Population Viability Analysis

Part A
To make political decisions about the extent and type of forestry in a region it is
important to understand the consequences of those decisions. One tool for assessing
the impact of forestry on the ecosystem is population viability analysis (PVA). This is a
tool for predicting the probability that a species will become extinct in a particular region
over a specific period. It has been successfully used in the United States to provide input
into resource exploitation decisions and assist wildlife managers and there is now
enormous potential for using population viability to assist wildlife management in
Australia’s forests. A species becomes extinct when the last individual dies. This
observation is a useful starting point for any discussion of extinction as it highlights the
role of luck and chance in the extinction process. To make a prediction about extinction
we need to understand the processes that can contribute to it and these fall into four
broad categories which are discussed below.

Part B
A) Early attempts to predict population viability were based on demographic
uncertainty whether an individual survives from one year to the next will largely be a
matter of chance. Some pairs may produce several young in a single year while others
may produce none in that same year. Small populations will fluctuate enormously
because of the random nature of birth and death and these chance fluctuations can
cause species extinctions even if, on average, the population size should increase.
Taking only this uncertainty of ability to reproduce into account, extinction is unlikely if
the number of individuals in a population is above about 50 and the population is
growing.

B) Small populations cannot avoid a certain amount of inbreeding. This is particularly

true if there is a very small number of one sex. For example, if there are only 20
individuals of a species and only one is a male, all future individuals in the species must
be descended from that one male. For most animal species such individuals are less
likely to survive and reproduce. Inbreeding increases the chance of extinction.

C) Variation within a species is the raw material upon which natural selection acts.
Without genetic variability a species lacks the capacity to evolve and cannot adapt to
changes in its environment or to new predators and new diseases. The loss of genetic
diversity associated with reductions in population size will contribute to the likelihood of
extinction.

D) Recent research has shown that other factors need to be considered. Australia’s
environment fluctuates enormously from year to year. These fluctuations add yet another
degree of uncertainty to the survival of many species. Catastrophes such as fire, flood,
drought or epidemic may reduce population sizes to a small fraction of their average
level. When allowance is made for these two additional elements of uncertainty the
population size necessary to be confident of persistence for a few hundred years may
increase to several thousand.

Part C
Beside these processes we need to bear in mind the distribution of a population. A
species that occurs in five isolated places each containing 20 individuals will not have
the same probability of extinction as a species with a single population of 100 individuals
in a single locality. Where logging occurs (that is, the cutting down of forests for timber)
forest-dependent creatures in that area will be forced to leave. Ground-dwelling
herbivores may return within a decade. However, arboreal marsupials (that is animals
which live in trees) may not recover to pre-logging densities for over a century. As more
forests are logged, animal population sizes will be reduced further. Regardless of the
theory or model that we choose, a reduction in population size decreases the genetic
diversity of a population and increases the probability of extinction because of any or all
of the processes listed above. It is therefore a scientific fact that increasing the area that
is loaded in any region will increase the probability that forest-dependent animals will
become extinct.

Questions 28-31
Do the following statements agree with the views of the writer in Part A of Reading
Passage 1? In boxes 28-31 on your answer sheet write:
YES if the statement agrees with the writer
NO if the statement contradicts the writer
NOT GIVEN if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this
Example Answer
A link exists between the consequences of decisions and
the decision making process itself. YES
28 Scientists are interested in the effect of forestry on native animals.
29 PVA has been used in Australia for many years.
30 A species is said to be extinct when only one individual exists.
31 Extinction is a naturally occurring phenomenon.

Questions 32-35
These questions are based on Part B of Reading Passage 1. In paragraphs A to D the
author describes four processes which may contribute to the extinction of a species.
Match the list of processes (i-vi) to the paragraphs. Write the appropriate number (i-vi)
in boxes 32-35 on your answer sheet.
NB There are more processes than paragraphs so you will not use all of them.

32 Paragraph A Processes
i Loss of ability to adapt
33 Paragraph B ii Natural disasters
iii An imbalance of the sexes
34 Paragraph C iv Human disasters
v Evolution
35 Paragraph D vi The haphazard nature of reproduction

Questions 36-38
Based on your reading of Part C, complete the sentences below with words taken from
the passage. Use NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS for each answer. Write your
answers in boxes 36-38 on your answer sheet.
While the population of a species may be on the increase, there is always a chance that
small isolated groups.......... (36) .......... Survival of a species depends on a balance
between the size of a population and its .......... (37) ......... The likelihood that animals
which live in forests will become extinct is increased when .......... (38) ...........
Question 39
Choose the appropriate letter A-D and write it in box 39 on your answer sheet.
39 An alternative heading for the passage could be:
A The protection of native flora and fauna
B Influential factors in assessing survival probability
C An economic rationale for the logging of forests
D Preventive measures for the extinction of a species
 Visual Symbols and the Blind
Part 1

From a number of recent studies, it has become clear that blind people

can appreciate the use of outlines and perspectives to describe the

arrangement of objects and other surfaces in space.But pictures are more

than literal representations. This fact was drawn to my attention

dramatically when a blind woman in one of my investigations decided on

her own initiative to draw a wheel as it was spinning. To show this motion,

she traced a curve inside the circle (Fig. 1). I was taken aback, lines of motion, such as the one she used,

are a very recent invention in the history of illustration. Indeed, as art scholar David Kunzle notes, Wilhelm

Busch, a trend-setting nineteenth-century cartoonist, used virtually no motion lines in his popular figure until
about 1877.

When I asked several other blind study subjects to draw a spinning wheel, one particularly clever rendition

appeared repeatedly: several subjects showed the wheel's spokes as curves lines. When asked about these

curves, they all described them as metaphorical ways of suggesting motion. Majority rule would argue that

this device somehow indicated motion very well. But was it a better indicator than, say, broken or wavy lines-

or any other kind of line, for that matter? The answer was not clear. So I decided to test whether various

lines of motion were apt ways of showing movement or if they were merely idiosyncratic marks. Moreover, I

wanted to discover whether there were differences in how the blind and the sighted interpreted lines of

motion.

To search out these answers, I created raised-line drawings of five different wheels, depicting spokes with

lines that curved, bent, waved, dashed and extended beyond the perimeters of the wheel. I then asked

eighteen blind volunteers to feel the wheels and assign one of the following motions to each wheel:
wobbling, spinning fast, spinning steadily, jerking or braking. My control group consisted of eighteen sighted

undergraduates from the University of Toronto.

