HAZRAT USMAN

DURING THE PROPHET’S LIFETIME

 Usman belonged to the powerful clan of Banu

Umayya of the Quraish.
 He was modest and honest since his childhood and
abstained from corrupt practices such as gambling and
drinking even before Islam.
 He was a trader and soon became a wealthy person.
 He was known as Ghani (the generous one).
 He was literate as well. He became a Muslim on Abu
Bakr’s invitation and was one of the earliest converts.
 He is counted amongst the 10 blessed companions,
was a scribe and later became the third Caliph of Islam.
 Soon after his conversion he married Ruqqaya, the
divorced daughter of the Prophet.
 He faced persecution in Makkah and migrated to
Abyssinia along with his wife with the first batch of
emigrants.
 He remained there for some years and then returned
to Makkah.
 As the persecutions increased he again migrated with
his wife, this time to Medina.
 After his wife died in 2A.H, he married the Prophet’s
widowed daughter Umm-e-Kalsum. This earned him the
title of ‘Zun Nurrain’ (the possessor of two lights).
 Being a wealthy man, he generously donated his
wealth to the poor amongst both Mahajirin and Ansar.
 He purchased a piece of land according to the wish of
the Holy Prophet in order to extend the Prophet’s
mosque.
 He would purchase a slave from his master and set
him free on every Friday.
 He actively participated in all the battles led by the
Prophet except Badr, due to the illness of his wife
Ruqayya.
 He donated generously in the battle of Tabuk.
 He accompanied the Prophet in the journey towards
Hudaibiya.
 He was sent to Makkah to hold talks with the Quraish,
but a rumour was spread of his murder, as he had to stay
longer than expected.
 The Prophet on hearing the news took a pledge from
his companions to avenge Usman’s blood.
 This historic pledge was became known as Bait-e-
Rizwan.
 Usman returned safe, but the whole episode reflects
his importance and the Prophet’s love for him.
 Usman was a prominent figure during the Prophet’s
life and during the Caliphate of the first two Caliphs until
he himself became a Caliph.
 The Prophet used to pray: ‘’O God! I am pleased with
Usman. I beseech (beg) you to be pleased with him.’’
 Modesty was his most prominent feature and the Holy
Prophet once said: ‘’Even the angels of God envy the
modesty of Usman’’.
 Usman was murdered by conspirators in 35 AH and is
buried in Jannat-ul-Baqi

ELECTION:
 Umar nominated Ali, Talha, Zubair, Usman, Abdur
Rehman bin Auf and Saad bin Abi Waqas. All were one of
the 10 blessed companions.
 Umar’s choice was Abdur Rehman but he was not
willing to shoulder the responsibility.
 Talha was not in Medina so the choice was now
restricted to the remaining four.
 It was decided that as Abdur Rehman had stepped
down, therefore he should choose the next Caliph.
 He consulted each one individually; Ali chose Usman
and Usman chose Ali, Saad supported Usman while
Zubair mentioned both Usman and Ali.
 He asked the opinion of other prominent men as well
and came to the conclusion that the majority favoured
Usman.
 Abdur Rehman first took the pledge of allegiance
followed by Ali and other companions and then there was
a general pledge.
 He became the 3rd Caliph on the 4th of Muharram 24
AH.

MAIN ACTIVITIES DURING HIS CALIPHATE

(expansion + administration):
 During the early years, the process of expansion of
the Empire continued.
 The army moved in all directions and for the first time
in Islamic history, utilized naval power.
 During his Caliphate, for the first time a fleet of nearly
500 ships was built to fight with the Greeks on the
Mediterranean Sea.
 His earliest focus was the Persian Empire in the East.
Khurasan, Merv, Tus, Sarakhs and then Khawarzim were
captured in 650 AD.
 This bought 40,000 captives and rich booty to
Medina.
 Towards the West, the Byzantines forces were
defeated and Cyprus was conquered in 649 AD.
 In North Africa, Libya, Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia
were conquered by the middle of the 7th century.
 In 651 AD, the standardization of the Quran on the
basis of Mushaf-e-Hafsa was done.
 Recitation on the model of only this copy was allowed
and the rest burnt.
 Official copies dispatched to all provincial capitals.
 Two of the original manuscripts of his time exist even
today.
 Continued to improve on the administrative network
laid down by the previous Caliphs. Regrouped some of the
provinces and created new provinces for the newly
conquered territories.
 Majlis-e-Shoora or council of consultation was
maintained. Held periodic conferences of the district
authorities in order to keep himself informed of the
conditions of the country. Used to hear public complaints
after Friday prayers.
 He allowed Arabs to acquire agricultural lands in the
conquered territories.
 Expanded the Prophet’s mosque. Constructed new
mosques, inns, border outposts etc.
 Made arrangements for the supply of drinking water
for travellers by digging wells by the sides of roads and
highways.
 A dam was built to protect Medina from floods. Raised
the salaries of the officers and the armed forces.
Increased the allowances paid to people by 25%.
 Is said to have sent religious teachers to India to
spread Islam.

