Unit III: Application of Quantum Mechanics to

electrical transport in solids and Magnetic materials 2024

Contents

1. Review of classical free electron theory

2. Drawbacks of the classical free electron theory
a. Temperature dependence of resistivity
b. Specific heat of electrons in a metal
c. Conductivity variations with electron concentrations
3. Concepts of quantum free electron theory
4. Fermi Dirac statistics and Fermi factor
5. Density of states of valence electrons in a metal
6. Merits of the quantum free electron theory and short comings
a. Temperature dependence of resistivity
b. Specific heat of electrons in a metal
c. Wiedemann-Franz law
d. Hall effect in certain metals
7. Bloch Theorem and Electron wave functions in a periodic potential
8. Origin of energy bands – metals insulators and semiconductors
9. Effective mass of charge carriers.
10. Introduction to Magnetic materials
11. Atomic origin of magnetization
12. Diamagnetic materials, Paramagnetic materials , Ferro magnetic materials

1 DEPT OF PHYSICS, PES UNIVERSITY

 Unit III: Application of Quantum Mechanics to
electrical transport in solids and Magnetic materials 2024

1 Basics of CFET, expressions for electrical parameters

Drude and Lorentz proposed the classical free electron theory of electrical conductivity of metals (as early
as 1904). The model of conductivity of free electrons is based on the following assumptions:

(1) The valence electrons of the atoms of the metal contribute to

the conduction process either electrical or thermal. The
electrons move in an array of ion cores (which are nuclei
surrounded by inner electrons excluding the valance
electrons). All the valance electrons are free electrons and are
treated as conduction electrons which are in a state of
random motion (like the molecules in an ideal gas).

(2) The effect of positive ion cores on the electrons is considered

to be constant and hence neglected.

(3) The electrostatic repulsion between the electrons is neglected.

(4) The electrons in the metal are considered equivalent to molecules in a gas and the gas laws are
made applicable to the electrons in a metal. Accordingly, the distribution of energy and velocity is
assumed to follow Maxwell-Boltzmann statistics.

The average velocity of electrons in the metal is dependent on the temperature of the metal and is
𝟑𝒌𝑻
termed as the thermal velocity of electrons 𝒗𝒕𝒉 = √ 𝒎
. At 300K the thermal velocity of the
electrons is 𝒗𝒕𝒉 ≈ 𝟏𝟎𝟓 𝒎𝒔−𝟏 .
However, this random motion of the electrons do not contribute to a net drift of electrons across the
metal and hence no current flows through the material
The conduction electrons in the lattice are scattered by collisions with the ionic cores and other
electrons. The mean time between collisions is the relaxation time of the electrons in the metal and
the distance between successive collisions is the mean free path. Taking the mean lattice parameter
𝝀
of 10nm as the mean free path 𝜆, the relaxation time can be estimated as 𝝉 = 𝒗𝒕𝒉
≈ 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟓 𝒔.

Drift Velocity : In the presence of an Electric field E the electrons show a net drift across the metal in a
direction opposite to that of the electric field. The velocity of the electrons across the metal in the
presence is known as the drift velocity 𝑣𝑑 .
𝒅𝒗
The force equation for the electron’s motion can be described by 𝒎 𝒅𝒕 = 𝒆𝑬 − 𝒌𝒎𝒗 where the last
term accounts for the loss of energy due to the scattering which is proportional to the momentum of
the electrons and k is the coefficient of scattering loss.
In the equilibrium condition this leads to an average velocity for the electrons which is the drift
𝒆𝑬
velocity 𝒗𝒅 = 𝒌𝒎
Dimensionally k should be (time)-1.

2 DEPT OF PHYSICS, PES UNIVERSITY

 Unit III: Application of Quantum Mechanics to
electrical transport in solids and Magnetic materials 2024

1
The decay of the drift velocity to zero in the absence of the electric field yields that 𝒌 = 𝜏
where 𝜏 is
the relaxation time – the time between successive collisions or the time for the drift velocity to fall to
1/e times its steady value in the presence of an electric field.
𝒆𝝉𝑬 𝒆𝝉
The drift velocity 𝒗𝒅 = = 𝝁𝑬 where 𝝁 = is the electron mobility or the charge carrier
𝒎 𝒎
𝒆𝝉 𝒗
mobility. The mobility 𝝁 = 𝒎 = 𝑬𝒅 is the drift velocity per unit electric field.

The drift velocity of electrons is extremely low compared to thermal velocity. To illustrate, the drift
velocity of electrons experiencing an electric field of 1V/m is of the order of 10-4 ms-1.
Expression for Electrical conductivity:
The current through a conductor with an electron concentration n of cross section A and length L at an
applied electric field E can be evaluated as
𝒆𝝉𝑬
𝑰 = 𝒏𝒆𝒗𝒅 𝑨 where 𝑣𝑑 is the drift velocity given by 𝒗𝒅 =
𝒎

𝒆𝝉𝑬 𝑰 𝒏𝒆𝟐 𝝉
∴ 𝑰 = 𝒏𝒆𝑨 𝒎
or 𝑱 = 𝑨
= 𝒎
𝑬 = 𝝈 𝑬 where 𝝈 is a constant for a given metal and is the
conductivity of the metal
𝒏𝒆𝟐 𝝉
𝝈= = 𝒏𝒆𝝁
𝒎
𝟏 𝒎 𝟏
The resistivity of the metal is 𝝆 = = = .
𝝈 𝒏𝒆𝟐 𝝉 𝒏𝒆𝝁

Thus the resistivity of a metal is inversely proportional to the concentration of free electrons and the
relaxation time of electrons in the metal.

2 Experimental temperature dependence of the resistivity

Experiments show that resistivity of metals in general vary linearly
with temperature in the normal operating temperatures. At these
temperatures the resistivity 𝝆𝒔𝒄 results from the scattering of the
electrons moving with high thermal velocities in random directions.
However, at very low temperatures the resistivity 𝝆𝒓𝒆𝒔 is found to
saturate to a non zero finite value, which is dependent on the
impurity concentration in the metal.
Hence two independent types of resistivities determine the total resistivity of the metal. Since the
phenomena are independent of each other the net resistivity would be the sum of the two resistivity
components which is known as the Mattheissen’s rule.
𝝆 = 𝝆𝒓𝒆𝒔 + 𝝆𝒔𝒄
𝒎 𝒎 𝒎 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
Hence 𝒏𝒆𝟐 𝝉
= 𝒏𝒆𝟐𝝉 + 𝒏𝒆𝟐𝝉 . This gives us the effective relaxation time as 𝝉
=𝝉 +𝝉
𝒓𝒆𝒔 𝒔𝒄 𝒓𝒆𝒔 𝒔𝒄

3 DEPT OF PHYSICS, PES UNIVERSITY

 Unit III: Application of Quantum Mechanics to
electrical transport in solids and Magnetic materials 2024

3 Draw backs of CFET and quantum corrections.

The classical free electron theory failed to correlate the experimental results of many phenomena such as
the temperature dependence of resistivity, specific heat of electrons etc.
𝑚
a. According to the classical free electron theory the resistivity of a metal is given by 𝜌 = 𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏. For a
given material the temperature dependence of resistivity arises from the temperature
𝝀
dependence of the relaxation time 𝝉 = 𝒗 . Since the mean free path of the electrons is
𝒕𝒉
assumed to be a constant for a wide range of metals, the temperature dependence of the thermal
𝟑𝒌𝑩 𝑻
velocity should affect the relaxation time. For a given temperature 𝒗𝒕𝒉 = √ and
𝒎
𝟏
hence 𝒗𝒕𝒉 ∞√𝑻 𝑜𝑟 𝝉 ∞ 𝑻−𝟐 . Since the resistivity 𝝆 ∞ 𝝉−𝟏 , the temperature dependence of
resistivity can be inferred to be 𝝆 ∞ √𝑻. But experimental observations show that 𝝆 ∞ 𝑻 and
hence the classical free electron conduction model fails to explain the correct temperature
dependence of resistivity of metals.

b. The contribution of electrons to the specific heat of the metal can be estimated using the principle
𝒅𝑼
that the specific heat 𝑪𝒆𝒍 = 𝒅𝑻
.
Considering one mole of a mono valent metal, the energy of the valence electrons is given by U =
𝟑
𝟐
𝒌𝑩 𝑻. 𝑵𝒂𝒗𝒈

𝒅𝑼 𝟑 𝟑
Hence the specific heat of the electrons should be equal to 𝑪𝒆𝒍 = 𝒅𝑻
= 𝟐 𝒌𝑩 . 𝑵𝒂𝒗𝒈 = 𝟐
𝑹 which
is a constant.

However experimental estimation of the specific heat of electrons is only approximately 1% of the
theoretical value and is also found to be temperature dependent. Thus, the theory fails to explain
the actual specific heat dependence of electrons in metals.

𝒏𝒆𝟐 𝝉
c. The electrical conductivity of metals, given by 𝝈 = 𝒎
, should be dependent on the free
electron concentration for a given temperature, assuming that the relaxation time is more or less
constant. However, it found that mono valent Copper with lesser electronic concentration has a
higher electrical conductivity as compared to trivalent Aluminum. Similarly Zinc with higher
electronic concentration has lesser conductivity than Aluminum. Experimental results show that
there is no linear dependence of the electronic concentration on the conductivity of metals.

Thus, the classical free electron theory fails to explain the experimental observations. It is obvious that
some of the assumptions of the CFET are over estimations or under estimations of the physical
parameters and hence need to be corrected.

