CINFORMATION TECHNOLOGY NOTES

Information Technology
Definition – It is an organized combination and use of hardware, software, telecommunications, database
management and other information processing technologies used in a computer-based information system.

Information technology transforms data into a variety of useful information products specifically by the use of
a computer.

Computer
⇒ It is a device that has ability to accept data, internally store and execute a program of instructions, perform
mathematical, logical and manipulative operations on the data and reports on the results.
⇒ Put simply, it is a machine that accepts data (input) and processes it into useful information (output).

Computer System
⇒ It is an interrelated system of input, processing, output, storage and control components
⇒ Thus a computer system consists input and output devices, primary and storage devices, the central
processing unit, the control unit within the CPU and other peripherals

Data and Information concepts

The terms data and information are loosely used interchangeably in ordinary discussions. The terms, however,
are different in their usage in the field of information systems.

Data – it is the complete range of facts, events, transactions, opinions, judgments that exist both within and
outside the organization. Data are raw facts from which information is produced.

Information – it is part of the total data available which is appropriate to the requirements of a particular user
or group of users. It is processed data upon which a user may rely for decision.

A computer performs the following basic functions:

(a) Input – computer accepts and captures data from outside for processing
(b) Processing – a computer performs operations on data it holds
(c) Storage – a computer holds data before, during and after processing
(d) Output – a computer produces data for use (information)

COMPONENTS AND CONFIGURATION OF A COMPUTER

Computer Hardware
Hardware- refers to the physical components of a computer both mechanical and electronic.

A computer is made up of the following components.

Input devices
Central Processing Unit
Memory
Secondary Storage unit
Output devices

1 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

The configuration of a basic computer system

Processor
CONTROL UNIT
Interprets stored
instructions in
sequence. Issues
commands to all
elements of the
computer

ARITHMETIC &
LOGIC UNIT
Performs
Arithmetic &
logic
functions

INPUT OUTPUT
Data and Information
instructions -the results of
processing
MAIN MEMORY (MAIN
AUXILLARY
AUXILLARY)
Holds data,
instructions and
results of
processing

AUXILLARY STORAGE
(BACKING/SECONDARY STORAGE)
To supplement main memory

Key

Data Instruction flow

Command/Signal flow

INPUT DEVICES/METHODS

These facilitate communication between the user and the computer. They facilitate the insertion of data into
the computer for processing.

2 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

 (a) The Visual Display Unit (VDU)
⇒ This is sometimes referred to as the monitor
⇒ Most VDUs use a cathode ray tube (CRT) or a liquid crystal display (LCD)
⇒ The screen allows the user to view and monitor data while input is being made from another
source such as the keyboard, mouse etc.
⇒ It allows the user to position the data
⇒ It allows the user to view a screen
⇒ It allows the user to scroll up and down on the screen
⇒ It is also regarded as an output device since it displays processed data too.

(b) Keyboard
⇒ A keyboard is laid out like a typewriter
⇒ It allows data to be typed in by the pressing of the relevant keys
⇒ The pressed key or instruction is displayed or executed
⇒ This is the most commonly used input device
(Study Key-to-disk systems, Key-to-diskette systems –Refer to Clifton)

(c) Mouse
⇒ It is a hand held pointing device electronically connected to the computer which is used to
control the cursor or a pointer on the screen through the rolling motion of a ball on a flat
surface.
⇒ The cursor or pointer on the video screen moves in the same direction as the movement
of the mouse.
⇒ When the pointer is on the required menu item (icon) a button is clicked to select that item.
(d) Light Pen
⇒ It is a pen-shaped device that uses photoelectric circuitry to enter data into the
computer through a special video screen
⇒ A user can write on the video display
⇒ The high sensitive pen enables the computer to calculate the coordinates of the points
on the screen touched by the light pen
⇒ The handwriting or graphic is digitalized, accepted as input and displayed on the VDU
⇒ Input therefore is directly onto the screen
(e) Touch Screens
⇒ Use an inlaid screen to accept input through the act of physically touching the screen
⇒ The computer senses the selected position and execute the instruction accordingly
⇒ This device works more suitably with menu driven applications

(f) Optical Character Readers

⇒ These use photoelectric cells to measure the amount of light reflected from a particular
set of characters in a particular font
⇒ It then transfers the details to a computer
⇒ The reader incorporates a light beam which follows the outline of the characters being
read
⇒ It compares these with stored reference characters
⇒ The most common fonts are OCR-A (American)and OCR-B (European)

(g) Optical Mark Readers (OMRs)

⇒ These are similar to OCRs but can detect marks, lines, perforations rather than
characters
⇒ They work with specific programs to read and interpret a particular document (so are
less flexible than OCRs)
⇒ OMRs are used to extract data from surveys, questionnaire forms or mark multiple
choice exams
⇒ OMRs are also used in the processing of orders, processing of time sheets for workers,
inputing diagrams into the computer.

(h) Magnetic Ink Character Readers (MICR)

3 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

 ⇒They use pre-printed human readable characters
⇒The characters are printed in a special ink mixed with iron oxide
⇒Before reading the document passes through a magnetic field and the characters get
magnetized
⇒ The machine reader recognizes the character by its magnetic field pattern, codes it and
provides input into the computer.
⇒ This method is not in general use because the print has got to be made in a special way
to be readable
⇒ This method of input is widely used in the banking sector to process documents like
cheques.
(i) Page Scanners
⇒ These devices read documents, digitalise them and sent them for processing by the
computer
⇒ These are like photocopying machines that can read a wide variety of text and graphics
including photographs.

(j) Bar Code Readers

⇒ Bar coding is the representation of code numbers or other data in the form of optical or
magnetic bars on a data carrier (badge) which may be tag, label, ticket, plastic card
⇒ A bar code reader reads the bar coding and allows the processing of information
relating to the data
⇒ The bar code reader is usually hand held and uses a laser beam to read.
⇒ When a bar code is read and recognized, the scanner emits a short sound.

⇒ These are widely used on bank credit cards and in libraries to identify books and users

(k) Point of Sale (POS)/Electronic Point of Sale (EPOS)

⇒ These are used in supermarkets
⇒ A POS or EPOS incorporates a scanner (bar code reader), a printer and a keyboard
built into a service point
⇒ An item is passed through a window through which the scanner can see the bar code
and thereby identifies the item; alternatively a hand held scanner is used to do the same
thing.
⇒ When a bar code is read and recognized, the scanner emits a short sound.
⇒ The linked central computer then automatically looks up details relating to the item.
⇒ The details are then printed on the customer’s receipt

(l) Voice Data Entry (VDE)

⇒ Can also be called voice input or speech recognition
⇒ A voice recognizing device analyses and classifies speech or vocal tract patterns
⇒ The device converts the speech into digital codes for entry into the computer
⇒ These are suitable where users do not wish to use their hands to input data e.g. sorting
of luggage at an airport, recording of weight in a slaughterhouse or butchery.
⇒ However, their use is limited by the limited nature of recognizable vocabulary
⇒ The computer needs to be “trained” to recognize an individual’s voice.
⇒ There are bound to be in accuracies in the data input so there is need for a careful proof
reading by the user.

(m) Video Input

⇒ Video images can be entered into the computer from sources such as a TV receiver,
VCR or camcorder.
⇒ The data is digitalized and compressed for storage on the computer’s memory sites.
⇒ This method is used to input and store information for a broadcaster of producer of
optical disks

Selection of the data collection method (Input device & method)

The following are the main factors to be considered when deciding on the data capture systems:

4 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

 (a) Costs of the system – costs must be kept low
(b) Accuracy – should have detection and correction procedures for errors
(c) Time – turnaround time in capturing data should be short
(d) Reliability – The system of capture should be free from breakdown
(e) Flexibility – the system must cater for different types of data
(f) Volume – a system should suit the volume of data to be captured
(g) Existing equipment – a system that uses existing equipment would be most preferred.
(h) User friendliness – a system should render itself easily to the user

OUTPUT DEVICES

There are two forms of output devices, those that produce hardcopy (permanent) and those that produce
softcopy.
Printers are hardcopy devices while the VDU is a softcopy device.

Hardcopies are needed when copies are to be taken away from the computer to be sent to a user of the
information thereon, or to be filed away or even as legal documentation.

Computers, therefore can produce a number of different documents e.g. reports, sales invoices, payrolls, or
graphics.

Types of Printers

Printers can be classified in a number of ways.

(1) By print operation (a) Character printers
(b) Line printers
(c) Page printers

(2) By method of producing print: (a) Impact printers

(b) Non-Impact printers

(3) By speed of printing (a) Low speed printers (10cps to 300lpm)

(b) High speed printers (over 300lpm)

The following is an illustration showing the types of printers and their sub types and examples of these.

Computer Printers

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 Line Printers Character Printers Page Printers

Drum Chain Electrostatic Laser Electrostatic Magnetic Ion

Deposition
(barrel) (Train Band)

Impact Non-Impact

Dot Matrix Daisy Wheel (Petal) Thimble Thermal Ink jet

(a) Line Printers

These produce a complete line of text in a single printing operation. These are suitable for bulk printing.
i. Drum Printers.
• They employ columns of complete characters embossed around the circumference of a rapidly
rotating drum.
• Every print position is capable of being occupied by any character
• A print hammer situated at each print position forces the paper against the drum through the ribbon
(interposed between the paper and the ribbon) when the appropriate character is in position.
• These are expensive to buy and maintain
• The print quality is poor (especially if there are mistiming of print hammers)
• They do not allow for change of fonts.
• They are also very noisy

ii. Chain (Train) Printers

• They consist of a chain of characters mounted on a chain that rotates in a horizontal plane.
• There is a hammer at each print position that strikes the appropriate character once it is in position.
• Character sets can be easily changed by replacing the chain.
• The principle of operation is similar to that of drum printers
• They are cheaper and faster that drum printers
• They produce better print quality than drum printers.

(b) Character printers

These are also known as serial printers. These print one character at a time across. The method of printing
necessitates one (or two) print head(s).

There are two categories of character printers: impact and non-impact printers.
Impact printers – they form characters and graphics on the paper by pressing a printing element (such as print
wheel or cylinder) and an inked ribbon against paper e.g. a dot matrix printer. Multiple copies can be used
through the use of a carbonized paper.

6 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

Non-impact printers - do not use force and are quieter than impact printers. They use specially treated paper
and can form characters by laser, thermal (heat) or electrochemical processes. They produce higher quality of
print than impact printers. They, however, cannot produce multiple copies.

Types of Impact printers

(i) Dot Matrix – it consists of a matrix tiny tubes containing needles in the print head. Each character in
formed from the square or rectangle array of dots. The needles are fired onto the printer ribbon in a
pattern corresponding to the shape of the character required. Each character is printed by the
repeated horizontal movement of the print head. The quality of the print depends on the dots in the
matrix (most common are the 7 rows by 9 columns matrices). These printers are cheap to purchase
and maintain but do not produce good print quality.

(ii) Daisy Wheel – Uses a rotatable wheel consisting a number of flexible metal or plastic spokes
(usually 96) at the end of which is a mirror image of a character. During printing the wheel is rotated
until the required character comes into line with the print hammer which then hits the character and
the ribbon onto the paper and the paper is printed. They are cheap and offer better print quality than
Dot Matrix Printers. However, they are slower and much noisier.

Types of Non-Impact Printers

(i) Thermal printer

The print head of a thermal printer contains an array of heating elements that have electric currents
switched through them so as to form the required character. When the print head comes into contact with
a special paper, it burns away an aluminum coating to reveal a black core. They can produce colour
printing and can produce high quality prints. However, they use only a special type of paper.
(ii) Ink – Jet Printers
These spray dots of ink to form characters under electronic control. These are quieter and produce higher
print quality even graphics; they can print in colour and can print many font types and sizes. However they
are more expensive to purchase and maintain.

(c) Page Printers

They print one complete page at any given time. Although they appear to produce a complete page, they
actually produce the document by printing a line at a time but their speed of operation is such that the
full effect is that of creating the whole page.

Types of page printers

Laser Printers
They form characters by flashing a low-powered beam onto a rotating drum. A special ink (toner) is then
attracted to the laser-exposed areas of the drum. The document's outline are created by flashing a
photographic negative of the document onto the photo-conductive drum. The complete photo-
conductive drum surface stores the resulting image. When the paper comes into contact with the drum
the image is then transferred and then fused permanently onto it. The photo conductive drum is erased
before receiving the next image - these operation occur while printing is in progress.

They can print an infinite number of fonts and can even mix different fonts in the same line. They can
produce high quality print, and can be used to print logos, illustrations and graphics. They are very quiet
during printing.
However, they are very expensive to purchase and maintain.

(ii) Magnetic Printers

They use a rotating drum or belt onto which tiny magnetic dots are recorded. The image formed is
coated with toner against which heated paper is pressed to form the required image on paper.