DIFFICULTIES:

 During the last years of his Caliphate, he faced

serious difficulties that eventually led to his martyrdom in
35 AH.
 He was a very gentle and soft hearted person. The
people who wanted to create chaos among Muslims took
advantage of his soft nature.
 Umar was a very strict administrator and the
machinery of the government worked smoothly in his time.
 Usman used to overlook the minor faults of the
appointed Amils, provincial heads as well as the new
converts.
 They took an advantage of his leniency and rebelled
against him. Abdullah bin Saba, a Yemenite Jew who
outwardly accepted Islam, embarked on a subtle
campaign of creating dissension (conflict) among the
Muslims.
 He and his followers established their headquarters
in Egypt and began to circulate forged letters that
complaints against the Caliph, his governors and other
state officials.
 Efforts were made to highlight the long forgotten
rivalry between Banu Hashim and Banu Umayya.
 Usman did not take timely action against him.
 Even some of the noblest actions of his were
misprojected before the public; for example, the
standardization of the Quran and the expansion of the
compound of the Kaabah.
 The uprisings in Iraq, Kufa and Egypt. Finally in 35
AH troops from all three provinces arrived at Medina to
take their complaints directly to the Caliph.
 Usman had pacified them and they were on their way
home when they got a hold of a letter supposedly from
‘Usman to the Governor of Egypt to have the leaders of
the group put to death on their return. Seeking vengeance
they returned and killed him.

CHARGES AGAINST HIM:

 One of the main allegations against him was that he
had appointed his inefficient relatives as governors. There
were 12 provinces in the country and he appointed his
relatives in 4: Egypt, Syria, Kufa and Basra.
 All the governors appointed by him were people of
great calibre. Ameer Muaviya, a relative of his was
appointed by Umar as the governor of Syria and Usman
let him continue his job because he was doing it well.
 Abdullah bin Saad, his foster brother, was appointed
governor of Egypt also by Umar.
 Usman appointed Saad bin Abi Waqqas as governor
of Kufa. When he was unable to control the situation there,
he was replaced by Walid bin Uqba (Usman’s foster
brother) who proved his worth.
 Abu Musa Ashari was deposed at the demand of the
people of Basra. Was replaced by Abdullah bin Amir
(Usman’s cousin) according to the wishes of the people.
He proved very successful.
 Thus none of the governors appointed by him proved
a failure.
 It was also alleged that he was too lenient and did not
keep a check on his governors. He, unlike Umar, gave the
governors a free hand in running the provinces and did not
interfere in their day to day affairs.
 His burning of the Qur’an was seen by some as
destroying God’s Word. This was done after consultation
with the other companions and it was a great service that
he rendered to Islam.
 He gave a convincing reply to each of the charges in
the presence of the Prophet’s companions. His
explanation was accepted.
 The rebels however stuck to one point—their demand
to depose the Caliph.
 To achieve this end, finally in 35 AH troops from
Egypt, Kufa and Basra marched to Medina and encamped
outside the capital.
 Usman had pacified them and they were on their way
home when they got a hold of a letter supposedly from
‘Usman to the Governor of Egypt to have the leaders of
the group put to death on their return. Seeking vengeance
they returned and killed him
MAJOR EVENTS:

 Expansion, mention the areas conquered.