4 DEPT OF PHYSICS, PES UNIVERSITY

 Unit III: Application of Quantum Mechanics to
electrical transport in solids and Magnetic materials 2024

4 Quantum model of valence electrons in a metal - Fermi energy

Metals have a very high concentration of valence electrons ≅ 1028 𝑚−3 .
According to the quantum mechanical principles these valence electrons in
a metal have to be in discrete energy states following Pauli’s exclusion
principle. This requires the energy states of the atomic levels to split into
discrete closely spaced energy states to accommodate all the valence
electrons. At 0K such an arrangement leads to a sea of energy levels which
have a separation as small as ≅ 10−20 𝑒𝑉. The upper most occupied
energy state at 0K is then termed as the Fermi energy of the metal. Thus at
0K all the states below the Fermi energy are filled and all the states about
the Fermi energy are empty.
By convention electrons above the Fermi level should contribute to the
conduction process and the valence electrons are below the Fermi level.
(The electrons in states below the Fermi level do not contribute to the
conduction process). Thus according to this model not all the valence
electrons in a metal are conduction electrons.
The effective number of electrons above the Fermi level could be
𝒌𝑻
approximated as 𝒏𝒆𝒇𝒇 = 𝒏 𝑬 .
𝒇

The effective number of electrons above the Fermi level for copper (Ef=7eV) at 300K can be calculated to
𝒌𝑻
be 𝒏𝒆𝒇𝒇 = 𝒏 = 𝒏 ∗ 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟑𝟔 = 𝒏 ∗ 𝟎. 𝟑𝟔%. Thus a small fraction of the available valence electrons are
𝑬𝒇
excited into states above the Fermi level, which contribute to the conductivity of the material.
This quantum model of the free electrons gives rise to the following modifications to the classical free
electron theory:
• The valence electrons in the metal are arranged in discrete energy states following Pauli’s
exclusion principle. Only electrons close to the Fermi level participate in the conduction process
• The occupation probability of the electron states are described by the Fermi Dirac distribution
function applicable to fermions.
• The conduction electrons in a metal move in array of positive ions, colliding with the ionic
centers and other electrons resulting in the resistance of the material.

5 DEPT OF PHYSICS, PES UNIVERSITY

 Unit III: Application of Quantum Mechanics to
electrical transport in solids and Magnetic materials 2024

• The electrostatic interactions namely, the electron – electron interaction and the electron – ion
interactions are negligible.
• The electrons undergo random scattering due to the vibrating ionic centers giving rise to
resistance to flow of electrons.

5 Fermi Dirac statistics, Fermi factor

The occupation probabilities of electrons in the different energy state at different temperatures are
1
estimated using the Fermi Dirac statistics for Fermions. (All particles with spin ± 2 are classified as
Fermions. Fermions follow the Fermi Dirac statistics for particles which are indistinguishable.)
1
The Fermi factor 𝐹𝑑 = 𝐸−𝐸𝑓 gives the probability of an energy state E to be occupied at a
( )
𝑘𝐵 𝑇
(𝑒 +1)

temperature T
Estimation of the Fermi factor at T=0K gives distinct results for E<Ef and E >Ef.
• If E<Ef then for E-Ef is negative, then the Fermi factor 𝐹𝑑 =
1
∆𝐸 .
−( )
(𝑒 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 +1)

1
At 0K this becomes 𝐹𝑑 = = 1. This implies that at 0K all
(𝑒 −(∞) +1)
electron states below the Fermi level are filled states.
• If E>Ef then for E-Ef is positive, then the Fermi factor 𝐹𝑑 =
1
∆𝐸 .
( )
(𝑒 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 +1)

1
At 0K this becomes 𝐹𝑑 = = 0. This implies that at 0K all
(𝑒 (∞) +1)
electron states above the Fermi level are empty states.
1 1 1
• For T>0 and E=Ef the Fermi factor 𝐹𝑑 = 𝐸−𝐸𝑓 = 𝑒 0 +1
= 2 = 0.5 . This gives a probability of
( )
𝑘𝐵 𝑇
(𝑒 +1)

occupation of 50% for the Fermi energy.

The Fermi energy has a weak temperature dependence and is given by
2
𝜋 2 𝑘𝐵 𝑇
𝐸𝑓 = 𝐸𝑓0 [1 − ( ) ]
12 𝐸𝑓0
𝑘𝐵 𝑇
where Efo is the Fermi energy at zero Kelvin. At normal temperature ranges the ratio of is very low
𝐸𝑓0
and hence can be approximated to be a constant equal to the value at zero Kelvin.

6 DEPT OF PHYSICS, PES UNIVERSITY

 Unit III: Application of Quantum Mechanics to
electrical transport in solids and Magnetic materials 2024

6 Fermi temperature
The arrangement of electrons in discrete energy states leads to the concept that only electrons near the
Fermi energy are excited into the conduction band and it may be really difficult to excite all the valence
electrons into the conduction band. If the temperature of the metal is T then kBT is the thermal energy
available to the electrons in the metal. The thermal energy required to excite the last electron at the
bottom of the energy band if termed as kBTf, then at temperature Tf the electron would have an
energy 𝐸𝑓 = 𝑘𝐵 𝑇𝑓 . This temperature is termed as the Fermi temperature of electrons in the metal.

Evaluating the temperature for Copper with Fermi energy as 7 eV gives the value of the Fermi
temperature as approximately 81000K. It is obvious that at such high temperatures the metal cannot be
in the solid state and hence this is only a representative temperature which highlights the point that all
valence electrons cannot be conduction electrons.

7 Fermi velocity
From the above analysis only a small fraction of electrons close to the conduction band can be taking
part in the conduction processes. The electrons excited into the conduction band have energies very
close to the Fermi energy. These conduction electrons then possess a kinetic energy which may be
equal to Fermi energy.
1
The kinetic energy of the electrons near the Fermi energy is 𝐸𝑓 = 2
𝑚𝑣𝑓 2 where 𝑣𝑓 the Fermi velocity
2𝐸𝑓
of conduction electrons is 𝑣𝑓 = √ 𝑚 . Fermi velocity for conduction electrons in copper gives 𝑣𝑓 =
1.06 𝑥 106 𝑚𝑠 −1 .
This velocity is greater than the thermal velocity of electrons (as per the CFET). The electrons in the
conduction band are in a state of random motion and the scattering of the electrons by the lattice is the
origin of the electrical resistance of the metal.

8 Density of states derivation

The electrons in a metal can be approximated to the particle in a box in three
dimensions, since under normal conditions the electrons cannot escape the
boundaries of the metal. Consider a mono-valent metal in the form of a cube of L
side L. Inside the metal the electrons can be assumed to be moving in a zero
L
potential field.
L
The three-dimensional Schrödinger’s wave equation can be written as three one
dimensional Schrödinger’s wave equation and their corresponding solutions analysed. L
The x component of the particle motion can be described by the wave function which is the solution of
the SWE
ℏ2 𝑑 2 𝜓(𝑥).
2𝑚 𝑑𝑥 2
+ Eψ(𝑥) = 0

7 DEPT OF PHYSICS, PES UNIVERSITY

 Unit III: Application of Quantum Mechanics to
electrical transport in solids and Magnetic materials 2024

ℎ 2 𝑛𝑥 2
This gives the Eigen energy value for the x component as 𝐸𝑛𝑥 = 8𝑚𝐿2

h2 ny 2 h2 nz 2
Similarly the energy in the other two dimensions can be evaluated as Eny = 8mL2
and Enz = 8mL2

The total energy of the electron can be written as

𝐡𝟐 h2
En = 𝟖𝐦𝐋𝟐 (nx 2 + ny 2 + nz 2 ) = 8mL2 R2 --------- (1) where R2 = nx 2 + ny 2 + nz 2

The number of states with energy E can be evaluated by studying the variation of the combinations of
nx, ny and nz. It can be deduced that every combination of nx, ny and nz result in an energy state as per
equation (1).
π
(The n space corresponds to the momentum space since k = n L .Thus the combinations can give the
picture of particles moving in different directions.) When nx, ny and nz are equal the energy state is
unique and is non degenerate. It is also noted that the energy states can be degenerate with
degeneracy of 3 when two of the three nx, ny and nz are equal and degeneracy of 6 when all the three
are not equal.
The distribution of energy states depending of the combinations of
nx, ny and nz can be evaluated analyzing the n space formed by nx,
ny and nz.
It is observed that every combination of nx, ny and nz gives
additional unit volume in n space from which we conclude that
evaluating the number of states is equivalent to evaluating the
volume of the n space.
It is also noticed that the degenerate energy states with the same energy values lie on the surface of an
octant of a sphere with the center at the origin. Hence it is sufficient to find the volume of the octant of
a sphere of radius R to evaluate the number of energy states up to R i.e., the combination of nx, ny and
nz.
The sensitivity of the increase in the states with increasing nx, ny and nz can be found from the change in
the volume of the octant if the radius changes from R to R+dR realizing that R >>dR.
πR2 dR
The volume of the shell of thickness dR is then given by . This is also then the number of energy
2
states available between R and R+dR.
𝐄𝐧 𝐝𝐄
The energy expression En = Eo R2 gives us 𝐑𝟐 = 𝐄𝐨
and 𝐝𝐑 = 𝟏
𝟐{𝐄𝐧 𝐄𝐨 } ⁄𝟐

Therefore the number of energy states between E and E+dE is given by

𝟏
𝛑𝐑𝟐 𝐝𝐑 𝛑 𝐄𝐧 𝐝𝐄 𝛑 𝐄𝐧 ⁄𝟐
= = . 𝐝𝐄
𝟐 𝟒 𝐄𝐨 {𝐄 𝐄 }𝟏⁄𝟐 𝟒 𝐄 𝟑⁄𝟐
𝐧 𝐨 𝐨

8 DEPT OF PHYSICS, PES UNIVERSITY

 Unit III: Application of Quantum Mechanics to
electrical transport in solids and Magnetic materials 2024

h2
Substituting for Eo = 8mL2 we get the number of energy states between E and E+dE as
𝟑⁄
𝛑 𝟖𝐦𝐋𝟐 𝟐
𝟏⁄
.( 𝟐 ) 𝐄 𝟐 . 𝐝𝐄
𝟒 𝐡
The number of electrons states per unit volume can be estimated taking into consideration the Pauli’s
exclusion principle and allowing two electrons with opposite spins in each energy state.
The density of states for electrons in a metal gives the number of electron states per unit volume with
energy E
𝟑
𝛑 𝟖𝐦 𝟐 𝟏
𝐠(𝐄)𝐝𝐄 = ( ) 𝐄𝟐
𝟐 𝐡𝟐
𝐝𝐄

This shows that the distribution of electrons in energy states vary non- linearly with increasing energy E.
The probability that an energy state is occupied is given by the fermi factor
𝟏
𝐅𝐝 = 𝐄−𝐄𝐟
( )
𝟏 + 𝐞 𝐤𝐁𝐓
And hence the occupancy of the states described by N(E) is determined by the factor
𝐍(𝐄) = 𝐠(𝐄) ∗ 𝐅𝐝
This in effect is multiplying g(E) by a number between 0 and 1 depending on the position of the energy
relative to the Fermi energy and the temperature.
The states below Ef – kBT are completely occupied as Fd is 1.
The states in the range of kBT below the Fermi level are
emptied and the probability of occupancy Fd is between 1 and
0.5.
The states above Ef in a range kBT are now occupied and the probability of occupancy lies between 0.50
and 0.00.
The variation of N(E) with E can be graphically represented as shown for a representative material with
Fermi energy of 5eV.