Typical printer speeds

Printer Type Fonts Speed

7 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

 Daisy Wheel Impact Many 2000cpm
Dot matrix Impact Many 15000cpm
Ink jet Non-impact Any 15000cpm
Drum Impact Fixed 2500lpm
Chain Impact Many 2000lpm
Magnetic Non-impact Any 5000lpm
Laser (small) Non-Impact Any 10ppm
Laser (large) Non-impact Any 500ppm

Factors influencing the choice of a printer

� The cost of the printer
� The volume of work to be printed
� The environment in which the printer will work
� Nature and desired quality of the document(s) to be produced

Other Forms Of Computer Output

Speech Output (Sound Output)

Some computers are capable of producing speech. The computer can actually speak out from a stored digital
representation of either words or other sounds. A person's voice can be stored and reproduced later.

These method of output is of great use to the blind, or in poor light. Advanced forms of speech output are
being used to answer telephones, answer some inquiries from an organization's callers etc.

Computer Output on Microforms (COM)

It is the recording of computer output onto microfilm or microfiche (microforms). Recording onto the
microfilms and microfiches can be done on-line or via a magnetic tape in order to convert the computer's
digital representation of data into microforms. The recording is a way of data storage in which the computer
stores the data in a reduced (compacted) way on the film or fiche. The stored data can be retrieved later
through the use of a reader and editing can be done. Microforms are much easier to store than ordinary
hardcopies and last much longer. Accessing and finding the required information can be made easier by
indexing the film or fiches.

COM is most suitable where large amounts of data are processed but are to be used much later e.g. in a
government registry department (birth registrations, important national statistics for example population
censuses.

Graph Plotters
These are used to plot graphs, maps and other forms of graphic onto a medium usually larger than the size of a
normal paper. They can print in different colours.

THE CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)

It is the unit of the computer system that includes the circuits that control the interpretation and execution of
instructions. It is the most important component of a computer system.
Functions of the processor
� To control the use of the memory to store data and instructions
� To control the sequence of operations
� To give instructions to all parts of the computer to carry out processing

The CPU can be subdivided into two major subunits; the control unit (CU) and the arithmetic logic unit (ALU).
The primary (main) memory is an extension of the CPU and assists the CPU in its operations.

8 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

The Control Unit (CU)
� It is the nerve center of the computer which controls and co-ordinates all hardware operations i.e.
those of peripheral units, main memory and the processor itself.
� It also controls the sequence of the operations.
� The unit fetches (obtains) the instruction from the main memory
� It then interprets it
� It then executes the instruction by sending a command signal to the appropriate hardware device in
the computer system, ordering it to perform required operations.
� The control unit is driven by a 'clock pulse'; the rate of the clock is called the speed.

The Arithmetic-Logic Unit (ALU)

This has two major functions
� Carries out arithmetic tasks e.g. division, addition etc
� Performs logical operations e.g. comparing data items

How the ALU operates:

Data items to be processed are fetched from the main memory as directed by the CU into registers or
accumulators where they are stored. The ALU then performs the operations as directed by the CU. The ALU
leaves the result in a data register from where they are placed into the main memory again under the direction
of the CU.

The Main Memory

It is an extension of the CPU which gives immediate access to data and programs. It is also called
Immediate Access Memory (IAS). The main memory holds three types of contents which are:
-program instructions to be executed or being executed
-Data to be processed
-Results of processing

Operational features
� The memory has uniquely addressable storage locations that are easily accessible to the CU.
� Random Access - it is possible to fetch data from the locations in main storage in any order and time
taken to access the location does not depend on the position of the location.
� Volatility - the main memory can be volatile or non-volatile depending on the its physical
characteristics
� Details of single location - Each location consists of tiny devices that can take two states (on/off).
The two states of each device are used to represent binary (0 - off, 1 - on). Each location in the main
memory holds a unit of data called a word. Some computers had locations holding 8 binary digits and
were therefore said to have an 8-bit word. Other computers have 16 bit storage locations, while others
tend to have 32 bit locations.
The Random Access Memory (RAM)
This forms the largest part of the Main Memory and is often used to measure the power of a computer. It is
used for temporary storage of data and programs during processing. RAM contains user data and application
programs being processed. Data may be read from RAM and data can also be written onto and stored on
RAM. RAM contents are volatile i.e. stored data is lost and the contents disappear if the power is interrupted or
when computer is switched off.
Storage capacity on RAM
The number of storage locations in RAM dictates the storage capacity or size of the computer. Storage on
computer is quoted in kilobytes (Kb) or megabytes (Mb)

8 bits = 1 byte
1024 bytes = 1 kilobyte
1024 X 1024 bytes= 1 megabyte
1024 X 1024 X 1024 bytes = 1 gigabyte

The Read Only Memory (ROM)

9 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

 It is used for permanent storage it holds the software programs such as operating systems, interpreters and
compilers. The programs are written as part of the manufacturing process and the user cannot alter them.
ROM cannot be written on, it only allows its contents to be read. ROM contains data and instructions that the
computer needs all the time from the moment it is switched on. ROM contents are said to be non-volatile i.e.
they do not disappear or get lost when the computer is switched off or when power to the computer has been
interrupted.

Other Types of ROM

� PROM - Programmable Read Only Memory - can be programmed by the user, the data and
instructions are held permanently once the PROM is programmed.
� EPROM - Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory - Ii is like PROM but can be erased and
reprogrammed. The EPROM must be removed from the computer in order to be erased thus the
complete program has to be reinserted.
� EAROM - Electrically Alterable Read Only Memory - It can be read, erased and written on by
electrical methods without removing it from the computer.

SECONDARY STORAGE DEVICES

This is also called backing storage or auxiliary storage. It is used to supplement the computer's main memory.
Main memory is volatile and expensive, therefore backing storage is used to hold programs and data files when
they are not required in the main memory. The speed of accessing backing store is much slower than that for
accessing in IAS.
Backing Store Devices

Floppy Disk Drive - These work in conjunction with floppy or magnetic diskettes. They have a narrow slot
where the diskette is inserted. The slot has a push button or lever which must be closed when the diskette has
been inserted. The process of closing engages a turn table which rotates the disk and so brings the read/write
head into contact with the disk.

Features of floppy diskettes

� Consist of a polyester film with iron oxide compound
� The disk is mounted and rotates freely inside a protective plastic jacket
� The jacket has access openings to allow reading and writing to occur from the read/write head
on the disk drive unit.
� The disk is divided into sectors and data is stored on the tracks as magnetized bits (0,1)
� Most disks are 3.5inch and capacities of 1.44Mb

Caring for diskettes

� Use write protect security tag to prevent accidental erasure of data
� Protect the disk from dust, rain, humidity, store in an envelop
� Do not bend the disk
� Do not touch the recording surface
� Store diskette in a temperature of 10° C to 52° C
� Do not place the diskette in a magnetic field
Winchester or Hard Disk
� They are permanent fixed hard disks with lubricated surfaces to allow read/write heads to move close
to the disk as it rotates.
� They are built into the personal computer (PC) in an air tight enclosure
� They are non-removable
� They have greater storage capacity (from 20Mb to 1Gb)
� They have faster data transfer rate and are reliable.
� However, they need very careful security procedures
� Modern computers (note books) have removable disk cartridge versions.

Magnetic Tape
� This is similar to the kind found for audio or video tapes

10 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

 � It is a film coated with iron oxide
� Portions of the tape are magnetized to represent bits
� It uses separate read write heads to transfer data from the tape to the main memory and to record.
� Vacuum columns in the unit absorb the force of sudden starts and stops to prevent tape snatches.
� They store data in a sequence so data has to be moved over sequentially in order to read the required,
this means access is slower.

Features of the Magnetic Tape

- Common width of 1.27cm and length of 100m to 1100m
- Data is stored on tracks which run along the tape
- The beginning and end of the tape are marked by an aluminum strip
- Recording densities range from 200 to 6000 bytes per inch (bpi)
- Has storage capacity of 20Mb to 160Mb
- The tape is reusable - to prevent accidental erasure, a write permit ring is attached when
writing is required.

Supply Reel Take up Reel

Read/Write heads

Vacuum column to absorb

force of sudden starts/stops

The Exchangeable Disk Unit (Magnetic Disk)

� They are coated with iron oxide
� They can be steel platters (hard disks) or plastic (Floppy)
� Each disk is divided into 200 concentric tracks or rings
� Data is recorded on the track by moving a read/write head until it is over the required track.
� Data is recorded in bits represented by magnetized areas
� Disks are mounted into a unit in the form of an exchangeable pack of 6 to 11 disks that are
inseparable.
� The disk pack is fitted into a unit or drive which has a comb-type assembly containing one read/write
head for each recording surface.
� When reading or writing, the R/W head goes directly to the required piece of data, are also called a
direct access storage medium.
� Disk storage can also be operated in sequential mode.
� Storage is costly and they are less portable
� They have greater storage capacity (60Mb to 5Gb)
� They have much quicker access time

11 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

 Read/Write Heads
Comp-type Access Assembly

Disks

Access Arms

Optical Disk Drives

� These are similar the audio compact discs (CDs)
� It is rigid plastic disk onto which data is recorded by special lasers that physically create micro crevices
in the disk.
� Data is directly accessed from the disk by the use of a laser beam
� The laser beam measures the difference in reflected light caused by the crevice (or lack therefore) on
disk.
� Each crevice represents binary digit 0, representing the lack of a crevice, or binary digit 1, representing
the presence of a crevice.
� So the presence or lack of a crevice determines the bit.
� The disk cannot be erased or overwritten, this feature is known as WORM (write once read many
times)
� Thus the disk is called CD-ROM (Compact disk read only Memory).
� They have great storage capacities of 50Mb to 10Gb.
� Access to stored data is very fast
� They can be used to store text, graphical, audio or video data
� They are suitable for storing large amounts of data.
� However, they can not be edited

COMPUTER SYSTEMS

Computers can be classified as general purpose or special purpose. General-purpose computers are used to
perform a variety of applications and the most common in business while special purpose computers are used
for specific or limited applications e.g. military or scientific research.

Computers can be classified by size or by use

Categories of Computer Systems (by size)

(i) Microcomputers
(ii) Minicomputers
(iii) Mainframe computers

12 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

 (iv) Super computers

Microcomputers
� They are also called Personal Computers (PCs) or Desktop Computers.
� These are relatively small and inexpensive.
� They consist of a single processor or a chip
� The system is normally made up of the microprocessor, keyboard, VDU one or two floppy disk
drives, a printer and a hard disk drive.
� It has a hard disk capacity of 20Mb to 520Mb
� May use a colour or monochrome cathode ray tube (CRT)
� Have capabilities for networking.
� They are single user.
� They occupy little space.
� They are capable of multiprogramming.
� They are compatible with a wide range of software.
� PCs come in a variety of sizes: notebooks (handheld), laptops, desktops and floor standing.

Minicomputer System (Mid-range Computers)

� They are systems the size of a small table that can accommodate a number of users at a time.
� They have storage capability larger than personal computers.
� They can support a variety of transaction processing activities

Hardware features
- Support magnetic tape storage
- They are multi-user more than 100 users at time for super minis
- Have multiple hard disks, both fixed and exchangeable
- Can be upgraded when necessary
- They do not require a special environment to work so can allow for decentralisation.
- They are less expensive than the mainframe systems
- They have bigger capacities than microprocessors, some have 32 bit microprocessors.

Mainframe computers
� These are large, powerful computers with a lot of processing capabilities.
� They are suitable for medium-size to large corporations.
� They can also be linked together to form a powerful and flexible system.

Hardware Features
- Similar to minicomputers but have several large processors and high processing speeds of up to
200 million instructions per second (mips)
- They have massive amounts of storage power.
- They can use high speed line printers
- They have a large number of magnetic disks and tape units with large capabilities
- They are multi-user and multi processing
- They have improved reliability
- Their performance may be enhanced by slotting a smaller system, like a minicomputer between
the terminal and the main processor - the front end processor (FEP)
- Both processors run concurrently with the FEP passing on partially processed data to the main
frame for further processing.
- They, however, are expensive to buy and maintain, they need special and very expensive software
and they also require a special environment.
- They can be used for large corporations (such as large international banks) and government
departments

Supercomputer Systems

13 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

These are extremely powerful mainframe computer systems. They are specifically designed for high-speed
numeric calculations. These an process hundreds of millions instructions per second (mips)

They can be used by government research agencies, national weather forecasting, spacecraft construction and
navigation.

Considerations on classifications based on size

The classification of computers based on the physical size of the computer has become blurred and a bit
misleading. Some seemingly small systems can perform more powerfully than the larger ones. The power of the
computer system depends on the microprocessor.

A microprocessor is a type of an integrated circuit (ic). It has two distinct characteristics - word size and speed of
operation.

Word size - the number of bits dealt with at the same time, some processors are 8 bit, others even 32 bit. The
larger the word size the more powerful a computer system is. So some physically bigger systems may have
smaller word sizes and hence less power.

Speed of the microprocessor - it is the clock rate or rate of data transfer, it is the rate at which data bits are moved
around inside at bits per second (megahertz) this is also called the baud rate. Systems with higher speeds tend
to be more powerful though they tend to be physically small.

Computer classification by use

1. The Word Processor - it is a computer used to produce office documents usually in text. It has very
limited memory and processing capabilities. They are cheap to buy

2. Home Computer - it is a cheap computer that is used for domestic purposes e.g. programmes for
games and controlling home finances.