 Words associated Agreement
among
with circle/square
subjects(%)

SOFT-HARD 100
MOTHER-FATHER 94
HAPPY-SAD 94
GOOD-EVIL 89
LOVE-HATE 89
ALIVE-DEAD 87
BRIGHT-DARK 87
LIGHT-HEAVY 85
WARM-COLD 81
SUMMER-WINTER 81
WEAK-STRONG 79
FAST-SLOW 79
CAT-DOG 74
SPRING-FALL 74
QUIET-LOUD 62
WALKING-STANDING 62
ODD-EVEN 57
FAR-NEAR 53
PLANT-ANIMAL 53
DEEP-SHALLOW 51

All but one of the blind subjects assigned distinctive motions to each wheel. Most guessed that the curved

spokes indicated that the wheel was spinning steadily; the wavy spokes, they thought; suggested that the

wheel was wobbling; and the bent spokes were taken as a sign that the wheel was jerking. Subjects

assumed that spokes extending beyond the wheel's perimeter signified that the wheel had its brakes on and

that dashed spokes indicated the wheel was spinning quickly.

In addition, the favored description for the sighted was favored description for the blind in every instance.

What is more, the consensus among the sighted was barely higher than that among the blind. Because

motion devices are unfamiliar to the blind, the task I gave them involved some problem solving. Evidently,

however, the blind not only figured out meaning for each of motion, but as a group they generally came up

with the same meaning at least as frequently as did sighted subjects.

Part 2

We have found that the blind understand other kinds of visual metaphors as well. One blind woman drew a

picture of a child inside a heart-choosing that symbol, she said, to show that love surrounded the child. With

Chang Hong Liu, a doctoral student from china, I have begun exploring how well blind people understand

the symbolism behind shapes such as hearts that do not directly represent their meaning.

We gave a list of twenty pairs of words to sighted subjects and asked them to pick from each pair the term

that best related to a circle and the term that best related to assure. For example, we asked: what goes with

soft? A circle or a square? Which shapes goes with hard?

All our subjects deemed the circle soft and the square hard. A full 94% ascribed happy to the circle, instead

of sad. But other pairs revealed less agreement: 79% matched fast to slow and weak to strong, respectively.

And only 51% linked deep to circle and shallow to square. (see Fig. 2) When we tested four totally blind

volunteers using the same list, we found that their choices closely resembled those made by he sighted

subjects. One man, who had been blind since birth, scored extemely well. He made only one match differing

from the consensus, assigning 'far' to square and 'near' to circle. In fact, only a small majority of sighted

subjects-53%- had paired far and near to the opposite partners. Thus we concluded that the blind interpret

abstract shapes as sighted people do.

27 In the first paragraph the writer makes the point that blind people

A. may be interested in studying art.

B. can draw outlines of different objects and surfaces.

C. can recognize conventions such as perspective.

D. can draw accurately.

28 The writer was surprised because the blind woman

A. drew a circle on her own initiative.

B. did not understand what a wheel looked like.

C. included a symbol representing movement.

D. was the first person to use lines of motion.

29 From the experiment described in Part 1,the writer found that the blind subjects

A. had good understanding of symbols representing movement.

B. could control the movement of wheels very accurately.

C. worked together well as a group in solving problems.

D. got better results than the sighted undergraduates.

Questions 30 –32

Look at the following diagrams (Questions 30 –32), and the list of types of movement below. Match each

diagram to the type of movement A–E generally assigned to it in the experiment. Choose the correct

letter A–E and write them in boxes 30–32 on your answer sheet.
 A steady spinning
B jerky movement
C rapid spinning
D wobbling movement
E use of brakes

Questions 33 –39

Complete the summary below using words from the box. Write your answers in boxes 33 –39 on your

answer sheet. NB You may use any word more than once.

In the experiment described in Part 2, a set of word 33.......…… was used to investigate whether blind and

sighted people perceived the symbolism in abstract 34.....…...… in the same way. Subjects were asked

which word fitted best with a circle and which with a square. From the 35...…...… volunteers, everyone

thought a circle fitted ‘soft ’while a square fitted ‘hard’. However, only 51%of the 36.......…… volunteers
assigned a circle to 37.....…… .When the test was later repeated with 38...…...… volunteers, it was found

that they made 39...…...…choices..

associations blind deep hard hundred identical pairs shapes
Sighted similar shallow soft words

Question 40

Choose the correct letter, A , B , C or D. Write your answer in box 40 on your answer sheet.

Which of the following statements best summarizes the writer ’s general conclusion?

A The blind represent some aspects of reality differently from sighted people.

B The blind comprehend visual metaphors in similar ways to sighted people.

C The blind may create unusual and effective symbols to represent reality.

D The blind may be successful artists if given the right training.

 THE HISTORY OF THE TORTOISE
If you go back far enough, everything lived in the Walter Joyce and Jacques Gauthier, at Yale

sea. At various points in evolutionary history, University, obtained three measurements in these

enterprising individuals within many different animal particular bones of 71 species of living turtles and

groups moved out onto the land, sometimes even to tortoises. They used a kind of triangular graph paper

the most parched deserts, taking their own private to plot the three measurements against one another.

seawater with them in blood and cellular fluids. In All the land tortoise species formed a tight cluster of

addition to the reptiles, birds, mammals and insects points in the upper part of the triangle; all the water

which we see all around us, other groups that have turtles cluster in the lower part of the triangular graph.

succeeded out of water include scorpions, snails, There was no overlap, except when they added

crustaceans such as woodlice and land crabs, some species that spend time both in water and on

millipedes and centipedes, spiders and various land. Sure enough, these amphibious species show

worms. And we mustn’t forget the plants, without up on the triangular graph approximately half way

whose prior invasion of the land none of the other between the ‘wet cluster' of sea turtles and the ‘dry

migrations could have happened. cluster' of land tortoises. 'The next step was to

determine where the fossil fell. The bones of P

Moving from water to land involved a major redesign quenstedti and P. talampayensisleave us in no doubt.

of every aspect of life, including breathing and Their points on the graph are right in the thick of the

reproduction. Nevertheless, a good number of dry cluster. Both these fossils were dry-land tortoises.

thoroughgoing land animals later turned around, They come from the era before our turtles returned to

abandoned their hard-earned terrestrial re-tooling, the water.