9 Expression for Fermi energy, average electron energy

The Fermi energy of metals can be evaluated from the fact that all available electrons occupy energy
levels below the Fermi level Ef at 0K. This means that the density of occupied states N(E) = g(E) ∗ Fd
when evaluated for all levels from 0 to Ef, should result in the total count of electrons in the metal, ie.,
E E
The total free electronic concentration n = ∫0 f N(E) dE = ∫0 f g(E) ∗ Fd dE .

We know that Fd has to be 1 for all energy levels below Ef at 0K and hence

9 DEPT OF PHYSICS, PES UNIVERSITY

 Unit III: Application of Quantum Mechanics to
electrical transport in solids and Magnetic materials 2024

3 3
Ef Ef
π 8m 2 Ef 1 π 8m 2 3⁄
n = ∫ N(E) dE = ∫ g(E) dE = ( 2 ) ∫ E 2 dE = ( 2 ) Ef 2
0 0 2 h 0 3 h
This gives us a method of estimating the Fermi energy of the system if the number of valence electrons
per unit volume is known.
The Fermi energy can be estimated if the concentration of free electrons is know and can be evaluated
as
2⁄
3 3 h2 2
Ef = ( ) ( ) n ⁄3
π 8m
Average energy of electrons in a metal at 0K
Since the distribution of electrons in the different energy states shows a non linear variation, the
average energy of the electron is not the simple average of the electron’s max and min energy. From the
graph of N(E) vs E we observe that N(E) states have energy E which implies that the total energy of all
electrons in filled states upto Ef should the summation of all N(E)*E
𝐭𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐞𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲 𝐨𝐟 𝐚𝐥𝐥 𝐞𝐥𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐫𝐨𝐧𝐬 𝐢𝐧 𝐝𝐢𝐟𝐟𝐞𝐫𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐞𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲 𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐬
The average energy of the electron =
𝐭𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐧𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐞𝐥𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐫𝐨𝐧𝐬
𝟑
𝐄 𝛑 𝟖𝐦 𝟐 𝐄𝐟 𝟏𝟐
∫𝟎 𝐟 𝐠(𝐄) ∗ 𝐄 ∗ 𝐅𝐝 𝐝𝐄 𝟐 ( 𝐡𝟐 ) ∫𝟎 𝐄 𝐝𝐄 ∗ 𝐄
𝐄𝐟
= 𝟑
∫𝟎 𝐠(𝐄) ∗ 𝐅𝐝 𝐝𝐄 𝛑 𝟖𝐦 𝟐 𝐄𝐟 𝟏𝟐
𝟐 ( 𝐡𝟐 ) ∫𝟎 𝐄 𝐝𝐄
3
This on integration gives the average energy E = 5
Ef = 0.6 ∗ Ef

Merits of Quantum free electron theory:

Heat capacity due to free electrons
The electronic specific heat (contribution to the specific heat from the conduction electrons) can be
evaluated in the light of the fact that only electrons close to the Fermi level participate in the
conduction. Hence heat absorption happens due to that fraction of electrons. This number can be
estimated as the effective number of electrons (in one mole of the metal for a mono valent metal) in the
Na
conduction process as n eff = . k B T.
Ef

3
Hence if the average thermal energy of the electrons is taken to be k B T then the total energy of
2
3 3 Na 3 Na
electrons in one mole of the material U = neff . k T = kBT . kBT = . . kB 2T2
2 B 2 Ef 2 Ef

dU N kT
Hence the specific heat Cel = dT
= 3. Ea . k B 2 T = 3R. E .
f f

10 DEPT OF PHYSICS, PES UNIVERSITY

 Unit III: Application of Quantum Mechanics to
electrical transport in solids and Magnetic materials 2024

kT
Thus, the electronic specific heat is a fraction of the value predicted by the CFET (since Ef
is a fraction
less than 1% for most metals) and is temperature dependent . This analysis gives the correct
correlation with the experimental results.
A more accurate evaluation of the electronic specific heat of mono valent metals (using the ideas of the
number of electrons in the levels above Ef and their average energy values) results in the relation Cel =
π2 kB 2 T
2
N ∗ Ef

Temperature dependence of the resistivity

According to the classical free electron theory resistivity of the electrons originates from the scattering
mechanism in which the ionic centers are stationary.
The quantum free electron theory takes into account the thermal vibrations of the ionic array which
accounts for the scattering of electrons. The amplitude of the random vibrations of the lattice ions is
proportional to temperature When the ions vibrate the lattice presents an effective cross-sectional area
for scattering of pr 2 where r is the amplitude of vibration. But the increasing amplitude also result in an
increase in the probability of electron scattering.
Thus, the mean free path λ of the electrons reduces with increasing temperature. The electron mean
free path λ is inversely proportional to the scattering cross section and hence λ ∞ 1/T
ne2 τ ne2 λ
The expression for conductivity σ = m
= mvf
shows that the conductivity is proportional to the
mean free path. Hence the conductivity will be inversely proportional to temperature or resistivity
ρ ∞ T as is found experimentally.
Relation between electrical conductivity and thermal conductivity (Wiedemann-Franz law and Lorenz
number)
From the discussions of the electronic arrangement, it is obvious that the electrons close to the Fermi
energy are responsible for the electrical or thermal conduction and hence it should be possible to find a
relation between the two seeming different physical phenomena.
1 C
It is known that the thermal conductivity of the metal K = . . v. L
3 V

π2 kB 2 T
Where C is the electronic specific heat given by Cel = 2
N. Ef
,

V the volume, v is the velocity of electrons and L the mean free path. The mean free path of electrons is
given by L = v. τ. Taking velocity to be the Fermi velocity vF (since most of the conduction electrons
are located about the Fermi energy) the expression for the thermal conductivity can be written as
1 1 π2 kB 2 T π2 kB 2 T 2
K= . .
3 V 2
N. Ef
. vF . vF τ = 6
. n. Ef
. vF . τ.

N
where n = is the concentration of free electrons.
V

11 DEPT OF PHYSICS, PES UNIVERSITY

 Unit III: Application of Quantum Mechanics to
electrical transport in solids and Magnetic materials 2024

π2 k B 2 T mvF2 π2 kB2T
K= . n. . .τ = . n. .τ
3 Ef 2m 3 m
ne2 τ
The electrical conductivity of the metal is then given by σ =
m

The ratio of the thermal conductivity to electrical conductivity can be calculated as

K π2
= 2 k B 2 T.
σ 3e
K π2
This is the Wiedemann-Franz law. It was noticed by Lorenz that the ratio = k B 2 is a constant
σT 3e2
irrespective of the metal and is called the Lorenz number.
The Lorenz number has a value = 2.4 x10-8 WΩK-2.
Short comings of quantum free electron theory
The quantum free electron theory though successful in giving correct dependencies of some of the
electrical parameters and the specific heat of electrons, was not able to explain
Differences in conduction in metal, semiconductor and insulator, and the origin of the band gap in
semiconductors and insulators are not explained.
Experimentally observed positive Hall co-efficient observed in some metals like Zinc, Magnesium, lead
etc.
These demerits could be reflective of the real potentials of the ionic centers in the lattice which was
ignored in the development of the model. The presence of the potentials can significantly affect the
wave function of the electrons.
14. Motion of electron in periodic potential (one dimensional treatment)
The free electrons in a metal are not free from
electrostatic potentials and move in a periodic potential
due to the regular arrangement of the ionic centers.
The potential is lower close to the positive ions in the
lattice (and in some cases basis) positions. The electrons
experience a potential with the same periodicity as the
lattice. The columbic potential in the real crystal can be
approximated by rectangular potentials.
If V(x) is the potential at x then, it can be seen from the figure that
V(x + a) = V(x) which means that the potential is periodic and invariant under the translation through
the lattice parameter.
However, the wave function of the free electrons

𝛙(𝐱) = 𝐞𝐢𝐤𝐱 is modulated by the periodic potential and can be written as

12 DEPT OF PHYSICS, PES UNIVERSITY

 Unit III: Application of Quantum Mechanics to
electrical transport in solids and Magnetic materials 2024

𝛙(𝐱) = 𝐞𝐢𝐤𝐱 . 𝐕𝐤 (𝐱) where k is the wave number of the electron waves. This is known as the Bloch
function.