3. Personal Computer - it is a microcomputer that is usually for use by one person in an office or at
home.

4. Desktop - any computer designed to be used on a desk in an office environment

5. Workstation - a computer terminal (PC or desktop) designed to support the work of one person. It
can be high-powered or have other superior capabilities to PCs or ordinary desktops e.g. capacity to
do calculations, graphics and other advanced logical operations.

6. Lap - top - it is a small computer with a flat screen that a user can place on his lap. It is portable and
has an in-built rechargeable battery that can support it when there is no power from the mains. It can
be carried in a briefcase.

7. Embedded Computers - These are computers in other devices that cannot be accessed directly e.g.
those in petrol pumps, ATMs, vending machines, cellphones and elevators.

SOFTWARE

Software refers to computer programs that control the workings of the computer hardware, along with the
program documentation used to explain the programs to the user.

Computer programs are sets of instructions or statements to the computer that direct the circuitry within the
hardware to operate in a certain fashion.

Software can be classified into Three different categories.

14 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

Systems Software
Application Software
Development Software

SYSTEMS SOFTWARE

It is a collection of programs that interact with the computer hardware and application software programs
creating a layer of insulation between the two. Systems Software contains instructions which:
(a) Manage a computer system’s hardware components to coordinate them so that they work efficiently
(b) Schedule the computer’s time to make the best use of that time.

Systems Software includes a variety of programmes such as:

(i) Operating Systems
(ii) Database Management Systems
(iii) Communications Control Programs
(iv) Service and Utility Programs
(v) Programming Language Translators
Operating Systems
This forms the largest component of Systems Software.
⇒ It is a system of programs that run or control the execution of computer programs and act as an interface
with application programs.

⇒ It is an integrated system of programs that manages the operations of the CPU, controls the input. Output
and storage resources and activities of a computer system.

⇒ The primary purpose of the operating system is to maximise the productivity of a computer system. It
minimises the amount of user intervention required during data entry and processing. It helps application
programs perform common operations such as entering data, saving, retrieving files, printing and
displaying output.

Functions of an Operating System

Generally the operating system is expected to perform five basic functions

(a) User Interfacing – an Operating System allows a user to communicate with the computer in loading
programs, accessing files and accomplishing tasks through command driven, menu driven or
graphical user interfaces. In command driven interfaces, the user uses brief end commands, in menu
driven interfaces the user selects choices from menus of options, in graphical user interface (GUI) the
user selects icons, bars, buttons, boxes or other images to him get things done by the system.

(b) Operating Environment Management – Use of GUI enables the user to connect to other separate
application packages so that they can communicate and work together and share data files. Operating
environment packages provide icon displays and support the use of some input devices to allow the
running and output of several programs to be displayed at the same time. The Operating System
allows for multitasking – i.e. where several programs or tasks can be processed at the same time.

(c) Resource Management – Resource management programs of the operating system manage the
hardware resources of a computer system including the CPU, memory, secondary storage devices and
input/output peripherals. For example a memory program keeps track of where data and programs
are stored. They subdivide memory into sections and swap parts of programs and data between main
memory and secondary storage devices. This operation then can provide virtual memory capability
i.e. the real memory capacity in main memory is larger than the capacity of its normal memory circuits.

(d) File Management – The file management programs in the operating system control the creation,
deletion and access of data and programs. The programs also keep track of the physical location of
files on secondary storage units. They maintain directories of information about the location
characteristics of files stored on a computer system’ s secondary storage devices.

15 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

 (e) Task Management – The task management programs of an operating system manage the
accomplishment of computing tasks as needed by the user. They give each task a slice of the CPU’s
time and interrupt the CPU operations to substitute other tasks. Task management may involve
multitasking – where several computing tasks can occur at the same time. Multitasking may be in the
form of multiprogramming (several programs are running at the same time). The operating system
allows for time sharing – where the computing tasks of several users can be processed at the same
time. Multitasking depends on the computing power of the CPU if too many programs are running
concurrently the system may be overloaded or processing slowed down. Example of multitasking:
printing and typing at the same time, word processing and financial analysis, browsing the internet
and word processing.

Popular Operating Systems

MS-DOS (Microsoft Disk Operating System)
⇒ It has been widely in use especially before 1995 when the new Windows 95 took over.
⇒ It is a single user operating system – only one user can be using the system at a given time.
⇒ It is a single tasking operating system – It allows for the processing of only one task at a time
⇒ Use of short prompt commands – the user interfaces with the computer system through the use of
commands that are fed into the computer usually after the prompt sign (>) e.g. C:\>cls (Command to
clear the screen)
⇒ Instructions are put in only through the keyboard
⇒ Once a file is deleted it can never be recalled
⇒ The operating system is not user-friendly

Windows
⇒ A widows based operating system is more advanced than the MS-DOS based operating system.
⇒ It features graphical user interfaces (GUIs) – User can feed commands into the computer through the
selection of relevant icons, bars, buttons, boxes or other forms of images (mostly resembling the intended
device or operation).
⇒ True multitasking – the operating system allows for numerous tasks to be done at the same time.
⇒ Networking – the operating system is multi-usable – many users can use it at the same time. It is capable
of holding a number of computer systems networked together.
⇒ Multimedia Presentations- the operating system allows for the presentation of information in a variety of
media including text, graphic displays, voice and other audio, photographs and video.
⇒ Virtual Memory – It allows for the use of storage devices as extension of the main memory thus giving the
appearance of a larger main memory than actually exists.
⇒ Deleted file go to recycle bin
⇒ Makes use of easier input methods e.g. mouse, joystick
⇒ Windows operating systems has MS-DOS option
⇒ Examples of Windows Operating Systems packages, Windows NT (new technology) (1993) and Windows
95.
⇒ In computer terms, a window is one section of a computer’s multiple section display screen that can have a
different display.

OS/2
⇒ It is called the Operating System /2
⇒ It is an operating system developed by IBM and was introduced in 1994 with the OS/2 Warp version as
the latest one.
⇒ It provides graphical user interfaces (GUIs), multitasking, virtual memory and telecommunications.

UNIX
⇒ It was originally developed by AT&T but now being offered by many other vendors.
⇒ It is a multitasking, multi-user and net-work managing operating system
⇒ Because of its portability, it can be used on mainframes, midrange computers and microcomputers.
⇒ It is a popular choice for network servers.

The Macintosh System

16 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

⇒ It is an operating system for Apple from Macintosh microcomputers
⇒ It is a popular GUI as well as multitasking and virtual memory operating system.

It is made up of the following programs:

Language translators
Utility programs
Control programs
Communication programs

Language translators and Utility programs

Non-machine languages must be converted into machine language to be executed by the CPU. This is done by
systems software called language translators.

A language translator converts a statement from a high-level programming language into machine language
called source code whereas the machine language code is refereed to as the object code. The translator converts
the command given in human language into the form the computer has been programmed to understand
before executing the instruction.

There are two types of language translators – Interpreter & Compiler

Interpreter

This is a language translator that converts each statement in a program into machine language and executes
the programme statement at a time

Compiler

This language translator translates a complete program into a complete machine language program. The result
is a program in machine language that can be run in its entirety, with a compiler, program execution is a two-
stage process. First, the compiler translates the program into a machine language; second the machine language
program is executed.

Compilers run faster than interpreters so are more preferred.

Utility programs
It is a standard set of routines that assist the operation of the computer system by performing some frequently
required processes such as to sort and merge sets of data, copy and keep track of computer jobs being run.

Control programs

These are designed to manage the general functions of the processor, memory and terminal interface. The
programs are arranged in a hierarchy at the top of which is a kernel or executive program that controls the
running of the other programs. In microcomputers the supervisor is held in ROM while on larger computer
systems it is held on backing store. When the computer is switched on the supervisor is loaded into main
memory, the other programs are kept on disk and are transferred to main memory when they are needed.

The kernel assists the following:

The job scheduler selects, initiates, terminates, queues and sequences the jobs that demand the use of the
processor and main memory.

The file manager has the responsibility of achieving the interleaving effect of
Multiprogramming.

17 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

The Input/Output manager has the responsibility of managing the interface with terminals and backing
store in response to the requirements of any applications program being executed.

Communications Programs

These support network computer systems by allowing different types of hardware to be linked and to
communicate with each other. The programs may help to select the best transmission medium for the message,
coding and sending the data.

Virtual Storage Operating System

This refers to a system for extending the capacity of main memory for running large application or utility programs. The operating
system separates programs into sections some of which are put into backing store. The locations of these sections (addresses) and the
part of the program being executed are held in main memory; the sections are called in and processed
When required and then returned to backing storage. The sections of the programs are called pages and are said to page in from
backing store and page out when being replaced by other pages. The execution of virtual storage is therefore called paging.

APPLICATION SOFTWARE

⇒ Applications are programs designed to help the user carry out specific tasks for example to manipulate
figures or write texts.

⇒ This also consists of programs written to solve particular user-oriented problems. It applies the power
of the computer to give individuals, groups and organisations the ability to solve problems and perform
specific activities or tasks e.g. Accounts receivable, accounts payable, automatic teller machines, inventory
control, library operations and control, invoicing etc

Categories of generic applications:

Word Processing

⇒ A word processing package is designed to enable text to be typed and manipulated.

⇒ It has many advantages over the type writer,
- the ability to edit parts of the text without rewriting the whole document
- allows for spell checking form the computer's Dictionary File, if it assumes a word is misspelt if
not found in the dictionary) it highlights it or sometimes even correct it automatically.
- allows for centering text, bold, underline and use of variety of fonts (typefaces)
- allow for the production of multiple original copies from one softcopy.
- Ability to store typed documents in a computer
- Ability to change the layout of the document
⇒ Popular Word-processing packages are Microsoft Word, Lotus Word,
WordPerfect, Quattro Word

Spreadsheets

- A spreadsheet package is used to perform calculations that have been entered onto a grid.
- Formulae are entered into the grid using the figures, if the figures change; the results of the formulae are
updated automatically.
- It is also possible to filter (select only the required data), sort or perform other forms of data
manipulations.
- It is possible to produce graphs, charts and other forms of comparison using the entered figures from the
spreadsheet.
- Popular examples of spreadsheet packages are: Microsoft Excel, Lotus 1-2-3, Quattro Pro
]

18 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

Databases
- A database is an organised store of information, for example an address book, list of employees, list of
students, customers or items of assets.
- A database package is used to store records.
- Data can be sorted, filtered for separate viewing.
- Calculations and comparisons between data items can be done.
- Popular database packages are: Microsoft Excel, lotus Approach, Paradox, dBase IV, Data Ease.

Graphics
- These are applications designed solely for designing graphs and text charts/posters.
- They are often used to produce slides for use on overhead projectors, or presentations on computer-
projectors.
- Various types of charts are also produced
- Examples of graphics packages are: Microsoft PowerPoint, Lotus Freelance, Harvard Graphics, Corel
Draw

Desktop Publishing

- Desktop Publishing (DTP) applications give users powerful and versatile page design capabilities.
- The user can incorporate text and graphics on very exact page layouts.
- These applications produce magazines, catalogues, invitation cards, business cards and other sophisticated
documents.
- The application links up well with other applications as the user can import text and graphics from the
other applications.
- Examples of DTP packages are: Microsoft Publisher, PageMaker, Ventura and Frame maker.

Suites
- Many applications are grouped together into suites which users can purchase as one product containing,
for example, Word-Processing, a Spreadsheet, Graphics application, Desktop Publishing, Database
application.

The following is the criteria for selecting applications software:

-Accuracy - it must be free from errors

-Flexibility - must be able to adapt to changing environment.

-Compatibility - it must be compatible with available hardware

-Recency - it must be current

-Cost - it must have reasonable cost

-Originality - It must be original

-Support - consider continued support from the supplier.

-Ease of use - it must be user friendly.

-Performance - it must have efficiency in both response time and run time.

Sources of Applications Software

There are three sources of applications software;

19 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

In-house
Off-the shelf
From a contractor.
In-house Developed Software

This approach requires a development team from within the organisation. The team is usually comprised of
programmers and analysts. The team members should be high calibre, highly trained and reliable

Advantages
⇒ Internal professionals understand operations better and therefore can produce an accurate solution.
⇒ The Software usually meets user requirements.
⇒ Management are in total control of the development process
⇒ More flexibility - there is more flexibility in making modifications.
⇒ Problem specificity - in-house developed software can give an organisation software programs that are
easily tailored to a unique problem or task.

Disadvantages

⇒ Time and costs of developing the program may be greater than other options
⇒ In-house staff may lack the expertise needed for the project
⇒ Reliability of the resultant software is highly questionable.
⇒ In some cases the developers may attempt to gain fraudulently from the system

Off-the Shelf
This is software that can be purchased, leased, or rented from a software company that develops programs and
sells them to many computer users and organisations. Applications such as financial accounting, business
graphics and pay roll may be bought.

Advantages
⇒ Cheaper - the software company is able to spread the software development cost over a large number of
customers, hence reducing the cost any one customer must pay.
⇒ Less risky - the software is existing, hence you can analyse the features and performance of the package.
⇒ The program is a well-tried and tested product with few errors.

