UNIT – I

Introduction to Mobile Computing

Mobile computing refers to the use of portable computing devices, such as

smartphones and tablets, along with wireless networks, to enable communication
and access to information.

Definition:
Mobile computing involves the use of mobile devices, such as smartphones and
tablets, for various computing tasks.

Examples of Mobile Devices:

- Smartphones: Examples include iPhone, Samsung Galaxy, and Google Pixel.
- Tablets: Examples include iPad, Samsung Galaxy Tab, and Amazon Kindle
Fire.

Wireless Connectivity:
Mobile devices use wireless technologies like Wi-Fi, 4G/5G, and Bluetooth for
connectivity.

Applications of Mobile Computing:

1.Mobile Banking: Accessing bank accounts and making transactions using
banking apps.
2.GPS Navigation: Using navigation apps for real-time directions.
3.Social Media: Accessing and updating social media platforms on the go.
4.Email: Checking and sending emails through mobile devices.
5.Online Shopping: Browsing and purchasing products through mobile apps.

Challenges:
Battery Life: Ensuring efficient power management due to limited battery
capacity.
Security: Addressing security concerns related to data transmission and device
access.
Network Connectivity: Dealing with variable network conditions for seamless
communication.

Mobile Operating Systems:

Android and iOS are dominant mobile operating systems, providing a platform
for mobile app development.
Mobile Applications:
Mobile apps are software applications designed for mobile devices, offering
various functionalities and services.

Evolution:
Mobile computing has evolved from basic calling features to sophisticated
applications, enhancing productivity and connectivity.

Future Trends:
1. Augmented Reality (AR) and Virtual Reality (VR) applications for immersive
experiences.
2. 5G technology enabling faster and more reliable wireless communication.

Conclusion:
Mobile computing has become an integral part of modern life, transforming the
way people communicate, work, and access information.

Mobile Computing VS wireless Networking

S.No Aspect Mobile Computing Wireless

Computing
1 Definition Use of portable devices for Technology that
computing on the go. allows devices to
communicate
without physical
connections.
2 Focus Primarily centered around the Encompasses
use of mobile devices. various devices
communicating
wirelessly, not
exclusive to mobile
devices.
3 Examples Smartphones, tablets, Wi-Fi routers,
wearables. Bluetooth devices,
IoT devices.
4 Functionality Involves both hardware Primarily
(mobile devices) and software infrastructure for
(mobile apps). communication;
may not involve
end-user devices.
5 Communication Emphasizes user-to-user Enables
 6communication through communication
m7obile apps. between devices
and/or access to a
network.
6 Applications Mobile banking, social media, Network
navigation, etc. connectivity, data
transfer, IoT
applications.
7 Technology Integration Incorporates mobile operating Encompasses a
systems (Android, iOS). broader range of
wireless
technologies (Wi-Fi,
Bluetooth, etc.)
8 Usage Scenario Individuals using Businesses or
smartphones on the go. households setting
up wireless
networks.
9 Key Challenges Battery life, security Security,
concerns, varying network interference,
conditions. scalability, and
network
management.
10 Evolution Evolved from basic calling to Evolved to support
complex applications. higher data rates,
more devices, and
improved security.
11 Examples of Standards 5G for mobile data Wi-Fi standards
communication. (802.11n, 802.11ac),
Bluetooth standards.

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Mobile Computing Applications

1. Navigation Apps: Mobile computing enables GPS-based navigation applications like Google
Maps, helping users find directions, nearby places, and real-time traffic updates.

2. Social Media Apps: Platforms like Facebook, Instagram, and Twitter utilize mobile computing
for users to access and share content on the go.

3. Health and Fitness Apps: Mobile applications track health metrics, provide workout routines,
and offer nutritional guidance, promoting a healthier lifestyle.

4. Mobile Banking: Mobile computing facilitates secure transactions through banking apps,
allowing users to check balances, transfer funds, and pay bills conveniently.
5. E-commerce Apps: Online shopping is made accessible through mobile applications, offering
a wide range of products and services with easy payment options.

6. Entertainment Streaming: Mobile devices host applications like Netflix and Spotify, allowing
users to stream movies, TV shows, and music anytime, anywhere.