 Naval fleet.
 Compilation.
 Because of compilation and appointing relatives as
governors led to several uprisings.
 The uprisings in Iraq, Kufa and Egypt. Finally in 35
AH troops from all three provinces arrived at Medina to
take their complaints directly to the Caliph.
 Usman had pacified them and they were on their way
home when they got a hold of a letter supposedly from
‘Usman to the Governor of Egypt to have the leaders of
the group put to death on their return. Seeking vengeance
they returned and killed him.
MARTYRDOM:

 The rebels were on their way home when they got

hold of a letter supposedly from Usman to the governor of
Egypt to have the leaders of the group put to death on
their return.
 They returned to Medina after four days shouting for
revenge.
 They laid siege to his house by hundreds and did not
allow food and water to reach him.
 Ali deputed his sons, Hassan and Hussain, and
Zubair deputed his son Abdullah to protect him.
 Some companions who were successful in reaching
him, wanted to help him and fight the rebels or send for
the army.
 But Usman refused saying that he did not want to
shed Muslim blood.
 The siege lasted for 50 days and finally some rebels
jumped into his house, injured his wife Naila and killed him
while he was reciting the Quran.
 The copy of that particular Quran still exists with his
blood on it. He died on Friday, 18th of Zil Hajj 35 AH.

SIGNIFICANCE OF HIS MARTYRDOM:

 It was a great tragedy with far reaching
consequences. It marked the start of sectarianism among
the Muslims.
 The future events proved it.
 His murder reflected the growing strength of anti
Islamic forces that had long been busy in hatching
conspiracies against the Muslim community secretly. The
same conspirators would create difficulties for the 4th
Caliph, Ali.
 The event also reflected the gentle disposition and
simple mindedness of Usman who didn’t take any action
against the rebels on the ground that he did not want to
shed Muslim blood.

SIGNIFICANCE:

ROLE MODEL FOR TODAY:

JUNE 2006
4 (a) Write an account of the main activities of Hazrat
`Uthman
(i) During the lifetime of the Prophet, [6]
(ii) During his caliphate. [6]
(b) Explain why Hazrat `Uthman encountered
difficulties in the latter years of his caliphate and was
assassinated. [4]
(a) (i) • He was one of the first converts.
• He experienced persecution for his faith.
• He married the Prophet’s daughter Ruqayya.
• With her he migrated to Abyssinia.
• He migrated to Madina.
• He did not take part in the Battle of Badr because of his
sick wife.
• When Ruqayya died, he was given her sister Umm
Kulthum as wife.
• He acted as the Prophet’s ambassador to Quraysh when
the Muslims neared Makka.
• He contributed his wealth to pay for expeditions,
particularly Tabuk.

(ii) • He continued the policy of expanding Muslim territory.

• The empire expanded into Persia, Armenia and North
Africa.
• He placed relatives in important positions of control.
• He requested an authentic version of the Qur’an.
• He ordered Zayd Ibn Thabit to lead the compilation of
this.
• He destroyed all other copies.
• His rule caused disquiet and led to several uprisings.

(b) • His appointment of family members was seen as

favouritism.
• His destruction of the Qur’an was seen by some as
destroying God’s Word.
• Some Muslims questioned his ability to rule.
• He pacified a force from Egypt by making concessions,
but sent word to have them killed on their return home.
• They returned to Madina and killed him.

JUNE 2008
4 (a) Write about:
(i) Abu Bakr’s conquest of the false prophets
(ii) `Uthman’s arrangements to make a collection of
the Qur’an. [2x5]

(b) Explain why these two caliphs thought it was

important to take these actions. [2x3]

(a) (i)
• One of the problems facing Abu Bakr was a number of
people in Arabia who claimed to be prophets like
Muhammad
• The main ones were Musaylima among the Hanifa tribes
in Yamama, Tulayha among the tribes of Asad and
Ghatafan, al-Aswad al-Ansi in the Yemen and Sajdah
among the Tamim tribe [1 mark for all four names; 1 extra
mark for details about each]
• He sent forces against all of them
• The fighting against Musaylima was most fierce: in the
battle of Yamama many memorizers of the Qur’an were
killed
(ii)
• `Uthman discovered that in parts of the empire people
were following different versions of the Qur’an
• He ordered all copies of the Qur’an to be destroyed
• He invited Zayd Ibn Thabit and a group of Muslims to
compile an authentic copy of the text
• They took great care, consulting widely and checking the
text against memories
• They referred to the collection in the keeping of Hafsa
• `Uthman had copies made and distributed these to the
major centres

(b) [In each case allow 1 mark for a basic explanatory

comment (not description); 1 extra mark for a further
comment that shows fuller understanding; and the third
mark for complete explanations]
The false prophets threatened the uniqueness of the
Prophet Muhammad
Their claims suggested that Muhammad was not the last
prophet sent from God
Unless they were overthrown Islam could not uphold its
claims
If variant readings were allowed the message of the
Qur’an might be obscured
These readings threatened the purity of God’s instructions
If they were allowed to continue the community might be
split over different teachings