and returned to the Water Seals have only gone part

You might think, therefore, that modem land tortoises
way back. They show us what the intermediates
have probably stayed on land ever since those early
might have been like, on the way to extreme cases
terrestrial times, as most mammals did after a few of
such as whales and dugongs. Whales (including the
them went back to the sea. But apparently not. If you
small whales we call dolphins) and dugongs, with
draw out the family tree of all modern turtles and
their close cousins the manatees, ceased to be land
tortoises, nearly all the branches are aquatic. Today’s
creatures altogether and reverted to the full marine
land tortoises constitute a single branch, deeply
habits of their remote ancestors. They don‘t even
nested among branches consisting of aquatic turtles.
come ashore to breed. They do, however, still
This suggests that modern land tortoises have not
breathe air, having never developed anything
stayed on land continuously since the time of P.
equivalent to the gills of their earlier marine
quenstedti and P. talampayensis. Rather, their
incarnation. Turtles went back to the sea a very long
ancestors were among those who went back to the
time ago and, like all vertebrate returnees to the
water, and they then re-emerged back onto the land
water, they breathe air. However, they are, in one
 respect, less fully given back to the water than in (relatively) more recent times.

whales or dugongs, for turtles still lay their eggs on

beaches. Tortoises therefore represent a remarkable double

return. In common with all mammals, reptiles and

There is evidence that all modem turtles are binds, their remote ancestors were marine fish and

descended from a terrestrial ancestor which lived before that various more or less worm-like creatures

before most of the dinosaurs. There are two key stretching back, still in the sea, to the primeval

fossils calledProgaochelys quenstedtiand bacteria. Later ancestors lived on land and stayed

Palaeochersis talampayensis dating from early there for a very large number of generations. Later

dinosaur times, which appear to be close to the ancestors still evolved back into the water and

ancestry of all modem turtles and tortoises. You became sea turtles. And finally they returned yet
might wonder how we can tell whether fossil animals again to the land as tortoises, some of which now live

lived on land or in water, especially if only fragments in the driest of deserts.

are found. Sometimes it`s obvious. Ichthyosarus

were reptilian contemporaries of the dinosaurs, with

fins and streamlined bodies. The fossils look like

dolphins and they surely lived like dolphins, in the

water. With turtles it is a little less obvious. One way

to tell is by measuring the bones of their forelimbs.

Questions 27-30
Answer the questions below
Choose NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the passage for each answer
Write your answers in boxes 27-30 on your answer sheet.

27. What had to transfer from sea to land before any animals could migrate?
28. Which TWO processes are mentioned as those in which animals had to make big changes as they
moved onto land?
29. Which physical feature. possessed by their ancestors, do whales lack?
30. Which animals might ichthyosaurs have resembled?

Questions 31-33
Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage 3?
In boxes 31-33 on your answer sheet, write

TRUE if the statement agrees with the information

FALSE if the statement contradicts the information
NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this more than once.
31.Turtles were among the first group of animals to migrate back to the sea.
32.It is always difficult to determine where an animal lived when its fossilized remains are incomplete.
33.The habitat of ichthyosaurs can be determined by the appearance of their fossilized remains.

Questions 34-39
Complete the flow-chart below
Choose NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS AND/OR A NUMBER from the passage for each answer
Write your answers in boxes 34-39 on your answer sheet.

Method of determining where the ancestors of turtles and tortoises come from

Step 1: 71 species of living turtles and tortoises were examined and a total of 34 ................were taken from
the bones of their forelimbs.
Step 2: The data was recorded on a 35 ................... (necessary for comparing the information). Outcome:
Land tortoises were represented by a dense 36 .................. of points towards the top. Sea turtles were
grouped together in the bottom part.
Step 3: The same data was collected from some living 37 .................. species and added to the other
results. Outcome: The points for these species turned out to be positioned about 38 .................. up the
triangle between the land tortoises and the sea turtles.
Step 4: Bones of R quenstedti and P talampayensis were examined in a similar way and the results added.
Outcome: The position of the points indicated that both these ancient creatures were
39......................

Questions 40
Choose the correct letter A, B, C or D.
Write the correct letter in box 40 on your answer sheet.
According to the writer, the most significant thing about tortoises is that

A they are able to adapt to life in extremely dry environments.

B their original life form was a kind of primeval bacteria,
C they have so much in common with sea turtles.
D they have made the transition from sea to land more than once.
Questions 1-5

The following reading passage has five sections A-E.

Choose the correct heading for each section from the list of headings.

Write the correct number i-viii in boxes 1-5 on your answer sheet.

1 Section A

2 Section B

3 Section C

4 Section D

5 Section E

List of Headings

i Colorblindness' in different countries

ii Diagnosing colorblindness

iii What is colorblindness?

iv Curing colorblindness

v Unsolved myths

vi Animals and colorblindness

vii Developing the ability to see color

viii Colorblindness and the sexes

Colorblindness
A Myths related to the causes and symptoms of "colorblindness" abound throughout the world. The term
itself is misleading, since it is extremely rare for anyone to have a complete lack of color perception. By look
ing into the myths related to color blindness, one can learn many facts about the structure and genetics o

the human eye. It is a myth that colorblind people see the world as if it were a black and white movie. There

are very few cases of complete colorblindness. Those who have a complete lack of color perception are

referred to as monochromatics, and usually have a serious problem with their overall vision as well as an

inability to see colors. The fact is that in most cases of colorblindness, there are only certain shades that a

person cannot distinguish between. These people are said to be dichromatic. They may not be able to tell

the difference between red and green, or orange and yellow. A person with normal color vision has what is

called trichromatic vision. The difference between the three levels of color perception have to do with the

cones in the human eye. A normal human eye has three cones located inside the retina: the red cone, the

green cone, and the yellow cone. Each cone contains a specific pigment whose function is to absorb the

light of these colors and the combinations of them. People with trichromatic vision have all three cones in

working order. When one of the three cones does not function properly, dichromatic vision occurs.
B Some people believe that only men can be colorblind. This is also a myth, though it is not completely
untrue. In an average population, 8% of males exhibit some form of colorblindness, while only 0.5% of

women do. While there may be some truth to the idea that more men have trouble matching their clothing

than women, the reason that color vision deficiency is predominant in males has nothing to do with fashion.

The fact is that the gene for color blindness is located on the X chromosome, which men only have one of.