7. Productivity Tools: Applications such as Microsoft Office or Google Workspace bring

productivity tools to mobile devices, enabling users to work on documents, spreadsheets, and
presentations on the go.

8. Ride-Sharing Apps: Services like Uber and Lyft leverage mobile computing for real-time ride
requests, tracking, and secure payments.

9. Educational Apps: Mobile learning applications provide access to educational resources,

interactive lessons, and online courses, making learning flexible and convenient.

10. Communication Apps: Messaging and video conferencing apps like WhatsApp and Zoom
rely on mobile computing, connecting people globally for instant communication and
collaboration.

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Characteristics of Mobile Computing

1. Portability: Mobile computing devices, such as smartphones and tablets, are designed to be
lightweight and portable, allowing users to carry them easily for on-the-go use.

2. Wireless Connectivity: Mobile computing relies on wireless communication technologies like

Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and cellular networks, enabling seamless data exchange without physical
connections.

3. Location Awareness: Mobile devices often have built-in GPS capabilities, providing location
awareness for applications such as navigation, location-based services, and geotagging.

4. Limited Resource Constraints: Mobile devices typically have constraints in terms of

processing power, memory, and battery life, necessitating the optimization of applications for
efficient resource utilization.

5. Multitasking: Mobile operating systems support multitasking, allowing users to run multiple
applications simultaneously, switch between them, and receive notifications in real-time.

6. Touchscreen Interface: Most mobile devices use touchscreen interfaces, providing an intuitive
and interactive user experience for navigation, input, and control.
7. Context Sensing: Mobile devices can gather data from various sensors like accelerometers,
gyroscopes, and ambient light sensors, enhancing the ability to understand and adapt to the user's
context.

8. Security Concerns: Mobile computing faces unique security challenges, including the
protection of sensitive data, secure authentication methods, and safeguarding against mobile-
specific threats such as app-based vulnerabilities.

9. Instantaneous Access: Mobile computing allows users to quickly access information, services,
and applications, contributing to the immediacy and responsiveness of user interactions.

10. Diverse Applications: Mobile computing supports a wide range of applications, from social
networking and entertainment to business productivity and health monitoring, making it a
versatile platform for various user needs.

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Structure of Mobile Computing Application
A mobile computing application is usually structured in terms of the functionalities
implemented. The simple three-tier structure of a mobile computing application is depicted.
The three tiers are named presentation tier, application tier and data tier.
1. Presentation (Tier-1)
2. Application (Tier-2)
3. Data (Tier-3)
The three tier structure of a mobile computing application.

Presentation Tier
The topmost level of a mobile computing application concerns the user interface.
 A good user interface facilitates the users to issue requests and to present the results to
them meaningfully. Obviously, the programs at this layer run on the client’s computer. This
layer usually includes web browsers and customized client programs for dissemination of
information and for collection of data from the user.

Application Tier
This layer has the vital responsibility of making logical decisions and performing
calculations. It also moves and processes data between the presentation and data layers. We can
consider the middle tier to be like an “engine” of an automobile. It performs the processing of
user input, obtaining information and then making decisions. This layer is implemented using
technology like Java, .NET services, cold fusion, etc. The implementation of this layer and the
functionality provided by this layer should be database independent. This layer of functionalities
is usually implemented on a fixed server.

Data Tier
The data tier is responsible for providing the basic facilities of data storage, access, and
manipulation. Often this layer contains a database. The information is stored and retrieved from
this database. But, when only small amounts of data need to be stored, a file system can be used.
This layer is also implemented on a fixed server.

MAC Protocols
Mac Protocols is the first protocol layer above the Physical Layer in ad hoc .The
primary task of any MAC protocol is to control the access of the nodes to shared medium.

Classification of MAC protocols :

1. Contention-based protocols without reservation/scheduling

 Bandwidth are not reserved.
 No guarantees.
* Sender-initiated protocols :
The transmission of packets are initiated by the sender node.
  Single-channel sender initiated. For example, MACAW, FAMA.
 Multiple-channel sender initiated protocols. For example, BTMA, DBTMA,
ICSMA.
*Receiver-initiated protocols :
The connection is initiated by the receiver node. For example, RI-BTMA, MACA-BI,
MARCH.