Kronig Penny model, allowed energy zones/energy bands

In the Kronig-Penney model the periodic potential is
approximated as a long chain of coupled finite square wells,
of barrier height Vo, with a period ‘a’, and barrier thickness
c.
The wave function of the electron is a modulated wave of
the form ψ(x) = eikx . Vk (x) .
A solution to the Schrödinger’s equation exists if the
dispersive wave number of the electron k is related to the
energy through the equation:
ma Sin(Ka)
Cos(ka) = 2
Vo . c. + cos(Ka)
ℏ Ka
2m(E)
where K = √ . We notice that the above is a transcendental
ℏ2
equation and has approximate solutions.
The left hand side of the equation is bound with upper and lower
limits of +1 to -1.
The right side of the equation has oscillations of decreasing
amplitude with increasing αa. However, the solutions exist only
π
for those allowed range of k = n . Thus, there exists a range of
a
allowed energy states and forbidden energy states.
ma nπ
In the limit V .c
ℏ2 o
tends to infinity sin(Ka) = 0 which implies K = a
and hence the energy En =
ℏ2 π2 2
2ma2
𝑛 .
ma ℏ2 K2
In the limit ℏ2 Vo . c tends to zero cos(Ka) = 1 which implies k = K and hence the energy E = 2m
which is the solution for a free particle.
The E(k) –k diagram for the system show discontinuity in the energy
π
at the zone boundary of k = ±n a . (The parabolic variation of E for
the free electrons is shown for comparison).
𝝅
Since the functions are symmetric (and periodic with period of 𝟐 𝒂 ),
it is possible to represent the energy band diagram in a single zone
𝛑 𝛑
of + 𝐚 𝐭𝐨 − 𝐚 .
The lowest allowed energy state is non-zero. The lowest band is the
completely filled inner band followed by a band of forbidden energy

13 DEPT OF PHYSICS, PES UNIVERSITY

 Unit III: Application of Quantum Mechanics to
electrical transport in solids and Magnetic materials 2024

states (shaded).
The next band of allowed states represents the valence band.
The upper most occupied states form the conduction band.
Thus, we observe allowed and forbidden energy states for the electrons in the material.
Materials are then classified as metals, semiconductors or insulators on the basis of the Fermi energy of
the material.
In the case of conductors, the Fermi level is in the uppermost band the conduction band. All states below
the Fermi level are filled and all levels above the Fermi energy are empty. Thus, metal are characterized
by a partially filled conduction band.
In the case of materials with a completely filled valence band and completely empty conduction band, the
Fermi energy is theoretically the midpoint of the energy band gaps. Materials with energy gap of 3-5 eV
are classified as semiconductors. At normal temperatures it is possible for the electrons in the valence
band to move into the conduction in the case of metals and semiconductors.
Materials with energy band gap greater than 5eV are classified as Insulators in which the electron
conduction is impossible and attempts to excite the electrons lead to a
dielectric breakdown.
Concept of Effective mass
The motion of electrons in the crystal is governed by the energy equation
ℏ𝟐 𝒌𝟐
𝑬= which shows that the energy is nonlinearly dependent on the
𝟐𝒎
propagation constant k.
Differentiating the expression twice with respect to k
𝒅𝟐 𝑬 ℏ𝟐
=
𝒅𝒌𝟐 𝒎∗
−𝟏
𝟏 𝒅𝟐 𝑬
it is observed that 𝒎∗ = (ℏ𝟐 𝒅𝒌𝟐 ) is not a constant and depends on the
nonlinearity of E. This means that the charge carriers have an effective mass
which depends on the curvature of E-k.
𝒅𝟐 𝑬
Higher curvature (larger 𝒅𝒌𝟐 ) means smaller effective mass and smaller
curvature results in higher effective mass.
It can be seen that the slope of the E-K curve is minimum at the band edges
and hence the effective mass of the charge carriers are highest at the band
edges.
Since curvature of the E-k is positive in the conduction band the effective
mass is +ve and the curvature in the valence band is negative indicating a
negative mass. However, this can be construed to be the motion of a charge
carrier with a charge of the opposite type as that of electrons. This leads to
the concept of hole conduction in the valence band. The effective mass of
electrons can be higher or lower than the rest mass of the electrons and
depends on the position of the electron in the particular band.

14 DEPT OF PHYSICS, PES UNIVERSITY

 Unit III: Application of Quantum Mechanics to
electrical transport in solids and Magnetic materials 2024

The concept of the effective mass helps understand the mobility of charge carriers in a system particularly
in semiconductors. In most compound semiconductors the effective mass of electrons and holes are much
smaller than the rest mass of electrons. These materials exhibit a higher mobility of charge carriers.
Quantum treatment of Magnetism
1. Introduction to Magnetic Materials
Every material when placed in an external
magnetic field H responds in different magnitudes
The first truly scientific study of magnetism was made by
and different ways. Some materials get the Englishman William Gilbert (1540–1603), who
magnetized either temporarily or permanently, published his classic book On the Magnet in 1600. He
experimented with lodestones (magnetite) and iron magnets,
others do not get magnetized but repulse the formed a clear picture of the Earth’s magnetic field, and
external magnetic fields. Materials are classified cleared away many superstitions that had clouded the
subject. From his experiments, he concluded that the Earth
according to the magnetization state of the was itself magnetic and that this was the reason compasses
material. pointed north (previously, some believed that it was the pole
star (Polaris) or a large magnetic island on the north pole
The intensity of magnetization (M) of a material is that attracted the compass).

defined as the dipole moment per unit volume of The existence of isolated magnetic poles, or monopoles, is
the material. not forbidden by any known law of nature, and serious
efforts to find monopoles have been made [P. A. M. Dirac,
𝒎∗𝟐𝒍 𝒎 Proc. R. Soc. Lond., A133 (1931) p. 60; H. Jeon and M. J.
𝑴= 𝟐𝒍∗𝒂
= 𝒂
which is the dipole strength per Longo, Phys. Rev. Lett., 75 (1995) pp. 1443–1446]. The
unit area of cross section. search has not so far been successful.

The magnetization of the material 𝑴 = 𝝌𝒎 𝑯

where the magnetic susceptibility 𝝌𝒎 of the material is the ratio of the magnetization B to the
𝑴
magnetic field H ie., 𝝌𝒎 = 𝑯

Consider a long solenoid of length l with air as the core and having n
turns. The magnetic field strength when a current I flows through
𝒏𝑰
the solenoid 𝑯 = 𝒍
A/m.

The magnetic flux density 𝑩𝒐 = 𝝁𝒐 𝑯 Tesla (Wb /m2)

Where 𝝁𝒐 = 𝟒𝝅 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟕 𝑯/𝒎 or (𝟒𝝅 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟕 TmA-1)
When a material of susceptibility 𝝌𝒎 is introduced inside the
solenoid the total magnetic flux of the system is the sum of the flux
due to the coil and the flux due to the magnetization of the
material.
𝑩 = 𝝁𝒐 𝑯 + 𝝁𝒐 𝑴 = 𝝁𝒐 (𝑯 + 𝑴) = 𝝁𝒐 (𝑯 + 𝝌𝒎 𝑯) = 𝝁𝒐 (𝟏 + 𝝌𝒎 )𝑯
Defining the relative permeability of the material 𝝁𝒓 = (𝟏 + 𝝌𝒎 )

15 DEPT OF PHYSICS, PES UNIVERSITY

 Unit III: Application of Quantum Mechanics to
electrical transport in solids and Magnetic materials 2024

The magnetic flux density B = 𝝁𝒐 𝝁𝒓 𝑯 = 𝝁𝑯 ,

Typical B-H curves for magnetic materials
where 𝝁 = 𝝁𝒐 𝝁𝒓 is the permeability of the material.
150
Magnetic materials can be classified on their
Diamagnetic
susceptibility to be magnetized by an external 100
Paramagnetic
magnetic field and on their relative permeability.
B Ferromagnetic
50
Materials with susceptibilities less than 0
( 𝝌𝒎 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒) are classified as diamagnetic
0
materials. They tend to repel the lines of force of the
0 2 4 6 8
external magnetic field. The diamagnetic H
-50
susceptibilities are in the range of -10-3 to -10-6.
Diamagnetic materials possess a relative permeability less than 1.
Materials with a small positive susceptibility >0 (𝝌𝒎 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒) are classified as paramagnetic materials.
Paramagnetic materials tend to show feeble magnetization in the presence of an external field. The
susceptibility of the material is of the order of 10-4 to 10-5 and relative permeability is slightly more
than 1.
Materials with a large positive susceptibility>>0 (𝝌𝒎 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒) are classified as ferromagnetic
materials. Ferromagnetic materials are easily magnetized in the presence of an external magnetic field
and exhibit a large relative permeability of the order of 105-106.
2. Origin of Magnetism in materials
Any current loop creates a magnetic field with the direction of the current deciding the direction of the
field. It is imperative that the atomic level currents due to the electrons in the orbits could result in
magnetic fields. The spin of the electrons can also be one of the major contributors to the
magnetization in materials. In addition, there is also a feeble contribution from the nuclei as well
which could be neglected for all practical evaluations. The net contribution from an atom to the
magnetization would depend on the magnitudes of the individual components and the statistical
behavior of the collection of atoms would decide the magnetic susceptibility of the material.
The basic atomic model of orbiting electrons around the nucleus constitutes tiny current loops at
atomic levels. If the electrons are assumed to move in an orbit of radius r with a constant speed v, the
e eω ev
period of rotation T, then the current I = T
= 2π
= 2πr

The magnetic moment associated with the electron’s moment in the orbit
ev 1 1
μe = I. A = I ∗ πr 2 = πr 2 = evr = eωr 2
2πr 2 2
The angular momentum of the orbiting electron L = me vr and the magnetic moment can be written
as
e
μorb = ( )L
2me

16 DEPT OF PHYSICS, PES UNIVERSITY

 Unit III: Application of Quantum Mechanics to
electrical transport in solids and Magnetic materials 2024

Thus the magnetic moment of the electron is proportional to it’s angular

momentum. The ratio of the magnetic moment to the angular momentum γ =
μorb e
L
= (2m ) is known as the gyro magnetic ratio. Due to the negative charge of
e

the electron, the vectors μ ⃗ point in opposite directions and perpendicular to

⃗⃗ and L
the plane of the orbit. The angular momentum of the electron is a multiple of ℏ
(quantum mechanical concepts).
The magnetic effect of the orbital motion of the electron is either zero or very small because of the
cancellation of the magnetic moments of electrons orbiting in opposite directions.
Apart from the orbital magnetic moments, electrons have the property of spin and a spin angular
momentum S⃗ associated with it. S⃗ is of the same order as the angular momentum L
⃗.