⇒ Less time - Off-the -shelf software is often installed quickly and easily.
⇒ The package is well documented
⇒ The packages require little maintenance
⇒ There is continued support from the supplier through upgrades.

Disadvantages

⇒ The organisation might need to pay for the features that are not required and never used.
⇒ Tie package may be for general needs and therefore not ideal for the user.
⇒ The user has no direct control over the package,

Software from a Contractor

This involves contracting out software development to a software house - better known as outsourcing
especially where off-the-shelf packages are not available.

Advantages
⇒ Software houses employ professionals and this may benefit the organisation
⇒ Transfer of skills to the existing professionals in an organisation
⇒ Organization can get support from the contractor.

Disadvantages

20 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

⇒ There could be breach of confidentiality.
⇒ Contractor may go bankrupt and cease trading leaving the user with no support.
⇒ Contractor might not have sufficient experience or understanding of the problem thus the solution might
not be satisfactory.
⇒ It takes time for the contractor to understand the user's business and operations this makes the approach
expensive.

DEVELOPMENT SOFTWARE
It allows the user to create software for various applications.

All software programs (systems and application) are written in coding schemes called programming languages.
The primary function of a programming language is to provide instructions to the computer system so that
it can perform a processing activity to achieve an Objective or solve a problem. Program code is the set of
instructions that signal the CPU to perform circuit-switching operations,

Programming languages

There are categories of programming languages:

Low-level languages

High-level languages

Fourth generation languages

Low-level languages

1) First Generation languages - Machine language

In machine languages programmers wrote their instructions in binary code (0 and 1), telling the CPU exactly
which circuits to switch on (1) and off (0). Machine language is considered a low-level language because it is
very simple to the computer. Machine language is the language of the CPU. It is the only language capable of
directly instructing the CPU.

Example of a machine code:

00100101 00000010 00001101
Means Add contents address location 1 to address location 2

Because machine-language programming is extremely difficult, very few programs are actually written in
machine language.
The other disadvantage of machine languages is that they are machine specific.

All languages beyond the first generation are called symbolic languages- they use symbols easily understood by
humans, allowing the programmer to focus
on structuring a problem solution rather than on the complexities of coding specific computer programs.

2) Second Generation - Assembly language

The commands are written in simple mnemonics (abbreviated form) instead of the binary coding . For example
A for ADD MV for MOVE. It is therefore easier to work with assembly coding than machine coding.
However, the instructions have to be translated into machine code by a program called an assembler assembler.
Although it is a step above machine language in terms of sophistication, assembly language is still considered a
low-level language,

Example : A,R 1.3 means add register 1 to register 2

21 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

3) Third Generation - High-level Languages (3GLs)

These use greater symbolic code. They are problem oriented. They specifically instruct the computer on how to
complete an operation. The instructions are English-like and have to be translated into machine code by a
compiler or interpreter.

An example in COBOL is:

DEDUCT TAX FROM SALARY GIVING NET SALARY

It is much easier to program using high-level language because the commands resemble their meaning in
everyday human communication and understanding.

Characteristics of high-level languages:

⇒ Each statement in the language translates into several instructions in machine language.
⇒ The Language is English like and uses abbreviations and words used in everyday communication.
⇒ Each programming language has characteristics that make it appropriate for certain types of
problems or applications. For example COBOL (Common Business Oriented Language) for Commercial
problems, PASCAL for academic, FORTRAN (Formula Translator) for Scientific problems and BASIC
(Beginners All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code) for small business systems SQL (Structured Query
Language) for databases.
⇒ The language is relatively independent of a given computer hardware.

4) Fourth Generation Languages (4GLs)

⇒ They are at a higher level than 3GLs. They demand few lines of code as compared to 3GLs.
⇒ They are easy to learn and their statements are close to natural language. Being easy they are used to
develop simple systems.
⇒ It emphasises what output results are desired more than how programming statements are to be written.
⇒ Many managers and executives with little or no training in computers and programming are using fourth
generation languages for programming.

Features of 4GLs

⇒ Query and database abilities

⇒ Code-generation abilities - these are abilities to automatically produce many of the programming
statements and instructions required to gain a specific output result.
⇒ Graphics abilities

5) Fifth Generation Languages (5GLs)

⇒ These are used to create programs for artificial intelligence and expert systems.
⇒ They are sometimes called natural languages because they use English syntax.
⇒ They allow programmers to communicate with the computer using
normal sentences.

DATA COMMUNICATION

Refers to the means and methods whereby data is transferred between processing locations through the use of
communication systems.

Communication systems are defined as systems for creating, delivering, and receiving electronic messages.
The communication system comprises of the following: - a device to send the message
- The channel or communication medium
- A device to receive the message
- A device to send the message

Modes of Communication and Codes

22 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

There are various modes and codes of data transmission signals from the sending to the receiving device.

Analogue transmission
Analogue signals are continuous sine waves that send a continuous 5-volt signal on a channel but the signal will
vary continuously between +5 to -5 volts. The number of cycles per second is the frequency of the signal and is
expressed in units called hertz (Hz). The human voice forms oscillating patterns of changes in air pressure. The
vibrations act on the telephone microphone and are converted to electrical voltage patterns that reflect the
characteristics of the speech pattern. Analogue transmission is used to transmit voice or data in analogue
signals. It is used in telephone systems and radio transmission.

Voltage
Analogue Signal

+5

-5 Time

Digital Transmission
This is the sending of data with digital symbols of 0 and 1 representing the switching on (1) and switching off
(0) pulses of electricity. Most computer systems use this to create bits that make up bytes. One cycle is made up
of two pulses. The number of pulses per second is called the baud rate.

Digital Signal

1 1 1
0 0 0
Time

Digital Transmission Versus Analogue Transmission

Digital transmission offers less errors and noise in transmission especially over long distances. There is little
data fatigue as the data being send does not lose power over the transmission so much that the signal is
weakened by the length of the transmission media. Digital transmission is compatible with digital computers so
there is no need to convert the data messages from analogue to digital when computer systems are using digital
transmission lines. However, the setting up of digital transmission lines especially over long distances is
considerably expensive.

Data Transmission Modes

These are ways through which organisations can communicate via the channel or transmission media.

Simplex transmission
Transmission takes place only in one direction. These are not suitable for long distance transmission because
there is need for acknowledgement or error messages. It is used in the computer - printer communication. This
is also used in radio and television transmission.

Sender Receiver

23 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

Half Duplex
Messages can be sent both ways but only one way at a time. The channel alternately sends and receives data but
these are not done at the same time. The same device is used for both sending and receiving. This is used in
two-way radio communication.

Sender Receiver

Full Duplex
This permits simultaneous transmission of messages in both directions. Sending and receiving can be done at
the same time using the same devices. This is the mode used in modern telephone/cellular transmission.

Sender Receiver

Ways of Transmitting Data

a. Asynchronous Transmission - Each character is sent down the channel separately that each
transmission unit is one unit in length. The characters are sent character by character at irregular
intervals. The character is headed by a start bit and ended by a stop bit. These bits tell the receiving
device that a character is coming and that the character has been sent. There may be a parity bit to
verify correctness of transmission. Even parity is used where the number of bits in the character is
even and an odd parity system for the character with an odd number of bits.
This form is suitable conversational interactions and used in standard telephone lines using low
transmission rates.

b. Synchronous transmission - Prepared sets of characters are transmitted together as blocks at fixed
rates. The message is preceded by the parity bits to verify what has been received.
The beginning and end bits represent small percentages of the total bits sent thus reducing overhead
costs of communication.

Synchronous Transmission is faster and less expensive as given in that character are blocked and sent
down as one message allowing for the transmission of a fuller message.

Protocols - There is need for there to be a way of signalling the start and end of the message by the
use of data transmission protocols. The use of the parity bits is one method, use of "roger", "over" are
protocols in two-way radio communication.

Switching Alternatives

Circuit Switching
When a call is made the communication channel is opened and kept open until the communication session is
complete.
Message Switching
Each message is sent to the receiver if a route is available. The messages are sent in blocks one at a time. The
message may be stored for later transmission if the route is not available, sometimes this is called store-and-
forward transmission. The message is delivered when the route becomes available or upon demand from the
receiver.

Packet Switching
This involves sub-dividing the message into groups called packets. Each packet is then sent to the destination
separately via the fastest route. At the destination the packets are put in sequential order and delivered to the
receiver. Sometimes when there is no route open, the packets are stored and then forwarded once the route is
open, so these are also store-and-forward systems. These fully put the network to better utilisation.

24 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

Communication Channels Sources and Media

a. Telephone Systems - telephone lines are used with online systems. The lines can be divided into
leased and dial service lines.
(i) Leased Lines - These are telephone lines that are dedicated to the sole use by the user to
support online systems within the organisation. The telephone service provider (e.g Tel
One) then charges a flat monthly rate for the service. In calculating the rate the length
of the line may be considered.
(ii) Dial service - With this telephone line the user is charged each time the line is used for
online processing. When all the lines connecting the system are busy a user has to wait
and an appropriate message is given by the system. The rate charged depends on the
distance, time of use (peak or off peak), time spent during transmission. This is usually
used for long distance communication between systems e.g. the Internet
A leased line service provides for high-level online activities. It is much cheaper to use and
provides better quality transmission. The leased lines are much more flexible than dial service
lines. Users in the system have greater access through the many lines provided by the common
carrier. However, leased lines are suitable for use in one organisation or in one building/locality.

The amount of data transmitted depends on the capabilities of the communication channel. The
capabilities may be classified as bandwidth.
Bandwidth is the frequency range of the channel, representing the maximum transmission rate of
the channel. The bandwidth can be measured in bits per second (bps)
A narrow band - the channel offers the lowest transfer rate and supports transmission through
telegraph lines.
Voice band - this is a low-speed analogue (offering a rate between 300 and 9600 bps)
Wideband - these offer the highest transfer rates with data communication through coaxial cables.

b. Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) - it is an international effort to replace the analogue
technology with digital technology through a single set of standard interfaces.
c. Microwave Satellite Transmission - These transmissions are sent through the air. The transmission
uses a line of light that must be unobscured. Usually these transmissions are from space satellites
placed in stationary orbit and earth satellites and are communicated from and to satellite dishes.
Satellite

Destination
Source

Earth

This form of transmission can transmit large amounts of data over wider areas. This is in much use in
wide area television broadcasting. Although transmission is of high quality, setting up the system is
very expensive.
d. Radio Transmission - This form of transmission uses radio waves, transportation and taxi
companies for easier communication use it. The police and army to communicate also use this.
e. Cellular Transmission - The local area under the transmission is divided into cells. As the cellular
transmission user moves from one cell to the other the connection is passed from one cell to the
other. The signals from individual cells are integrated into one regular telephone system.
f. Physical Cables - Transmission uses physical cables which are connected to the communication
points. There are three types of these cables:
(i) Twisted-Pair Wire cable - this consists of a pair of twisted wires. The wires are insulated
and twisted to avoid the bleeding of signals from or into the each other. There are
shielded wires (with a special conducting wire) and unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) that
has no insulation. It is the type used in home telephone connections. The twisted pair

25 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

 wire cable is inexpensive. However, it does not allow high rates of data transfer, and is
prone to interference and too bulky.
(ii) Coaxial cable - Consists of an inner conductor coated with insulation called a dielectric (a
layer of foil) that is covered by nonconductive insulation called a jacket. This offers a
cleaner and crisper transmission than the twisted pair wire cable and has a higher data
transfer rate. However, it is more expensive.
(iii) Fibre optic cable - This is made up of a glass or plastic core surrounded by a cladding
material (paper, polyethylene, twine or other sheathing). They use light which is turned
on and off rapidly creating the on off bit. The sheathing of the cable prevents loss of
reflection.
Advantages
1. High transmission capacities
2. Smaller cable size and lighter weight
3. Very little cross talk and spying
4. Little interference
5. Repeaters (to boast strength of the signal) are not required
6. Are ideal for hazardous conditions since there is no sparking.

These are however quite expensive to purchase and set up.

COMPUTER NETWORK SYSTEMS

A network is a number of computers connected through some channel so that they may share some of the
resources and allow access into them by users from other points.

Advantages of networking
a. Resources can be shared e.g. printers, computer files and programmes.
b. More even distribution of processing and other work by the computers and users.
c. More economic and fuller use of computers.
d. Allow for the provision of local facilities without loss of central control.
e. Mutual support and a spirit of cooperation exist.

Disadvantages of networking.
a. There could be congestion at the shared resources.
b. Control of information and confidentiality may be lost.
c. The costs of the system may be considerable.
d. Viruses and other forms of corruption to programmes spread faster

Wide Area Networks (WAN)

These are networks that are spread over large geographical areas. The telephone system is one such WAN. It is
a long distant network of interconnected computers on separate sites, cities or even different countries.

Purposes of Implementation of WAN

-To get data from its source.
-Improve on the productivity of the system by improving the speed of processing
- Allow for instant feedback and expansion of the system.

WAN hardware

Hosts - This provides users with processing software and access. The host is usually a mainframe computer
with microcomputers connected to it.