JUNE 2010
3 (a) what major events took place during the
caliphate of ‘Uthman? [10]

‘Uthman was the third caliph. He continued the policy of

expanding the Islamic territories. He expanded the state
towards the east and in the Mediterranean and crushed
many rebellions.
Details of areas conquered and rebellions put down could
be given here. The first Muslim naval fleet was built during
the reign of ‘Uthman. It was ‘Uthman who during his term
as caliph ordered a full edition of the Qur’an to be made
and for this appointed Zayd Ibn Thabit to lead the
compilation. He ordered all unofficial copies of the Qur’an
to be burnt. Some candidates may well discuss that it was
because of this action of his and the charge that he had
appointed inefficient relatives as governors that his rule
caused disquiet and led to several uprisings. They could
go on to mention the uprisings in Iraq, Kufa and Egypt and
say how finally in 35 AH troops from all three provinces
arrived at Medina to take their complaints directly to the
caliph.

(b) Explain why ‘Uthman encountered difficulties in

the later years of his caliphate and was assassinated.
[4]

His appointment of family members in important positions

was regarded as favouritism. The burning of the copies of
the Qur’an to be replaced by the official version prepared
by Zayd Ibn Thabit was seen as destroying the word of
Allah. Yet another reason was that some Muslims
questioned his ability to rule. To get to the higher level of
marks the candidates must write about his assassination
as well. Here the stronger candidates could state that after
‘Uthman had pacified the Egyptians they were on their
way home when they got a hold of a letter supposedly
from ‘Uthman to the Governor of Egypt to have the leaders
of the group put to death on their return. Seeking
vengeance they returned and killed him. Evaluation of
some of the points discussed above is needed to get to
the top levels.

HAZRAT ALI
SIGNIFICANCE DURING THE PROPHET’S LIFETIME:

 Ali was the first cousin of the Holy Prophet and so

belonged to the Banu Hashim.
 His father was Abu Talib bin Abdul Muttalib, who had
brought up Mohammad in his childhood.
 Ali was about ten years old when the Prophet
received the first revelation.
 Ali got the special opportunity of living in the company
of the Prophet and so developed great love for him since
his childhood.
 Ali was brave and literate and was a very intelligent
youth of Makkah.
 He led a pious and noble life, hated idol worshipping,
drinking, gambling and bloodshed.
 He was first among the children to embrace Islam. .
 One day he saw his cousin and his wife put their
foreheads on the ground.
 Hazrat Ali looked at them amazingly.
 Never before had he seen anybody saying prayers in
this style.
 When the prayer was over, Hazrat Ali asked his
cousin about this strange act.
 He explained: "We were worshipping Allah, the One,"
the Holy Prophet said, "I advise you to do the same and
never bend your head before Lat, Uzza or any other idol."
Next morning Hazrat Ali accepted Islam.
 When the Holy Prophet asked the Hashimites to help
him in his mission,
 Hazrat Ali was the only person to respond to his call.
After that Ali started supporting the Holy Prophet bravely
and the Prophet declared him as ‘’my brother and my
lieutenant’’.
 The Prophet gave his youngest daughter Fatima in
marriage to Ali and Hassan and Hussain were born from
this marriage.
 Ali demonstrated utmost courage and boldness by
sleeping in the bed of The Prophet on the night before
migration to Medina.
 At that time he had entrusted to Ali the task of
returning the belongings of the people that had been
placed in the Prophet’s custody for safe keeping.
 In Medina, when the Prophet declared the emigrants
and helpers as brothers, the Holy Prophet declared that Ali
would be his brother.
 Hazrat Ali was a brave warrior and showed great
courage in all battles.
 At the time of the Battle of Badr, he was chosen to
carry the Muslim banner.
 During the Battle of Uhad, he was one of the few
Muslims who defended the Holy Prophet. After the battle
he, along with his wife Fatima washed the Prophet’s
wounds.
 During the Battle of Trench, when some of the pagans
were able to cross over the ditch, Ali killed them.
 He was one of the leaders in the siege of the Jewish
tribe of Banu Quraizah.
 He showed great bravery in the battle of Khyber,
using a door as a shield.
 At Hunain he defended the Holy Prophet and at the
time of the conquest of Makkah, he again carried the
Muslim banner.
 For his bravery, the Prophet gave him the title of Asad
Allah/Lion of Allah.
 Hazrat Ali did not take part in the Tabuk Expedition
as he remained in Medina as the Prophet’s deputy.
 On his complaint that he was not going with the army,
the Prophet said to him: ‘’you are to me as Haroon was to
Musa, except that there will be no prophet after me.’’
(Agreed Upon)
 He was among those who had taken the oath of
Rizwan for the sake of Usman’s life and then he drafted
the treaty of Hudaibiya and was one of the witnesses as
well.
 He was one of the 10 blessed companions.
 He was one of the scribes of the Divine Revelation.
 He also wrote the letters sent out by the Prophet to
different kings and emperors.
 He was present at the time of the death of the Holy
Prophet.
 He washed his dead body and was one of those who
lowered the Prophet into the grave.