The magnetic moment due to the spin of the electrons is almost twice that of the orbital movement
eℏ
and the contribution from the spin to the magnetic moment can be written as μspin = √s(s + 1) m .

The total magnetic moment of an atom is the vector sum of orbital and spins magnetic moments.
The net magnetic moment due to electrons
eℏ
μe = g e where ge is the Lande g factor (spectroscopic splitting factor of the energy
2m
j(j+1)+s(s+1)−l(l+1)
levels) given by g e = 1 + 2j(j+1)

From this the smallest non zero value of the spin magnetic moment due to electrons (when s=j and l=0)
eℏ
is obtained as μs = m

This is twice the orbital magnetic moment and hence determines the susceptibility of materials. The
eℏ
magnetic moment being quantized; the smallest unit of magnetic moment μB = 2m
= 9.27 ×
−24
10 J/T is called the Bohr magneton.
The magnetic moments of protons and neutrons are much smaller than the electron magnetic moment
and are usually neglected.
3. Larmor precession
A magnetic moment directed at some finite angle with respect to the applied magnetic field direction,
experiences a torque μ × B. This causes μ to precess (rotate) about the magnetic field direction. (This
is analogous to the precession of a spinning top around the gravity field.)
For static magnetic moments or classical current loops, the torque tends to line up the magnetic
moments with the magnetic field B, so this represents its lowest energy configuration.
In the case of an electron in orbit around a nucleus, the magnetic moment is proportional to the
angular momentum of the electron. The torque exerted the external field produces a change in angular
momentum which is perpendicular to that angular momentum, causing the magnetic moment to

17 DEPT OF PHYSICS, PES UNIVERSITY

 Unit III: Application of Quantum Mechanics to
electrical transport in solids and Magnetic materials 2024

precess around the direction of the magnetic field rather than settle down in the direction of the
magnetic field. This is called Larmor precession.
When a torque is exerted perpendicular to the angular momentum L, it produces a change in angular
momentum ΔL which is perpendicular to L, causing it to precess about the z axis. The effect of the
torque as follows:
∆𝑳 𝑳 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽∆𝝋
𝜏 = 𝝁 × 𝑩 = | 𝝁𝑩 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽| = = = 𝑳 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝝎𝑳
∆𝒕 ∆𝒕
dϕ e μ e
The precession angular velocity (Larmor frequency) is given by = ωL = B since = ( ).
dt 2me L 2me

The Larmor frequency forms the basis for magnetic resonance.

The Larmor precession frequency for electrons is 14GHz/ T which forms the basis of the electron spin
resonance.
The Larmor precession frequency for protons is 7.8 MHz/ T which forms the
basis of the Nuclear magnetic resonance.
Thus, the magnetic moment due to a precessing charge can be evaluated as
1 Be2 r2
μind = 2 eωr 2 = 4m
where r is the radius of the precessing orbit. The sign
of this induced magnetic moment is negative by Lenz’s law ( it opposes the
magnetic field that induced the precession).
If there are Na number of atoms per unit volume and each atom contains Z
electrons we can estimate the total induced magnetisation as 𝑴 =
𝑵𝒂 𝒁𝒆𝟐 𝒓𝟐 𝑩 𝑵𝒂 𝒁𝒆𝟐 𝒓𝟐 𝝁𝒐 𝑯
𝑵𝒂 𝒁𝝁𝒊𝒏𝒅 = − 𝟒𝒎
= − 𝟒𝒎

M Na Ze2 r2 μo
Hence the induced susceptibility χm = =− .
H 4m

This will yield an extremely small negative value of the order of 10-5 for most materials and is
recognized as the diamagnetic response of all materials.
4. Diamagnetic materials
Diamagnetism is a property due to which certain materials are repelled by
both poles of a magnet. When a short rod of diamagnetic material is
placed in a magnetic field, it aligns itself at right angles to or across the
direction of the magnetic lines of force. The meaning of term
“diamagnetic” in Greek is “across magnetic”.
The orbital motion of electrons is equivalent to tiny atomic current loops, producing magnetic fields. In
most materials, the magnetic fields of the orbiting electrons balance each other and add up to zero in
the absence of an external field. However, in the presence of an external magnetic field, the
interaction of external field with the electrons induces an internal field which tends to align the current
loops in a direction opposite to the applied field.

18 DEPT OF PHYSICS, PES UNIVERSITY

 Unit III: Application of Quantum Mechanics to
electrical transport in solids and Magnetic materials 2024

This effect on atomic scale is similar to that due to Lenz's law induced magnetic fields tend to oppose
the change which created them. If magnetic response is only due to these phenomena then the
material is classified as diamagnetic. Diamagnetism is
exhibited by a substance only in the presence of an externally
applied magnetic field. Pierre Curie (1859–1906) was a
French physicist who worked
Atoms with closed electronic shells and sub shells are extensively on magnetic materials. He
generally diamagnetic (-ve χm and μr < 1). The classical and his wife, Marie (Sklodowska)
diamagnetic susceptibility is given by Curie (1867–1934), later became
famous for their research on
Ne2 μ0 2 radioactivity.
χdia = − 〈r 〉
6m
where N is the number of atoms per unit volume and <r2> is the average value of the square of the
radius of the current loops. From the above it is observed that diamagnetic susceptibility is
temperature independent.
All materials have inherent diamagnetism. Diamagnetism is detectable and observable only with
sensitive instruments and in the presence of powerful magnets. Examples of diamagnetic substances
include water, wood, sodium chloride, most organic compounds such as petroleum, some plastics, and
many metals including copper, particularly the heavy metals with many core electrons, such as
mercury, gold, bismuth and antimony. Most substances usually considered as nonmagnetic may be
strictly called as diamagnetic.
The volume magnetic susceptibility of water is = −9.05×10−6
Bismuth the most strongly diamagnetic material has = −1.66×10−4.
However, superconductors show strong diamagnetic effect (and offer no resistance to the formation of
the current loops and conduction of electricity). Lines of magnetic flux are deflected away from the
material due to diamagnetism and are expelled completely. These materials can be used in creating
strong repulsive magnetic fields and are used in levitation experiments / applications.

5. Para magnetism
Paramagnetic materials are weakly attracted by magnetic fields. When a small rod of paramagnetic
material is placed in a magnetic field, it aligns with or alongside the lines of force. The term
paramagnetic is derived from a Greek word meaning “alongside magnetic”.
Para magnetism is generally a characteristic of materials with partially filled 3d shells, where the
Hund’s rule restricts the anti-parallel alignment resulting in the net spin magnetic moment for the
atoms.
Materials with unpaired electron spins in the atomic / molecular orbitals have permanent magnetic
dipoles even in the absence of an applied field. These dipoles are randomly oriented and do not
interact with one another. The thermal energy of the system being greater than

19 DEPT OF PHYSICS, PES UNIVERSITY

 Unit III: Application of Quantum Mechanics to
electrical transport in solids and Magnetic materials 2024

the magnetic energy k B T > 𝜇. 𝐵 , the thermal agitation result in random ordering and a net zero
magnetic moment.
In the presence of an external magnetic field these dipoles tend to align to the applied direction
leading to a net magnetic moment in the direction of the applied field. The induced magnetization is
weak and linearly dependent on the applied magnetic field. When the magnetic field is removed, the
dipoles relax back to their normal random orientation and the magnetization becomes zero.
Aluminium, Oxygen titanium, FeO are some examples of materials which are attracted by a magnetic
field.

6. Quantum theory of Paramagnetic materials (solids).

Some of the features of the quantum theory of Para magnetism are:

The magnetic dipoles of a molecule / atom /ion in a material can be written as
𝝁 = 𝒈𝝁𝑩 𝒎𝒋
where g e is the Lande g factor and μB is the Bohr magneton. In an external magnetic field B the
dipoles are allowed only certain fixed orientations of the total angular momentum J and described by
M j.
For a given J (the total angular momentum) the allowed orientations are 2j+1 (j, j-1,j-2…..0 …..-j)
and the energy of interaction with an external magnetic field B is given by
𝑬𝒋 = 𝝁. 𝑩 = 𝒈𝝁𝑩 𝒎𝒋 . 𝑩 = 𝒈𝝁𝒐 𝝁𝑩 𝑯𝒎𝒋
For a material with N dipoles per unit volume, the net magnetization is the statistical average of the
allowed μj orientations and is given by
mj gμo μB H
( ⁄ )
+j kT
∑−j mj gμB ∗exp
𝑴=N [ mj gμo μB H ] eqn. 1.0
( ⁄ )
kT
∑ exp

𝒎𝒋 𝒈𝝁𝒐 𝝁𝑩 𝑯
Clearly the magnetization will depend on the value of the exponent ( 𝒌𝑻
).
Case 1: If 𝐦𝐣 𝐠𝛍𝐨 𝛍𝐁 𝐇 ≪ 𝐤𝐓 i.e. the thermal energy is significantly higher (high temperatures) than
the magnetic interaction energy with field, the ratio will be much less than 1.
Expanding the exponential terms as a power series and simplifying the terms the net magnetization
𝐠𝛍𝐨 𝛍𝐁 𝐇 𝐣(𝐣 + 𝟏) 𝐍𝐠 𝟐 𝛍𝐨 𝛍𝟐𝐁 𝐇 𝐣(𝐣 + 𝟏)
𝐌 = 𝐍𝐠𝛍𝐁. ∗ =
𝐊𝐓 𝟑 𝐊𝐓 𝟑

