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BACTERIA

CLS 311: Basic Bacteriology

Mrs. Amany Ahmed Niazy
Bacterial Structure
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Bacterial Structure

Bacterial Structure
Exterior Structures (cell envelope) Capsule
Cell Wall
Cell Membrane
Filamentous ProteinAppendages Flagella
Pili
Interior Structures Cytosol (cytoplasm of the
prokaryotic cells)
Ribosomes
Nucleoid
Plasmids
Endospores
 Exterior Structures

◼ The exterior structure (cell

envelope) is made up of two to
three layers:

✓ In some species of bacteria an outer

capsule.
✓ Cell wall.
✓ Cytoplasmic membrane.
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Capsule
◼ Some bacteria surround themselves with Capsule.

◼ Most capsules are polysaccharides made of single

or multiple types of sugar.

◼ Capsule do not contribute to growth and

multiplication.

◼ Capsules provide some general protection for

bacteria eg. Protect it from drying. .

◼ Capsule major function in pathogenic bacteria is

protection from the immune system (protect it
from phagocytosis).

The capsule is a major virulence factor in the major disease-

causing bacteria, such asStreptococcus pneumoniae.
(Noncapsulated mutants of these organisms are avirulent, i.e.
they don't cause disease).
+ Bacterial capsules are non-ionic, so
neither acidic nor basic stains will
adhere to their surfaces.

The medium in which the culture is grown as well as the

temperature at which it is grown and the age of the culture
will affect capsule formation
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Cell Wall – Why is it important?

1. The rigid cell wall gives the bacterium its shape and
surrounds the cytoplasmic membrane, protecting it from the
environment.

2. The strength of the wall is responsible for keeping the cell

from bursting when there are large differences in osmotic
pressure between the cytoplasm and the environment.

3. It also helps to anchor appendages like the pili and flagella,

which originate in the cytoplasmic membrane and protrude
through the wall to the outside.
+ Structure of Cell
Wall
The cell wall of bacteria is
composed of peptidoglycan,
which covers the entire surface of
the cell. It is made up of a
combination of peptide bonds
and carbohydrates (protein-
sugar)

◼ Peptidoglycan is a huge polymer of interlocking chains of identical

monomers. The backbone of the peptidoglycan molecule is
composed of two derivatives of glucose: N-acetylglucosamine (NAG)
and N-acetlymuramic acid (NAM). The NAG and NAM strands are
connected by interpeptide bridges.
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Cell Wall

◼ Several antibiotics (penicillins) stop bacterial infections by

interfering with cell wall synthesis, while having no effects
on human cells.
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Classify pathogenic bacteria is on the
basis of Gram Staining and Shape.

Gram Stain

Gram Positive Gram Negative

Cocci Rods Cocci Rods

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Structure of Cell Wall

◼ The wall of a bacterium is classified in two ways:

◼ Gram-positive.
A gram-positive cell wall has many layers of peptidoglygan (up to 90% of the cell
wall). Which makes it retain the crystal violet dye when the cell is stained. This gives
the cell a purple color when seen under a microscope.
The cell wall also contain Teichoic & lipoteichoic acids which promote adhesion and
anchor wall to membrane.

◼ Gram-negative.
The cell walls of gram negative bacteria are more chemically complex. Peptidoglycan
makes up only 5 – 20% of the cell wall, and is not the outermost layer, but lies between
the plasma membrane and an outer membrane. This outer membrane is similar to the
plasma membrane, but is less permeable and composed of lipopolysaccharides (LPS).
LPS is a harmful substance classified as an endotoxin.
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The Outer Membrane Of Gram
Negative Bacteria.
◼ Unique lipid by layer imbedded by protein.

◼ It contain Porins → specialized channel-forming proteins that can

allow small molecules and ions to cross the outer membrane.

◼ It is made up of lipid bilayer where the outside layer is made up of

lipopolysaccharides (LPS)
◼ Eg. Lipid A → it is protein of LPS small amount of Lipid A stimulate
immunity and defense system responds effectively and eliminate the
invader.
Lipid A large amounts example in GNR in blood stream the defense system
damage even our won cells and this is the symptoms associated with
endotoxin.
◼ O-specific polysaccharide → it differes among species of bacteria and it
can be used to identify species or strains. Eg. E.coli O157:H7
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Structure of Cell Wall
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Peptidoglycan and Antibiotics
◼ Some antibiotics such as Penicillins and Cephalosporins,
interfere with the linking of the interpeptides of
peptidoglycan, but because of the LPS membrane, these
antimicrobials can’t access the peptidoglycan of gram-
negative bacteria. While gram-positive bacteria, are more
susceptible to these antibiotics because of the lack of the
LPS (lipopolysaccharides).

Since the eukaryotic cells of humans do

not have cell walls, our cells are not
damaged by these drugs.
 GRAM STAIN
◼ There are two main types of bacterial cell walls, Gram
positive and Gram negative, which are differentiated by their
Gram staining characteristics.