Females have two X chromosomes, and if one carries the defective gene, the other one naturally

compensates. Therefore, the only way for a female to inherit colorblindness is for both of her X

chromosomes to carry the defective gene. This is why the incidence of color deficiency is sometimes more

prevalent in extremely small societies that have a limited gene pool.

C It is true that all babies are born colorblind. A baby's cones do not begin to differentiate between many
different colors until he is approximately four months old. This is why many of the modern toys for very

young babies consist of black and white patterns or primary colors, rather than traditional soft pastels.

However, some current research points to the importance of developing an infant's color visual system. In

2004, Japanese researcher Yoichi Sugita of the Neuroscience Research Institute performed an experiment

that would suggest that color vision deficiency isn't entirely genetic. In his experiment, he subjected a group

of baby monkeys to monochromatic lighting for one year. He later compared their vision to normal monkey

who had experienced the colorful world outdoors. It was found that the test monkeys were unable to perform

the color-matching tasks that the normal monkeys could. Nevertheless, most cases of colorblindness are

attributed to genetic factors that are present at birth.

D Part of the reason there are so many inconsistencies related to colorblindness, or "color vision deficiency"
as it is called in the medical world, is that it is difficult to know exactly which colors each human can see.

Children are taught from a very young age that an apple is red. Naming colors allows children to associate a

certain shade with a certain name, regardless of a color vision deficiency. Someone who never takes a color

test can go through life thinking that what they see as red is called green. Children are generally tested for

colorblindness at about four years of age. The Ishihara Test is the most common, though it is highly

criticized' because it requires that children have the ability to recognize numerals. In the Ishihara Test, a

number made up of colored dots is hidden inside a series of dots of a different shade. Those with normal

vision can distinguish the number from the background, while those with color vision deficiency will only see

the dots.

E While many of the myths related to colorblindness have been busted by modern science, there are still a
few remaining beliefs that require more research in order to be labeled as folklore. For example, there is a

long-standing belief that colorblindness can aid military soldiers because it gives them the ability to see
through camouflage. Another belief is that everyone becomes colorblind in an emergency situation. The

basis of this idea is that a catastrophic event can overwhelm the brain, causing it to utilize only those

receptors needed to perform vital tasks. In general, identifying color is not considered an essential task in a

life or death situation.

Questions 6-8

Choose the correct letter, A, B, C, or D. Write your answers in boxes 6-8 on your Answer Sheet.

6 People who see color normally are called

A monochromatic.

B dichromatic.

C tichromatic.

D colorblind.

7 Children usually begin to see a variety of colors by the age of

A one month.

B four months.

C one year.

D four years.

8 Children who take the Ishihara Test must be able to

A distinguish letters.

B write their names.

C read numbers.

D name colors.

Questions 9-12

Complete the summary using words from the box below.

\Write your answers in boxes 9-12 on your Answer Sheet.

There are more answers than spaces, so you will not use them all.

It is a common 9 .................... that only men suffer from colorblindness. On average 10 .................... than

ten percent of men have this problem. Women have two 11 .................... For this reason it is

12 .................... for a woman to suffer from colorblindness.

myth a little less X chromosomes defective genes fact slightly more exactly

less likely more probable

 UNMASTING SKIN

A
If you took off your skin and laid it flat, it would cover an area of about twenty-one square feet,
making it by far the body's largest organ. Draped in place over our bodies, skin forms the barrier
between what's inside us and what's outside. It protects us from a multitude of external forces.
It serves as an avenue to our most intimate physical and psychological selves.

B
This impervious yet permeable barrier, less than a millimetre thick in places, is composed of
three layers. The outermost layer is the bloodless epidermis. The dermis includes collagen,
elastin, and nerve endings. The innermost layer, subcutaneous fat, contains tissue that acts as
an energy source, cushion and insulator for the body.

C
From these familiar characteristics of skin emerge the profound mysteries of touch, arguably our
most essential source of sensory stimulation. We can live without seeing or hearing – in fact,
without any of our other senses. But babies born without effective nerve connections between
skin and brain can fail to thrive and may even die.

D
Laboratory experiments decades ago, now considered unethical and inhumane, kept baby
monkeys from being touched by their mothers. It made no difference that the babies could see,
hear and smell their mothers; without touching, the babies became apathetic, and failed to
progress.

E
For humans, insufficient touching in early years can have lifelong results. "In touching cultures,
adult aggression is low, whereas in cultures where touch is limited, adult aggression is high,"
writes Tiffany Field, director of the Touch Research Institutes at the University of Miami School
of Medicine. Studies of a variety of cultures show a correspondence between high rates of
physical affection in childhood and low rates of adult physical violence.

F
While the effects of touching are easy to understand, the mechanics of it are less so. "Your skin
has millions of nerve cells of various shapes at different depths," explains Stanley Bolanowski, a
neuroscientist and associate director of the Institute for Sensory Research at Syracuse
University. "When the nerve cells are stimulated, physical energy is transformed into energy
used by the nervous system and passed from the skin to the spinal cord and brain. It's called
transduction, and no one knows exactly how it takes place." Suffice it to say that the process
involves the intricate, splitsecond operation of a complex system of signals between neurons in
the skin and brain.

G
This is starting to sound very confusing until Bolanowski says: "In simple terms people perceive
three basic things via skin: pressure, temperature, and pain." And then I'm sure he's wrong.
"When I get wet, my skin feels wet," I protest. "Close your eyes and lean back," says Bolanowski.
H
Something cold and wet is on my forehead – so wet, in fact, that I wait for water to start
dripping down my cheeks. "Open your eyes." Bolanowski says, showing me that the sensation
comes from a chilled, but dry, metal cylinder. The combination of pressure and cold, he explains,
is what makes my skin perceive wetness. He gives me a surgical glove to put on and has me put
a finger in a glass of cold water. My finger feels wet, even though I have visual proof that it's not
touching water. My skin, which seemed so reliable, has been deceiving me my entire life. When I
shower or wash my hands, I now realize, my skin feels pressure and temperature. It's my brain
that says I feel wet.

I
Perceptions of pressure, temperature and pain manifest themselves in many different ways.
Gentle stimulation of pressure receptors can result in ticklishness; gentle stimulation of pain
receptors, in itching. Both sensations arise from a neurological transmission, not from
something that physically exists. Skin, I'm realizing, is under constant assault, both from within
the body and from forces outside. Repairs occur with varying success.