20 DEPT OF PHYSICS, PES UNIVERSITY

 Unit III: Application of Quantum Mechanics to
electrical transport in solids and Magnetic materials 2024

𝐌 𝐍𝐠 𝟐 𝛍𝐨 𝛍𝟐𝐁 𝐣(𝐣+𝟏) 𝐂
The magnetic susceptibility 𝛘= = = which is the classical Curies law of
𝐇 𝐊𝐓 𝟑 𝐓

𝑚𝑗 𝑔𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝐵 𝐻
( ⁄ )
∑+𝑗 𝑘𝑇

{ Simplification of the expression [

−𝑗 𝑚𝑗 𝑔 𝜇𝐵 ∗𝑒𝑥𝑝

(
𝑚𝑗 𝑔𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝐵 𝐻
⁄ )
𝑘𝑇
]
∑ 𝑒𝑥𝑝

𝑚𝑗 𝑔𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝐵 𝐻 +𝑗
∑−𝑗 𝑚𝑗 ∗𝑒𝑥𝑝
( 𝑚𝑗 𝑥)
( ⁄ )
Let 𝑒𝑥𝑝 𝑘𝑇 = 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑚𝑗 𝑥 , then the expression simplifies to
∑ 𝑒𝑥𝑝( 𝑚𝑗 𝑥)

Since the exponent is small we can expand the exponential term as a series (summation neglecting the higher order
∑+𝑗 ∑+𝑗
+𝑗 2
−𝑗 𝑚𝑗 (1+ 𝑚𝑗 𝑥) −𝑗 𝑚𝑗 +∑−𝑗 𝑚𝑗 𝑥
term in x, ∑(1+ 𝑚𝑗 𝑥)
= +𝑗 +𝑗
∑−𝑗 1+∑−𝑗 𝑚𝑗 𝑥

𝑚𝑗 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 − 𝑗 𝑡𝑜 = 𝑗 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑗 and hence

+𝑗
∑ 𝑚𝑗 = 𝑗 + (𝑗 − 1) + ⋯ + 1 + 0 − 1 − 2 … . −(𝑗 − 1) − 𝑗 = 0
−𝑗

+𝑗 𝑗(𝑗 + 1)(2𝑗 + 1) 𝑗(𝑗 + 1)(2𝑗 + 1)

∑ 𝑚𝑗 2 = 2 × [12 + 22 + ⋯ + (𝑗 − 1)2 + (𝑗)2 ] = 2 × =
−𝑗 6 3
+𝑗
∑ 1 = 2𝑗 + 1
−𝑗

+𝑗 𝑗(𝑗+1)(2𝑗+1)
Hence
∑−𝑗 𝑚𝑗 (1+ 𝑚𝑗 𝑥)
∑(1+ 𝑚𝑗 𝑥)
=
0+
3
(2𝑗+1)+0
𝑥
=𝑥
𝑗(𝑗+1)
3
}
Ng2 μo μ2B j(j+1)
paramagnetic materials where the Curie constant C = K 3
.

The paramagnetic susceptibility is thus inversely proportional to the absolute temperature.

Curie's law is obeyed under generally prevailing conditions of low magnetization (μH < kBT), i.e., when
only a relatively small fraction of atomic dipoles are aligned, with the magnetic field. Curie's law
indicates that the Magnetization M depends on the applied field H (the stronger magnetic field aligns
more dipoles) and the susceptibility χ. However, χ is inversely proportional to the temperature i.e., the
magnetization decreases if the temperature is increased (increased thermal agitation prevents
alignment of dipoles).

Case 2: If 𝐦𝐣 𝐠𝛍𝐨 𝛍𝐁 𝐇 ≫ 𝐊𝐓 i.e. the magnetic interaction energy is much greater than the thermal
energy the exponent will be greater than 1.
Equation 1 can be written as
𝐦𝐣 𝐠𝛍𝐨 𝛍𝐁 𝐇
( ⁄ )
𝐣 𝐤𝐓 𝐣 (𝐦𝐣 𝐱)
∑∗𝐣 𝐦𝐣 ∗𝐞𝐱𝐩 ∑∗𝐣 𝐦𝐣 ∗𝐞𝐱𝐩 𝐠𝛍𝐨 𝛍𝐁 𝐇
𝐌 = 𝐍𝐠𝛍𝐁 [ 𝐦𝐣 𝐠𝛍𝐨 𝛍𝐁 𝐇 ] = 𝐍𝐠𝛍𝐁 (𝐦𝐣 𝐱)
where 𝐱 = 𝐤𝐓
( ⁄ ) ∑ 𝐞𝐱𝐩
𝐤𝐓
𝐞𝐱𝐩

This can be simplified by taking 𝐚 = 𝒙𝒋 to

21 DEPT OF PHYSICS, PES UNIVERSITY

 Unit III: Application of Quantum Mechanics to
electrical transport in solids and Magnetic materials 2024

𝟐𝐣+𝟏 𝟐𝐣+𝟏 𝟏 𝐚
𝐌 = 𝐍𝐠𝛍𝐁 𝐣 [ 𝟐𝐣
𝐜𝐨𝐭𝐡 ( 𝟐𝐣 ) 𝐚 − 𝟐𝐣 𝐜𝐨𝐭𝐡 (𝟐𝐣)] = 𝐍𝐠𝛍𝐁 𝐣. 𝐁𝐣 (𝐚)

𝟐𝐣+𝟏 𝟐𝐣+𝟏 𝟏 𝐚
where 𝐁𝐣 (𝐚) = [ 𝐜𝐨𝐭𝐡 ( )𝐚 − 𝐜𝐨𝐭𝐡 ( )] is the Brillouin function which describes the
𝟐𝐣 𝟐𝐣 𝟐𝐣 𝟐𝐣
probability of all the dipoles to orienting in the direction of the external field.
When the dipoles are aligned completely in the direction of the external field, the magnetization of the
material is saturated, and the saturation magnetization is
given by Ms = NgμB j .
Hence the magnetization can be written as M = Ms Bj (a).
1
When j= 2 the Brillouin function reduces to tanh (a).

It the limit of large j the Brillouin function converges to the

1
classical Langevin’s function L(a)= cot h(a) − a.

a a3
[ L(a) can be written as a series expansion in a as − +
3 45
2a5 a
945
− ⋯ . For small values of a, the function then converges to 3.]
a
For small values of a (large values of T) the magnetization reduces to M = Ms and the susceptibility
3
2
Ng2 μ o μB
is given by χ = 3KT
which is similar to the Curies theory of Paramagnetism.
M
The variation of Ms
is represented in the figure for three different cases of the temperature (as
compared to Tc the curie temperature of the material)
Examples of paramagnetic materials at room temperature include Aluminum (Al), Manganese (Mn),
platinum (Pt), Oxygen (gas and liquid), and rare earth ions Ce, Nd.
7. Weiss Molecular field concept.
1
The variation of χ vs T is expected to be a straight line Pierre Weiss (1865–1940), French
passing through the origin. However, some materials physicist deserves to be called the “Father
of Modern Magnetism” because almost the
show a variation in this behaviour with the straight line whole theory of ferromagnetism is due to
showing a positive intercept Tc on the temperature axis. him, and his ideas also permeate the theory
of ferrimagnetism. Most of his work was
Weiss in 1907 showed that this could be due to a done at the University of Strasbourg.
molecular field which is the field at any point due to the
neighbouring dipoles. If M is the magnetization in the
material, then the magnetic field at any point is proportional to M and hence
the field at any point in the material could have an additional contribution =
λM. This field has the tendency to align the dipoles in the direction of the
field and hence would be a case of spontaneous magnetisation. Therefore,
M C C
the Curies law is modified as H+λM
= T
which gives us χ = T−T where Tc =
c

22 DEPT OF PHYSICS, PES UNIVERSITY

 Unit III: Application of Quantum Mechanics to
electrical transport in solids and Magnetic materials 2024

λC is the Curie temperature above which the materials show the paramagnetic behaviour. Below Tc the
material behaves as a ferromagnetic material. However, most of the common materials have a low Tc
and hence at normal temperatures does not show spontaneous magnetization.
8. Ferromagnetism
Ferromagnetism is the property by which certain materials are attracted by a
magnet and form permanent magnets. Ferromagnetic materials have very
high magnetic susceptibilities, ranging from 1000 up to 100,000. The
ferromagnetic behavior can be explained by the formation of domains of
spins ordered in the immediate neighborhood. The formation of domains to
minimize the total energy of the ferromagnetic material.
Consider a material consisting of a single domain (i.e., all of it is magnetized
in the same direction). The magnetization changes discontinuously at the surfaces, forming free poles.
These poles are sources of a magnetic field (called the demagnetization field) that fills all of space. The
energy associated with this field, called magnetostatic or demagnetization energy, is proportional to
the square of the magnetization. Thus, for a single domain with a large magnetization, the
magnetostatic energy is large. This energy can be reduced by the formation of domains. Domains form
in such a way that opposite poles are close to each other thereby confining
the path of the flux lines and reducing the net magnetization to a value close
to zero.
Ferromagnetic materials exhibit spontaneous magnetization and exhibit
sharp hysteresis characteristics in the magnetisation versus magnetising field.
Ferromagnetism can be considered as a case of a Paramagnetic material with T<T 𝑯 = 𝟎, 𝑴 ≠ 𝟎
c
a high molecular field constant λ and a very high Tc .
The local molecular field can result in a high ordering of spins in certain materials like Fe, Co, Ni etc,
result in the materials being easily magnetised).
The presence of unpaired spins in the 3d shells of these materials gives a large dipole moment for the
atom. (Cobalt has a Tc >1000K, Fe has a Tc >750K and Ni has a Tc >350K)
In Ferromagnetic materials when an external magnetic field is applied the magnetic moments are
aligned in the direction of the applied field and domains grow at the expense of their neighbours.
Microscopic regions in which large numbers of dipoles are aligned are called magnetic domains. The
unpaired electron spins to line up parallel with each other. This quantum mechanical interaction at the
atomic level gives rise to long range order and creates magnetic domains. The
alignment directions of the individual regions are random throughout the
material. Hence the bulk of the material is usually unmagnetized or weakly
magnetized in the absence of magnetic field.
The magnetisation of the material in the presence of an external magnetic
field tends to exhibit the classic M-H hysteresis. When the external field is