Front end Processors (FEP) & Back End Processors (BEP) - These are minicomputers that are placed in
front of (FEP) or at the back (BEP) of the main system CPU. These assist the main system CPU with
accepting input perform the operations on it before forwarding it to the mainframe CPU for further processing
or after the main system CPU to assist with the output activities. They generally manage communications. The
main system CPU concentrates on process work without having to handle input and output activities.

26 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

Modems - This is short for Modulate Demodulate. Telephone lines that are common link media between
computers use the analogue signal whereas computers use digital signals. So there is need to convert the signals.
From the sending computer, the digital signal should be modulated to analogue signal for transmission over the
telephone link. At the receiving end the analogue signal has to be demodulated (converted back) into the digital
signal.

Modulation can be done using a number of methods. Amplitude modulation (AM) where the amplitude is
modified to represent binary digits 0 and 1. Frequency Modulation (FM) adjusts frequency to represent the bits 0
and 1. The Phase Shift Modulation adjusts a fixed amount so that 0 and 1 can correspond to different phase shifts.

Terminals - These are the microcomputers connected to the system on which the users can work to sent data
or access information. Terminals may be dump or intelligent. Dump terminals have limited memory and
intelligence while intelligent terminals have processing and memory capabilities that they can process data
themselves.

Multiplexor -it is a device that can subdivide one big channel so that many people can use it at the same time.
There are two types of multiplexors: time division and frequency division.
Time Division Multiplexors (TDM) - It slices multiple incoming signals into small time intervals that
are then transmitted over a channel and then split by another TDM at the receiving end.

Time Slots Time

Frequency Division Multiplexor (FDM) - incoming signals on different frequency ranges are sent across a
transmission medium at the same time. At the receiving end another FDM splits the frequencies into multiple
signals again.
HOST

Multiplexor Multiplexor

Terminal controllers/Concentrators- are used to connect many terminals to a single line, they do not
communicate directly with the FEP.

Protocol Converters - Because of the diversity of technology in communication, WANs are using various
devices, channels, modes and codes. To allow for communication between and among all these protocol
converters are used to translate different signals from one system to another. Typical protocol converters
include HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol) used on Internet communications, TCP/IP.

WAN Software
In order for the WAN hardware to operate there should appropriate software which should include
telecommunications access programmes that handle messages between the host's memory and the remote

27 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

devices, this programme could be in the FEP. There is also the network control programme that has the work
of running the network off the host by checking if terminals have messages to send, do editing of incoming
messages.

Network concerns For the Manager

1. Reliability of the network - there should be minimal breakdown and errors in the system.
2. Response time of the Network - there should be less time spent on picking the required signals when
required.
3. Costs of the Network - costs of setting up and maintaining the system may be considerable, so the
manager should reduce these.
4. Compatibility of Software and hardware - hardware and the software should be compatible (capable of
working together) otherwise there should at least be some conversion of either the software or the
hardware to suit the other.
5. Access and Security of the System - with WAN there is greater risk of data being accessed by
unauthorised people, there should be measures to reduce this risk e.g. use of passwords, physical
access protection or through encryption (coding of data so that in the event that it is intercepted it
may not be understood)

WAN Topology

Modem Modem

Multiplexor Multiplexor

Host
Terminals
LOCAL AREA NETWORKS

It is an interconnected group of minicomputers or other terminals within a small geographical area. The area
could be a room, a number of offices or a building.

LAN Hardware and Software

Network Workstations - these are usually microcomputers from where a user can work to enter or receive
data from the network. These could be dump terminals or diskless workstations.

File Servers - These are computer systems attached to a network that control access to and other wise
manage hard disks to allow the workstations to share disk space, programmes and data and to control the
network.

Print Servers - these are computers that have the duty of managing the printer resources, that is allocating
print time, and carrying out other print routines.

Communication Servers - these manage communication devices in the network (modems, multiplexors). A
microcomputer or even the file server could do this job provided that it is not too busy with its own functions.

Cabling - these connect the different computer systems and devices in the network. Sometimes LANs use
radio waves and thus are wireless.

28 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

Network interface Cards
Cards- these provide the necessary translation of signals between the devices in the
network. They are sometimes called adapters.

The Network operating System - These are programmes that manage the operations of the network allowing
the user to install the network, the application software, analyse and solve network problems, manage the
sending, routing and delivery of messages and do other routine and housekeeping duties for the network.

LAN Topologies

Topologies are ways in which a network can be structured or arranged depending on the resources, the needs
and the structure of the given organisation.

1. Star Topology - there is a central node - the file server (which could be a minicomputer or
microcomputer) to which all other computers in the system are connected. All the processing and
storage are done by the host (central computer). There is no direct interterminal communication.
The network is suitable for use in offices and homes.
Advantages
a. It is easy to trouble shoot
b. It is economic and offers intensive use of the terminals
c. Requires a single intelligent computers, terminals could be dump there by saving on the cost
of the network.
d. Each terminal has direct and quicker access to the host

Disadvantages
a. It is prone to failure - failure of the node mean loss and breakdown to the whole system.
b. The cabling may be costly
c. Viruses can be transmitted easily within the network

Terminal

Host

2. Bus (Multidrop) Topology

All the computer are connected to a linear transmission medium called a bus through the use of a tap. The tap
is used to create a link up to the medium and to the network.

29 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

This network handles higher traffic.

Advantages
a. Costs of setting up and maintaining the network are low.
b. Each terminal can communicate directly with any other on the network.

Disadvantages
a. Risk of network malfunction
b. Are more troublesome than the star topology.
c. Trouble shooting is more difficult.
d. There is the risk of data collision.

3. Ring Topology
It is made up of a series of nodes connected to each other to form a closed loop. Each loop can accept data
transmitted to it from an immediate neighbour and forward data not addressed to it to the next neighbour.
Messages are transmitted in packets or frames. Each node has an address and packet is delivered to the node
bearing the address required.

Advantages
a. There is by-pass technology so that messages can be passed on from a failed workstation - breakdown
of a workstation does not affect the network much.
b. It is easy to install
c. There is less risk of packet collision
d. More accurate and reliable

Disadvantages
a. There is poor response time
b. There is risk of data interception so there should be data encyption.
c. Unwanted data may continue to circulate the network, thus reducing traffic carrying capacity of the
network.

4. Mesh Topology
This topology combines the ring and the star topologies. Bi-directional links are established.

30 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

This offers better communication and reduces the risk of data collision because of the existence of alternative
routes. The network has quick response time and is very accurate. However, the costs of the cabling are quite
considerable.

5. Hierarchical (Tree) Topology

The nodes are connected to form a hierarchy. Messages are passed along the branches until they reach their
destinations. These networks do not need a centralised computer that controls communications. These are also
very easy to troubleshoot and repair because the branches can be separated and serviced separately.

6. Mixed Topologies

Various topologies are combined into one network.

LAN concerns for the Manager

Costs - of connection - cables and software

Compatibility of the hardware and software
Appointment of a network manager where necessary.

31 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

THE INTERNET

The Internet is a worldwide network of computer systems. Millions of computer networks in different parts of
the world are connected by telephone lines, cables, radio and microwave links and modems.

Because the telephone system is not yet fully digitalized, there is need to convert the predominantly digital
computer signal to analogue and reconvert to digital. This is done by the Modem (short for Modulator
demodulator) which sits between the computer and the telephone line. Modems may be external or internal to
the PC.

There are many organizations that offer internet services. These are called Internet Service Providers (ISPs) and
they usually charge a monthly fee for the connection. Some ISPs do not charge a fee for the service.

If you want to explore the Internet, a web browser is required. A web browser contains programmes that assist
in the surfing of the internet. The most used web browser is Microsoft Internet Explorer.

Web site –

Web address –

Facilities on the Internet

Electronic Mail

It is commonly referred to as the e-mail. Every user of the e-mail has a unique address. E-mail addresses have
an @, for example, [email protected] . One can send and receive messages the same way an ordinary
letter is sent and received. E-mail messages are sent from user to user on a computer network with message
being stored in the recipient’s mailbox or inbox. The next time the user logs on, he is told that there is a new
message, these messages can be read, printed or replied.

E-mail allows for the sending of attachments. These are files that contain greater detail and are based on a
particular application package like Microsoft Word, Microfoft Excel. One can even send a CV, an assignment
or other document using e-mail.

E-mail makes use of an existing internet connection and software. However, there is a misconception in the
minds of many students that e-mail and internet are one and the same thing. Internet provides many facilities
and the e-mail is only one of them.

Advantages of e-mail
1. Speed - Messages are received instantly
- Provides certainty of delivery of mail
- Reading, sending replies, redirecting massages is faster.

2. Cost - Generally cheaper than ordinary mail

- Less or no paper used.

3. Time - Less time spent on the phone waiting to be put through, finding people
unobtainable, holding the line because line is engaged and leaving messages and having to
call again.

4. Flexibility - Anyone with a PC at home can send and receive messages out of office
hours.
- Messages can be sent and received at any computer that is linked to the network.

Disadvantages of e-mail

32 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

 1. Delay – if a recipient takes long to log on, the speed advantages is lost
- If there is a problem with the recipient’s server, one may not know immediately if the
message has been received or not.

2. Information Overload – Sometimes there may be too many messages

- Sometimes important or urgent messages are overlooked.

3. Junk mail – There may lots of unwanted messages received.

4. Breakdowns – Often log on problems may result in messages not being sent or received.
5. Security – There is the concern about security of confidential information that is sent and/or received.

Intranet

It is the network of computers usually within a company that uses e-mail and browser software but is not part
of the internet. Employees can use the Intranet to access information related to the company such as training,
social activities, job opportunities and product information. It enables employees to share information.

E-commerce

It involves the internet transactions of goods and services to businesses and consumers and can include:
- retail – you can buy virtually anything on the Internet, e.g books
- banking – there are online banking facilities that allow the payment of bills and access of
balances.
- Travel arrangements – airline and rail tickets can be bought and sold on the internet and
bookings made thereon.
Consumers connect to the online service and can then order goods and pay for these using a credit or debit
card.

DATA PROCESSING

It is the process of collecting data and converting it into information. It may be manual (where only human
effort is used), semi-manual where human effort is aided by an electronic device or mechanical/electronic,
where computers replace human effort.

Types of Data Processing

1. Centralised data processing

This is where data is sent to and processed at a central place.
Advantages of centralised data processing
a. All required information can be got from one place
b. Little distortion of information
c. Easy to manage and control
d. Cheaper to implement
e. Easier to enforce standards
f. Is not complicated

Disadvantages
a. The whole system is disturbed when the computer is down.
b. Users of the system have little control over the data even their own.
c. Loss of data by the processing computer may mean loss of data at other points.
d. Needs specialists to set up and maintain the system and its environment.
e. Processing of data may be slow due to congestion at the central computer.

2. Distributed processing
Data is processed at different points in the organisation. Branch or department may have a microcomputer or
minicomputer that processes the information. The minicomputer in the branch then sends to a host computer
after processing.

33 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

 HOST COMPUTER

1 2 3 4 5 6

Advantages
a. Data lost at any point may be recovered from the host
b. Faster processing of data
c. Processing may occur even if the host computer is down
d. User have some control over their data
e. Problem can be solved at the different points

Disadvantages
a. The system needs expensive equipment and has high maintenance costs.
b. Management and control difficult
c. There is dada duplication at the different points
d. No uniformity of data
e. There is no overall control time

3. Batch processing
A central computer system normally processes all transactions against a central data base and produces reports
at intervals. In batch processing transactions are accumulated over a period of time and processed periodically.
A batch system handles the inputing, processing, job queuing and transmission of the data from the remote
sites with little or no user intervention. Batch processing involves.
a. Data gathering from source documents at the remote site through the remote job entry (RJE)
b. recording the transaction data onto some medium e.g. magnetic tape or disk.
c. Sorting the transactions into transaction files
d. Processing of the data
e. Updating the master file.

Advantages
a. It is economical when large amounts of data are being processed
b. Suitable where reports and information is needed periodically.
c. Reduced risk of error due to the time involved in validation and verification.
Disadvantages
a. Master files are often out of date
b. Immediate updated responses cannot be made.
c. Unsuitable where decisions and follow up transactions depend on the results of earlier transactions e.g.
in bank withdrawals and deposits.
d. Once the system fails all output is delayed.

4. On-line Processing
It is the input of transactions while the input device is connected directly to the main CPU of the system. There
is no necessity of a batch.

Advantages
a. Items can be input much easier and quicker.
b. Many errors are dealt with by the operator at entry
c. Time is saved because a batch does not have to be produced first.
d. User can recognise anomalies in the data being entered

34 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

Disadvantages
a. The system may be more expensive than batch processing.
b. Sometimes accuracy of data depends on the operator who might fail to detect or prevent some errors.
c. Sometimes source document are not used e.g. in the case of telephone orders.

5. On line Real time processing

It is the continual receiving and rapid processing of data as to be able to feedback the result of that input to the
source of that data. There is no delay between the input of a transaction and the updating of the master files for
the transaction. The only delay is for the necessary validation and verification of the data. This allows for
immediate processing of data and results generated to provide immediate output to users. Data does not have
to wait, as is the case under batch processing.