J
Take the spot where I nicked myself with a knife while slicing fruit. I have a crusty scab
surrounded by pink tissue about a quarter inch long on my right palm. Under the scab,
epidermal cells are migrating into the wound to close it up. When the process is complete, the
scab will fall off to reveal new epidermis. It's only been a few days, but my little self-repair is
almost complete. Likewise, we recover quickly from slight burns. If you ever happen to touch a
hot burner, just put your finger in cold water. The chances are you will have no blister, little pain
and no scar. Severe burns, though, are a different matter.

The passage has 10 paragraphs A–J. Which paragraph contains the following information?

1 the features of human skin, on and below the surface

2 an experiment in which the writer can see what is happening

3 advice on how you can avoid damage to the skin

4 cruel research methods used in the past

ABCD

5 How does a lack of affectionate touching affect children?

A It makes them apathetic.

B They are more likely to become violent adults.

C They will be less aggressive when they grow up.

D We do not really know.

6 After the ‘wetness’ experiments, the writer says that

A his skin is not normal.

B his skin was wet when it felt wet.

 C he knew why it felt wet when it was dry.

D the experiments taught him nothing new.

Complete each sentence with the correct ending A–I from the box below.

7 Touch is unique among the five senses

8 A substance may feel wet

9 Something may tickle

10 The skin may itch

11 A small cut heals up quickly

A because it is both cold and painful.

B because the outer layer of the skin can mend itself.

C because it can be extremely thin.

D because there is light pressure on the skin.

E because we do not need the others to survive.

F because there is a good blood supply to the skin.

G because of a small amount of pain.

H because there is a low temperature and pressure.

I because it is hurting a lot.

J because all humans are capable of experiencing it.

Questions 12-14

T/F/NG

12 Even scientists have difficulty understanding how our sense of touch works.

13 The skin is more sensitive to pressure than to temperature or pain.

14 The human skin is always good at repairing itself.

Telepathy
Can human beings communicate by thought alone? For more than a century the issue of telepathy

has divided the scientific community, and even today it still sparks bitter controversy among top

academics

Since the 1970s, parapsychologists at leading universities and research institutes around the world have

risked the derision of sceptical colleagues by putting the various claims for telepathy to the test in dozens of

rigorous scientific studies. The results and their implications are dividing even the researchers who

uncovered them.

Some researchers say the results constitute compelling evidence that telepathy is genuine. Other

parapsychologists believe the field is on the brink of collapse, having tried to produce definitive scientific

proof and failed. Sceptics and advocates alike do concur on one issue, however that the most impressive

evidence so far has come from the so-called 'ganzfeld' experiments, a German term that means 'whole field'.

Reports of telepathic experiences had by people during meditation led parapsychologists to suspect that

telepathy might involve 'signals' passing between people that were so faint that they were usually swamped

by normal brain activity. In this case, such signals might be more easily detected by those experiencing

meditation-like tranquillity in a relaxing 'whole field' of light, sound and warmth.

The ganzfeld experiment tries to recreate these conditions with participants sitting in soft reclining chairs in a

sealed room, listening to relaxing sounds while their eyes are covered with special filters letting in only soft

pink light. In early ganzfeld experiments, the telepathy test involved identification of a picture chosen from a

random selection of four taken from a large image bank. The idea was that a person acting as a 'sender'

would attempt to beam the image over to the 'receiver' relaxing in the sealed room. Once the session was

over, this person was asked to identify which of the four images had been used. Random guessing would

give a hit-rate of 25 per cent; if telepathy is real, however, the hit-rate would be higher. In 1982, the results

from the first ganzfeld studies were analysed by one of its pioneers, the American parapsychologist Charles

Honorton. They pointed to typical hit-rates of better than 30 per cent — a small effect, but one which

statistical tests suggested could not be put down to chance.

The implication was that the ganzfeld method had revealed real evidence for telepathy. But there was a

crucial flaw in this argument — one routinely overlooked in more conventional areas of science. Just

because chance had been ruled out as an explanation did not prove telepathy must exist; there were many

other ways of getting positive results. These ranged from 'sensory leakage' — where clues about the

pictures accidentally reach the receiver — to outright fraud. In response, the researchers issued a review of

all the ganzfeld studies done up to 1985 to show that 80 per cent had found statistically significant evidence.

However, they also agreed that there were still too many problems in the experiments which could lead to

positive results, and they drew up a list demanding new standards for future research.
After this, many researchers switched to autoganzfeld tests — an automated variant of the technique which

used computers to perform many of the key tasks such as the random selection of images. By minimising

human involvement, the idea was to minimise the risk of flawed results. In 1987, results from hundreds of

autoganzfeld tests were studied by Honorton in a 'meta-analysis', a statistical technique for finding the

overall results from a set of studies. Though less compelling than before, the outcome was still impressive.

Yet some parapsychologists remain disturbed by the lack of consistency between individual ganzfeld

studies. Defenders of telepathy point out that demanding impressive evidence from every study ignores one

basic statistical fact: it takes large samples to detect small effects. If, as current results suggest, telepathy

produces hit-rates only marginally above the 25 per cent expected by chance, it's unlikely to be detected by

a typical ganzfeld study involving around 40 people: the group is just not big enough. Only when many

studies are combined in a meta-analysis will the faint signal of telepathy really become apparent. And that is

what researchers do seem to be finding.

What they are certainly not finding, however, is any change in attitude of mainstream scientists: most still

totally reject the very idea of telepathy. The problem stems at least in part from the lack of any plausible

mechanism for telepathy.

Various theories have been put forward, many focusing on esoteric ideas from theoretical physics. They

include 'quantum entanglement', in which events affecting one group of atoms instantly affect another group,

no matter how far apart they may be. While physicists have demonstrated entanglement with specially

prepared atoms, no-one knows if it also exists between atoms making up human minds. Answering such

questions would transform parapsychology. This has prompted some researchers to argue that the future

lies not in collecting more evidence for telepathy, but in probing possible mechanisms. Some work has

begun already, with researchers trying to identify people who are particularly successful in autoganzfeld

trials. Early results show that creative and artistic people do much better than average: in one study at the

University of Edinburgh, musicians achieved a hit-rate of 56 per cent. Perhaps more tests like these will

eventually give the researchers the evidence they are seeking and strengthen the case for the existence of

telepathy.

Questions 27-30

Complete each sentence with the correct ending, A —G, below.