23 DEPT OF PHYSICS, PES UNIVERSITY

 Unit III: Application of Quantum Mechanics to
electrical transport in solids and Magnetic materials 2024

strong and all the spins are aligned the magnetisation shows a saturation value. When the external
field is removed, sizable number of dipoles still maintains the alignment resulting in a net
magnetization which is the retentivity of the material. Thus, the material gets permanently
magnetized. This remnant magnetisation can be removed if a coercive field Hc is applied in the reverse
direction. Since the material exhibits hysteresis, it is
obvious that it has a memory of the previous experience of external fields and hence can be used as
memory materials. The flipping of the magnetisation in opposite directions is achieved by applying a
saturation magnetisation field Hs in the appropriate direction.
All ferromagnets have a maximum temperature at which the thermal motion of the dipoles becomes
violent, the alignment of dipole moments and spontaneous magnetization cannot be maintained.
Phase change from ferromagnetic to paramagnetic behaviour with the usual weak magnetization
occurs. This critical temperature is called as the Curie temperature. The magnetic susceptibility above
C
the Curie temperature is given by χ = T−θ where θ is the transition temperature constant.

Ferromagnetic materials can be characterized by their Curie temperature in addition to their

Permeability, Coercive field and Remnant Magnetization.
Apart from iron, other materials exhibiting ferromagnetic property are nickel, cobalt, some of the rare
earths gadolinium, dysprosium, samarium and neodymium in alloys with cobalt. They have important
applications in fabrication of magnets, electromagnets, transformers; magnetic storage media e.g. tape
recording, computer hard disks etc.
9. Anti-ferro magnetic materials
The magnetisation of a material also depends on the type of ordering that exist in
some of the ordered materials. In the case of ferro magnetic materials it is seen
that there is a long-range ordering of the magnetic dipoles that lead to strong
magnetisation.
𝑻 < 𝑻𝑵 𝑯 = 𝟎 𝑴 = 𝟎
The class of anti-ferro magnetic materials such as MnO, NiO, CoO etc in which the electron spins
associated with the atoms at different crystallographic sites are ordered such that the net
magnetisation of the material is zero below a certain temperature called as the Neel temperature T N.
Above the Neel temperature the materials behave as paramagnetic with the magnetic susceptibility
inversely proportional to temperature.
10. Ferri magnetic materials
Ferri magnetic materials are a class of ordered structures in which the magnetic
moments at crystal sites are anti parallel and unequal. These materials are treated as
two sub lattices of a crystal with different magnetic moments and anti parallel
alignments. Generally, these materials contain cations of two or more types with
different magnetic moments and hence show a net magnetisation not equal to zero.T<T 𝑯 = 𝟎, 𝑴 ≠ 𝟎
c
Examples of such materials are NiFe2O4, CoFe3O4, and BaFe12O19 etc.

24 DEPT OF PHYSICS, PES UNIVERSITY

 Unit III: Application of Quantum Mechanics to
electrical transport in solids and Magnetic materials 2024

Ferri magnetic materials like ferro magnetic materials show significant magnetisation below the
transition temperatures. Above Tc the materials display paramagnetic behaviour.
11. Magnetic susceptibility vs temperature
The temperature dependence of the susceptibility for the Para, Ferro and
anti-ferro magnetic materials are summarised as shown. For paramagnetic
materials the susceptibility χm varies monotonically as 1/T following the
Curies law.
Ferromagnetic materials follow the Curie Weiss law and exhibit a
paramagnetic behaviour above the Curie temperature.
Anti-ferromagnetic materials show an increase in susceptibility till the Neel temperature above which
the material behaves as a paramagnetic material.
12. Soft and Hard Magnetic materials
Ferromagnetic materials can be classified as soft and hard materials depending on
the nature of the hysteresis displayed by the material.
Soft magnetic materials are easily magnetisable and de-magnetisable. They are
characterised by a small coercivity and large saturation magnetisation. The
hysteresis loop is narrow and has low losses.
Soft magnetic materials find application in high frequency switching of the magnetisation and are used
in transformers, motors and generators.
Hard magnetic materials on the other hand are difficult to magnetise and
demagnetise. They exhibit a very high retentivity and require a large coercive field to
demagnetise the material. The area under the hysteresis curve is large indicating the
large amount of energy loss.
The high retentivity of the material makes it ideal for magnetic storage of information
as in hard disk drives. The current capabilities are close to 1 Terra bits per square inch.
13. Giant Magneto Resistance device.
Magneto resistance has been observed in layered magnetic
materials where the resistance across the thickness of two
magnetic layers (generally Cobalt) separated by a non-magnetic
layer (generally Copper) shows a dependence on the magnetisation
states of the individual layers. The resistance to current flow
depends on the direction of magnetisation of the two layers and
can show large variations in the resistance. The effect has been
attributed to the spin scattering of the electrons when they flow

25 DEPT OF PHYSICS, PES UNIVERSITY

 Unit III: Application of Quantum Mechanics to
electrical transport in solids and Magnetic materials 2024

through the material. Electron scattering is reduced when the magnetisation of the two layers is
parallel leading to a low resistance state. When the spin states of the two layers are anti parallel the
electron scattering is increased and hence the resistance increases.
When the magnetic layers are in the range of 3 – 5nm with the
separation layer about 25nm, it has been observed that the
change is resistance can be as high as 50% of which is significant
for any practical measurements and applications.
The Giant Magneto Resistor finds application in the read head
of magnetic memories. One of the layers ferromagnetic (soft
magnetic material) layer is pinned to an anti-ferro magnetic
material and the other (soft magnetic material) free layer’s spin orientation is flipped by the
magnetisation of the domain (hard magnetic material) on the recording media.

14. General classification of magnetic materials

A general scheme for classifying materials according to the atomic characteristics is represented.

26 DEPT OF PHYSICS, PES UNIVERSITY

 Unit III: Application of Quantum Mechanics to
electrical transport in solids and Magnetic materials 2024

Superconductivity
Superconductivity was first discovered by H. Kammerlingh Onnes in 1911 while studying the resistivity of
Mercury. He observed that if Mercury is cooled below 4.1K its electrical resistance falls by a factor of 10 6.
This drastic increase in the conductivity in certain metals has been termed superconductivity. The
temperature at which the conductivity of the metal increases sharply is known as the transition
temperature Tc. About 30 metals exhibit superconductivity, with superconducting transition temperatures
between 0K and 9.3K.
Some of the key observations about superconductors are:
• Superconductivity is not observed in Mono valent metals
• The phenomena is exhibited by metals for which the valence electrons number are between 2 & 6.
• Metals which are highly resistive at normal temperatures show superconductivity at very low
temperatures.
• The current in the super conductor persists for a long time of the order of 105 years.
• Superconductivity is destroyed by a high magnetic field or excessive currents through the
superconductor.
• Ferromagnetic and anti ferromagnetic materials are not superconductors
Meissner effect.
A superconducting material when subjected to a magnetic field and cooled to temperatures below the
critical temperatures, it expels the magnetic lines of flux from its interior. The material then behaves as a
perfect diamagnetic. This effect is called the Meissner effect.
When the material is in the normal conducting state, it allows the magnetic lines of force to pass through
the material.
Critical Field
A critical temperature Tc of superconducting material is dependent on the
strength of the external magnetic fields. The presence of a strong external
field drives the material into the normal conducting state. The strength of
the magnetic field at which the material loses it superconducting state is
known as the Critical Field Hc. The critical field strength is temperature
dependent and is related to the Critical temperature by the relation
𝑻 𝟐
𝑯𝒄 = 𝑯𝒐 [𝟏 − (𝑻 ) ]
𝒄

Type I and type II superconductors

Superconductors are classified into two major categories as type I and type II superconductors based on
the Meissner effect exhibited by the material.

Type I superconductors are generally pure metals which behave like a

perfect diamagnetic material in the superconducting state (exhibiting a
complete Meissner effect).
In the case of type I superconductors the critical temperature is
dependent on the magnitude of an applied external magnetic field.

27 DEPT OF PHYSICS, PES UNIVERSITY

 Unit III: Application of Quantum Mechanics to
electrical transport in solids and Magnetic materials 2024

Higher magnetic fields lower the critical field at which the material remains as a super conductor as
shown.

External fields tend to induce magnetization in the material. The induced negative magnetic moment of
the material increases with the applied external magnetic fields in the superconducting state. At the
critical magnetic field, the material loses diamagnetic behavior, and the net magnetic moment falls to
zero. The critical magnetic field strength for Type I superconductors is low.

Type I superconductors are also known as soft superconductors.

Type II superconductors are generally alloys of different metals. They were
found to have much higher critical fields and therefore could carry much
higher current densities while remaining in the superconducting state.

External magnetic fields induce magnetization of the material in the

superconducting state and remain in the normal superconducting state up
to a critical field Hc1. As the field is increased further, it is observed that the
material partially allows the magnetic lines of force to penetrate the
material, indicating the simultaneous presence of normal and
superconducting states in the material up to a second critical field Hc2
beyond which the material reverts back to its normal conducting states.