2. Contention-based protocols with reservation mechanisms

 Bandwidth is reserved for transmission.
 Guarantees can be given.
*Synchronous protocols :
All node are kept synchronized. For example, D-PRMA, CATA, HRMA, SRMA/PA, FPRP.
*Asynchronous protocols :
Relative time information is used to achieve effecting reservations. For example, MACA/PR,
RTMAC.

3. Contention-based protocols with scheduling mechanisms

 Distributed scheduling is done between nodes.
 Guarantees can be given.
All the nodes are treated equally and no node is get deprived of bandwidth. For example, Eg.
DPS, DWOP, DLPS.

4. Other protocols
 Combine multiple features of other protocols.
 It can also use a completely new approach.
These MAC protocols do not strictly fall into any above category. For example, MMAC,
MCSMA, PCM, RBAR.

Wireless MAC Issues

The three important issues are:

1. Half Duplex operation –> either send or receive but not both at a given time

2. Time varying channel

3. Burst channel errors

1. Half Duplex Operation

In wireless, it‘s difficult to receive data when the transmitter is sending the data,
because: When node is transmitting, a large fraction of the signal energy leaks into the
receiver path. The transmitted and received power levels can differ by orders of magnitude.
 The leakage signal typically has much higher power than the received signal, Impossible to
detect a received signal, while transmitting data. Collision detection is not possible, while
sending data. As collision cannot be detected by the sender, all proposed protocols attempt to
minimize the probability of collision - Focus on collision avoidance.

2. Time Varying Channel

Three mechanisms for radio signal propagation

· Reflection – occurs when a propagating wave impinges upon an object that has very large
dimensions than the wavelength of the radio wave e.g. reflection occurs from the surface of
the earth and from buildings and walls

· Diffraction – occurs when the radio path between the transmitter and the receiver
is obstructed by a surface with sharp edges

· Scattering – occurs when the medium through which the wave travels consists of objects
with

The received signal by a node is a superposition of time-shifted and attenuated versions of

the transmitted signals the received signal varies with time .The time varying signals (time
varying channel) phenomenon also known as multipath propagation. The rate of variation of
channel is determined by the coherence time of the channel Coherence time is defined as
time within which When a node‘s received signal strength drops below a certain threshold
the node is said to be in fade .Handshaking is widely used strategy to ensure the link quality
is good enough for data communication. A successful handshake between a sender and a
receiver (small message) indicates a good communication link.

3. Burst Channel Errors

As a consequence of time varying channel and varying signals strengths errors are
introduced in the transmission (Very likely) for wire line networks the bit error rate (BER) is
the probability of packet error is small .For wire line networks the errors are due to random
For wireless networks the BER is as high. For wireless networks the errors are due to node
being in fade as a result errors occur in a long burst. Packet loss due to burst errors -
mitigation techniques.

· Smaller packets

· Forward Error Correcting Codes

Some other issues are as follows,

1. Hidden Node Problem: This occurs when two nodes that are out of range of each other both
try to transmit data to a third node that is within range of both nodes. Since neither node can
detect the other’s transmission, a collision can occur at the third node, leading to packet loss and
reduced network performance.
2. Exposed Node Problem: This occurs when a node refrains from transmitting data even
though it could do so without interfering with another transmission. This can occur when a node
receives a signal from a distant node and incorrectly assumes that it is too close to the recipient
node to transmit data.
3. Fairness: Since wireless networks often rely on shared communication channels, it is
important to ensure that all devices have equal access to the channel and are not unfairly
monopolizing it. Some MAC protocols, such as TDMA, are designed to ensure fairness, while
others, such as CSMA/CA, may not provide equal access to all devices.
4. Congestion: When multiple devices try to transmit data at the same time, the communication
channel can become congested, leading to increased latency and reduced network performance.
Some MAC protocols, such as CSMA/CA, are designed to reduce congestion by using backoff
mechanisms that force devices to wait before transmitting data.
5. Security: MAC protocols can be vulnerable to security threats, such as eavesdropping, man-
in-the-middle attacks, and denial-of-service attacks. To address these threats, some MAC
protocols incorporate security mechanisms, such as encryption, authentication, and access
controls.