Write the correct letter, A—G, in boxes 27-30 on your answer sheet.

27 Researchers with differing attitudes towards telepathy agree on

28 Reports of experiences during meditation indicated

29 Attitudes to parapsychology would alter drastically with

30 Recent autoganzfeld trials suggest that success rates will improve with

A the discovery of a mechanism for telepathy.

B the need to create a suitable environment for telepathy.

C their claims of a high success rate.

D a solution to the problem posed by random guessing.

E the significance of the ganzfeld experiments.

F a more careful selection of subjects.

G a need to keep altering conditions.

Questions 31-40

Complete the table below.

Choose NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS from the passage for each answer.

Write your answers in boxes 31-40 on your answer sheet.

Telepathy Experiments

Name/ Description Result Flaw

Date

Ganzfeld Involved a person acting Hit-rates were higher Positive results could be produced by

studies as a 31…………….. , than with random factors such

1982 who picked out guessing. as 34…………………….Or 35……………

one32…………………… …..……

from a random selection

of four, and
a33………………….. ,

who then tried to identify

it.

Autoganzf 36…………………… we The results were then The 39…………………..between different

eld studies re used for key tasks to subjected to a 38 test results was put down to the fact that

1987 limit the amount ………………………. sample groups were

of37……………………. i not40…………………… (as with most

n carrying out the tests. ganzfeld studies).

 Literate women make better mothers?
Children in developing countries are healthier and more likely to survive past the age of five when their

mothers can read and write. Experts in public health accepted this idea decades ago, but until now no one

has been able to show that a woman's ability to read in itself improves her children's chances of survival.

Most literate women learnt to read in primary school, and the fact that a woman has had an education may

simply indicate her family's wealth or that it values its children more highly. Now a long-term study carried

out in Nicaragua has eliminated these factors by showing that teaching reading to poor adult women, who

would otherwise have remained illiterate, has a direct effect on their children's health and survival.

In 1979, the government of Nicaragua established a number of social programmes, including a National

Literacy Crusade. By 1985, about 300,000 illiterate adults from all over the country, many of whom had

never attended primary school, had learnt how to read, write and use numbers.

During this period, researchers from the Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, the Central American

Institute of Health in Nicaragua, the National Autonomous University of Nicaragua and the Costa Rican

Institute of Health interviewed nearly 3,000 women, some of whom had learnt to read as children, some

during the literacy crusade and some who had never learnt at all. The women were asked how many

children they had given birth to and how many of them had died in infancy. The research teams also

examined the surviving children to find out how well-nourished they were.

The investigators' findings were striking. In the late 1970s, the infant mortality rate for the children of illiterate

mothers was around 110 deaths per thousand live births. At this point in their lives, Those mothers who later
went on to learn to read had a similar level of child mortality(105/1000).For women educated in primary

school, however, the infant mortality rate was significantly lower, at 80 per thousand.

In 1985, after the National Literacy Crusade had ended, the infant mortality figures for those who remained

illiterate and for those educated in primary school remained more or less nnchanged. For those women who

learnt to read through the campaign, the infant mortality rate was 84 per thousand, an impressive 21 points

lower than for those women who were still illiterate. The children of the newly-literate mothers were also

better nourished than those of women who could not read.

Why are the children ofliterate mothers better off? According to Peter Sandiford of the Liverpool School of

Tropical Medicine, no one knows for certain. Child health was not on the curriculum during the women's

lessons, so he and his colleagues are looking at other factors. They are working with the same group of
3,000 women, to try to find out whether reading mothers make better use of hospitals and clinics, opt for

smaller families, exert more control at home, learn modem childcare teclmiques more quickly, or whether

they merely have more respect for themselves and their children.

The Nicaraguan study may have important implications for governments and aid agencies that need to know

where to direct their resources. Sandiford says that there is increasing evidence that female education, at

any age, is 'an important health intervention in its own right' .The results of the study lend support to the

World Bank's recommendation that education budgets in developing countries should be increased, not just

to help their economies, but also to improve child health. 'We've known for a long time that maternal

education is important,' says John Cleland of the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine. 'But we

thought that even if we started educating girls today, we'd have to wait a generation for the pay-off. The

Nicaraguan study suggests we may be able to bypass that.'

Cleland warns that the Nicaraguan crusade was special in many ways, and similar campaigns elsewhere

might not work as well. It is notoriously difficult to teach adults skills that do not have an immediate impact

on their everyday lives, and many literacy campaigns in other countries have been much less successful.

'The crusade was part of a larger effort to bring a better life to the people,' says Cleland. Replicating these

conditions in other conn tries will be a major challenge for development workers.

Questions 14-18

Complete the summary using the list of words, A-J, below.

Write the correct letter,. A-J. in boxes 14-18 on your answer sheet.

NB You may use any letter more than once

The Nicaraguan National Literacy Crusade aimed to teach large numbers of illiterate 14 .................. to read

aud write. Public health experts have known for many years that there is a connection between child health

and 15.................. However, it has not previously been known whether these two factors were directly linked

or not. This question has been investigated by 16.................... in Nicaragua. As a result, factors such as

17 ...................... aud attitudes to children have been eliminated, audit has been shown that 18................

can in itself improve infant health and survival.

__________________________________________________________________________

A child literacy B men and women C an international research team

D medical care E mortality F maternal literacy

G adults and children H paternal literacy I a National Literacy Crusade

J family wealth

__________________________________________________________________________

Questions 19-24

Do the following statements agree with the claims of the writer in Reading Passage 152?

In boxes 19-24 on your answer sheet, write:

YES if the statement agrees with the claims of the writer

NO if the statement contradicts the claims of the writer

NOT GIVEN if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this

19 About a thousand or the women interviewed by the researchers had learnt to read they were children.

20 Before the National Literacy Crusade, illiterate women had approximately the same levels of infant

mortality as those who had learnt to read in primary school. "

21 Before and after the National Literacy Crusade, the child mortality rate for the illiterate women stayed at

about 110 deaths for each thousand live births.

22 The women who had learnt to read through the National Literacy Crusade showed the greatest change in

infant mortality levels.

23 The women who had learnt to read through the National Literacy Crusade had the lowest rates of child

mortality.

24 After the National Literacy Crusade, the children of the women who remained illiterate were fmmd to be

severely malnourished.