◼ Gram stain Procedure:

1. Crystal violet
2. Iodine
3. Alcohol
4. Saffranine
Gram stain
 Gram +veandGram –veCell Wall

◼ Gram Positive ◼ Gram Negative

Color of Bacteria: Color of Bacteria:

Blue-violet RED
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Cell Membrane (=cytoplasmic
membrane)
+ Cell Membrane (=cytoplasmic
membrane)

Cell membrane is
composed of
phospholipids
bilayer and
proteins which is
found through out
the living world.

It is responsible for selective and active transport of materials in and out of the ◆
cell.
It is involved in secretion of some exotoxins and hydrolytic enzymes involved in ◆
the pathogenesis of disease.
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Cell Membrane (=cytoplasmic
membrane)
◼ It contain many proteins

◼ Those proteins are constantly moving.

◼ For example: more than 200 different membrane proteins

have been found in E.coli. Many act as a receptores.
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Cell Membrane Permeability
◼ Simple Diffusion:
✓ Water small hydrophobic molecules and gases.

▪ Transport system:
❖ Facilitated diffusion → passive transport.
✓ Moving in and out until their concentration is same on bothy side
of the membrane.
✓ It only eliminate difference in concentration but cannot create
one.

❖ Active transport → move compounds against concentration

gradient.
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Filamentous Protein Appendages

◼ Anchored in the cytoplasmic membrane and protrude out

from the surface.

◼ Not essential but help in survival.

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Flagella, Appendages

◼ Flagella (singular, flagellum) are long hair like protein

structure that are found in many species of bacteria.

◼ They may be found at either or both ends of a bacterium or

all over its surface.

◼ Function of the Flagella: the flagella beat in a propeller-

like motion to help the bacterium move toward nutrients, or
away from toxic chemicals.
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Flagella, Appendages

◼ It can rotate > 100,000 revolutions /min (move bacteria 20

body lengths/sec)

◼ Eg. Helicobacter pylori multiple flagella at one end → allow it

to penetrate the viscous mucous gel that coats the stomach
epithelium .
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Structure of Flagella
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Structure of Flagella

◼ Filament → the portion extending into the exterior

environment. It is composed of identical subunits of a protein
called flagellin. Which form a helical structure with a hollow
core.

▪ Basal Body → anchors the flagellum to the cell membrane.

Gram negative contain 2 pairs of rings.
Gram positive → contain 1 pair of ring.

◼ Hook → connect the filament to the cell surface.

 A) Tumbles last only a fraction of
a second, which is sufficient to
effectively randomize the
direction of the next run.

B) Runs tend to be variable in

length extending from a fraction
of a second to several minutes

Cells tumble less frequently when they sense they are moving
closer to an attractant.
In contrast they tumble more frequently when they sense they are
moving closer to a repellent.
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Flagella, Appendages

◼ Example of movements:

◼ Chemotaxis → bacteria moves toward a compound if it is a

nutrient.

◼ Phototaxis → some bacteria respond to variations in light.

◼ Aerotaxis → bacteria respond to concentration fo oxygen.

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Pili, Appendages

◼ Pili(singular, pilus) are short hair-like projections found all

around the surface of cells of many bacteria.

◼ Composed of protein subunits arranged helically to form a

long cylindrical molecule with a hollow core.
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Function of the Pili

1. To enable attachment of cells to specific surfaces . It adhere by

binding to a very specific molecule (called fimbriae).

(e.g. E.coli that cause severe watery diarrhea attach to the cells
that line the small intestine through specific interactions
between pili and intestine surface).

Without pili, many disease-causing bacteria lose their ability to

infect because they are unable to attach to host tissue.

2. It play a role in movement of population of cells on solid media.

3. Some are called sex pilus because it is used to join one

bacterium to another as a bridge for specific type of DNA
transfer.
Sex Pili
Pili, Appendages
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Cytosol (cytoplasm of the bacteria)
◼ It is where the functions for cell growth, metabolism, and
replication are carried out.

◼ It is a gel-like matrix composed of water, enzymes, nutrients,

wastes, and gases and contains cell structures such as
ribosomes, a Nucleoid, and plasmids.

◼ The cell envelope encases the cytoplasm and all its

components.

◼ Unlike the eukaryotic (true) cells, bacteria do not have a

membrane enclosed nucleus.The chromosome, a single,
continuous strand of DNA, is localized, but not contained, in a
region of the cell called the nucleoid. All the other cellular
components are scattered throughout the cytoplasm.
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The Nucleoid

The nucleoid is a region of cytoplasm

where the chromosomal DNA
(chromosome) is located.
Nucleoid

◼ The chromosome of prokaryotes is an irregular mass within the

cytoplasm, that is usually attached to the cytoplasmic membrane.

◼ It is usually a large, circular molecule of double-stranded DNA. It is

usually tightly packed into about 10% of the total volume of the cell.

◼ The absence of nuclear membrane is very important for rapid growth

or prokaryotic cells in changing environments.
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Ribosomes
Ribosomes

Involved in protein synthesis, they

translate the genetic code form nucleic
acid to that of amino acids

◼ It is much more abundant than in the cytoplasm of

eukaryotic cells → this is a reflection of the higher
growth rate of bacteria.

