail systems. Why
do you think that is?

48 HOVERCRAFT 3.1 © ASE 1992

Contributors

Free Soap
Marianne Nganunu, Ministry of Education,
Republic of Botswana; Mike Robson, University
of Zimbabwe, Harare; John Holman, Watford
Grammar School

Audit your environment

Andy Tasker, Director, The Warwickshire
Nature Conservation Trust (WARNACT)

A letter to Einstein
Tony Travis, Sidney M. Edelstein Center for
the History and Philosophy of Science,
Technology and Medicine, the Hebrew
University of Jerusalem

All to pot
Ann Jenkins, Brynteg Comprehensive School,
Mid Glamorgan, and Ewenny Pottery,
Bridgend; Angela Lee, Curator, Gladstone
Pottery Museum, Stoke-on-Trent

Hovercraft
John Nelson, Deputy Head Teacher, Temple
Meadow School, Sandwell, West Midlands

Acknowledgements

A letter to Einstein
The Einstein Archive, The Hebrew University
of Jerusalem, for permission to reproduce
photographs of Albert Einstein

All to pot
Ewenny Pottery, Bridgend, for permission to
copy their videotape
BOOK I UNITS

Free Soap
Investigating pH, taking a story as a ""'"•"
multicultural starting point

Audit your environment

Looking at your local environment and the
establishment of an SSSI

A letter to Einstein
What is a scientist? Writing to scientists about
their work

All to pot
Exploring the physics and chemistry of clay
and ceramics

Hovercraft
Understanding hovercraft principles by
/practical modelling

SATIS 8-14
What to do?

Rolecard Rolecard

The manager of the soap factory The local councillor

Your factory discharges water into the river. You You represent the people of the nearest town.
were told that the chemical discharges were You encouraged the soap company to come to
reasonable and that they were within the law. It's this site in the first place. It has employed many of
not your fault if ignorant people choose to wash in the people from the town. Now the squatters
the river. The squatter camp is illegal, anyway. have arrived and are taking jobs at the soap
factory. Squatting is illegal, and these people ought
You believe you have done everything possible to
to return to the countryside where they belong.
keep the water clean. You would like to see the
There are not enough jobs for the people of the
squatter camp moved on. There is always a slight
town. The squatter people ought to be working in
risk of an accidental discharge of chemicals and
the fields. Stopping the chemical discharge into the
then you would be in trouble again. More
river would be expensive, and if there are any
improvements would be too expensive. You
further problems, the soap factory might well
would have to close the factory.
close down. This would leave town people out of
work. You would like to see the squatter camp
moved on.

Rolecard

The social welfare officer

You are concerned about the people, and

especially about their health and welfare. You have
been told that everything possible has been done
to prevent another chemical discharge into the
river — but you are not so sure. Others would like
to see the squatter camp moved on - but their
previous homes were bulldozed, and if they are
moved on again, they will only squat elsewhere. It
is about time the town council got to grips with
the squatter problem. If the squatters are moved
on, they should be provided with inexpensive
housing, schools, clinics, and clean water. You
suspect that the local councillor wants to move
the camp on so that he can get jobs in the soap
factory for his family.

38 FREE SOAP 3.1 © ASE 1992