ELECTION:

 There was no Caliph of Islam for three days after

Hazrat Usman's murder. Medina was completely in the
grip of the rioters.
 Most of the Companions had left Medina during the
dark days of the holocaust (a war in which very many
ordinary people are killed). The few who remained felt
absolutely helpless.
 After three days, when the rebels decided to return to
their homes, they felt it was necessary that the new Caliph
should be chosen before they left Medina.
 In this connection there were differences among the
rebels.
 One group favoured the election of Ali (Egypt);
another favoured the election of Talha (Kufa) while the
third wanted Zubair (Basra).
 The Egyptians and some prominent companions
requested Hazrat Ali to accept the office of the Caliph but
he refused.
 The rebels then offered the Khilafat to Talha and
Zubair but they too refused.
 They next requested the Ansar to choose a Caliph
from amongst themselves, but they declined and said in
that in the presence of Ali, no one else deserved to be the
Caliph.
 There was a complete deadlock in the matter of
election.
 They then gave the ultimatum that unless the Caliph
was chosen within the next 24 hours, they would be forced
to take some drastic action (mass murder).
 Hazrat Ali had talks with those of the Companions
who were still in Medina. They favoured him to forward
and serve the people.
 ·So Hazrat Ali agreed to take responsibility of guiding
the affairs of the Muslims. He consented to become the
fourth Caliph of Islam.
 All came to the Prophet's Mosque to receive the
pledge of loyalty. Malik Ushtar was the first to take the
pledge. He was followed by other people.
 Talha and Zubair, the two noted Companions, were in
Medina at the time. They were among the six electors
nominated by Umar. Hazrat Ali wanted to have their
confidence. Both of them took the pledge.
 ·Members of the Umayyad family all fled to Syria.
They took away with them the blood-stained shirt of the
late Caliph and the chopped fingers of his wife, Naila.
 Hazrat Ali knew well that difficult times lay ahead. The
forces of lawlessness had been unleashed. It would
require tireless work, great patience and much tact to
restore law and order. Ali hoped to accomplish the task
with the co-operation of his people.

CHANGE OF GOVERNORS:

 On becoming the Caliph, Hazrat Ali felt that in the

interest of the state, it was necessary that there should be
a change in the provincial governors.
 He therefore decided to remove the governors
appointed by Usman and appoint new people to take their
place.
 Many of his friends advised him not to take such a
step before establishing himself as the Caliph.
 With regard to Muaviya, the governor of Syria, they
particularly asked him not to interfere because the
appointment of Muaviya was not made by Usman but by
Umar.
 Also because he was popular in Syria and the people
were happy with him.
 Against the advice of his friends, Ali decided to
replace Muaviya also along with the others.
 He appointed new governors for Syria, Egypt, Kufa,
Basra and Yemen. Then he sent them to take charge of
their provinces.
 The governors appointed in the provinces of Basra,
Egypt and Yemen were able to take charge of their
provinces without any resistance.
 But the governor for Kufa had to return to Medina
after having failed to assume the charge of his office.
 Similarly the Governor for Syria was met by a Syrian
army who told him to go back as they did not acknowledge
Ali as the Caliph. Muaviya was not ready to accept Ali as
Caliph. The main crisis started here.