◼ Ribosomes of prokaryotic cells 70S (composed of 2

subunits 30S – 50S) are smaller in size than
ribosomes of eukaryotic cells 80S.

◼ They differ in structure wich make them a target for

certain antibiotics.
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Storage Granules

◼ Used to store nutrient that the cell has in relative excess.

◼ Bacteria use granules to store minerals and nutrients (lipids,

carbohydrates, phosphates, sulfur or metals) for the cell to
use when needed.
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Plasmids
◼ Plasmids are small usually circular,
double-stranded DNA.

◼ It is separated from the

chromosome, and they are not
involved in reproduction.

◼ They are found in many strains of

bacteria.

◼ A single bacterial cell can harbor

multiple types of plasmids.

Plasmids replicate independently of the chromosome and, while not

essential for survival, appear to give bacteria a selective advantage. For
example, many plasmids code for the production of one or more enzymes
that destroy certain antibiotics (resistance to that antibiotic).
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How are plasmids passed on from
one bacteria to the other??

◼ Plasmids are passed-on to other bacteria through Two

ways:

1. For most plasmid types, copies in the cytoplasm are passed

on to daughter cells during binary fission.
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How are plasmids passed on
from one bacteria to the
other??

2 Other types of plasmids

form a tube-like structure
at the surface called a pilus
that passes copies of the
plasmid to other bacteria
during conjugation, a
process by which bacteria
exchange genetic
information.
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Plasmids

◼ Many plasmid genes promote survival and pathogenesis.

◼ Plasmid are responsible for transfer of cellular properties

such as, production of toxins, production of pili , resistance to
antimicrobials and other toxic chemicals.

◼ The ability to insert specific genes into plasmids have made

them extremely useful tools in the fields of molecular biology
and genetics, specifically in the area of genetic
engineering.
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Bacterial Structure

Bacterial Structure
Exterior Structures Capsule
Cell Wall
Cell Membrane
Filamentous ProteinAppendages Flagella
Pili
Interior Structures Cytosol (cytoplasm of the
prokaryotic cells)
Ribosomes
Nucleoid
Plasmids
Endospores
 Endospores
Endospores are bacterial ▪
survival structuresthat are
highly resistantto many different
types of chemical and
environmental stresses and
therefore enable the survival of
bacteria in environments that
would be lethal for these cells in
their normal vegetative form.

◼ Resistance of spore is due to dehydrated state, and specialized

coats.

◼ Germination of spores reproduces cell identical to that which was

sporulated.
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Endospores

◼ Endospores may remain dormant for 100 years or even longer.

Immersion in boiling water for hours may not kill them.
Endospores that survive these treatments can germinate or exit
the dormant stage, to become a typical multiplying cell, called a
vegetative cell.

◼ They can be found virtually anywhere. (cultivating media, soil,

medical devices, food…etc)

◼ Example of endo-spore forming bacteria

➢ Clostridium botulinum
➢ Clostridium tetani
➢ Clostridium perfringens
➢ Bacillus anthracis.
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◼ Spore Coat → protein

◼ Core Wall and Cortex → peptidoglycan

◼ Core → metabolically inactive cell with low water content.

When the environmental conditions are suitable, the endospore absorbs

water, swells and the wall splits, releasing the cell inside. It develops a
new cell wall and starts functioning as a typical bacterial cell.
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Location of endospore
Cell Morphology & Shape of Bacteria
Coccus(spheri Bacillus Spirillum(spiral):
(rod-like): e.g.Treponemaspp.
cal):e.g.
e.g.Enterobacteriaceaspp.
Streptococci,
Staphylococci
 Bacteria typically have one of
three shapes:
spheres (cocci). ✓
rods (bacilli), ✓
spiral (spirilla). ✓
Unicellular, they often stick together
forming clumps or filaments.
Replication of Bacteria
◼ Bacterial cells replicate asexuallyby a process called:

Binary Fission.

◼ One cell doubles in size and splits in half to produce two identical
daughter cells. These daughter cells can then double in size again
to produce four sibling cells and these to produce eight, and so on.

◼ Doubling Time: the time it takes for a bacterial cell to grow and
divide in two.

◼ When nutrients are plentiful, the doubling time of some bacterial

species can be as short as 20 minutes. However, most bacterial
species show a doubling time between 1-4 hours.
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Replication

DNA
Duplicate of original molecule

Transcription

RNA Replication of
Chromosomal DNA
Translation of Prokaryotes

Protein
Replication of Bacteria

◼ The
cytoplasm of a bacterial cell contains the DNA
moleculesthat make up the bacterial genome.

◼ Transcriptional machinery copies DNA into

ribonucleic acid (RNA).

◼ Ribosomestranslate the messenger RNA information

into proteinsequence.
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Replication of Bacteria

◼ Since there is no nucleus, all of these processes occur

simultaneously. The rapid growth rateof the bacterial cell
requires constant DNA replication and ways to segregate the
two new chromosomesinto the two daughter cells without
tangling them.
When germ relationship go bad..