Questions 25 and 26

Choose TWO letters, A-E

Write the correct letters in boxes 25 and 26 on your answer sheet

Which TWO important implications drawn from the Nicaraguan study are mentioned by the writer of the

passage?

A It is better to educate mature women than young girls

B Similar campaigns in other countries would be equally successful.

C The effects of maternal literacy programmes can be seen very quickly

D Improving child health can quickly affect a country's economy.

E Money spent on female education will improve child health.

 Endless Harvest

More than two hundred years ago, Russian explorers and fur hunters landed on the Aleutian Islands, a

volcanic archipelago in the North Pacific, and learned of a land mass that lay farther to the north. The

islands' native inhabitants called this land mass Aleyska. the 'Great Land'; today, we know it as Alaska.

The forty-ninth state to join the United States of America (in 1959), Alaska is fully one-fifth the size of the

mainland 48 - states combined. It shares, with Canada, the second, longest river system in North America

and has over half the coastline of the United States. The rivers feed into the Bering Sea and Gulf of Alaska -

cold, nutrient-rich waters which support tens of millions of seabirds, and over 400 species of fish, shellfish,
crustaceans, and mollusks. Taking advantage of this rich bounty, Alaska's commercial fisheries have

developed into some of the largest in the world.

According to the Alaska Department of Fish and Game (ADF&G), Alaska's commercial fisheries landed

hundreds of thousarids of tonnes of shellfish and herring, and well over a million tones of ground fish (cod,

sole, perch and pollock) in 2000. The true cultural heart and soul of Alaska's fisheries, "however, is salmon.

'Salmon,' notes writer Susan Ewing in The Great Alaska Nature Fact book, 4pump through Alaska like blood

through a heart, bringing rhythmic, circulating nourishment to land, animals and people.' The 'predictable

abundance of salmon allowed some native cultures to flourish,' and 'dying spankers" feed bears, eagles,

other animals, and ultimately the soil itself' All five species of Pacific salmon - chinook, or king; chum, or

dog; Coho, or silver; sockeye, or red; and pink, or humpback - spawn in Alaskan waters, and 90% of all

Pacific salmon commercially caught in North America arc produced there. Indeed, if Alaska was an

independent nation, it would be the largest producer of wild salmon in the world. During 2000, commercial
catches of Pacific salmon in Alaska exceeded 320,000 tonnes, with an ex-vessel value of over $US260

million.

Catches have not always been so healthy. Between 1940 and 1959, over fishing led to crashes in salmon

populations so severe that in 1953 Alaska was declared a federal disaster area. With the onset of statehood,

however, the State of Alaska took over management of its own fisheries, guided by a state constitution

which mandates that Alaska's natural resources be managed on a sustainable basis. At that time, statewide

harvests totaled around 25 million salmon. Over the next few- decades average catches steadily increased

as a result of this policy of sustainable management, until, during the 1990s, annual harvests were well in

excess of 100 million, and on several occasions over 200 million fish.
The primary reason for such increases is what is known as 7n-Season Abundance-Based Management'.

There are biologists throughout the state constantly monitoring adult fish as they show up to spawn. The

biologists sir. in streamside counting towers, study sonar, watch from aeroplanes, and talk to fishermen. The

salmon season in Alaska is not pre-set. The fishermen know die approximate time of year when they will be

allowed to fish, but on any given day, one or more field biologists in a particular area can put a halt to

fishing. Even sport filing can be brought to a halt It is this management mechanism that has allowed Alaska

salmon stocks - and, accordingly, Alaska salmon fisheries - to prosper, even as salmon populations in the

rest of the United States arc increasingly considered threatened or even endangered.

In 1999, the Marine Stewardship Council (MSC)*** commissioned a review of the Alaska salmon fishery.

The Council, which was founded in 19%, certifies fisheries that meet high environmental standards, enabling

them to use a label that recogmses their environmental responsibility. The MSC has established a set of

criteria by which commercial fisheries can be judged. Recognising the potential benefits of being identified

as environmentally responsible, fisheries approach the Council requesting to undergo the certificauon

process. The MSC then appoints a certification committee, composed of a panel of fisheries experts, which

gathers information and opinions from fishermen, biologists, government officials, industry representatives,

non-governmental organisations and others.

Some observers thought the Alaska salmon fisheries would not have any chance of certification when, in the

months leading up to MSC's final decision, salmon runs throughout western Alaska - completely collapsed.

In the Yukon and Kuskokwim rivers, chinook and chum runs were probably the poorest since statehood;

subsistence communities throughout the region, who normally have priority over commercial fishing, were

devastated.

The crisis was completely unexpected, but researchers believe it had nothing to do with impacts of fisheries.

Rather, they contend, it was almost certainly the result of climatic shifts, prompted in part by cumulative

effects of the el nino/la nina phenomenon on Pacific Ocean temperatures, culminating in a harsh winter in

which huge numbers of salmon eggs were frozen. It could have meant the end as far as the certification

process was concerned. However, the state reacted quickly, closing down all fisheries, even those

necessary for subsistence purposes.

In September 2000, MSC announced that the Alaska salmon fisheries qualified fop certification. Seven

companies producing Alaska salmon were immediately granted permission to display the MSC logo on their

products. Certification is for an initial period of five years, with an annual review to ensure dial the fishery is

continuing to meet the required standards.

* spawners: fish thai have released eggs

* spawn : release eggs

Questions 14-20

T/F/NG

14. The inhabitants of the Aleutian islands renamed their islands 4Aleyska\

15. Alaska's fisheries are owned by some of the world's largest companies.

16. Life in Alaska is dependent on salmon.

17. Ninety per cent of all Pacific salmon caught are sockeye or pink salmon.

18. More than 320,000 tonnes of salmon were caught in Alaska in 2000.

19. Between 1940 and 1959, there was a sharp decrease in Alaska's salmon population.

20. During the 1990s, the average number of salmon caught each year was 100 million.

Questions 21-26

Complete each sentence with the correct ending, A-K. below.

Write the correct letter, A-K. in boxes 21-26 on your answer sheet.

21 In Alaska, biologists keep a check on adult fish

22 Biologists have the authority

23 In-Season Abundance-Based Management has allowed the Alaska salmon fisheries

24 The Marine Stewardship Council (MSC) was established

25 As a result of the collapse of the salmon runs in 1999, the state decided

26 In September 2000, the MSC allowed seven Alaska salmon companies

_________________________________________________

A to recognise fisheries that care for the environment.

