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The document is an investigatory project on the topic of Newton's Laws of Motion, detailing their historical development, significance, and applications in various fields. It includes contributions from Aristotle and Galileo, leading to Newton's formulation of the laws that describe the relationship between forces and motion. The project is submitted by a Class XII student at Lokmanya Tilak International School for the AISSCE 2023-24.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
6 views18 pages

Min Merged

The document is an investigatory project on the topic of Newton's Laws of Motion, detailing their historical development, significance, and applications in various fields. It includes contributions from Aristotle and Galileo, leading to Newton's formulation of the laws that describe the relationship between forces and motion. The project is submitted by a Class XII student at Lokmanya Tilak International School for the AISSCE 2023-24.

Uploaded by

sksinghsk74
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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LOKMANYA TILAK INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL

BIOLOGY

“Name of the Project”

INVESTIGATORY PROJECT

SUBMITTED BY:

CLASS-XII
1
CONTENTS
SR.NO. TOPIC PAGE NO.

4
5
6
7 Bibliography

2
LOKMANYA TILAK INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the work depicted in this Project is the

work of ________________ of class XII having CBSE Roll no.____________

has satisfactorily completed the “BIOLOGY INVESTIGATORY

PROJECT” on the topic “________________” for All India Senior School

Certificate Examination (AISSCE) for the Academic year 2023-24.

EXTERNAL EXAMINER PRINCIPAL


Ms. Ritu Kapur

SUBJECT TEACHER
Ms. Jyoti.J.Shiddanagoudar

3
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my special thanks of gratitude to my Biology teacher Ms. Jyoti. J.

Shiddanagoudar as well as our Principal Madam Ms. Ritu Kapur who gave me the golden

opportunity to do this wonderful project on the topic “___________________” which also

helped me in doing a lot of research and enhanced my analytical and critical thinking skills.

Secondly, I would also like to thank my parents and friends who helped me a lot in

finalizing this project in given time frame.

4
INTRODUCTION
The Laws of Motion, formulated by Sir Isaac Newton in the 17th
century, form the foundation of classical mechanics. They describe
the relationship between the forces acting on an object and its
motion. These laws explain everything from the movement of
everyday objects to the motion of planets in space.
Newton published these laws in his famous book, "Philosophiæ
Naturalis Principia Mathematica" (Mathematical Principles of
Natural Philosophy) in 1687. The three laws describe how objects
behave when subjected to forces, providing a framework for
understanding the physical world.
Newton's Three Laws of Motion
1. First Law (Law of Inertia):
o An object at rest stays at rest, and an object in motion
continues to move in a straight line with constant velocity
unless acted upon by an external force.
o This means that objects naturally resist changes in their
motion, which is called inertia.
o Example: A book on a table remains in place until you
push it. A moving car stops only when brakes or friction
(external forces) act on it.
2. Second Law (Law of Acceleration):
o The acceleration of an object is directly proportional to
the force applied and inversely proportional to its mass.
o Mathematically, this is written as: F=ma where F is the
force, m is the mass of the object, and a is the
acceleration.
o This means a heavier object requires more force to
accelerate compared to a lighter object.
o Example: It is easier to push an empty shopping cart than
a full one because the full cart has more mass.
3. Third Law (Action-Reaction Law):
o For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.
o This means that whenever an object exerts a force on
another object, the second object exerts a force of equal
magnitude but in the opposite direction.
o Example: When you jump off a boat, the boat moves
backward as you push off. Rockets launch by expelling
gases downward, which pushes the rocket upward.
Importance of Newton’s Laws
These laws are fundamental in physics and engineering. They help us
understand:
• How vehicles move and stop
• How airplanes and rockets function
• How forces act in sports and everyday activities
• The motion of celestial bodies in space
Newton’s Laws remain essential even in modern physics, though at
very high speeds (near the speed of light) or in quantum mechanics,
additional theories like Einstein’s Relativity and Quantum Mechanics
come into play.
Development of the Laws of Motion: From Aristotle to
Newton
The understanding of motion has evolved significantly over time,
with contributions from Aristotle, Galileo Galilei, and Isaac Newton.
Aristotle's ideas on motion were widely accepted for nearly 2000
years until Galileo challenged them with experimental evidence.
Finally, Newton formulated his Three Laws of Motion, which became
the foundation of classical mechanics.