Fixed Assignment Scheme

In fixed assignment schemes, the resources required for a call are assigned for the entire duration
of the call.

1.TDMA
Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) is a digital wireless telephony
transmission technique. TDMA allocates each user a different time slot on a given
frequency. TDMA divides each cellular channel into three time slots in order to
increase the amount of data that can be carried.
Advantages of TDMA:
 TDMA can easily adapt to transmission of data as well as voice communication.
 TDMA has an ability to carry 64 kbps to 120 Mbps of data rates.
 TDMA allows the operator to do services like fax, voice band data, and SMS as
well as bandwidth-intensive application such as multimedia and video
conferencing.
Since TDMA technology separates users according to time, it ensures that there
will be no interference from simultaneous transmissions.
 TDMA provides users with an extended battery life, since it transmits only
portion of the time during conversations.
 TDMA is the most cost effective technology to convert an analog system to
digital.
Disadvantages of TDMA
 Disadvantage using TDMA technology is that the users has a predefined time
slot. When moving from one cell site to other, if all the time slots in this cell are
full the user might be disconnected.
 Another problem in TDMA is that it is subjected to multipath distortion. To
overcome this distortion, a time limit can be used on the system. Once the time
limit is expired the signal is ignored.

2.CDMA
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) is a digital wireless technology that uses
spread-spectrum techniques. CDMA does not assign a specific frequency to each
user. Instead, every channel uses the full available spectrum. Individual
conversations are encoded with a pseudo-random digital sequence. CDMA
consistently provides better capacity for voice and data communications than other
commercial mobile technologies, allowing more subscribers to connect at any
given time, and it is the common platform on which 3G technologies are built.
Advantages of CDMA
 One of the main advantages of CDMA is that dropouts occur only when the
phone is at least twice as far from the base station. Thus, it is used in the rural areas
where GSM cannot cover.
 Another advantage is its capacity; it has a very high spectral capacity that it can
accommodate more users per MHz of bandwidth.
Disadvantages of CDMA
 Channel pollution, where signals from too many cell sites are present in the
subscriber. s phone but none of them is dominant. When this situation arises, the
quality of the audio degrades.
 When compared to GSM is the lack of international roaming capabilities.
 The ability to upgrade or change to another handset is not easy with this
technology because the network service information for the phone is put in the
actual phone unlike GSM which uses SIM card for this.
 Limited variety of the handset, because at present the major mobile companies
use GSM technology.

3.FDMA
FDMA is the process of dividing one channel or bandwidth into multiple
individual bands, each for use by a single user. Each individual band or channel is
wide enough to accommodate the signal spectra of the transmissions to be
propagated. The data to be transmitted is modulated on to each subcarrier, and all
of them are linearly mixed together.

FDMA divides the shared medium bandwidth into individual channels.

Subcarriers modulated by the information to be transmitted occupy each sub
channel.

The best example of this is the cable television system. The medium is a
single coax cable that is used to broadcast hundreds of channels of video/audio
programming to homes. The coax cable has a useful bandwidth from about 4
MHz to 1 GHz. This bandwidth is divided up into 6-MHz wide channels.
Initially, one TV station or channel used a single 6-MHz band. But with digital
techniques, multiple TV channels may share a single band today thanks to
compression and multiplexing techniques used in each channel.
 This technique is also used in fibre optic communications systems. A
single fibre optic cable has enormous bandwidth that can be subdivided to
provide FDMA. Different data or information sources are each assigned a
different light frequency for transmission. Light generally isn‘t referred to by
frequency but by its wavelength (λ).

4.SDMA
Space-division multiple access (SDMA) is a channel access method based
on creating parallel spatial pipes next to higher capacity pipes through spatial
multiplexing and/or diversity, by which it is able to offer superior performance in
radio multiple access communication systems. In traditional mobile cellular
network systems, the base station has no information on the position of the mobile
units within the cell and radiates the signal in all directions within the cell in order
to provide radio coverage.