B to be successful.

C to slop fish from spawning

D to set up environmental protection laws.

E to stop people fishing for sport.

F to label their products using the MSC logo.

G to ensure that fish numbers are sufficient to permit fishing.

H to assist the subsistence communities in the region.

I to freeze a huge number of salmon eggs.

J to deny certification to the Alaska fisheries.

K to close down all-fisheries.

 Micro-Enterprise Credit for Street Youth
"I am from a large, poor family and for many years we
have done without breakfast. Ever since I joined the
Street Kids International program I have been able to
buy my family sugar and buns for breakfast. I have also
bought myself decent second-hand clothes and
shoes."
Doreen Soko

"We’ve had business experience. Now I’m confident to

expand what we’ve been doing. I’ve learnt cash
management, and the way of keeping money so we
save for re-investment. Now business is a part of our
lives. As well, we didn’t know each other before – now
we’ve made new friends."
Fan Kaoma

Participants in the Youth Skills

Enterprise Initiative Program,
Zambia

Introduction

Although small-scale business training and credit programs have become more common throughout the

world, relatively little attention has been paid to the need to direct such opportunities to young people. Even

less attention has been paid to children living on the street or in difficult circumstances.

Over the past nine years, Street Kids International (S.K.I.) has been working with partner organisations in

Africa, Latin America and India to support the economic lives of street children. The purpose of this paper is

to share some of the lessons S.K.I. and our partners have learned.
Background

Typically, children do not end up on the streets due to a single cause, but to a combination of factors: a

dearth of adequately funded schools, the demand for income at home, family breakdown and violence. The

street may be attractive to children as a place to find adventurous play and money. However, it is also a

place where some children are exposed, with little or no protection, to exploitative employment, urban crime,

and abuse.

Children who work on the streets are generally involved in unskilled, labour-intensive tasks which require

long hours, such as shining shoes, carrying goods, guarding or washing cars, and informal tracing. Some

may also earn income through begging, or through theft and illegal activities. At the same time, there are

street children who take pride in supporting themselves and their families and who often enjoy their work.

Many children may choose entrepreneurship because it allows them a degree of independence, is less

exploitative than many forms of paid employment, and is flexible enough to allow them to participate in other

activities such as education and domestic tasks.

Street Business Partnerships

S.K.I. has worked with partner organisations in Latin America, Africa and India to develop innovative

opportunities for street children to earn income.

• The S.K.I. Bicycle Courler Service first started in the Sudan. Participants in this enterprise were supplied

with bicycles, which they used to deliver parcels and messages, and which they were required to pay for

gradually from their wages. A similar program was taken up in Bangalore, India.

• Another successful project, The Shoe Shine Collective, was a partnership program with the Y.W.C.A. in

the Dominican Republic. In this project, participants were lent money to purchase shoe shine boxes. They

were also given a sale place to store their equipment, and facilities for individual savings plans.

• The Youth Skills Enterprise initiative in Zambia is a joint program with the Red Cross Society and the

Y.W.C.A. Street youths are supported to start their own small business through business training, life skills

training and access to credit.

Lessons learned

The following lessons have emerged from the programs that S.K.I. and partner organisations have created.

• Being an entrepreneur is not for everyone, nor for every street child. Ideally, potential participants will

have been involved in the organisation’s programs for at least six months, and trust and relationship building

will have already been established.

• The involvement of the participants has been essential to the development of relevant programs. When
children have had a major role in determining procedures, they are more likely to abide by and enforce

them.

• It is critical for all loans to be linked to training programs that include the development of basic business

and life skills.

• There are tremendous advantages to involving parents or guardians in the program, where such

relationships exits. Home visits allow staff the opportunity to know where the participants live, and to

understand more about each individual’s situation.

• Small loans are provided initially for purchasing fixed assets such as bicycles, shoe shine kits and basic

building materials for a market stall. As the entrepreneurs gain experience, the enterprises can be gradually

expanded and consideration can be given to increasing loan amounts. The loan amounts in S.K.I. programs

have generally ranged from US$90-$100.

• All S.K.I. programs have charged interest on the loans, primarily to get the entrepreneurs used to the

concept of paying interest on borrowed money. Generally the rates have been modest (lower than bank

rates)

Conclusion

There is a need to recognise the importance of access to credit for impoverished young people seeking to

fulfill economic needs. The provision of small loans to support the entrepreneurial dreams and ambitions of

youth can be an effective means to help them change their lives. However, we believe that credit must be

extended in association with other types of support that help participants develop critical kills as well as

productive businesses.

Questions 1-4

Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D. Write your answers in boxes 1-4 on your answer sheet.

1. The quotations in the box at the beginning of the article

A. exemplify the effects of S.K.I.

B. explain why S.K.I. was set up.

C. outline the problems of street children.

D. highlight the benefits to society of S.K.I.

2. The main purpose of S.K.I. is to

A. draw the attention of governments to the problem of street children.

B. provide schools and social support for street children.

C. encourage the public to give money to street children.

D. give business training and loans to street children.

3. Which of the following is mentioned by the writer as a reason why children end up living on the streets?

A. unemployment

B. war

C. poverty

D. crime

4. In order to become more independent, street children may

A. reject paid employment.

B. leave their families.

C. set up their own business.

D. employ other children.

Questions 5-8

Complete the table below. Choose NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS from Reading Passage 161 for each

answer.

Do the following statements agree with the claims of the writer in Reading Passage 161?

Write your answers in boxes 5-8 on your answer sheet.

Country Organisations Type of Project Support Provided

Involved

5 ………… and Bangalore · S.K.I. Courier service · Provision

- India of 6 …………

Dominican Republic · S.K.I 7 ……………… · Loans

· Y.W.C.A. · Storage facilities

· Savings plans

Zambia · S.K.I Setting up small · Business training

· The Red Cross businesses · 8 …...…….. training

· Y.W.C.A. · access to credit

Questions 9-12

T/F/NG

9. Any street child can set up their own small business if given enough support.
10. In some cases, the families of street children may need financial support from S.K.I.

11. Only one fixed loan should be given to each child.

12. The children have to pay back slightly more money than they borrowed.

Questions 13

Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D. Write your answer in box 13 on your answer sheet.

The writers conclude that money should only be lent to street children

A as part of a wider program of aid.

B for programs that are not too ambitious.

C when programs are supported by local businesses.

D if the projects planned are realistic and useful.