1. Aristotle’s View on Motion (384–322 BCE)


Aristotle, an ancient Greek philosopher, was one of the first thinkers
to propose theories about motion. He categorized motion into two
types:
1. Natural Motion:
o Objects move according to their nature without external
influence.
o Example: A stone falls to the ground, and smoke rises into
the air.
o He believed that everything moves toward its "natural
place" (earthly objects move downward, and celestial
objects move in circles).
2. Violent Motion:
o Motion that occurs only when an external force is
applied.
o Example: A cart moves only when pushed or pulled.
Aristotle's Fallacy
• Aristotle believed that a continuous force is required to keep
an object moving.
• He stated that if an external force is removed, the object will
stop moving immediately.
• This idea seemed reasonable at the time because everyday
experience shows that objects slow down when no force is
applied.
Flaws in Aristotle’s View (His "Fallacy")
• Aristotle did not account for friction as a force that slows down
objects.
• His theory could not explain why an arrow continues moving
even after leaving the bow.
• He ignored the idea of inertia, which later became the
foundation of Newton's First Law.
For nearly 2000 years, Aristotle’s incorrect idea about motion was
widely accepted until Galileo Galilei challenged it with experiments.

2. Galileo Galilei’s Contribution (1564–1642)


Galileo Galilei was one of the first scientists to challenge Aristotle’s
fallacy through experiments and observations. His work laid the
foundation for Newton’s First Law of Motion.
Galileo’s Experiment on Falling Objects
• Aristotle claimed that heavier objects fall faster than lighter
ones.
• Galileo disproved this by dropping objects of different masses
from the Leaning Tower of Pisa.
• He found that all objects fall at the same rate in the absence of
air resistance.
Galileo’s Concept of Inertia
• Inertia is the property of an object to resist changes in its
motion.
• Galileo proposed that once an object is in motion, it does not
require a continuous force to keep moving—only an external
force (like friction) stops it.
Galileo’s Inclined Plane Experiment
To study motion further, Galileo conducted inclined plane
experiments:
• He rolled a ball down a smooth, inclined plane.
• He observed that:
o The ball sped up while going down.
o The ball slowed down when rolling up.
o When rolling on a horizontal, frictionless surface, the ball
continued moving indefinitely.
Galileo’s Conclusion
• Motion does not require a continuous force (contradicting
Aristotle).
• An object in motion continues moving forever unless an
external force (like friction or air resistance) stops it.
• This principle became the basis of Newton’s First Law of
Motion.
Sir Isaac Newton and His Contributions to the Laws of
Motion
Sir Isaac Newton (1643–1727) was one of the most influential
scientists in history. His work laid the foundation for classical
mechanics, calculus, optics, and gravitation. One of his most
significant contributions was the Three Laws of Motion, which
describe how objects move and interact with forces. These laws were
first published in his book "Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia
Mathematica" (Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy) in
1687.
Newton’s Laws of Motion explain the fundamental principles of
mechanics and have shaped modern science and engineering. Let’s
explore them in detail:

Newton's First Law of Motion (Law of Inertia)