Random Assignment Schemes

Types of Schemes
 ALOHA.
 Slotted ALOHA.
 CSMA.
 CSMA/CD.
 CSMA/CA.

1.ALOHA Scheme
 It is simple communication scheme developed by university of hawaii.
 Also called as pure aloha.
 If want to start transmit just begin transmission.
 Transmission done by frame by frame.
 Check with every frame with destination whether frame is arrived or not.
 If it fails just retransmit.
 If it is success transmit next frame.
Problem in Aloha
 It is very acceptable when the network is too small and no.of transmitters is less.
 If no.of transmitters are increasing the collision is unavoidable and it becomes unacceptably high.
 So this is inefficient for larger networks.

2.Slotted ALOHA Scheme

* Time is divided into slots and packets assigned with.
* Packet size is restricted.
* Node can just transmit only the beginning of the transmission.
* Beacon signal is employed for indignation to beginning of the signals.

3. CSMA Scheme
CSMA = Carrier Sense Multiple Access. Before the transmission begins the node check
with a medium for traffic and it defers the transmission rate.
Two Techniques
 CSMA/CD
 CSMA/CA
CSMA protocol was developed to overcome the problem found in ALOHA i.e. to minimize the
chances of collision, so as to improve the performance. CSMA protocol is based on the principle
of 'carrier sense'. The station senses the carrier or channel before transmitting a frame. It means
the station checks the state of channel, whether it is idle or busy.

The chances of collision still exist because of propagation delay. The frame transmitted
by one station takes some time to reach other stations. In the meantime, other stations may sense
the channel to be idle and transmit their frames. This results in the collision.

There Are Three Different Type of CSMA Protocols

(I) I-persistent CSMA
(ii) Non- Persistent CSMA
(iii) p-persistent CSMA

(i) I-persistent CSMA

In this method, station that wants to transmit data continuously senses the channel to
check whether the channel is idle or busy. If the channel is busy, the station waits until it
becomes idle. When the station detects an idle-channel, it immediately transmits the frame with
probability 1. Hence it is called I-persistent CSMA. This method has the highest chance of
collision because two or more stations may find channel to be idle at the same time and transmit
their frames. When the collision occurs, the stations wait a random amount of time and start all
over again.

(ii) Non-persistent CSMA

In this scheme, if a station wants to transmit a frame and it finds that the channel is busy
(some other station is transmitting) then it will wait for fixed interval of time. After this time, it
again checks the status of the channel and if the channel is free it will transmit. A station that has
a frame to send senses the channel.

If the channel is idle, it sends immediately. If the channel is busy, it waits a random
amount of time and then senses the channel again. In non-persistent CSMA the station does not
continuously sense the channel for the purpose of capturing it when it detects the end of previous
transmission.
 (iii) p-persistent CSMA

This method is used when channel has time slots such that the time slot duration is
equal to or greater than the maximum propagation delay time. Whenever a station becomes
ready to send, it senses the channel. If channel is busy, station waits until next slot. If channel
is idle, it transmits with a probability p.

With the probability q=l-p, the station then waits for the beginning of the next time
slot. If the next slot is also idle, it either transmits or waits again with probabilities p and q.
This process is repeated till either frame has been transmitted or another station has begun
transmitting. In case of the transmission by another station, the station acts as though
collision has occurred and it waits a random amount of time and starts again.

Reservation Based Schemes

 The scheme is based on RTS/CTS Signals
 RTS = Ready To Send
 CTS = Clear To Send
 Before the transmission node must send RTS Signal to receiver and
 Receiver sends CTS Signal and engages with transmission.
 Other nodes must wait until the data transmission is completed.
 To avoid collision with RTS and CTS Signal each node must wait in random time slot
send or receive RTS or CTS Signal.
 MACA - Multiple Access Collision Avoidance

CTS and RTS Contains

Sender

Receiver

Transmission Time

Typical CTS packet

 Polling is the process where the computer or controlling device waits for an external
device to check for its readiness or state, often with low-level hardware.
 The basis of these protocols is to give to each node a guaranteed periodic access to the
wireless channel. In these protocols, channel is segmented into super-frames, and a global
synchronization between nodes is assumed. The MAC protocol reserves a slot to each
real-time node.

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------