Data is fed directly into the computer system from on-line terminals without the storing, sorting (these are
done on-line)

Advantages
� Processing is instantaneous
� Files and databases are always up to date

Disadvantages
� The systems are expensive to and complex to develop and put up.
� Data with errors may be processed with damaging effect.
� Hardware costs are high, there is need for on-line terminals, more CPU power, large on-line storage
and back up facilities.

6. Time Sharing Processing

Processor time is shared between users to provide multi-access (many users accessing data at the same time).
This can be done by minicomputers and mainframe computer systems.

Advantages
a. Each user is given a chance
b. More than one person can use the computer at the same time.

Disadvantages
The user may not require a service at the time his slice is given - this results in too much excess capacity at
some periods.

THE DATA PROCESSING CYCLE

Data Acquisition
(From source Documents)

Output Communication Input/ Capture

Storage Processing

Stage 1
Data acquisition - this is the collection of data from source documents for input into the computer system.

35 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

Stage 2
Input/Capture - This is the putting of the acquired data into the system e.g. through typing, scanning, or other
forms of input.
Validation - the quality of the data is checked before it is entered or processed and errors detected and
eliminated.
Verification - data is checked for mistakes in copying so that it is correct.
There may be gabbage in and gabbage out (GIGO) meaning that information systems will produce erroneous
output if provided with erroneous input data or instructions. To avoid GIGO common validation is done:
a. Checking data reasonableness, e.g. pregnancy for a three year old would be unreasonable.
b. Checking data consistency - e.g. it would be inconsistent to record a pregnant male.
c. Checking range units e.g. it would be impossible to have 30hours worked by one worker in a day.
d. Timeliness - that data is not out of date.

Stage 3
Processing - this is the key part of the cycle where data is converted into information. This is where calculations
and other logical and manipulative operations on the data are done. Specific applications are used to process
the data e.g. word processing, spreadsheet, payroll packages etc

Stage 4
Storage - information is stored on various storage media including hard disks, floppy disks, magnetic tapes etc.

Stage 5
Output - The processed information is eventually displayed for use by the user through the various output
systems - printers, VDUs, sound cards & speakers.

DATA PROCESSING PERSONNEL

The job involving the capture, processing and output of data and information involves a number of people.
Sometimes there may be one person to do this and often there may be a department solely responsible for data
processing or for Information technology.

The data processing department interacts with all other departments from where it gets data and for whom it
processes and eventually provides the information to.
The main functions of a DP department are:
a. Design and install a custom built system of data capture and processing.
b. Provision of advice to the organisation on matters regarding the processing of information e.g. the
selection of the correct devices for input, process, storage and output.
c. Provides advice on the installation of a package or information system
d. Manage the organisation's data processing resources.
A typical DP/IT department

Data Processing Manager

Systems Manager Programming Manager Operations Manager

DBA BA SA TA AP SP DPS SL DPL

CO CO CO CO CO CO

Key: DBA -Database Administrator

BA - Business Analyst
SA - System Analyst
TA -Technical Analyst
AP -Application analyst
SP -System Programmer

36 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

 DPS -Data control Supervisor
SL -Shift Leader
DPL -Data Processing Librarian
CO -Computer Operator

1. Data processing Manager

He is the head of the IT or DP department covering the three main areas of system development,
programming, and operations management.

The Main Duties of the DPM

a. Development and assisting in producing data processing policy for the organisation.
b. Execution of the defined data processing policy
c. Management of the data processing function
d. Liaising with data user departments
e. Working with management to identify problem areas and areas of improvement.
f. Ensuring proper systems development, system maintenance and computer operating standards exist,
are kept up to date.
g. Ensuring proper security and back-up arrangements are in existence and are tested regularly.
h. Ensuring that the systems are adequately documented.
i. Ensure proper evaluation of the implemented systems.
j. Providing suitable training for the data personnel.
k. Coordination of all activities in the department
l. Resolution of conflict within the department and between the department and other departments.
m. Provide guidance on issues of data processing
n. Recommends on staffing issues.

2. System Analyst
The title and function of this person may vary from organisation to organisation or as an organisation
develops from stage to the other. As the computer is applied to the different organisational problems, the
duties of the analyst may change.
A business analyst would require less skill than the system designer or the technical analyst. These personnel
deal with more or less the same task but with differing depth.
Main Duties
a. Examine the feasibility of potential computer applications and to consider all the various approaches
to computerisation that are available.
b. To perform the proper analysis of user systems and requirements.
c. Develop a cost benefit analysis in conjunction with the users.
d. Design system, which take into account not only the computer procedures but the clerical and other
procedures around the computer system.
e. To specify the check and controls to be incorporated into the system in conjunction with the audit
staff.
f. To specify the most appropriate processing techniques to be used e.g. micro, mini or mainframe,
batch or real time processing.
g. To ensure that there is proper communication and clear instructions at each stage of the project e.g.
programme specification, file set up, operating instructions, print out volumes.
h. To ensure the system is properly set up and documented.
i. To ensure a proper environment for system testing and pilot running and parallel running of the
system as may be appropriate.

3. Programmer
After design the programmer comes in. He uses the program specifications produced by the
analyst/system designer to develop the programme. The programme specifications may consist of file and
records layouts, field description, report and screen layouts.
A flow chart or diagram indicating the main logical steps in the proposed program may be made.
The programmer converts specifications from the system analyst into a working programme.

Duties

37 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

 a. To reach an understanding of what each programme is expected to do and to clarify any problems
with the analyst or systems designer.
b. To design the structure of the programme in accordance with installations standards.
c. To provide a working of an efficient programme using the installations standards within the budgeted
time and funds.
d. To test programmes thoroughly both as a unit and in relation to other programmes.
e. To provide the required programme documentation.

Once the programme is in place, the maintenance programmer would take the responsibility of correcting
any subsequent problems and recommend any improvements.

4. Systems Programmer
He specializes in non-application programmes e.g. operating systems, data communications
Duties
a. Liaising with computer supplier to keep abreast with operating system changes.
b. Support systems analyst and programmer regards queries on the system software performance and
features.
c. Assisting the programmer to interpret and resolve problems which appear to be caused by the system
software rather than application software.

5. Application programmer
He writes programmes or adapts software packages to carry out specific task or operations for the computer
users e.g. a sales analysis programme for the marketing department.
Duties
a. discuss the programme specification with the analyst.
b. To write the sources program module.
c. To test the programme and debug it.
d. To maintain programmes correcting errors, making improvements & modifications to allow for
changing business methods, circumstances or equipment.
e. Encode the procedure detailed by the analyst in a language suitable for the specified computer.
f. Liase with the analyst and other users on the logical correctness of the programme.

6. Computer Operator
S/he operates the mainframe or mini computer. He is responsible for the efficient running of the computer
equipment, which if not ensured efficient running time of the computer may be lost.
Duties
a. Collecting files and programs required for a computer run from the library.
b. Loading magnetic tapes and disks into drives.
c. Putting stationery into the printer.
d. Carrying out routine maintenance such as cleaning the tapes and read write heads.
e. Ensure the equipment is running efficiently and reporting any faults to the technicians.
f. Replacement of computer accessories e.g. toner catridges, ribbons, ink.
g. Switching the computer on/off.
h. Handles and operates the computer hardware.
i. Handles computer input and output.
j. Responds to messages on the operator's console prompted by the operating system that monitors the
user's requests and the status of the peripherals.
k. Watching the process of individual jobs and of the computer in general.
l. Keeping a log of what happens to supplement the log that the computer produces.

7. Data Preparation/Entry Clerk

This is the keystation operator who transcribes source data into computer sensible form.
Duties
a. Prepares data for input into the computer
b. Enters the data into the computer for processing.
c. Monitors the processing and output.
d. Does some operations of the computer operator.

38 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

8. Database Administrator
This is a person responsible for planning, designing and maintaining the organisation's database. This
person relates to the management, system analysts, programmers and other stakeholders in the
organisation. He needs to have adequate managerial and technical abilities to suit the job. He therefore
must have a sound knowledge of the structure of the database and the DBMS.

Duties
a. Ensure that the database meets the needs of the organisation.
b. Ensure facilities for the recovery of data
c. Ensure the functioning of report generation systems form the DBMS
d. The DBA is also responsible for the documentation of the DBMS through the designing and availing
of the data dictionary and manuals for the users giving such direction as the general use of the
database, access to information, deletion of records from the system and the general validation and
verification of data.

Duties of the personnel overlap and depending on the size of the organisation or the IT department some
duties are done by one person.

FILE AND DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

File Concepts

The purpose of a computer file is to hold data required for providing information. A computer file is a
collection of related records. Records consist of fields and the fields are made up of characters. A character is
the smallest element of a file. A character may be a letter of the alphabet, a digit or of a special form (symbols).

Logical files show what data items are contained and what processing may be done while physical files are
viewed in terms of how data is stored on storage media.

Types of Files

1. Master Files – They hold permanent data for use in applications such as stock control, credit control.
Usually much of the data items in these files do not change frequently or with each transaction e.g
name, address or date of birth.
2. Transaction files – These are also called movement files. They hold temporary records of values.
They are used to update the master file and are overwritten after the updating of the master file.
3. Look up files – they are reference files from which such information as prices list and mailing list can
be obtained.
4. Archive files – these are files that are used to store information that has not been in use in the recent
past and would not be in use in the near future – so are used to store historical data.

File Structures

This is the way a records are stored on the storage device or medium. This is how the files are arranged. The
arrangement also affects the way these files will be accessed.

1. Sequential Files – the files are stored and accessed in sequence i.e. one after another. Access the file
is dependent on the position of the file on the storage medium. Accessing the files is by moving
usually through spooling to the relevant file. This is the structure of filing on magnetic tapes. It is
most suitable where all the records on the file are being considered e.g. in the preparation of a payroll
but would be inefficient where the selection of one record is necessary e.g. access to one employee on
the payroll.
2. The Direct File Structure – The files are randomly stored. Access and storage of the records not
depend on the physical position of the record on the file. This is the form of file structure on
magnetic disks, floppy disks, or on optical disks. Each record is given a specific disk address by which
it is recognized and accessed. This is the structure used to store and access records and files on the

39 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

 Automatic Teller Machine (ATMs) systems. Access to records is much faster. However, there could
be conflict resolution where several records generate the same address – this problem has been dealt
with the use of conflict resolution mechanisms on the computer and filing systems.
3. Indexed Sequential File Structure – This combines the features of sequential and direct file
structures. Records are stored sequentially on a direct access medium like the hard disk and each
record occupies an addressable location identifiable by the unique disk address. An index is developed
to keep track of the records and their physical locations on the storage medium. The records can be
stored and accessed sequentially starting from the beginning moving through the records one at a time
or can be stored and accessed directly e.g. the way the cell phone’s phone book is structured.

On all the types and structures discussed above a user may add or remove a file or record, modify contents
of the file or record, view the contents of the data and create reports as may be necessary. These
operations on the data can be done on-line i.e. files and records updated as the transactions are being
entered from a device connected onto the main CPU of the system.

DATABASE CONCEPTS

A database is a single oranised collection of structured data. It is a collection of related files that are stored
in a uniform way for ease of access. It can also be defined as a collection of logically related records or files
previously stored separately so that a common pool of data records is formed.

A database has a number of advantages over the keeping of separate files:

Data Independence - data can be defined and described separately from the application programme.
Where there is no data independence a change in any record would then necessitate the changing of the
programme to access the file.
Data Redundancy - The same data element appears in a number of files but serving the same purpose and
usually thus staying unused.

Data Inconsistency - this is when redundant data is not updated accurately so much that there are
differences in the data elements on the different files.

Advantages of the Database

a. Easier data sharing leading to economies of scale
b. Reduced data redundancy
c. Improved data consistency
d. Improved data independence
e. Increased application programmer productivity
f. Improved data administration and control
g. Increased emphasis on data as a resource

Disadvantages of Databases
a. Concurrence problems - where more than one user access and attempt to update the same record at
the same time - there is file edit locking to prevent this.
b. Ownership problems - sometimes some individuals tend to own the data and thus refuse access by
other individuals or departments in the organisation.
c. Resources problem - with database extra resources are needed e.g. more workstations and other
devices.
d. Security problems - there is increased exposure to unauthorized entry into the data this could be
reduced by the use of regularly changed passwords and by physically denying access to unauthorized
users.

The Database Management System (DBMS)

It is a complex system of software that constructs, expands and maintains the database. It provides a
controlled interface between the database and the user.

40 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

 Application
Programme DBMS DB
Application

Components of a DBMS
Data Dictionary - this is a database management tool that has names and descriptions of all data elements
within a database.

Data repositories - these are an extension of the data dictionary which provide a directory of component
parts of the dB and other information resources in the organisation.

Data languages - a definition language is needed to place the data in the data dictionary through the use of
commands such as sort, get, find etc.

Teleprocessing Monitor - This is a software that controls and manages the communication between
remote terminals e.g. from and to sales points in a large departmental store.

Applications Development Software - this is a set of development software used to help the user
programmer to develop database software.

Security Software - this is a set of software used to minimize unauthorized access to the database.

Archiving and Recovery Systems - these systems are used to store backups of the original record so that if
the original database is damaged the information can still be recovered.