BATTLE OF CAMEL (JAMAL):

 Banu Ummayads who were in power in Syria raised a

cry for revenge for Usman’s blood.
 Exhibited the blood stained clothes of Usman and the
chopped fingers of his wife to instigate the people.
 Many people in Makkah and Medina also joined them
and demanded punishment for the assassins.
 Ali agreed but argued that he would do so only after
re-establishing peace in the country. He realized that the
assassination of Usman was not the work of a few
individuals who could be easily punished.
 Due to the chaotic conditions during the last days of
Uthman it was very difficult to establish the identity of the
murderers, and Ali refused to punish anyone whose guilt
was not lawfully proved.
 When Talha and Zubair, who were the first to
acknowledge Ali as a Caliph, saw that he was taking no
positive steps to avenge Usman’s death, they became
furious.
 They approached Hazrat Ayesha, who was herself
deeply grieved at Usman’s murder, and prevailed
(influenced) upon her to join them in demanding revenge
for Usman’s murder.
 They raised an army of 15,000 men and persuaded
Ayesha to accompany them.
 In the meantime, Ali was preparing a 20,000 army to
cope with the situation in Syria whose governor Muaviya
had refused to take oath of allegiance. He diverted his
attention towards Basra and met Ayesha’s forces in
October 656.
 Ali did not wish to fight Ayesha and sent one of the
Prophet’s companions to assure her that the delay in
punishing the murderers of Usman was due to non-
availability of evidence.
 Ayesha also wanted to prevent bloodshed and
agreed to negotiate. The negotiations began between the
two parties and ended in mutual agreement.
 This was not in favour of the rebels who had gone to
such great lengths to cause fighting amongst the Muslims.
 A band of them masterminded an attack on Ayesha’s
army during the night, provoking them to retaliate against
Ali’s army.
 In the fighting that followed, Talha and Zubair were
killed. Ayesha’s own camel was finally over powered and
its legs were cut, thus giving the name Battle of the Camel
to this event.
 She was treated with respect and honour and was
sent to Medina escorted by her brother where she led a
retired life and never took part in politics again.
 10,000 combatants lay dead from both sides in this
very first civil war of Islam.
 As a result of the victory at Basra, Ali’s Khilafat came
to be acknowledged by the entire Muslim world except
Syria.
 After this battle, Ali shifted the capital to Kufa.

WHY TALHA AND ZUBAIR OPPOSED HIM:

 Talha and Zubair opposed Ali for a number of

reasons.
 They had initially taken oath at Ali’s hand and hoped
Ali would take quick action against the killers of Usman.
 Ali, however, having his own plans and strategies,
acted differently.
 He began to dismiss the governors appointed by
Usman since he considered them to be the root cause of
all troubles.
 While doing so, the actions against Usman’s killers
got delayed and this delay drove a wedge between Ali and
the two close companions of the Prophet.
 They began to oppose Ali’s policies as they wanted
urgent steps against the rebels.
 Failing to see Ali introducing any reforms to control
the crisis, Talha and Zubair joined Ayesha to worsen the
conflict.

BATTLE OF SIFFIN:

Causes:
 After his election, Ali deposed Muaviya from the
governorship of Syria. Muaviya refused and under his
influence no one in Syria took the oath of allegiance to the
new Caliph.
 Muaviya raised a cry for revenge for the blood of
Usman and displayed his blood stained clothes and his
wife’s fingers in a mosque in Damascus.
 He claimed that his election as Caliph was illegal and
was carried out under the pressure of the rebels who had
killed Usman.
 He presented Talha and Zubair as martyrs who laid
down their lives for the blood of Usman.
 He criticized Ali for the ill treatment of Hazrat Ayesha.
 His propaganda spread to Iran and Iraq.
 Muaviya gained enough strength in a year to
challenge the Caliph.
 Ali wrote him a letter telling him that he had been
elected in the same way as the former Caliphs had been
elected. Muaviya replied that he was not ready to accept
Ali as a Caliph.
 Events:
 Ali managed to collect an army of 80-90 thousand
men and Muaviya also collected a large army.
 Both armies met at Siffin. For several months the
rival soldiers remained facing each other. Except
occasional skirmishes no decisive battle took place.
 Ali sent messengers to Muaviya asking him to submit
in the interest of the unity of Islam.
 Muaviya in reply demanded that Usman’s assassins
should be punished first. All negotiations for peace broke
down and both sides got ready for war.
 The main battle began on the 8th of Safar 37 A.H. on
the fourth day the position of Muaviya’s army began to
worsen.
 Muaviya, on the advice of Amr bin Aas ordered the
soldiers in the front ranks to fasten the Holy Quran on their
lances as a sign that the war should end.
 Many officers in Ali’s army refused to fight, so the war
was stopped and it was decided that the matter be
referred to an arbitration (mediation/settlement).
 Ali appointed Abu Musa Ashari and Muaviya
appointed Amr bin Aas. They were to settle the dispute in
accordance with the Quran and Sunnah and announce
their decision by Ramadan. In the meantime all hostilities
were to cease.
 Ali left the battlefield of Siffin for Kufa. The battle of
Siffin led to the birth of the first sect among Muslims that
came to be known as Kharijites.

WHY MUAVIYA REFUSED TO ACCEPT ALI AS

CALIPH:
 Ali had been elected in unusual circumstances,
mainly on the insistence of the rebels against Usman.
 Ali wanted to restore peace first and then deal with
the assassination of Usman, so he issued orders of the
governors appointed by Usman.
 Muaviya’s name was in the list.
 Ali ordered Muaviya to surrender his position as
governor of Syria.
 Since Muaviya would not accept `Ali as caliph he did
not do this.
 Ali refused to take steps against the killers of
Muaviya’s uncle `Usman.
 Muaviya insisted that `Ali should punish them before
he would obey him.
 Muaviya’s opposition was a combination of personal
ambition and desire for justice.

WHY SOME SUPPORTERS OF ALI LEFT HIM AFTER

SIFFIN:

 Talha and Zubayr thought he should punish Usman’s

assassins as soon as possible.
 This was the just action and they thought `Ali was
wrong not to do it.
 Ali’s supporters at Siffin thought he was the leader of
the community and those who opposed him were wrong.
 So they thought he was wrong to arbitrate with
sinners.

ARBITRATION:

 In Ramadan Abu Musa Ashari and Amr bin Aas met

at Dumat-ul-Jandal, a place between Kufa and Damascus,
for arbitration.
 The question put to them was ‘’are the two eligible for
the post of Caliph.’’
 Abu Musa announced that both Ali and Muaviya
would resign and the people should be given a right to
choose any one of them as Caliph.
 Amr bin Aas announced that he agreed with Abu
Musa to depose Ali but he himself had decided to retain
Muaviya on his post.
 Because Muaviya is a successful governor and his
people have no complaints against him, so the election for
the Caliph should take place while Muaviya retained his
seat.
 The decision was one sided so Hazrat Ali, on principle
did not accept it. Now the only way for him was to fight
against Muaviya once again.

KHARIJITES:
 The term Kharijites literally means separatists or out
goers. These people had taken part in the revolt against
Usman and were involved in his murder.
 When Muaviya raised the cry for revenge for the
blood of Usman, they allied themselves with Hazrat Ali
and fought on his side in the Battles of Camel and Siffin.
 · When the troops of Muaviya asked for cease fire,
they responded to the call and forced Ali to suspend
hostilities, although victory for his forces were near.
 When Hazrat Ali was going to Kufa after the decision
of arbitration right after the Battle of Siffin, they insisted
that Hazrat Ali should attack the Syrians. Ali replied that
he could not break the agreement signed by him.
 Their argument was that neither Ali nor Muawiya were
worthy of rule.
 They based it on a verse of the Quran 49:9 which said
that there is no arbitrator but God.
 In fact, they went so far as to say that the true
caliphate came to an end with 'Umar and that Muslims
should live without any ruler over them except God.
 When they arrived near Kufa, 12000 men separated
and marched towards Harwara, where they formed a party
and started their activities against Hazrat Ali.
 In this way these people separated from the main
body of the Muslims.

BATTLE OF NAHRAWAN:
 While Hazrat Ali made preparations to attack
Muaviya, the Kharijites from all over the country collected
at Nahrawan and began to create problems.
 So Ali had to fight against them first. The Kharijites
were defeated badly. Out of 4000 only a few dozen
managed to escape.
 The survivors vowed to take revenge.
 This decisive victory diverted his attention from the
main struggle against Muaviya.
 It was because of this war that Hazrat Ali was
assassinated by a Kharijite two years later.

FALL OF EGYPT:

 When Hazrat Ali decided to step forward against

Muaviya, his troops disobeyed.
 Muaviya took advantage of the disobedience and
ordered Amr bin Aas to attack Egypt.
 Governor of Egypt was defeated and Egypt came
under the control of Muaviya.
 After the fall of Egypt, a rebellion broke out throughout
the Muslim Empire against the Caliph.
 Ali signed a treaty with Muaviya in which it was
decided that Syria and Egypt will be ruled by Muaviya and
remaining territories would remain under Hazrat Ali.
 The Kharijites did not want peace to prevail and they
now started preparation to kill Hazrat Ali.
MARTYRDOM:

 After the Battle of Nahrawan, the Kharijites became

his bitter enemies. The survivors of the battle wanted
revenge for their friends who were killed in the battle.
 In 40A.H some of the Kharijites assembeled in
Makkah and decided to kill Ali, Muaviya and Amr bin Aas
simultaneously.
 They claimed that neither Ali nor Muawiya were
worthy of rule.
 In fact, they went so far as to say that the true
caliphate came to an end with 'Umar and that Muslims
should live without any ruler over them except God. They
vowed to kill all three rulers, and assassins were
dispatched in three directions.
 The assassins who were deputed to kill Muawiya and
Amr did not succeed and were captured and executed.
 Abdul Rehman bin Muljim was selected to
assassinate Ali.
 On the 18th of Ramazan when Ali was leading the
morning prayers in a mosque at Kufa, Muljim attacked him
with a poisonous sword.
 The wounds proved fatal and he died on the 21st of
Ramazan.
 His son Hassan killed Muljim the next day.
 There are different versions as to the place of his
burial. Majority of the people hold that he was buried in
Najaf.
 He did not name anyone as his successor.

ADMINISTRATION:

 The whole period of his caliphate passed in civil wars

therefore he did not have a chance to pay proper attention
to administration or conquests.
 He administered the state on the lines laid down by
the previous caliphs without making any changes.
 The divisions of the provinces remained the same as
during Umars time with a few exceptions.
 The capital was changed from Medina to Kufa and
some of the officers and governors were changed.
 Was very particular in taking care of non-Muslims.
 He constructed castles for the women and children
who were widowed and orphaned in Iran during the days
of revolt.
 He introduced Islamic injunctions which included whip
lashes to drinkers and cutting of hands on stealing.
 He passed laws to provide food to the prisoners.

MAIN ACTIVITIES DURING HIS CALIPHATE:

 He became caliph after the murder of `Uthman.
 He did not immediately take steps to punish
`Uthman’s killers.
 For this Talha and Zubayr, supported by `A’isha,
opposed him.
 They fought him at the battle of the Camel.
 [+1 for a full account of this opposition and its
outcome.]
 Uthman’s nephew Mu`awiya also opposed him.
 They fought at the battle of Siffin.
 This was indecisive so they agreed to arbitration.
 [+1 for a full account of this opposition and its
outcome.]
 Some of `Ali’s supporters disagreed with this and
abandoned him.
 He defeated them at the battle of Nahrawan.
 He was killed by one of these while at prayer.

SIGNIFICANCE:

NOVEMBER 2005(2)

In this question you should answer part (a) and either

part (b) or part (c)

(a) Write an account of the life of `Ali ibn Abi Talib,

paying particular attention to:
(i) His companionship of the Prophet; [6]
(ii) His caliphate. [6]

Either (b) Explain why `Ali was opposed by Mu`awiya

during his rule as caliph. [4]

Or (c) Explain why `Ali’s leadership of the community

is regarded as important by Shi`i Muslims. [4]
(a) (i)
• He was close to the Prophet from childhood.
• He became one of the first Muslims.
• He married the Prophet’s daughter Fatima.
• He took the Prophet’s place in his bed at the time of the
hijra.
• He was taken by the Prophet as his brother when pairing
Ansar and Muhajirun.
• He was one of the foremost warriors of the Islamic
community.
• He offered to fight single-handedly before a number of
battles.
• [1 mark for details, e.g. his feats at the battle of Hunayn.]
• He was a scribe of the Prophet.
• He wrote the Treaty of al-Hudaybiya.
• [Shi`as believe the Prophet designated him as his
successor.]
(ii)
• He became caliph after the murder of `Uthman.
• He did not immediately take steps to punish `Uthman’s
killers.
• For this Talha and Zubayr, supported by `A’isha,
opposed him.
• They fought him at the battle of the Camel.
• [+1 for a full account of this opposition and its outcome.]
• `Uthman’s nephew Mu`awiya also opposed him.
• They fought at the battle of Siffin.
• This was indecisive so they agreed to arbitration.
• [+1 for a full account of this opposition and its outcome.]
• Some of `Ali’s supporters disagreed with this and
abandoned him.
• He defeated them at the battle of Nahrawan.
• He was killed by one of these while at prayer.