"An object at rest stays at rest, and an object in motion remains in
motion at a constant velocity unless acted upon by an external
force."
Explanation:
• This law describes inertia, the tendency of objects to resist
changes in their motion.
• If no external force acts on an object, it will either remain
stationary or continue moving in a straight line at a constant
speed.
Connection to Galileo’s Work
• Newton's First Law builds on Galileo's principle of inertia.
• Galileo showed that objects continue in motion unless friction
or another force stops them.
• Newton refined this idea into a precise law of motion.
Mathematical Representation:
∑F=0 ; for v = constant
Where:
• ΣF = Sum of all external forces acting on the object
• v = Velocity of the object
Examples:
1. Stationary Object:
o A book on a table remains still unless pushed or lifted.
2. Moving Object:
o A moving car would keep going forever if there were no
friction or air resistance.
3. Astronaut in Space:
o In the vacuum of space (no friction or air resistance), an
astronaut who pushes off a spaceship will keep moving in
a straight line indefinitely.
Real-World Applications:
Seatbelts in cars: When a car suddenly stops, passengers keep
moving forward due to inertia, so seatbelts prevent injuries.
Sports: A soccer ball will keep rolling until friction and air
resistance slow it down.

Newton's Second Law of Motion (Law of Force and Acceleration)


"The acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the force
applied and inversely proportional to its mass."
Mathematical Formulation:
F=ma
Where:
• F = Force applied (in Newtons, N)
• m = Mass of the object (in kilograms, kg)
• a = Acceleration produced (in meters per second squared, m/s²)
Explanation:
• If you apply a larger force, the acceleration increases.
• If the object has a larger mass, the acceleration decreases.
Understanding the Equation:
• If force is doubled, acceleration doubles.
• If mass is doubled, acceleration is halved.
• If force is zero, the object remains stationary or moves at
constant velocity (as stated in the First Law).
Examples:

1. Pushing a Shopping Cart:


o A light shopping cart accelerates faster than a heavily
loaded one when pushed with the same force.
2. Kicking a Ball:
o A stronger kick (more force) makes the ball accelerate
more.
3. Driving a Car:
o A car with a more powerful engine (greater force)
accelerates faster.
• Newton defined the unit of force as one Newton (1 N):
• Unit of Force – The Newton (N):
o 1 Newton = Force required to accelerate a 1 kg object by
1 m/s².
o 1N=1 kg⋅m/s2
Real-World Applications:
Rocket Launch: The force exerted by rocket engines must
overcome the huge mass of the rocket.
Braking a Car: The force of brakes reduces acceleration and
brings the car to a stop.

Newton's Third Law of Motion (Action-Reaction Law)


"For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction."
Explanation:
• Whenever an object exerts a force on another object, the
second object exerts an equal force in the opposite direction.
• Forces always occur in pairs—one force is the action, and the
other is the reaction.
Mathematical Representation:
Faction = - Freaction
Where:
• Fₐ = Action force
• Fᵣ = Reaction force (equal in magnitude but opposite in
direction)
1. Examples:
1. Walking on the Ground:

a. When you push the ground backward with your feet, the
ground pushes you forward.
2. Jumping off a Boat:
When you jump forward from a boat, the boat moves
backward.
3. Rocket Propulsion:
a. The rocket pushes gases downward, and the gases push
the rocket upward.
Bird Flying

b. The wings push air downward, and the air pushes the bird
upward.
Real-World Applications:

Recoil of a Gun: When a bullet is fired, the gun moves backward


due to the reaction force.
Jet Engines: A jet plane moves forward because hot gases are
pushed backward.
Impact of Newton’s Laws on Science and Technology

Newton’s Laws of Motion form the basis of mechanics and have


numerous applications in science and engineering, including:

Space Exploration: Rockets, satellites, and space travel rely on


Newton’s laws.
Automobiles: Understanding force, acceleration, and inertia
helps design safer vehicles.
Engineering: Bridges, buildings, and machines are designed using
Newtonian mechanics.
Sports Science: Athletes use principles of force, inertia, and
reaction forces to improve performance.
Limitations of Newton’s Laws
• They work well at normal speeds but fail at:
o Very high speeds (close to the speed of light) → Requires
Einstein’s Theory of Relativity.
o Microscopic (atomic) scales → Requires Quantum
Mechanics.

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