Report Writers - these allow the user to obtain reports from the data quicker and easier.

Functions of the DBMS

a. Allocates storage space to data
b. It maintains indices to allow for easy access too data items.
c. It allows for the addition, editing and deletion of files in the database.
d. Provides an interface with user programmes which may be written in different programming
languages.
e. Provides for the processing of files in different ways:
(i) processing of a complete file (sequentially or serially)
(ii) process required records (selective, sequential or random)
(iii) retrieve individual records
f. Provides security for the data in the database through:
(i) denying unauthorized access to data
(ii) preventing data corruption
(iii) providing data recovery in the case of failure
g. Keeps a record of statistics of the use of data in the database, this assists in the removal of redundant
(duplicated) data, it also keeps frequently used data more accessible.

The Database Administrator

This is a person responsible for planning, designing and maintaining the organisation's database. This
person relates to the management, system analysts, programmers and other stakeholders in the
organisation. He needs to have adequate managerial and technical abilities to suit the job. He therefore
must have a sound knowledge of the structure of the database and the DBMS.

Responsibilities of the DBA

e. Ensure that the database meets the needs of the organisation.
f. Ensure facilities for the recovery of data

41 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

 g. Ensure the functioning of report generation systems form the DBMS
h. The DBA is also responsible for the documentation of the DBMS through the designing and availing
of the data dictionary and manuals for the users giving such direction as the general use of the
database, access to information, deletion of records from the system and the general validation and
verification of data.

Database structures (Entity relationship Models)

Records in the database may be set in different ways depending on the relationships between the records
themselves.

1. One to One relationship - this is where one record is related to one other record e.g. single parent
record to one child record

Record

Recor

This can be represented in a relational entity model, in E-R diagrams

1 Represents 1
Record Record

This could be where one sales representative deals with one customer for example.

2. One to many relationships - one parent to many children

Record

Record Record Record

In the form of an E-R diagram

1 Represents N
Record Records

E.g. one sales representative for relating to many customers.

3. Many to one - where there are many parents to one child

Record Record Record

Record
42 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes
In E-R diagram

M Represents N
Records Record

e.g. many sales representatives relating with on customer, many lecturers relating to one student.

4. Many to many - with two or more parents relating to two or more children

Record Record Record

Record Record Record

In E-R diagram:

M Represents N Records
Records

This could be the many sales reps relate to many customers.

Distributed Versus Centralized Database

A distributed database is when the databases are scattered whereas a centralized dB is where the databases are
located in one area and usually under management of a group of people. A dB may be distributed in two ways:
Replicated or partitioned.

A replicated dB is one that has been copied and is kept at different geographical locations. This allows for
easier recovery if one fails and reduces data transmission costs, as there would be little long distance
transmission thus is also faster. This, however, it is expensive in terms of computer resources.

A partitioned dB is one that is split into segments and each segment distributed to the relevant location. This
reduces transmission costs and provides a faster turnaround time in input, processing and output. There is
reduced data inconsistency and redundancy. However, there is need for more computer resources that are
costly.

An Online dB - this is a dB that is allows for the immediate updating of files from remote terminals since input
will be directly intyo the system e.g. stock market information.

DATA SECURITY

This refers to measures to reduce unauthorized access to, use and destruction of an organisation’s data and data
resources.

Data is a valuable resource like any other asset of an organization. Data like money can be stolen and
exchanged for some value. Organisations have some pieces of data that are confidential and these need to be
secure. Every organization needs to take security of hardware, software and data seriously because the
consequences of breaches of security can be extremely damaging to a business. This may lead to loss of
production, cashflow problems, loss of customers and reputation.

43 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

Threats to security come from outside (external) and inside (internal) the organisation

Securing data entails making sure that the computers are in the right environment, there are right software
measures to reduce loss or theft of data.

Security of Equipment

There is need to look after the computer hardware well to avoid loss of data or the computers themselves.

Requirements for a Computer Environment (Computer Room)

1. Ventilation – a good room has to be adequately ventilated. If ventilation is poor the computer may
over heat and thus fail to operate properly.
2. Power supply – power supply should of the right voltage and supplied from safe socket outlet. Power
cables should not cross the room to avaid interfering with free movements.
3. Use of Uninterupted Power Supplies (UPS) – in the event of unanticipated power loss or power surge
there should be some standby power alternative so that the users’s information is not lost.
4. Carpet – Carpets are good dust absorbers, this thus reduces dust in the room, dust interferes with the
operation of electronic equipment.
5. Curtains – Curtains reduce the amount of light getting to the screens and other computer equipment.
Light damages screens.
6. Lockable doors – doors should be lockable to avoid unauthorized access to the computers or theft or
vandalism of the computer systems. The key should be kept with some responsible person.
7. Metal Bars and Shutters – Fit room with metal bars and shutter.
8. An alarm system – an alarm system may be installed to warn of an intrision.
9. ID badges – all users to use ID badges for access to the room or building.
10. Security guards – have a twenty-four hour guard to the room.
11. Attach computers permanently to desks using clamps to avoid theft of the computer(s).
12. Have all equipment serial numbers for use if equipment is stolen.
13. Have fire fighting systems in place to deal with ant risks of fire to the equipment.
14. Reduce levels of moisture – moisture damages electronic equipment.

Security of Data

Data itself is at risk of accidental or deliberate loss and theft.

Accidental Loss

Accidental loss may be caused by:

- document is accidentally deleted
- computer breaks down or power fails
- file or disk becomes corrupted
- file is destroyed by fire or flood.

To reduce the risk of loss to accidental loss there is the use of back up of data – there should be a saved copy
of the original file that is kept on a different medium and place.

Deliberate Damage

This is loss of data by viruses or hackers

Viruses
A computer virus is a harmful program that copies itself onto other programmes and destroys them or
interferes with their proper functioning.

44 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

Presence of viruses can be noticed by:
(a) Displaying of messages
(b) Deleting data and programme files
(c) Failure of computer to detect peripherals
(d) Display of irritating messages or images
(e) Exaggerated file and document sizes.
(f) Unwanted formatting of hard disk
(g) Playing music
(h) Computer fails to boot up

Viruses are transmitted from computer to computer. They copy themselves quickly. Effects of viruses may be
mild to severe. Some viruses are harmless and computers may operate normally.

Characteristics of viruses

(a) Copies itself

(b) Hides
(c)

To reduce the risk of viral infection:

(a) Use anti-virus software
(b) Use genuine software
(c) Write protect all software programs
(d) Make regular

COMPUTERS AND HEALTH AND SAFETY

Computer and computer equipment have negative health effects on the users. Research is still being carried out
to determine the extent of the effects on the health of users.

The main effects are:

(a) Repetitive Strain Injury (RSI)
(b) Eye strain from VDU use
(c) Bad posture
(d) Risk of an accident
(e) Exposure to radiation

(a) Repetitive Strain Injury

This refers to disorders that affect the hands, wrists, arms, shoulders or neck of computer operators.
It is inflammation of the joints and is caused by making the same small movements over and over
again. This can cause pain, numbness, swelling and the inability to lift or grip objects. In some cases,
operators have become permanently disabled.

To reduce RSI
- make sure the desk and chair are at suitable heights
- sit at a comfortable distance fro the keyboard
- make sure that lower arms are horizontal and wrists straight when using a keyboard or
mouse.
- Use a wrist rest if necessary so that you do not rest you wrists on the edge of the table or
keyboard.
- Take frequent breaks to stretch your arms and fingers

45 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

 (b) Eye Strain From VDU

Using the VDU for long periods at a time may affect a user’s eyes and in some instances cause
headaches.

To reduce eye strain:

- desks and VDUs area arranged to avoid glare or bright reflections on the screen.
- Arrange desks so that user is not looking at windows or lights
- Use curtains and window blinds
- Sharply focus VDU so that characters do not move and flicker
- Have regular eye tests
- Adjust screen brightness and contrast to suit lighting conditions
- Adjust the angle of the screen to your sitting height
- Keep the screen clean
- Use a document holder so that you do not lean over to read documents.
- Take a break every 20 to 30 minutes.

(c) Posture

Sitting incorrectly or without right support at a computer terminal for long periods may result in back,
neck and upper arm pains.

To reduce posture related problems:

- Use adjustable chairs to adjust height
- Use adjustable backrests
- Use swivel chairs
- Use footrest
- Always sit well
- Change sitting positions regularly
- Take frequent short breaks

(d) Risk of Accident

If it may be necessary to shift a computer, if not done properly may result in injury to the worker.
There may also be problems relating to power and falling over of computer equipment that is not put
up properly.

(e) Risk of Exposure Radiation

Some computer equipment produces radiation that has long-term effects on users or on unborn
babies.

SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE

The systems development life cycle is a project management technique that divides complex projects into
smaller, more easily managed segments or phases. Segmenting projects allows managers to verify the successful
completion of project phases before allocating resources to subsequent phases.

Software development projects typically include initiation, planning, design, development, testing,
implementation, and maintenance phases. However, the phases may be divided differently depending on the
organization involved. For example, initial project activities might be designated as request, requirements-
definition, and planning phases, or initiation, concept-development, and planning phases. End users of the
system under development should be involved in reviewing the output of each phase to ensure the system is
being built to deliver the needed functionality.

46 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

Note: Examiners should focus their assessments of development, acquisition, and maintenance activities on the
effectiveness of an organization’s project management techniques. Reviews should be centered on ensuring the
depth, quality, and sophistication of a project management technique are commensurate with the characteristics
and risks of the project under review.

INITIATION PHASE
Careful oversight is required to ensure projects support strategic business objectives and resources are
effectively implemented into an organization's enterprise architecture. The initiation phase begins when an
opportunity to add, improve, or correct a system is identified and formally requested through the presentation
of a business case. The business case should, at a minimum, describe a proposal’s purpose, identify expected
benefits, and explain how the proposed system supports one of the organization’s business strategies. The
business case should also identify alternative solutions and detail as many informational, functional, and
network requirements as possible.

The presentation of a business case provides a point for managers to reject a proposal before they allocate
resources to a formal feasibility study. When evaluating software development requests (and during subsequent
feasibility and design analysis), management should consider input from all affected parties. Management
should also closely evaluate the necessity of each requested functional requirement. A single software feature
approved during the initiation phase can require several design documents and hundreds of lines of code. It can
also increase testing, documentation, and support requirements. Therefore, the initial rejection of unnecessary
features can significantly reduce the resources required to complete a project.

If provisional approval to initiate a project is obtained, the request documentation serves as a starting point to
conduct a more thorough feasibility study. Completing a feasibility study requires management to verify the
accuracy of the preliminary assumptions and identify resource requirements in greater detail.

The feasibility support documentation should be compiled and submitted for senior management or board
study. The feasibility study document should provide an overview of the proposed project and identify
expected costs and benefits in terms of economic, technical, and operational feasibility. The document should
also describe alternative solutions and include a recommendation for approval or rejection. The document
should be reviewed and signed off on by all affected parties. If approved, management should use the feasibility
study and support documentation to begin the planning phase.

PLANNING PHASE
The planning phase is the most critical step in completing development, acquisition, and maintenance projects.
Careful planning, particularly in the early stages of a project, is necessary to coordinate activities and manage
project risks effectively. The depth and formality of project plans should be commensurate with the
characteristics and risks of a given project.

Project plans refine the information gathered during the initiation phase by further identifying the specific
activities and resources required to complete a project. A critical part of a project manager’s job is to coordinate
discussions between user, audit, security, design, development, and network personnel to identify and
document as many functional, security, and network requirements as possible.

DESIGN PHASE
The design phase involves converting the informational, functional, and network requirements identified
during the initiation and planning phases into unified design specifications that developers use to script
programs during the development phase. Program designs are constructed in various ways. Using a top-down
approach, designers first identify and link major program components and interfaces, then expand design
layouts as they identify and link smaller subsystems and connections. Using a bottom-up approach, designers
first identify and link minor program components and interfaces, then expand design layouts as they identify
and link larger systems and connections.

Contemporary design techniques often use prototyping tools that build mock-up designs of items such as

47 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

application screens, database layouts, and system architectures. End users, designers, developers, database
managers, and network administrators should review and refine the prototyped designs in an iterative process
until they agree on an acceptable design. Audit, security, and quality assurance personnel should be involved in
the review and approval process.

Management should be particularly diligent when using prototyping tools to develop automated controls.
Prototyping can enhance an organization’s ability to design, test, and establish controls. However, employees
may be inclined to resist adding additional controls, even though they are needed, after the initial designs are
established.
Designers should carefully document completed designs. Detailed documentation enhances a programmer’s
ability to develop programs and modify them after they are placed in production. The documentation also
helps management ensure final programs are consistent with original goals and specifications.

Organizations should create initial testing, conversion, implementation, and training plans during the design
phase. Additionally, they should draft user, operator, and maintenance manuals.

Application Control Standards

Application controls include policies and procedures associated with user activities and the automated controls
designed into applications. Controls should be in place to address both batch and on-line environments.
Standards should address procedures to ensure management appropriately approves and control overrides.
Refer to the IT Handbook’s "Operations Booklet" for details relating to operational controls.