BCS theory

The properties of Type I superconductors were modeled successfully by the efforts of John Bardeen, Leon
Cooper, and Robert Schrieffer in what is commonly called the BCS theory. A key conceptual element in this
theory is the pairing of electrons close to the Fermi level into Cooper pairs through interaction with the
crystal lattice. This pairing results from a slight attraction between the electrons related to lattice
vibrations; the coupling of the electrons to the lattice is called a phonon
interaction.

Electron pairs behave very differently from single electrons (which are
fermions and must obey the Pauli exclusion principle), whereas electron
pairs act more like bosons (which can condense into the same energy
level).

The electron pairs have a slightly lower energy and hence are delicately stable. The pairs require an
energy of about 0.001eV to be separated which is referred to as the energy gap for the paired state to the
unpaired state.

In the paired state the charge carriers do not show the kind of collision interactions which lead to ordinary
resistivity. Below the critical temperature, the system is then in an extremely low resistive state.

28 DEPT OF PHYSICS, PES UNIVERSITY

 Unit III: Application of Quantum Mechanics to
electrical transport in solids and Magnetic materials 2024

Bardeen, Cooper, and Schrieffer received the Nobel Prize in 1972 for the development of the theory of
superconductivity.

Superconducting QUBITs

A simple LC circuit can be modelled on the ideas of a simple harmonic oscillator

whose energy states are equally spaced. In the case of the LC circuit the total
𝟏 𝟏
energy in the circuit is 𝟐 𝑳𝒊𝟐 + 𝟐 𝑪𝑽𝟐 which can be written in terms of the
𝟏 𝟏
magnetic flux and the charges as is 𝑯 = 𝟐𝑳 𝝋𝟐 + 𝟐𝑪 𝒒𝟐 . This circuit however can
be excited by the harmonic frequencies as well and is not suitable for Quantum
computing circuit elements. In this case also a nonlinear element in the place of
the inductor element can create the equivalent of an anharmonic
oscillator, wherein the adjacent levels are going to be having slightly
different excitation energies and thus one can realise the equivalent of
an artificial atom.

The nonlinear element in this case can be a superconducting Josephson

junction circuit element which is a superconducting current loop with a
thin layer of insulating material is introduced in the current path. The current continues to flow through
the element despite the oxide layer, by the process of tunnelling of the Cooper pairs whose coherence
length is large compared to the oxide layer thickness.

The current through the JJ can be written as

𝑰 = 𝑰𝒄 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝓 where 𝜙 is the phase difference

introduced by the JJ junction.

The energy in the circuit is given by 𝑬 = 𝑬𝒋 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝓

Thus, the total energy of the system is cosine function

which is nonlinear (not quadratic as in the LC circuits).

A pair of JJ in parallel with the capacitor element effectively creates what is referred to as a Cooper Pair
Box, which has a pair of distinct energy states between which the switching can take place.

The graphical representation shows the differences in the excitation energy states of the LC oscillator and
that of the CPB. Typically, a superconducting with a pair of nonlinear elements is referred to as a
Transmon qubit.

The ground state and the first excited states in the transmon qubit correspond to the |𝟎⟩ and |𝟏⟩ states.
The qubit excitation is achieved using microwave pulses of the precise frequency. Thus, the qubit in the
|𝟎⟩ state can be excited to the |𝟏⟩ using electromagnetic energy pulses.

Transmon qubits are preferred over atomic, nuclear, molecular, spin or polarization states because of the
following reasons:

• These elements are easier to fabricate and scale up to circuit level electronics
• They are noise resistant by providing sufficient isolation from the environment

29 DEPT OF PHYSICS, PES UNIVERSITY

 Unit III: Application of Quantum Mechanics to
electrical transport in solids and Magnetic materials 2024

• They can be controlled accurately with microware pulses

• And easy integration of the technology with standard IC fabrication methods

Applications of Superconductivity:

Superconductors find extensive applications in a variety of fields. Some of the significant

applications are:

SQUIDs which are superconducting quantum interference devices are capable of sensing
extremely weak magnetic fields. They form the sensors in the MRI scanning used in the medical
fields.

Strong magnets made using superconducting materials are used for magnetic levitation. Such
magnets also form the core of the magnetic confinement that is required to contain plasma in
fusion experiments.

Superconducting systems are potential candidates for creating QUBITs which are fundamental to
creating quantum computers.

Research is on to create room temperature superconductors which can then reduce the loss of
energy in power transmission.

30 DEPT OF PHYSICS, PES UNIVERSITY

 Unit III: Application of Quantum Mechanics to
electrical transport in solids and Magnetic materials 2024

Solved Numericals:

1. Estimate the Fermi factor of an energy state 0.01eV below the Fermi level at 500K
1
The Fermi factor𝑓𝐷 = (𝐸−𝐸𝑓 )/𝑘𝑇
gives the probability of occupancy of an energy state E above or
𝑒 +1
below the Fermi energy at temperature T.
The Fermi factor for an energy state 0.01 eV below the Fermi level at 500 K
fd= 1/(e^(((-0.01*〖1.6x10〗^(-19))/(1.38x 10^(-23)*500)) )+1) =0.558

2. If the Fermi energy of the metal is 3.75 eV calculate the molar specific heat at 500 K
The molar electronic specific heat is given by Cel= dU/dT=3.Na/Ef .kB2 T
At 500K the electronic specific heat = 0.29 J/mol

3. Determine the free electron concentration, the Fermi velocity for electrons in a metal with Fermi
energy of 5.10 eV.
The concentration of free electrons in a metal is related to the Fermi energy as
n= 𝜋/3 (8𝑚/ℎ2 )3/2 × 𝐸𝑓 3/2
For E=5.10eV n = 5.211 X 1028 m-3.
The Fermi velocity of electrons is given by E_f= 1/2 m〖v_f〗^2 Hence v_f=√((2E_f)/m) =1.34 x 106
ms-1.
4. A mono valent metal has 5 x 1028 valence electrons per m3. Estimate the number of electron energy
states per unit volume in the metal between 2eV and 2.005eV from the concept of the density of
states.
The density of states for electrons in a metal gives the number of electron states per unit volume with
3
π 8m 2 1
energy E g(E)dE = ( ) E2 dE
2 h2

E =2.00eV dE = 0.005eV
Hence g(E)dE= π/2 (8m/h^2 )^(3/2) E^(1/2) dE = 4.80 x 1025 per m3.

31 DEPT OF PHYSICS, PES UNIVERSITY

 Unit III: Application of Quantum Mechanics to
electrical transport in solids and Magnetic materials 2024

Problem set.
1. A certain conductor has a free electron concentration of 5.9 x 10 28 m-3. What current density in
the conductor will correspond to a drift velocity of 1/1.6 mm s-1? Calculate the mobility of charge
carriers given conductivity as 6.22x107 (Ωm)-1. (Ans :
2. Calculate the free electron concentration, mobility and drift velocity of electrons in an Al wire of
diameter 0.5mm, length 5m, resistance of 60 milli ohms that carries a current of 15A . Al has 3
free electrons At wt of Al=26.98 and density 2.7 x 103 kg m-3.
3. Find the relaxation time and mobility of conduction electrons in a metal having 6.5 x 1028 electrons
m-3 if the resistivity of the metal is 1.43x 10-8 ohm m
4. There are 1020 electrons per m-3 in a material having a resistivity of 0.1 ohm -m. Find the charge
mobility and the electric field needed to produce a drift velocity of 1ms-1.
5. A copper wire of radius 1mm and length 10 meter carries a direct current of 5 ampere. Calculate
the drift velocity of electrons in copper if n = 5 × 1028/m3.
6. Silver has a density of 10.5 x 103 Kgm-3 and atomic weight of 107.9. If conductivity of silver at 27o C
is 6.8 x 107 (ohm-m)-1, find the mean free path of electrons as per the classical free electron
theory.
7. Calculate the relaxation time of conduction electrons in a metal of resistivity of 1.55 x 10 -8 Ω – m
and an electronic concentration of 6 x 1028 per m3.
8. Calculate the Fermi energy of electrons in a mono valent metal with atomic weight 132.9 x 10-3 kg
/ mol and density of 1.9 x 103 kg/m3 at 0K.
9. Estimate the energy for which the probability of occupation at 300K is 0.1 for copper with Fermi
energy of 7.0eV. Comment on the probability of this level to be 0.5.
10. The Fermi temperature of two metals A and B are in the ratio 1.103. If the electron concentration
of metal A is 5.86x1028 m-3, find the Fermi velocity of electrons in metal B. (Ans: 1.325 x 106 ms-1.)
11. Calculate the density of states with energy between 4eV and 4.005eV in copper with Fermi energy
of 7.02eV.( E = 4eV = 4*1.6x10-19 J and dE = .005*1.6x10-19 J mass of electron = 9.1x 10-31 kg )
12. Derive and expression for the Bohr Magneton and calculate the value.
13. Discuss the concepts of Larmor precision and gyromagnetic ratio.
14. Elaborate on two tests which can differentiate a paramagnetic material from a diamagnetic
material.
15. Discuss the parameters that distinguish ferro, antiferro and ferri magnetic materials.
16. Classify magnetic materials based on the magnetic susceptibility.
17. Bring out the differences between soft and hard magnetic materials.
18. Write a note on applications of magnetic materials.
19. Discuss the magnetic hysteresis of materials.
20. Discuss magnetic memory materials.
21. An electron in a hydrogen atom moves in a circular orbit of radius 0.065nm. The electron makes
1016 revolutions per second. Calculate the orbital magnetic moment.
22. The saturation magnetic induction of nickel is 0.65 Wbm-2. If the density of nickel is 8906 kgm-3
and atomic weight is 514.7. Calculate the magnetic moment of nickel in Bohr magneton.

32 DEPT OF PHYSICS, PES UNIVERSITY