Designing appropriate security, audit, and automated controls into applications is a challenging task. Often,
because of the complexity of data flows, program logic, client/server connections, and network interfaces,
organizations cannot identify the exact type and placement of the features until interrelated functions are
identified in the design and development phases. However, the security, integrity, and reliability of an
application is enhanced if management considers security, audit, and automated control features at the onset of
a project and includes them as soon as possible in application and system designs. Adding controls late in the
development process or when applications are in production is more expensive, time consuming, and usually
results in less effective controls.

Standards should be in place to ensure end users, network administrators, auditors, and security personnel are
appropriately involved during initial project phases. Their involvement enhances a project manager's ability to
define and incorporate security, audit, and control requirements. The same groups should be involved
throughout a project’s life cycle to assist in refining and testing the features as projects progress.

Application control standards enhance the security, integrity, and reliability of automated systems by ensuring
input, processed, and output information is authorized, accurate, complete, and secure. Controls are usually
categorized as preventative, detective, or corrective. Preventative controls are designed to prevent unauthorized
or invalid data entries. Detective controls help identify unauthorized or invalid entries. Corrective controls
assist in recovering from unwanted occurrences.

Input Controls
Automated input controls help ensure employees accurately input information, systems properly record input,
and systems either reject, or accept and record, input errors for later review and correction.

Processing Controls
Automated processing controls help ensure systems accurately process and record information and either reject,
or process and record, errors for later review and correction. Processing includes merging files, modifying data,
updating master files, and performing file maintenance.

Output Controls
Automated output controls help ensure systems securely maintain and properly distribute processed
information.

48 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

DEVELOPMENT PHASE
The development phase involves converting design specifications into executable programs. Effective
development standards include requirements that programmers and other project participants discuss design
specifications before programming begins. The procedures help ensure programmers clearly understand
program designs and functional requirements.

Programmers use various techniques to develop computer programs. The large transaction-oriented programs
associated with financial institutions have traditionally been developed using procedural programming
techniques. Procedural programming involves the line-by-line scripting of logical instructions that are
combined to form a program.

Primary procedural programming activities include the creation and testing of source code and the refinement
and finalization of test plans. Typically, individual programmers write and review (desk test) program modules
or components, which are small routines that perform a particular task within an application. Completed
components are integrated with other components and reviewed, often by a group of programmers, to ensure
the components properly interact. The process continues as component groups are progressively integrated and
as interfaces between component groups and other systems are tested.

Advancements in programming techniques include the concept of "object-oriented programming." Object-

oriented programming centers on the development of reusable program routines (modules) and the
classification of data types (numbers, letters, dollars, etc.) and data structures (records, files, tables, etc.).
Linking pre-scripted module objects to predefined data-class objects reduces development times and makes
programs easier to modify. Refer to the "Software Development Techniques" section for additional
information on object-oriented programming.

Organizations should complete testing plans during the development phase. Additionally, they should update
conversion, implementation, and training plans and user, operator, and maintenance manuals.

Development Standards
Development standards should be in place to address the responsibilities of application and system
programmers. Application programmers are responsible for developing and maintaining end-user applications.
System programmers are responsible for developing and maintaining internal and open-source operating
system programs that link application programs to system software and subsequently to hardware. Managers
should thoroughly understand development and production environments to ensure they appropriately assign
programmer responsibilities.

Development standards should prohibit a programmer's access to data, programs, utilities, and systems outside
their individual responsibilities. Library controls can be used to manage access to, and the movement of
programs between, development, testing, and production environments. Management should also establish
standards requiring programmers to document completed programs and test results thoroughly. Appropriate
documentation enhances a programmer's ability to correct programming errors and modify production
programs.

Coding standards, which address issues such as the selection of programming languages and tools, the layout or
format of scripted code, and the naming conventions of code routines and program libraries, are outside the
scope of this document. However, standardized, yet flexible, coding standards enhance an organization’s ability
to decrease coding defects and increase the security, reliability, and maintainability of application programs.
Examiners should evaluate an organization’s coding standards and related code review procedures.

Library Controls
Libraries are collections of stored documentation, programs, and data. Program libraries include reusable
program routines or modules stored in source or object code formats. Program libraries allow programmers to
access frequently used routines and add them to programs without having to rewrite the code. Dynamic link
libraries include executable code programs can automatically run as part of larger applications.
Library controls should include:

49 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

Version Controls
Library controls facilitate software version controls. Version controls provide a means to systematically retain
chronological copies of revised programs and program documentation.

Development version control systems, sometimes referred to as concurrent version systems, assist
organizations in tracking different versions of source code during development. The systems do not simply
identify and store multiple versions of source code files. They maintain one file and identify and store only
changed code. When a user requests a particular version, the system recreates that version. Concurrent version
systems facilitate the quick identification of programming errors. For example, if programmers install a revised
program on a test server and discover programming errors, they only have to review the changed code to
identify the error.

Software Documentation
Organizations should maintain detailed documentation for each application and application system in
production. Thorough documentation enhances an organization’s ability to understand functional, security, and
control features and improves its ability to use and maintain the software. The documentation should contain
detailed application descriptions, programming documentation, and operating instructions. Standards should be
in place that identify the type and format of required documentation such as system narratives, flowcharts, and
any special system coding, internal controls, or file layouts not identified within individual application
documentation.

Management should maintain documentation for internally developed programs and externally acquired
products. In the case of acquired software, management should ensure (either through an internal review or
third-party certification) prior to purchase, that an acquired product’s documentation meets their organization's
minimum documentation standards. For additional information regarding acquired software distinctions
(open/closed code) refer to the "Escrowed Documentation" discussion in the "Acquisition" section.

Examiners should consider access and change controls when assessing documentation activities. Change
controls help ensure organizations appropriately approve, test, and record software modifications. Access
controls help ensure individuals only have access to sections of documentation directly related to their job
functions.

System documentation should include:

TESTING PHASE
The testing phase requires organizations to complete various tests to ensure the accuracy of programmed code,
the inclusion of expected functionality, and the interoperability of applications and other network components.
Thorough testing is critical to ensuring systems meet organizational and end-user requirements.

If organizations use effective project management techniques, they will complete test plans while developing
applications, prior to entering the testing phase. Weak project management techniques or demands to complete
projects quickly may pressure organizations to develop test plans at the start of the testing phase. Test plans
created during initial project phases enhance an organization’s ability to create detailed tests. The use of detailed
test plans significantly increases the likelihood that testers will identify weaknesses before products are
implemented.

Testing groups are comprised of technicians and end users who are responsible for assembling and loading
representative test data into a testing environment. The groups typically perform tests in stages, either from a
top-down or bottom-up approach. A bottom-up approach tests smaller components first and progressively
adds and tests additional components and systems. A top-down approach first tests major components and
connections and progressively tests smaller components and connections. The progression and definitions of
completed tests vary between organizations.

Bottom-up tests often begin with functional (requirements based) testing. Functional tests should ensure that
expected functional, security, and internal control features are present and operating properly. Testers then

50 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

complete integration and end-to-end testing to ensure application and system components interact properly.
Users then conduct acceptance tests to ensure systems meet defined acceptance criteria.

Testers often identify program defects or weaknesses during the testing process. Procedures should be in place
to ensure programmers correct defects quickly and document all corrections or modifications. Correcting
problems quickly increases testing efficiencies by decreasing testers’ downtime. It also ensures a programmer
does not waste time trying to debug a portion of a program without defects that is not working because
another programmer has not debugged a defective linked routine. Documenting corrections and modifications
is necessary to maintain the integrity of the overall program documentation.

Organizations should review and complete user, operator, and maintenance manuals during the testing phase.
Additionally, they should finalize conversion, implementation, and training plans.

IMPLEMENTATION PHASE
The implementation phase involves installing approved applications into production environments. Primary
tasks include announcing the implementation schedule, training end users, and installing the product.
Additionally, organizations should input and verify data, configure and test system and security parameters, and
conduct post-implementation reviews. Management should circulate implementation schedules to all affected
parties and should notify users of any implementation responsibilities.

After organizations install a product, pre-existing data is manually input or electronically transferred to a new
system. Verifying the accuracy of the input data and security configurations is a critical part of the
implementation process. Organizations often run a new system in parallel with an old system until they verify
the accuracy and reliability of the new system. Employees should document any programming, procedural, or
configuration changes made during the verification process.

PROJECT EVALUATION PHASE

Management should conduct post-implementation reviews at the end of a project to validate the completion of
project objectives and assess project management activities. Management should interview all personnel actively
involved in the operational use of a product and document and address any identified problems.

Management should analyze the effectiveness of project management activities by comparing, among other
things, planned and actual costs, benefits, and development times. They should document the results and
present them to senior management. Senior management should be informed of any operational or project
management deficiencies.

MAINTENANCE PHASE
The maintenance phase involves making changes to hardware, software, and documentation to support its
operational effectiveness. It includes making changes to improve a system’s performance, correct problems,
enhance security, or address user requirements. To ensure modifications do not disrupt operations or degrade a
system’s performance or security, organizations should establish appropriate change management standards
and procedures.

Change management (sometimes referred to as configuration management) involves establishing baseline

versions of products, services, and procedures and ensuring all changes are approved, documented, and
disseminated. Change controls should address all aspects of an organization’s technology environment
including software programs, hardware and software configurations, operational standards and procedures, and
project management activities. Management should establish change controls that address major, routine, and
emergency software modifications and software patches.

Major modifications involve significant changes to a system’s functionality. Management should implement
major modifications using a well-structured process, such as an SDLC methodology.

51 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

Routine changes are not as complex as major modifications and can usually be implemented in the normal
course of business. Routine change controls should include procedures for requesting, evaluating, approving,
testing, installing, and documenting software modifications.

Emergency changes may address an issue that would normally be considered routine, however, because of
security concerns or processing problems, the changes must be made quickly. Emergency change controls
should include the same procedures as routine change controls. Management should establish abbreviated
request, evaluation, and approval procedures to ensure they can implement changes quickly. Detailed
evaluations and documentation of emergency changes should be completed as soon as possible after changes
are implemented. Management should test routine and, whenever possible, emergency changes prior to
implementation and quickly notify affected parties of all changes. If management is unable to thoroughly test
emergency modifications before installation, it is critical that they appropriately backup files and programs and
have established back-out procedures in place.

Software patches are similar in complexity to routine modifications. This document uses the term "patch" to
describe program modifications involving externally developed software packages. However, organizations
with in-house programming may also refer to routine software modifications as patches. Patch management
programs should address procedures for evaluating, approving, testing, installing, and documenting software
modifications. However, a critical part of the patch management process involves maintaining an awareness of
external vulnerabilities and available patches.

Maintaining accurate, up-to-date hardware and software inventories is a critical part of all change management
processes. Management should carefully document all modifications to ensure accurate system inventories. (If
material software patches are identified but not implemented, management should document the reason why
the patch was not installed.)

Management should coordinate all technology related changes through an oversight committee and assign an
appropriate party responsibility for administering software patch management programs. Quality assurance,
security, audit, regulatory compliance, network, and end-user personnel should be appropriately included in
change management processes. Risk and security review should be done whenever a system modification is
implemented to ensure controls remain in place.

DISPOSAL PHASE

The disposal phase involves the orderly removal of surplus or obsolete hardware, software, or data. Primary
tasks include the transfer, archiving, or destruction of data records. Management should transfer data from
production systems in a planned and controlled manner that includes appropriate backup and testing
procedures. Organizations should maintain archived data in accordance with applicable record retention
requirements. It should also archive system documentation in case it becomes necessary to reinstall a system
into production. Management should destroy data by overwriting old information or degaussing
(demagnetizing) disks and tapes. Refer to the IT Handbook’s “Information Security Booklet” for more
information on disposal of media.

RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

1. The Internet
Definition
Facilities
∗ Bulletin Boards – Magazines, newspapers * Web Television
∗ Music * Software downloading (shareware)

52 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

 ∗ Discussion Groups * Shopping Malls
∗ Libraries * Research
∗ Tuition and Virtual Learning (e-learning) * Job Opportunities
∗ E-commerce * E-mail
∗ Weather reports * Date line

2. Telecommuting
This involves working from home while connected to the office through computer networks. This means the
workers do not need to travel to workplaces. This has the advantage of saving time to the worker in terms of
travel especially in highly congested cities. It also saves costs of fuel to the worker. However, traditional
supervision methods do not apply.

3. Teleconferencing
This is also know as confra-vision. It is a facility through which people in distant places can hold a conference
like discussion while seeing each other on computer screens. The biggest advantage of this form of technology
is in the saving of conference costs like venue hire, travel and subsistence. There is also the benefit of body
language that the people using this technology have.

4. Decision Support Systems

∗ Expert Systems – Artificial Intelligence

5. Connectivity
∗ Increased use of networks
∗ Use of shared databases

6. End User Computing

∗ Definition
∗ Appropriateness

7. Data Security Concerns

∗ Security Issues – e.g passwords, encryption, physical access controls, viruses
∗ Computer Crime – Types (e.g Hacking, computer espionage, data theft)
8. Computer Aided Software Engineering (CASE)
∗ Definition
∗ Appropriateness

9. Globalization
∗ Role of IT in Globalisation

53 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

54 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes