DXC Geological Ltd.

North Sea Geology

A Compilation of Geological Notes

Page: 1
DXC Geological Ltd.

Contents

1.0 A Basic Stratigraphy of the British Isles 14

1.1 Era: None, System: Pre-Cambrian 14

1.2 Era: Lower Palaeozoic, System: Cambrian 14
1.3 Era: Lower Palaeozoic, System: Ordovician 14
1.4 Era: Lower Palaeozoic, System: Silurian 15
1.5 Era: Upper Palaeozoic, System: Devonian 15
1.6 Era: Upper Palaeozoic, System: Carboniferous 15
1.7 Era: Upper Palaeozoic, System: Permian 16
1.8 Era: Mesozoic, System: Triassic 16
1.9 Era: Mesozoic, System: Jurassic 17
1.10 Era: Mesozoic, System: Cretaceous 17
1.11 Era: Cainozoic, System: Tertiary 18
1.11.1 Palaeocene 18
1.11.2 Eocene 18
1.11.3 Oligocene 18
1.11.4 Miocene, Pliocene and Pleistocene 18
1.11.5 Holocene 19

2.0 General Geology and Structural Framework 20

2.1 Introduction 20
2.2 Caledonian Phase 20
2.3 Hercynian Phase 21
2.4 Permo-Triassic Intracratonic Phase 21
2.5 Triassic Phase 22
2.6 Rifting Phase 22
2.7 Post Rifting Phase 23

3.0 Stratigraphy and Reservoir Geology 24

3.1 Southern North Sea 24

3.1.1 Carboniferous Reservoirs 24
3.1.2 Lower Permian Reservoirs 24
3.1.3 Upper Permian Reservoirs 25
3.1.4 Triassic 26
3.1.5 Mesozoic to Recent 27

3.2 Central North Sea 27

3.3 Northern North Sea 27

4.0 Formation Identification 29

4.1 Southern North Sea 29

4.1.1 Pleistocene Sediments 29
4.1.2 North Sea Group 29
4.1.3 Chalk Group 29
4.3.1.1 Chalk
4.3.1.2 Plenus Marl
4.3.1.3 Hidra
4.1.4 Cromer Knoll Group 29
4.4.1 Red Chalk
4.4.2 Speeton Clay
4.4.3 Spilsby Sandstone

Page: 2
DXC Geological Ltd.

4.1.5 Lias Group 30

4.1.6 Rhaetic Group 30
4.1.7 Haisborough Group 30
4.1.7.1 Triton Anhydritic
4.1.7.2 Dudgeon Saliferous
Keuper Halite
Lower Keuper
4.1.7.3 Dowsing Dolomitic
Muschelkalk Halite
Lower Dowsing
Rot Halite
Rot Claystone
4.1.8 Bacton Group 31
4.1.8.1 Bunter Sandstone
4.1.8.2 Bunter Shale
Rogenstein
Bunter Claystone
Brockelschiefer
4.1.9 Zechstein Group 31
4.1.9.1 Zechstein Z4 Cycle
Pegmatitanhydrit
Roter Salzton
4.1.9.2 Zechstein Z3 Cycle
Leine Halite
Hauptanhydrit
Plattendolomit
Grauer Salzton
4.1.9.3 Zechstein Z2 Cycle
Deckanhydrit
Stassfurt Halite
Basalanhydrit
Hauptdolomit
4.1.9.4 Zechstein Z1 Cycle
Werraanhydrit
Werra Halite
Zechsteinkalk
Kupferschiefer
4.1.10 Rotliegendes 33
4.1.10.1 Leman Sandstones
4.1.10.2 Silverpit
4.1.11 Carboniferous 33
4.1.11.1 Barren Red Beds
4.1.11.2 Westphalian
4.1.11.3 Namurian

4.2 Central North Sea 35

4.2.1 Nordland Group
4.2.2 Hordaland Group 35
4.2.3 Tay Group 35
4.2.3.1 Tay Shale
4.2.3.2 Tay Sand
4.2.4 Rogaland Group 35
4.2.4.1 Balder
4.2.4.2 Sele
4.2.4.3 Rogaland Sand
4.2.5 Montrose Group 35
4.2.5.1 Lista
4.2.5.2 Lower Forties / Forties

Page: 3
DXC Geological Ltd.

4.2.5.3 Fergus
4.2.5.4 Andrew
4.2.5.5 Maureen
4.2.5.6 Maureen Marl
4.2.6 Chalk Group 36
4.2.6.1 Tor
4.2.6.2 Hod
4.2.6.3 Flounder
4.2.6.4 Herring
4.2.6.5 Plenus Marl
4.2.6.6 Hidra
4.2.7 Cromer Knoll Group 37
4.2.7.1 Valhall
4.2.7.2 Upper Valhall
4.2.7.3 Rodby
4.2.7.4 Sola
4.2.7.5 Kopervik
4.2.7.6 Lower Valhall
4.2.7.7 Devils Hole
4.2.8 Humber Group 37
4.2.8.1 Kimmeridge Clay
4.2.8.2 Kimmeridge Sandstone
4.2.8.3 Heather
4.2.8.4 Piper
4.2.8.5 Fulmar
4.2.8.6 Hugin
4.2.9 Fladen Group 38
4.2.9.1 Pentland
4.2.9.2 Rattray
4.2.9.3 Fladen Sandstone
4.2.10 New Red Group 39
4.2.10.1 Skaerrak
4.2.10.2 Smith Bank
4.2.11 Zechstein Group 39
4.2.11.1 Zechstein Caprock
4.2.11.2 Zechstein Salt
4.2.11.3 Argyll
4.2.11.4 Kupferschiefer
4.2.12 Rotliegendes Group 39
4.2.12.1 Frazerburgh
4.2.12.2 Auk
4.2.13 Old Red Sandstone Group 40

4.3 Northern North Sea 40

4.3.1 North Sea Group
4.3.1.1 Hutton Sand
4.3.1.2 Hutton Clay
4.3.1.3 Frigg
4.3.2 Rogaland Group 40
4.3.2.1 Balder
4.3.2.2 Sele
4.3.3 Moray Group 41
4.3.3.1 Beauly
4.3.3.1 Dornoch
4.3.4 Montrose Group 41
4.3.4.1 Ninian
4.3.4.2 Lyell Formation / Lower Sand
4.3.4.3 Lista

Page: 4
DXC Geological Ltd.

4.3.4.4 Andrew
4.3.4.5 Heimdall
4.3.4.6 Maureen
4.3.4.7 Maureen North
4.3.5 Shetland Group 42
4.3.5.1 Shetland E
4.3.5.2 Shetland D
4.3.5.3 Shetland C
4.3.5.4 Shetland D
4.3.5.5 Shetland A
4.3.6 Chalk Group 43
4.3.6.1 Ekofisk
4.3.6.2 Tor
4.3.6.3 Hod
4.3.6.4 Flounder
4.3.6.5 Herring
4.3.6.6 Plenus Marl
4.3.6.7 Hidra
4.3.7 Cromer Knoll Group 44
4.3.7.1 Valhall
4.3.7.2 Upper Valhall
4.3.7.3 Rodby
4.3.7.4 Sola
4.3.7.5 Kopervik
4.3.7.6 Lower Valhall
4.3.7.7 Basal Limestone Member
4.3.8 Humber Group 45
4.3.8.1 Kimmeridge Clay
4.3.8.2 Kimmeridge Sandstone Member
4.3.8.3 Brae Member
4.3.8.4 Magnus Member
4.3.8.5 Heather
4.3.8.6 Piper
4.3.8.7 Hugin
4.3.9 Brent Group 46
4.3.9.1 Tarbert
4.3.9.2 Ness
4.3.9.3 Upper Ness
4.3.9.4 Mid Ness Shale
4.3.9.5 Lower Ness
4.3.9.6 Etive
4.3.9.7 Rannoch
4.3.9.8 Broom
4.3.10 Fladen Group 46
4.3.10.1 Pentland
4.3.10.2 Rattray
4.3.10.3 Fladen Sandstone
4.3.11 Dunlin Group 47
4.3.11.1 Drake
4.3.11.2 Cook
4.3.11.3 Burton
4.3.11.4 Amundsen
4.3.11.5 Dunlin Shale
4.3.11.6 Nansen
4.3.12 New Red Group 47
4.3.12.1 Statfjord
4.3.12.2 Raude
4.3.12.3 Eirikson

Page: 5
DXC Geological Ltd.

4.3.12.4 Beryl
4.3.12.5 Cormorant
4.3.12.6 Skagerrak
4.3.12.7 Smith Bank
4.3.13 Zechstein Group 48
4.3.13.1 Fringe Zechstein
4.3.13.2 Turbot Bank
4.3.13.3 Halibut Bank
4.3.13.4 Kupferschiefer
4.3.14 Rotliegendes Group 49
4.3.15 Carboniferous Limestone Group 49
4.3.16 Firth of Forth Group 49
4.3.17 Old Red Sandstone Group 49

5.0 Drilling Problems 51

5.1 Drilling Problems in the Southern North Sea 51

5.1.1 Stuck Pipe 51
5.1.2 Mud Losses 51
5.1.3 Washouts 51
5.1.4 Kicks / Flows 51
5.1.5 Hydrogen Sulphide H2S 51
5.1.6 Nodule Bands 51

5.2 Drilling Problems in the Central North Sea 51

5.2.1 Stuck Pipe 51
5.2.2 Mud Losses 51
5.2.3 Washouts 51
5.2.4 Hydrogen Sulphide H2S 52
5.2.5 Nodule Bands

5.3 Drilling Problems in the Northern North Sea 52

5.3.1 Stuck Pipe 52
5.3.2 Washouts 52
5.3.3 Mud Losses 52
5.3.4 Hydrogen Sulphide H2S 52
5.3.5 Nodule Bands 52

6.0 A Guide to North Sea Geology 53

6.1 Cormorant Formation 53

6.1.1 Lithology 53
6.1.2 Boundaries 53
6.1.3 Distribution 53
6.1.4 Environment 53
6.1.5 Age 53
6.1.6 Oil Field 53
6.1.7 Remarks 53
6.1.8 Synonyms 53
6.2 Beryl Formation 54
6.2.1 Lithology 54
6.2.2 Boundaries 54
6.2.3 Distribution 54
6.2.4 Environment 54
6.2.5 Age 54
6.2.6 Oil Field 54
6.2.7 Remarks 54
6.2.8 Synonyms 54

Page: 6
DXC Geological Ltd.

6.3 Statfjord Formation 55

6.3.1 Lithology 55
6.3.2 Boundaries 55
6.3.3 Distribution 55
6.3.4 Environment 55
6.3.5 Age 55
6.3.6 Oil Field 55
6.3.7 Remarks 55
6.3.8 Synonyms 55
6.4 Dunlin Group 56
6.4.1 Lithology 56
6.4.2 Boundaries 56
6.4.3 Distribution 56
6.4.4 Environment 56
6.4.5 Age 56
6.4.6 Oil Field 56
6.4.7 Remarks 56
6.4.8 Synonyms 56
6.5 Nansen Formation 57
6.5.1 Lithology 57
6.5.2 Boundaries 57
6.5.3 Distribution 57
6.5.4 Environment 57
6.5.5 Age 57
6.5.6 Oil Field 57
6.5.7 Remarks 57
6.5.8 Synonyms 57
6.6 Amundsen Formation 58
6.6.1 Lithology 58
6.6.2 Boundaries 58
6.6.3 Distribution 58
6.6.4 Environment 58
6.6.5 Age 58
6.6.6 Oil Field 58
6.6.7 Remarks 58
6.6.8 Synonyms 58
6.7 Burton Formation 59
6.7.1 Lithology 59
6.7.2 Boundaries 59
6.7.3 Distribution 59
6.7.4 Environment 59
6.7.5 Age 59
6.7.6 Oil Field 59
6.7.7 Remarks 59
6.7.8 Synonyms 59
6.8 Cook Formation 60
6.8.1 Lithology 60
6.8.2 Boundaries 60
6.8.3 Distribution 60
6.8.4 Environment 60
6.8.5 Age 60
6.8.6 Oil Field 60
6.8.7 Remarks 60
6.8.8 Synonyms 60
6.9 Drake Formation 61
6.9.1 Lithology 61
6.9.2 Boundaries 61
6.9.3 Distribution 61

Page: 7
DXC Geological Ltd.

6.9.4 Environment 61
6.9.5 Age 61
6.9.6 Oil Field 61
6.9.7 Remarks 61
6.9.8 Synonyms 61
6.10 Dunlin Shale Formation 62
6.10.1 Lithology 62
6.10.2 Boundaries 62
6.10.3 Distribution 62
6.10.4 Environment 62
6.10.5 Age 62
6.10.6 Oil Field 62
6.10.7 Remarks 62
6.10.8 Synonyms 62
6.11 Broom Formation 63
6.11.1 Lithology 63
6.11.2 Boundaries 63
6.11.3 Distribution 63
6.11.4 Environment 63
6.11.5 Age 63
6.11.6 Oil Field 63
6.11.7 Remarks 63
6.11.8 Synonyms 63
6.12 Heather Formation 64
6.12.1 Lithology 64
6.12.2 Boundaries 64
6.12.3 Distribution 64
6.12.4 Environment 64
6.12.5 Age 64
6.12.6 Oil Field 64
6.12.7 Remarks 64
6.1.8 Synonyms 64
6.13 Lower Heather Member 65
6.13.1 Lithology 65
6.13.2 Boundaries 65
6.13.3 Distribution 65
6.13.4 Environment 65
6.13.5 Age 65
6.13.6 Oil Field 65
6.13.7 Remarks 65
6.13.8 Synonyms 65
6.14 Middle Heather Member 66
6.14.1 Lithology 66
6.14.2 Boundaries 66
6.14.3 Distribution 66
6.14.4 Environment 66
6.14.5 Age 66
6.14.6 Oil Field 66
6.14.7 Remarks 66
6.14.8 Synonyms 66
6.15 Upper Heather Member 67
6.15.1 Lithology 67
6.15.2 Boundaries 67
6.15.3 Distribution 67
6.15.4 Environment 67
6.15.5 Age 67
6.15.6 Oil Field 67
6.15.7 Remarks 67

Page: 8
DXC Geological Ltd.

6.15.8 Synonyms 67
6.16 Kimmeridge Clay Formation 68
6.16.1 Lithology 68
6.16.2 Boundaries 68
6.16.3 Distribution 68
6.16.4 Environment 68
6.16.5 Age 68
6.16.6 Oil Field 68
6.16.7 Remarks 68
6.16.8 Synonyms 68
6.17 Lower Kimmeridge Clay Member 69
6.17.1 Lithology 69
6.17.2 Boundaries 69
6.17.3 Distribution 69
6.17.4 Environment 69
6.17.5 Age 69
6.17.6 Oil Field 69
6.17.7 Remarks 69
6.17.8 Synonyms 69
6.18 Cromer Knoll Group 70
6.18.1 Lithology 70
6.18.2 Boundaries 70
6.18.3 Distribution 70
6.18.4 Environment 70
6.18.5 Age 70
6.18.6 Oil Field 70
6.18.7 Remarks 70
6.18.8 Synonyms 70
6.19 Upper Kimmeridge Clay Member 71
6.19.1 Lithology 71
6.19.2 Boundaries 71
6.19.3 Distribution 71
6.19.4 Environment 71
6.19.5 Age 71
6.19.6 Oil Field 71
6.19.7 Remarks 71
6.19.8 Synonyms 71
6.20 Kimmeridge Sandstone Member 72
6.20.1 Lithology 72
6.20.2 Boundaries 72
6.20.3 Distribution 72
6.20.4 Environment 72
6.20.5 Age 72
6.20.6 Oil Field 72
6.20.7 Remarks 72
6.20.8 Synonyms 72
6.21 Lower Valhall Formation 73
6.21.1 Lithology 73
6.21.2 Boundaries 73
6.21.3 Distribution 73
6.21.4 Environment 73
6.21.5 Age 73
6.21.6 Oil Field 73
6.21.7 Remarks 73
6.21.8 Synonyms 73
6.22 Lower Valhall A Member 74
6.22.1 Lithology 74
6.22.2 Boundaries 74

Page: 9
DXC Geological Ltd.

6.22.3 Distribution 74
6.22.4 Environment 74
6.22.5 Age 74
6.22.6 Oil Field 74
6.22.7 Remarks 74
6.22.8 Synonyms 74
6.23 Upper Valhall Formation 75
6.23.1 Lithology 75
6.23.2 Boundaries 75
6.23.3 Distribution 75
6.23.4 Environment 75
6.23.5 Age 75
6.23.6 Oil Field 75
6.23.7 Remarks 75
6.23.8 Synonyms 75
6.24 Shetland Group 76
6.24.1 Lithology 76
6.24.2 Boundaries 76
6.24.3 Distribution 76
6.24.4 Environment 76
6.24.5 Age 76
6.24.6 Oil Field 76
6.24.7 Remarks 76
6.24.8 Synonyms 76
6.25 Shetland A Formation 77
6.25.1 Lithology 77
6.25.2 Boundaries 77
6.25.3 Distribution 77
6.2.4 Environment 77
6.25.5 Age 77
6.25.6 Oil Field 77
6.25.7 Remarks 77
6.25.8 Synonyms 77
6.26 Shetland B Formation 78
6.26.1 Lithology 78
6.26.2 Boundaries 78
6.26.3 Distribution 78
6.26.4 Environment 78
6.26.5 Age 78
6.26.6 Oil Field 78
6.26.7 Remarks 78
6.26.8 Synonyms 78
6.27 Shetland C Formation 79
6.27.1 Lithology 79
6.27.2 Boundaries 79
6.27.3 Distribution 79
6.27.4 Environment 79
6.27.5 Age 79
6.27.6 Oil Field 79
6.27.7 Remarks 79
6.27.8 Synonyms 79
6.28 Lower Shetland C Member 80
6.28.1 Lithology 80
6.28.2 Boundaries 80
6.28.3 Distribution 80
6.28.4 Environment 80
6.28.5 Age 80
6.28.6 Oil Field 80

Page: 10
DXC Geological Ltd.

6.28.7 Remarks 80
6.28.8 Synonyms 80
6.29 Basal Shetland Limestone Member 81
6.29.1 Lithology 81
6.29.2 Boundaries 81
6.29.3 Distribution 81
6.29.4 Environment 81
6.29.5 Age 81
6.29.6 Oil Field 81
6.29.7 Remarks 81
6.29.8 Synonyms 81
6.30 Upper Shetland C Member 82
6.30.1 Lithology 82
6.30.2 Boundaries 82
6.30.3 Distribution 82
6.30.4 Environment 82
6.30.5 Age 82
6.30.6 Oil Field 82
6.30.7 Remarks 82
6.30.8 Synonyms 82
6.31 Shetland D Formation 83
6.31.1 Lithology 83
6.31.2 Boundaries 83
6.31.3 Distribution 83
6.31.4 Environment 83
6.31.5 Age 83
6.31.6 Oil Field 83
6.31.7 Remarks 83
6.31.8 Synonyms 83
6.32 Shetland E Formation 84
6.32.1 Lithology 84
6.32.2 Boundaries 84
6.32.3 Distribution 84
6.32.4 Environment 84
6.32.5 Age 84
6.32.6 Oil Field 84
6.32.7 Remarks 84
6.32.8 Synonyms 84
6.33 Shetland E Main Member 85
6.33.1 Lithology 85
6.33.2 Boundaries 85
6.33.3 Distribution 85
6.33.4 Environment 85
6.33.5 Age 85
6.33.6 Oil Field 85
6.33.7 Remarks 85
6.33.8 Synonyms 85
6.34 Montrose Group 86
6.34.1 Lithology 86
6.34.2 Boundaries 86
6.34.3 Distribution 86
6.34.4 Environment 86
6.34.5 Age 86
6.34.6 Oil Field 86
6.34.7 Remarks 86
6.34.8 Synonyms 86
6.35 Maureen Formation 87
6.35.1 Lithology 87

Page: 11
DXC Geological Ltd.

6.35.2 Boundaries 87
6.35.3 Distribution 87
6.35.4 Environment 87
6.35.5 Age 87
6.35.6 Oil Field 87
6.35.7 Remarks 87
6.35.8 Synonyms 87
6.36 Andrew Formation 88
6.36.1 Lithology 88
6.36.2 Boundaries 88
6.36.3 Distribution 88
6.36.4 Environment 88
6.36.5 Age 88
6.36.6 Oil Field 88
6.36.7 Remarks 88
6.36.8 Synonyms 88
6.37 Lista Formation 89
6.37.1 Lithology 89
6.37.2 Boundaries 89
6.37.3 Distribution 89
6.37.4 Environment 89
6.37.5 Age 89
6.37.6 Oil Field 89
6.37.7 Remarks 89
6.37.8 Synonyms 89
6.38 Balder Formation 90
6.38.1 Lithology 90
6.38.2 Boundaries 90
6.38.3 Distribution 90
6.38.4 Environment 90
6.38.5 Age 90
6.38.6 Oil Field 90
6.38.7 Remarks 90
6.38.8 Synonyms 90
6.39 Hutton Clay Formation 91
6.39.1 Lithology 91
6.39.2 Boundaries 91
6.39.3 Distribution 91
6.39.4 Environment 91
6.39.5 Age 91
6.39.6 Oil Field 91
6.39.7 Remarks 91
6.39.8 Synonyms 91
6.40 Upper Hutton Clay Member 92
6.40.1 Lithology 92
6.40.2 Boundaries 92
6.40.3 Distribution 92
6.40.4 Environment 92
6.40.5 Age 92
6.40.6 Oil Field 92
6.40.7 Remarks 92
6.40.8 Synonyms 92
6.41 Hutton Sand Formation 93
6.41.1 Lithology 93
6.41.2 Boundaries 93
6.41.3 Distribution 93
6.41.4 Environment 93
6.41.5 Age 93

Page: 12
DXC Geological Ltd.

6.41.6 Oil Field 93

6.41.7 Remarks 93
6.41.8 Synonyms 93
6.42 North Sea Clay Formation 94
6.42.1 Lithology 94
6.42.2 Boundaries 94
6.42.3 Distribution 94
6.42.4 Environment 94
6.42.5 Age 94
6.42.6 Oil Field 94
6.42.7 Remarks 94
6.42.8 Synonyms 94
6.43 North Sea Sand Formation 95
6.43.1 Lithology 95
6.43.2 Boundaries 95
6.43.3 Distribution 95
6.43.4 Environment 95
6.43.5 Age 95
6.43.6 Oil Field 95
6.43.7 Remarks 95
6.43.8 Synonyms 95

7.0 Acknowledgements 96

Page: 13
DXC Geological Ltd.

1.0 A Basic Stratigraphy of the British Isles

1.1 Era: None, System: Pre-Cambrian

The Pre-Cambrian covers the period of time from the consolidation of the Earth’s crust to the base of the
Cambrian and is sub-divided into three main parts, Upper, Middle and Lower. In the past it has also been
known as ‘Proterozoic’, ‘Azoic’ and ‘Arcaean’. Correlation is very hard in the Pre-Cambrian because of the
unconformable boundaries and metamorphic state of the contacts. This has given rise to regional
stratigraphic sequences and local names for groups of strata, some worldwide correlations have been
possible due to radioactive dating. The duration of the Pre-Cambrian is probably no less than 4,000 million
years and contains a number of known orogenies. Most Pre-Cambrian rocks have undergone one or more
orogenies in the Pre-Cambrian and in subsequent movements. Some relatively un-metamorphosed
sediments of Pre-Cambrian age are known in Southern Australia and Leicestershire and some fossils from
the era have been described but show ‘obscure’ affinities.

1.2 Era: Lower Palaeozoic, System: Cambrian

The oldest system of rocks in which fossils can be used for dating and correlation. The Period commenced
at least 530 million years ago and lasted for approximately 70 million years. In general the base of the
Cambrian shows an unconformity with the underlying sediments and is the first sediments to contain fossil
remains. In Great Britain there appears to be a marked unconformity between the Cambrian and Pre-
Cambrian, even when the Pre-Cambrian has proved to be fossilifereous. The upper limit of the Cambrian is
taken to be the top of the Tremadoc series (which in the area of Tremadoc, Wales, is overlain by the Arenig
Grits of the Lower Ordovician).

Lithology
Cambrian sediments were deposited in two different sedimentary facies. One was due to unstable extra-
kratonic basinal deposition, which were massive accumulations of detrital muddy sediments (formerly
referred to as the Atlantic Province) and the other was stable deposition of relatively shallow water
sediments around the margins of kratons. This deposition characteristically took the form of calcareous
sedimentation in clear seas often with an abundance of colloidal silica (formerly refereed to as the Pacific
Province).

Fauna
The fauna’s of the two different areas of deposition differ in many respects, in Great Britain the Pacific
facies is represented only by sediments in north-west Scotland, west of the Moine Thrust. Most groups of
invertebrates are represented in the Cambrian but only a few occur often enough to be of use for correlation
and dating. Trilobites, especially the more primitive forms were abundant and are the main means of
zoning the Period, brachiopods were common and graptolites first appear in the Tremadocian.

1.3 Era: Lower Palaeozoic, System: Ordovician

The Period extended from 500 to 435 million years ago with a duration of 65 million years. The lower limit
is the base of the Arenig Series, which is defined on the first appearance of two-striped extensiform
graptolites. The upper limit is the top of the Ashgill Series which is overlain by the lower Llandovery of the
Silurian Series, the top of the Ashgillian Series contains the last of the trinucleid trilobites.

Lithology
This period showed pronounced vulcanicity and was the start of the Caledonian orogeny. In the North West
Scotland the lower part of the Ordovician is represented by limestones which are conformable upon the
Cambrian.

Fauna
More advanced trilobites were abundant and brachiopods showed more articulate forms. Crinoids became
abundant at some horizons and the first tabulate and rugose corals appeared. North America saw the first
vertebrates (fish) but the most important fossils of this era were the graptolites, and these are used to zone
the Period.

Page: 14
DXC Geological Ltd.

1.4 Era: Lower Palaeozoic, System: Silurian

The period extended 435 to 395 million years ago, with a duration of 40 million years. The lowest beds in
the series are the Lower Llandovery Series (also known as Valentian); these are defined by the graptolite
zone Glyptograptus persulptus. The upper limit is the top of the Downtonian. The Downtonian is included
because it contains fauna that are Silurian in aspect, but also contains newer forms. It also lies conformably
(in the UK) upon the Upper Ludlow Flags and marks the final phase of Silurian sedimentation. The Silurian
marks the final stage in the filling of the Lower Palaeozoic basins of deposition.

Lithology
The Scottish mountains provided detritus that went south to the postulated continental margin and lapetus
Ocean. The sediments are generally, limestones, lithic arenites, mudstones and conglomerates. In the
Midland valley are found lithic wackes, laminated siltstones and grey or grey/green mudtones.

Fauna
The top of the Valentian contains the first jawed fishes, trilobites were abundant and brachiopods were
represented by all the main groups. Crinoids were present in sufficient numbers to provide limestones.
Graptolites, which were represented by varieties of Monograptids died out in the type area but continued
into the Lower Devonian in central Europe. The first land plants appeared in this period.

1.5 Era: Upper Palaeozoic, System: Devonian

The Devonian extended from 395 to 345 millions years ago and had a duration of 50 million years. The
upper limit of the marine Devonian is the top of the Famennian and the upper limit of the continental facies
of the Devonian is variable as the overlying Lower Carboniferous is diachronous upon it. Higher zones of
the continental Devonian are represented in Greenland but not in Great Britain.

Lithology
The Devonian includes the oldest widespread phanerozoic continental deposits; these are deposits that
contain obvious and abundant remains of animals and plants. These deposits interdigitate with marine
deposits in a number of areas and the continental deposits are referred to as Old Red Sandstone. The
climax of the Caledonian orogeny occurred during the Devonian and gave rise to widespread vulcanicity.

Fauna
The majority of Devonian zoning is done using fossilifereous deposits of the Ardennes, Belgium. The
marine Devonian is zoned on early ammonoid cephalopods (molluscs), where the Old Red Sandstone is
zoned largely on brackish or freshwater fish. No new fossil groups are represented in the marine Devonian
but some of the more common groups of the Lower Palaeozoic sediments become rare or extinct i.e.,
Graptolites died out in the early period and trilobites became generally rare. Corals became abundant,
especially in the Middle Devonian where reefs occurred. Ammonoid cephalopods became relatively
common but nautiloids became unimportant. Crinoids still flourished as did brachiopods and this era saw
the emergence of the first marine fish.

In the Old Red Sandstone fish, plants and freshwater molluscs are now found as fossils. The fish underwent
considerable development, starting with primitive armored, jawless forms which developed into advance
jawed forms. These, at the top of the Old Red Sandstone, developed lungs and were teetering on the edge of
being amphibious life.

Plants developed initially as unspecialized swamp forms, rarely exceeding 60cms in height, these later
evolved to large tree like ferns at the close of the period. The most abundant of the freshwater molluscs
were lamellibranchs that are very similar in form to modern freshwater molluscs.

1.6 Era: Upper Palaeozoic, System: Carboniferous

Named after widespread occurrence of carbon in the form of coal in these beds. It covers 345 to 280 million
years ago and had a duration of 65 million years. It is divided into two sub-systems, the Lower
Carboniferous (Mississippian) and Upper Carboniferous (Pennsylvanian) with the boundary being
approximately 325 million years. The lower limit of the Carboniferous is taken where the Devonian faunas
are replaced by the fauna of Productid brachiopod and corals. The upper limit is difficult to interpret. A

Page: 15
DXC Geological Ltd.

marine sequence occurs in Russia and North America and the Foraminifera Pseudoschwagerina marks the
beginning of the Permian.

Lithology
A major transgression during the late Devonian to early Carboniferous times flooded the southern margin
of the Old Red Sandstone continent. Block and basin areas were established, with many basins taking the
form of gromorphic gulfs during the early Dinantian. Carbonate sediments dominated Dinantian
deposition in most area, with major, eustatically controlled cyclicity responsible for regional facies change.
Extensive lime-mudbank accretion occurred in many basinal areas, with a major phase of associated
‘stratiform’ lead-zinc mineralisation. Northern areas show evidence of repeated introductions of fluvio-
deltaic clastics and alkali-basaltic volcanism. An extensive hinterland uplift phase in late Dinantian times
(recogniseable from Silesia to Illinois) was followed by a copious introduction of clastic debris (Namurian
Millstone Grit). By upper Carboniferous times an enormous low-lying fluvio-deltaic pain lay over much of
NW Europe, causing many coal bearing cycles.

The period experienced widespread vulcanicity and minor igneous intrusions. Toward the end it saw the
commencement of the Variscan orogeny and widespread glaciation became established in the southern
hemisphere, especially near what is now the present day equator.

Fauna
In Great Britain the Lower Carboniferous marine sediments predominate and generally two faunal
provinces can be seen.

The Lower Carboniferous facies are usually detrital organic limestones, often with the development of coral
reefs, these sometimes show abundant crinoids and brachiopods. The other environment is one of black
shales containing a reduced fauna of brachiopods and often goniatites, especially in the upper part of the
succession. The Upper Carboniferous in Britain is mainly represented by fresh water or lacustrine
sediments containing occasional marine bands. The flora of the Upper Carboniferous consisted mainly of
primitive vascular plants that could reach a height of 15-20m and were the main contributors of today’s
Carboniferous coal seams.

Economically the Carboniferous is very important as it contains the bulk of the Worlds coal reserves and
important reserves of iron ore, oil shale and oil.

1.7 Era: Upper Palaeozoic, System: Permian

The Permian covered 280 to 225 million years ago with a duration of 55 million years. It marks the end of
the Palaeozoic era. Because of the widespread occurrence of continental conditions during the late
Carboniferous, Permian and Triassic times defining the upper and lower limits are often difficult. Where
marine deposits occur the incoming of large Foraminifera (Pseudoschwagerina) marks the base. The upper
limit of the continental facies has been defined as the top of a ‘zone’ of reptile (Cisticephalus) but is not
suitable for general use.

Lithology
The continental facies of the Permian is represented by red marls and arkosic sandstone, dolomitic
limestones and evaporites. There was limited vulcanicity through this period although the Variscan orogeny
was still ongoing and there was the climax of glaciation in the southern hemisphere.

Fauna
Many important fossil groups became extinct in the Permian, this included the trilobites and tabulate and
rugose corals. The only new group to become widely represented were the reptiles, who were the first
vertebrates to sever their connection with water. Flora underwent a marked change in the Permian, the
large primitive ferns of the Carboniferous were largely replaced by more advance conifers.

Often the Permian and the Triassic are grouped together as a single Permo-Triassic system, a synonym
connected with this grouping is ‘New Red Sandstone’.

Page: 16
DXC Geological Ltd.

1.8 Era: Mesozoic, System: Triassic

He Triassic extends from 225 to 195 million years with a duration of 30 million years and it marks the
beginning of the Mesozoic Era. Widespread continental conditions persisting from the preceding Permian
Period make a definition of the lower boundary difficult. The upper limit is marked by a sharp change at the
start of the rhaetic (a transitional series between the Triassic and Lower Jurassic). The rhaetic series is
included with the Jurassic by British stratigraphers, it marks the period of time after the first marine
transgression in the Mesozoic and before the deepening of the seas which led to the deposition of the Lower
Jurassic.

Lithology
Throughout Permian times the area lay in a trade wind belt, having a hot and arid climate. Ephemeral
streams cut wadis in the highland massifs, which became fringed with talus. The Triassic in Northern
Europe opened with a phase of uplift that affected many of the massif areas. Periodically, transgressions
occurred from the south that raised humidities and permitted temporary establishment of lagoonal
communities.

Fauna
The Triassic in Great Britain is entirely continental deposits but marine intercalations do occur elsewhere.
The continental deposits are largely unfossiliferous except for the occasional reptilian footprint. In Europe,
where marine sediments occurs the fauna was mainly lamellibranchs, crinoids and advanced ammonoids.
Some very early dinosaur remains occur.

1.9 Era: Mesozoic, System: Jurassic

The Jurassic covers the period of time from 195 million years to 135 million years, having a duration of 60
million years. It is divided into the Lower Jurassic (Lias), Middle Jurassic (Dogger) and Upper Jurassic
(Malm), the boundaries are at 172 and 162 million years respectively. Further very small divisions have
been made based on over a hundred fossil zones which have been grouped into eleven stages with the lower
limit being the pre-Planorbis zone and the upper zone being marked by a zone containing Cypridea
punctata (Ostracopd).

Lithology
In Great Britain all the sediments are shallow water facies with fauna derived from the Tethyan basin.
Sedimentary iron ores are widespread at several horizons and in southern Europe the first stages of the
Alpine orogeny were being felt.

Fauna
The Jurassic had very diverse fauna, the main members were the ammonites, and the period is zoned using
these, hexacorals, echinoids and brachiopods were also abundant as were lamellibranchs and gastropods.
Dominant terrestrial animals were the dinosaurs with reached their maximum size in the Jurassic and the
first birds appeared in the Upper Jurassic. Birds had been known since the rhaetic but were rarely large.
The flora included many types that are still seen today, such as cyads, gingkoes, conifers and ferns.

1.10 Era: Mesozoic, System: Cretaceous

The Cretaceous Period lasted about 72 million years, between 136 to 64 million years ago. The division
between Upper and Lower is approximately 100 million years. Each of the main divisions are further
divided into six stages, the lower limit of the period is the base of the Craspedites zone and the upper limit
is the top o the Maastrichtian. Some stratigraphers include the Danian, either whole or in part as the
uppermost stage. The end of the Cretaceous marks the end of the Mesozoic Era.

Lower Cretaceous sediments continue the pattern of Jurassic sedimentation. In Britain this was primarily
lacustrine, deltaic and esturine facies. The beginning of the Upper Cretaceous saw a widespread marine
transgression (the Cenomanian Transgression), which at its greatest produced the largest proportion of sea
relative to land on the Earths surface since the Palaeozoic.

Page: 17
DXC Geological Ltd.

Lithology
In Northern Europe and part of the mid-western United States the Upper Cretaceous is represented by a
white limestone (Chalk). In Tethys, the early stages of the Alpine orogeny occurred, in the trough that was
produced substantial thicknesses of marine sediments were deposited.

Fauna
As expected the early Cretaceous fauna carries on from that of the Jurassic with ammonites and other
molluscs being abundant. The ammonites become rarer as the Cretaceous progresses and are extinct by the
end of the Period, as are belemnites. Brachiopods flourished in the early Cretaceous but suffer a marked
reduction by the end of the Period. Molluscs are used as zone fossils wherever possible and echinoderms
and lamellibranchs are locally important, these are usually used as zone fossils where ammonites are
absent. Corals are generally less prevalent than the previous Era’s.

On land dinosaurs were dominant, but became extinct toward the end of the period, some Cretaceous
mammals are known but not significant in size and numbers. The flora matured to produce flowering
plants through the Period.

1.11 Era: Cainozoic, System: Tertiary

The Tertiary covers the period of time from the end of the Cretaceous to the present day and covers
approximately 65 million years. The majority of Tertiary sediments are shallow water in origin and tend to
cut across time boundary’s making them difficult to define.

1.11.1 Palaeocene

Usually the Montian is taken to be the lowest stage of the Palaeocene but some stratigraphers consider it to
be the equivalent of the Upper Cretaceous Danian stage. The Montian and the Thanetian constitute the
Palaeocene and generally shows fauna of the Cretaceous (survival forms) before the onset of Tertiary fauna
proper.

1.11.2 Eocene

The Eocene begins with the Sparnacian, which contains true Tertiary faunas for most of the world. A
general increase in world temperatures occurred in the Eocene, which reached a peak in the Bartonian
stage and was mainly characterised by tropical and sub-tropical forms.

1.11.3 Oligocene

Following the Eocene was the Oligocene, which commenced with the Sannoisian and a general reduction in
worldwide temperature. The United Kingdom only exhibits the lowest part of the Oligocene but elsewhere
the upper section shows a regression of the seas which left a number of isolated basins, each with its own
characteristics and fauna.

1.11.4 Miocene, Pliocene and Pleistocene

During the Miocene and Pliocene times the withdrawal of the seas continued, resulting in an absence of the
Miocene in Great Britain and only a meager representation of the Pliocene. Elsewhere the Miocene and
Pliocene are represented by either freshwater sediments in basins or by marine sediments deposited near to
the existing coastlines. The gradual reduction in temperatures continued throughout this time. Through the
Pliocene the drop in average temperatures caused the extinction of many groups of mammals and the
migration of others to warmer regions. Pliocene deposits are represented in Great Britain by accumulations
of shallow water gravel’s in East Anglia, together with some high level gravel’s in the southern part of
Britain and occasional basin deposits in the southwest. Between 80-90% of fossils forms occurring in this
country still exist today. The gradual deterioration of climate through this period eventually led to the ice
ages of the Pleistocene. In Great Britain it is not possible to draw a line between the Pliocene and
Pleistocene although it can be done in some European areas such as Italy.

The glacial period can be separated into two parts, separated by the Great Interglacial, which lasts about
300,000 years. It can be seen that two periods of glaciation occurred before and after the Great Interglacial

Page: 18
DXC Geological Ltd.

and between the glaciations the climate was warmer than it is today. The last ice sheet to cover Britain
receded about 11,000 years ago and the average annual temperature gradually increased to reach a climax
about 5,000 years ago when the bulk of Britain was covered by deciduous forest. Since then the climate has
gradually, and is continuing to deteriorate. The periods between glaciation were probably characterised by
high rainfall and it was under these conditions that man gradually evolved.

During this time glacial debris accumulated north of a line from Bristol to London where Pleistocene
sediments are seen as large spreads of gravel and river terraces which represent the resorting debris from
ice sheets. It was during this period that the majority of major landforms in Great Britain today were
formed. Fossils from this period include, horses, elephants and pigs.

1.11.5 Holocene

Holocene is the term for post-glacial deposits, and the Quaternary generally refers to Pleistocene and
Holocene deposits.

Page: 19
DXC Geological Ltd.

2.0 General Geology and Structural Framework

2.1 Introduction

The composition of the sedimentary fill in the North Sea Basin as a whole is the result of a complex series of
structural events that have affected the Northwest European shelf since the Palaeozoic Era. The main effect
of these structural events has been a highly variable influx of sediment into the basin, both in direction and
magnitude. This changing influx reflects the changing positions and relative elevations of the structural
units that acted as source areas in adjustment to the stress patterns that effected them. The relative
elevation of most of the structural units has changed over geological time to such an extent that almost all
have been both source and receiving area. Complete sedimentary sequences representing the entire time
span of the North Sea basinal evolution are therefore not found anywhere, however more or less complete
sequences over shorter periods can be found in many areas. The most complete sequences are found in the
basinal centre.

Two major sedimentary basins are present, the Southern North Sea Basin, and the Northern/Central North
Sea Basin. The two basinal areas are separated by a NW-SE trending series of relatively high areas, the Mid
North Sea High is the most important high feature in the area of interest to exploration, production and
development.

In The Northern/Central North Sea Basin the most important structural features are three buried graben
systems, the Viking Graben, Witch Ground Graben and the Central Graben, and their margins. These three
graben features, almost intersecting in the northern area of Block 22, represent the areas with the thickest
sedimentary fill of the areas where exploration, production and development is currently active.

In the Southern North Sea Basin the most important features of the area of exploration, production and
development are the NW/SE trending Sole Pit Basin, and Inde Shelf and the Silver Pit Basin to the north of
these areas.

It should be realised that the sequence present in the different areas is a layer cake of sediment with each
recognisable unit formed to a set of paleo controls uniquely its own. Correlation over large distances and
sometimes through the entire basin is usually only possible for those layers or intervals formed in response
to major events affecting the entire area.

From the viewpoint of basin development the following stages can be recognised:

 Caledonian Phase (Cambrian to Devonian)

 Hercynian Phase (Devonian to Carboniferous)
 Permo-Triassic Intracratonic Phase
 Rifting (Late Triassic to Early Tertiary)
 Post Rifting (Tertiary)

2.2 Caledonian Phase

The Caledonian orogenic (mountain building) phase resulted in the collision and fusion of the North
American-Greenland plate and the Northwest European plate along the Appalachian and Scottish-
Norwegian foldbelts. The massive volume of eroded sediment from the highly uplifted areas of this
floodbelt forms the first sedimentary fill on top of the folded, metamorphosed and in places granite
intruded rocks of Caledonian age. These Caledonian rocks form the economic basement of the North Sea
basin from a hydrocarbon exploration point of view.

The paleogeographical situation near the end of the Caledonian orogeny is very roughly as follows; a high
rapidly eroding SW-NE trending Scottish-Norwegian mountain chain sheds sediment to the S and SW onto
a large floodplain and onto a wide, shallow marine shelf that reached as far as the Central North Sea. The
London-Brabant Massif forms a high area bounding the basing to the SW.

Sediments from this period reflect the mainly continental environment of sedimentation in their red
colours, indicative of the oxidising, continental conditions. Coarse sandstones and conglomerates

Page: 20
DXC Geological Ltd.

interbedded with finer sandstones/siltstones and claystone indicate that rapid runoff of water (no land
vegetation exists during this period) caused string flow and erosion and rapid switching of runoff channels
over a floodplain and a high influx of sediment into a shallow sea.

2.3 Hercynian Phase

The second phase (Hercynian Phase) was marked by a major uplift of the areas that still form the southern
margin of the North Sea Basin. The London Brabant Massif which was a major stable block during the
preceding Caledonian orogenic phase was uplifted and fused with the Hercynian mountain chain which
formed in a East-West direction across Southern Britain, France and Central Europe. The North Sea basin
became enclosed on all sides with connections to other basins and oceanic areas narrow and perhaps
intermittently closed as a results of the various orogenic phases of the Hercynian phase.

The wide shelf that occupied most of the North Sea during the Lower Carboniferous was characterised by
shallow marine carbonate and claystone deposition with marine ingressions reaching far to the north into
the degraded Caledonian mountain chains. Coal bearing sequences were locally deposited in the Central
North Sea and Northern England.

As the basin gradually shallowed sedimentation lost much of its marine character and the thick coal
deposits deposited in this period are the source rocks for the gas reservoirs both onshore and offshore in
the southern basin.

These upper Carboniferous coal sequences do not extend into the central and northern North Sea. The
Carboniferous deposits in the central and northern North Sea were laid down in intramontane basins that
had limited or no connection to adjacent basins. As later erosion has removed much of the sediment
uncertainty remains on the exact nature and distribution of the deposits of Carboniferous age in these
areas. Devonian sediments form most of the Pre-Permian subcrop in the area. Some deposits of
Carboniferous age have been drilled, limestone, shale and sandstone have been encountered.

2.4 Permo–Triassic Intracratonic Phase

At the end of the Hercynian phase the mountain chains formed to the south of the North Sea basin had
been consolidated with the craton to the north, with this compressive stresses ceased to work on the area. A
new tectonic framework characterised by an extensional setting developed in the Permian. Two large
intracratonic basins formed separated by a newly formed series of west-east trending high areas. Of these
the Mid North Sea high is the most important in the exploration, production and development area of
interest.

The first signs of rifting became apparent in the central and northern North Sea at the end of the Permian
and became more pronounced in the Triassic providing the base for the sedimentation patterns of the
Jurassic period that followed. The continuing extension and subsidence of the basins throughout the
Permian and especially the Triassic lead to thick sediment cover in the two basins and a thinner but still
substantial cover over the Mid North sea high.

In the southern basin influx from the eroding Hercynian mountain chain and the high areas rimming the
basin lead to a great thickness of sediment. Widespread deposition of redbeds (dunesands) and evaporites
around the edges of an inland sea characterises the Lower Permian. These sands (Rotliegendes) are
primary reservoirs (gas) in the southern North Sea basin. The rates of deposition vary considerably in the
various subbasins. The sands grade into shales and evaporites further northward in the southern basin. In
the northern North Sea basin the Rotliegendes sediment is thinner but similar in its composition.
Continued subsistence and eventually a relatively low position relative to the ocean level caused a rapid
marine transgression once a connection was established to the ocean.

The dark shales of the Kupferschiefer formation mark a break in the sedimentation from the Rotliegendes
sands to the Zechstein evaporites and carbonates.

The deposition of carbonates and sulphate sequences characterises the basin margins and very thick halite
(rockshaft) deposits the basin centre of both basins. The cyclic nature of the Zechstein can be ascribed to
eustatic sea level changes and/or periodic influxes across a physical barrier (tectonically controlled) in the

Page: 21
DXC Geological Ltd.

connection to the open ocean. The Zechstein carbonates contain significant quantities of gas in the onshore
areas of the eastern rim of the southern basin but do not form significant reservoirs in the offshore areas.

The movement of the salt deposited in the Zechstein during subsequent periods strongly influenced
sedimentation patterns and played an important role in the generation of high pressure in the reservoirs of
younger age especially in the central area.

2.5 Triassic Phase

The start of the Triassic period was characterised by a return to continental type of deposition with fluvial
and alluvial sediments being deposited on top of the Zechstein fill. The source of the influx was probably
from a northern as well as a southern direction, the Zechstein was eroded to a large extent in the northern
basin but is well preserved in the southern basin. The salt deposits act as an impermeable seal for many of
the gas reservoirs in the southern basin.

An important new feature was the subsidence of the areas where rifting was to follow, the Central and
Viking Graben, and the uplift and erosion of high areas flanking the developing grabens. The sedimentation
in the southern basin was more or less continuous into the Triassic, The Bunter Sandstone Formation and
sandy deposition of similar age are found rimming the southern and western edges of the North Sea basins.
The basin centers were characterised by more shaly sequences (Smith Bank Formation and Cormorant
Formation). The main sediment source throughout the Triassic was the Scandinavian shield with smaller
contributions from the high areas to the south and the west of the North Sea basin.

A regional tectonic pulse (Hardegsen pulse) had a considerable impact on the basin by triggering the first
salt deformation and uplifting some major tectonic blocks in the basin amongst which the Mid North ea
high. Erosion followed the uplift and subsequently the basin subsided and was filled by a very fine rained
muddy sediments. At the end of the intracratonic phase the entire area is marked by a very low relief. The
middle and upper Triassic sediments are not considered to be of great interest for hydrocarbon exploration.

2.6 Rifting Phase

In response to large scale rifting movements in the Atlantic and later in the rifting phase also far to the east
of the area there was a large increase of tectonic activity in the North Sea basin. The crustal stability was
severely affected and the incipient rifts of the Triassic developed into large rift systems which in turn
affected the adjacent areas and changed the sedimentation pattern in a major way.

Several pulses of what has been termed the Cimmerian cycle affected the area and the sediment was
deposited in clearly recogniseable sequences. Several regressive-transgressive clastic sedimentary cycles,
truncated by an erosion surface can be recognised.

The first pulse caused increased rifting, uplifted several areas marginal to the North Sea basin but on the
whole affected the high areas more than the basinal centre where sedimentation continued with only a
small hiatus. In the developing rifts Triassic fluvial and deltaic/near shore deposits are buried beneath
increasingly fine grained sediments (e.g., Dunlin Group in the Viking Graben overlying the Triassic
Statfjord Formation) as a widespread transgression of the sea over land occurred.

In the southern North Sea, Lower Jurassic (Liassic) clays conformably overlie older Triassic deposits and a
carbonate shoal rimmed the London-Brabant Platform, the high point of the transgression was reached in
the lower Jurassic (Dogger Formation). After the high point of the transgression deltaic complexes started
to spread into the basin from the margins, and these deltas developed especially in the north of the basin.
The sediments that were laid down during this periods contain some of the largest oil reservoirs in the
North Sea basin (Brent, Dunlin, Cormorant).

The second major tectonic pulse, during the Callovian (Upper Dogger), had much more impact and set off
another round of subsidence and some uplift of other tectonic blocks. As very deep holes developed in the
Viking and Central Graben volcanism (Ratteray Formation) became a locally important source of sediment.
Deformation of buoyant salt was very string during this time in the areas underlain by Zechstein salt. In the
southern North Sea basin the salt structures control to a considerable extent the distribution of Jurassic

Page: 22
DXC Geological Ltd.

sediments. The Jurassic sediment left is very much the sum of regional and local erosion and
sedimentation.

During and after the second major (Callovian) pulse the high blocks are subject to erosion and the basins
are filled partly by the material derived from this erosion. Thick sequences of sediments accumulate in the
deeper part of the basin which have a distinct coarsening upward component and consist of a mix of sandy
detritus from the high areas (turbiditic) and clays originating in the basin itself (pelagic). High areas and
more distal parts of the basin did not receive much sediment, the sediment fill shallowed the basins and the
regression reached its maximum at the end of the Jurassic.

The third pulse of the Cimmerian cycle occurred at the end of the Jurassic and caused further warping,
rifting an wrenching. Along the southern rim of the North Sea the Wealden basins underwent rapid
subsidence. During the Lower Cretaceous a gradual transgression characterised the North Sea basin,
deposition of shallow water shales and carbonates occurred in the central parts of the basin, deeper water
deposition of shales took place in the rifts and the basin margins were characterised buy deposition of
coarse sediment (especially the Moray Firth area).

The transgression marks the final stage of the Cimmerian tectonic activity and tectonic activity decreased
markedly during the Cretaceous. The basinal area became covered by a shallow sea with a predominantly
carbonate sedimentation, notably chalk. In the grabens the sedimentation was more clayey. Great
thicknesses of sediment accumulated during the Cretaceous in most of the North Sea basin, sedimentation
cycles were controlled by eustatic sea level changes, the sediment deposited consists mainly of limestones
(chalk) and marls.

At the end of the Cretaceous – early Tertiary a final phase of tectonic activity in response to Atlantic plate
movements affected the North Sea (Laramide phase). Uplift and erosion along the margins of the Viking
Graben was accompanied by down faulting and warping and the removal of much of the chalk from high
blocks near the margins. In the central North Sea the effects were minor but in the southern basin the
effects were very pronounced. Inversion of the Weald basins and major uplift caused the formation of
complex structures and massive erosion. Most of the Cretaceous and Jurassic (what was left after the
Cimmerian pulses) cover was eroded and Tertiary sediment is found on top of sediments of Triassic age.
The detritus of the erosion was resedimented in he central part of the North Sea basin and formed the
Danian deposits. Several huge oil fields are found in these resedimented deposits (Ekofisk and Dan).

2.7 Post Rifting Phase

After the Laramide pulse strong basin subsidence occurred in response to Atlantic rifting and the resulting
south-eastward movement of the European plate. The movement decreased during the middle Tertiary
however basin subsidence continued.

A notable event was the enormous volcanic activity at the Eocene-Paleocene boundary which caused a basin
wide cover of volcanic sediment (Balder Tuff). The main sources of the volcanic sediment were the major
eruptions which occurred throughout Western Scotland and the Atlantic region.

As subsidence continued sedimentation into the basin proceeded at a rapid rate and very thick Tertiary
sequences are present, especially in the basin centre. During the Paleocene and Eocene a large influx of
sand and finer grained material from the north-west formed a shelf along the Scottish coast and a series of
deep-sea fans in the centre of the basin. The sandy sediments of these deep-sea fans now form the
reservoirs for the majority of Tertiary fields of the North Sea (e.g., Forties, Petrel, Gannet, Frigg).

As continued Atlantic rifting removed the western source areas of the material the remainder of the
Tertiary is marked by finer grained deposition.

Reference: “Introduction to The Petroleum Geology of the North Sea” K.W. Glennie

Page: 23
DXC Geological Ltd.

3.0 Stratigraphy and Reservoir Geology

3.1 Southern North Sea

The source for all the reservoirs in the southern North Sea area are Carboniferous coals and shales
deposited in a range of environments (shallow/deep marine, lagoon, delta, lake). The gas migrated into
Permian sand bodies sealed by Zechstein evaporites, or Carboniferous sands sealed by Lower Permian
clays.

3.1.1 Carboniferous Reservoirs

Westphalian and Stephanian reservoirs occur in the Silverpit area where fluvial sand/shale sequences lie
unconformably below sealing shales of the Lower Permian Silverpit formation. The Westphalian consists of
a mixture of interbedded coastal, swamp (coal), fluvial and shallow marine deposits.

Above the Westphalian deposits is a further sand/shale sequence called the Barren Red Beds, of
indeterminate age (but considered to be Westphalian D and/or Stephanian) due to the lack of coal seams
and destruction of spores by oxidation.

High sand to shale ratios occur at two levels in the Carboniferous and these form the best reservoirs.

 Barren Red Beds (Westphalian D/Stephanian)

 Middle Coal Measures (Lower Westphalian B)

These comprise high energy, laterally extensive braided river deposits. Sands in intermediate shale rich
horizons were generally laid down in low energy meandering rivers and tend to be local, laterally
discontinuous and in poor communication. Some of the ticker shales are thought to be intra-formational
seals.

A period of uplift and erosion occurred at the end of the Carboniferous. In general reservoir quality
decreases away from the unconformity thus formed. The stratigraphic level of good reservoir sands at any
one locality varies depending on the structural level of the unconformity.

3.1.2 Lower Permian Reservoirs

Sedimentation recommenced in the Lower Permian, predominantly in sub-aerial conditions in an arid

environment. Red colouration of arenaceous parts of the succession is the result of post depositional
diagenesis causing ferrous iron to be oxidised to the red ferric state. Later hydrocarbons cause reduction,
thus the gas bearing part of the reservoir is often greenish grey.

Four depositional environments can be recognised.

1. Desert Lake (north)

Shales and occasional halites and these form the seal in the Silverpit area where they have been
named the Silverpit Formation.
Elsewhere coarser clastic deposits dominate. These constitute the Leman Sandstone Formation
although often referred to as Rotliegendes.
2. Marginal Lacustrine Environment
Lacustrine (sabkha) deposits of poorly sorted sandstones, siltstones and claystones representing
the reworking of the lake sediments in an ephemeral desert lake. Poorest reservoir quality overall
but very variable, especially in the sandstones.
3. Aeolian Environment (south east)
Aeolian dune and interdune sandsheet consisting of well sorted sands. This facies possesses the
best reservoir quality of the four, reflecting the high degree of sorting and lack of sediment types
other than sand.
4. Fluvial Deposits (south to south west)

Page: 24
DXC Geological Ltd.

Fluvial (wadi) sheet flood deposits comprising homogeneous sandstones and laminated sandstones
and siltstones. The reservoir quality is poorer than aeolian deposits due to poorer sorting and
higher proportions of detrital and diagenetic clays.

Differences in the character of the reservoir thus developed depending on the relative position of an area
with respect to the main dune field etc. Therefore, Leman which is more to the west of Indefatigable shows
a greater portion of wadi facies, the Sole Pit area has more sabkha than either, and in the Silverpit area,
desert lake shales form the cap rock.

The reservoir in the Sole Pit basin has been divided vertically into three zones depending on the relative
proportion of the three sandy lithofacies:

1. C Sands
The lowermost division of the reservoir lying unconformably on the Carboniferous consists of wadi
deposits intercalated with minor dune sand bodies. The sandstones are slightly argillaceous and
conglomeratic with frequent calcite cements. Alluvial fan and flood plain deposits derived their
sediments from the southern Variscan Highlands through deep canyons and gorges.
Transport took place during sporadic flood events. Ephemeral streams dried out and evaporation of
groundwater resulted in carbonate sedimentation. In the succeeding dry period, wind transport
occurred and dunes migrated into the area. Repetition of this pattern created the alternation of
water lain and aeolian sediments. Reservoir characteristics are generally poor except in the dune
sands but the sequence is generally below the gas water contact.
2. B Sands
Aeolian deposits. Clean dune sands with minor anhydrite or dolomitic cement. Sand was derived
from unconsolidated alluvial fan/wadi deposits fringing the Southern Highlands by prevailing
easterly winds. Some reworking by floods occurred resulting in interbeds of argillaceous and
conglomeratic deposits. The sandstones have steeply sipping foresets which show up well in
dipmeter logs. At the time of deposition, porosities would have been approximately 42%. With
increasing burial, compaction, cementation and pressure solution reduced porosity such that today
the typical Leman porosities range from 10% to 18%. In the Sole Pit area isolated wadi deposits
tend to be commoner.
3. A Sands
Water lain and dune sands. In the Leman area the bulk of the A Sands are dune sands similar to
those of the B zone but with a greater degree of cementation. However, of the top 20 to 100ft tend
to be structureless with only a few slump structures or irregular laminations visible. Their
homogeneity is believed to be due to the transgressing Zechstein Sea which reworked most of the
Rotliegendes. The top zone is termed the Weissliegendes due to its grey colour and it generally
displays poor reservoir qualities.

In the Sole Pit area the influence of the desert lake is seen. The A Sands are defined by the presence of
interbedded sabkha sands within the dunes. Again the Weissliegendes is present at the top. There is some
variation between the fields in the area. In the Clipper aeolian deposits dominate, with rare, think sabkha
and local, usually isolated wadi units. Barque being even closer to the desert lake is dominated by sabkha
deposits.

3.1.3 Upper Permian Reservoirs

Carbonate reservoirs are relatively rare but form a feature of interest in the area. High overpressure can be
encountered from rafted carbonates (dolomites) in the salt sequences.

The Zechstein was deposited in an evaporitic marine basin, after subsidence of the low lying Lower Permian
floodplains had caused the area to be submerged.

The Zechstein comprises five evaporitic cycles, but only four are well developed in the southern North Sea.
Each cycle marks the replenishing and progressive drying out of the Zechstein Sea. Within each cycle the
influence of increasing salinity through evaporation can be seen following an initial marine incursion
occurring in response to a global change in sea level. The following represents an ideal sequence:

 Marine Shale

Page: 25
DXC Geological Ltd.

 Limestone
 Dolomite
 Anhydrite
 Halite
 Potassium Salts

Not all members need to be present in a cycle and smaller cycles are evident within the major ones.
Potassium salts have not been accorded Members status. In general carbonates thin towards the centre of
the basins whereas halite sequences thicken. Local variations in halite thickness occur due to halokinitic
movements. The basal deposit of the Zechstein sequence, the Kupferschiefer (or Copper Shale), is a thin
(approximately 5ft) black bituminous claystone. It is a regional marker horizon.

The sequence in the Southern North Sea is:

Zechstein, Z5
Grenzanhydrit (rare)
Zechstein, Z4
Aller Halite
Pegmatitanhydrit
Roter Salzton
Zechstein, Z3
Leine Halite
Hauptanhydrit
Plattendolomit
Grauer Salzton
Zechstein, Z2
Deckanhydrit
Stassfurt Halite
Basalanhydrit
Hauptdolomit
Zechstein, Z1
Werraanhydrit (with occasionally the Werra Halite)
Zechsteinkalk
Kupferschiefer

3.1.4 Triassic Reservoirs

The Triassic represents a return to clastic sedimentation. It is divided into the Bacton, Haisborough and
Rhaetic Groups. The Bacton Group consists of continental deposits with fluvial and playa lake deposits
forming in a hot arid climate. The upper two groups are of marine origin.

The basal member of the Bacton Group, the Brockelschiefer, is typically a siltstone and represents the
extension of marginal clastic sediments into the Zechstein basin as the sea retreated. The overlying clay rich
Bunter and Rogenstein members probably accumulated in a shallow inland sea or playa lake.

The upper half of the Bacton Group is the Bunter Sandstone formation, this sandstone is the major
reservoir found in the Triassic in the area. The Bunter Sandstone consists of fluvial sheet sands which
migrated into the basins from its southern edge. There is some evidence of cyclicity with silt rich horizons
at various levels, in general the upper Bunter Sandstone is a potential reservoir (Esmond, Forbes and
Gordon fields), where it is charged from the Rotliegendes via faults which cut through the succession where
halokinesis has thinned or removed the Zechstein.

The overlying Haisborough Group consists of a number of clay and evaporite interbeds which represent a
further period of shallow marine deposition. It is possible that the lateral impersistence and range of
thicknesses observed for the Keuper Halite represent an interval of sedimentation in scattered saline lakes
rather than in the more continuous bodies of water postulated for the Dowsing Dolomitic formation halites
(Rot and Muschelkalk Halites).

Page: 26
DXC Geological Ltd.

The Rhaetic shales and sandstones indicate a return to more normal marine conditions. The Rhaetic
Sandstone member is well developed and is a distinctive marker for correlation purposes. It is overlain by a
grey shale marking the transition to Liassic sediments.

3.1.5 Mesozoic to Recent

In most southern North Sea areas some or all of the Mesozoic is absent. In some blocks the only Jurassic
sediments seen are shallow marine Liassic clays. These may be missing where erosion has led to Cretaceous
or Tertiary sediments being deposited on a Triassic surface. No reservoirs are found in these Mesozoic
deposits.

The Cretaceous again represents a period of marine deposition with the clastics of the Speeton Clay passing
through the marls of the Red Chalk formation into the chalk. The chalk is a fine white limestone which,
especially towards the bottom, contains hard siliceous concretions (chert). Soft marine Tertiary and Recent
sediments complete the succession in many places.

3.2 Central North Sea

The features of most interest to the operational geology in the central North Sea are the very high
overpressures in the Central Graben. The overpressures are in the main due to the salt movement in the
area.

The principal source rock is the Kimmeridge Clay formation which is well developed in the Central Graben
area. The reservoirs on the fringes of the graben were mainly charged by the updip migration of
hydrocarbons from the source rock in the graben.

The Kimmeridge Clay is developed in a similar facies as in the northern North Sea, the top section of the
formation can be expected to be a clean ‘hot’ shale, the thickness can be very variable.

Reservoirs exist in both the pre-Cretaceous section and in the Cretaceous/Tertiary section.

The pre-Cretaceous reservoirs are the upper Jurassic Piper and Fulmar formations, the middle Jurassic
Hugin and Pentland formations and the Triassic Skagerrak formation. The lower Permian Rotliegendes
group forms the reservoir in the Auk area.

The Cretaceous–Recent reservoirs include the Danian age Chalk group reservoirs in the Norwegian Ekofisk
area, the Paleocene-Oligocene Andrew, Lyell, Ninian and Frigg formations.

3.3 Northern North Sea

The principal source rock in the northern North Sea is the organic rich dark Kimmeridge Clay which was
deposited in a restricted basin environment. The Kimmeridge Clay is mature for both oil and gas and acts
as a top seal for many of the reservoirs as well as being the source rock for the hydrocarbons.

The thickness of the formation can vary markedly. Very thick sequences are found in the grabens, where
over 500ft of Kimmeridge can be present, erosion can have removed all or left only a few feet on high
blocks. The difference is thought to have been caused by syndepositional fault movement coupled with
erosion on the high blocks.

The top section of the Kimmeridge Clay is often developed as a clean ‘hot’ shale without the thin siltstone
and sandstone lenses and stringers found in the bottom part of the formation. The gamma ray signature of
the Kimmeridge is characteristic. It is very high in the ‘hot’ shales and high compared to the underlying silts
of the Heather formation for the lower ‘non-hot’ shales.

The intra Kimmeridge sands of the Magnus, Brae and Kimmeridge sandstone members form important
reservoirs in the area. These sands have been deposited as subsea mass flow deposits.

In the Middle Jurassic Hugin and Pentland formations the intra formation shales can be a source rock for
the formation sands. The source rocks are mature for gas/condensate. Typical are the coal contents of the

Page: 27
DXC Geological Ltd.

source rocks. No source rock of significance is present in Triassic or older deposits in the northern North
Sea (UK sector). Minor source rocks are the Scottish Oil Shale and the Devonian lacustrine shales.

Tertiary shales/organic claystones can act as source rock for the Paleocene/Eocene sands of the Andrew,
Lyell, Heimdall and Ninian formations. These source rocks are mostly gas prone (lignitic).

Page: 28
DXC Geological Ltd.

4.0 Formation Identification

These guidelines are intended to aid identification of formation tops and to provide general information on
the stratigraphy of the area. The descriptions are very general, describing briefly the main points of some of
the more diagnostic lithologies that comprise a stratigraphic unit. Faulting and/or unconformities may
remove part of the sequence of any well.

4.1 Southern North Sea

4.1.1 Pleistocene Sediments

Dark grey glutinous clay containing pebbles and/or bands of chert, igneous rock, loose sand grains, coal,
limestone, shell fragments etc.

4.1.2 North Sea Group

Predominantly soft grey clays with occasional sand horizons, shell fragments, glauconite, the clays can be
micromicaceous. Firmer mottled green grey deposits found near the base of the group in the Silverpit area
are volcanic tuffs (Balder formation).

4.1.3 Chalk Group

4.1.3.1 Chalk

White, pure, fine grained limestone (IIA) formed of microfossils. Occasional shell fragments. Increasing
amounts of hard grey cryptocrystalline silica material known as chert, occur at the base of the formation.

4.1.3.2 Plenus Marl

Rarely described in cuttings, the Plenus Marl is a dark grey/black carbonaceous claystone about 5ft thick. It
can be seen in petrophysical logs as a high gamma ray spike about 50ft above the Cromer Koll Group.

4.1.3.3 Hidra

Predominantly white to light grey, hard, dense limestone and white chalk. Basal section is often tinged pink
and can contain grey/black shale partings. Minor chert is found, the transition to the Cromer Knoll Group
is sharp.

4.1.4 Cromer Knoll Group

4.1.4.1 Red Chalk

Pink chalk to red-brown marls and calcareous claystones which may be grey/white mottled. The top is not
always easy to determine but is seen on petrophysical logs as a sharp increase in gamma ray and a distinct
break on the sonic.

4.1.4.2 Speeton Clay

Medium to dark grey claystones and shales. Slightly to very calcareous and occasionally glauconitic. Some
silty sandstone bands might be found near the base. The lower boundary is a pronounced log/lithological
break with the Jurassic/Triassic sequences.

4.1.4.3 Spilsby Sandstone

Very fine to medium grained sandstone, colourless to grey white unconsolidated grains with some
cemented bands. The formation is found along the Dowsing fault zone in the south-west of the area.

Page: 29
DXC Geological Ltd.

4.1.5 Lias Group

Predominantly a grey clay/claystone. Sand grains, siltstone, chert limestone, shell fragments etc. may all be
present at various levels. A brown clay has been described from near the base of the group. Hydraulic
limestone which occurs in bands just above the base of the group is rarely seen in cuttings.

4.1.6 Rhaetic Group

4.1.6.1 Winterton

Typically red or grey-green non-calcareous claystones.

4.1.6.2 Rhaetic Sandstone

Fine to medium grained, clean sandstone often associated with dolomite or dolomitic limestone stringers.

4.1.7 Haisborough Group

4.1.7.1 Triton Anhydritic

Wellsite descriptions and programmes have often called all of this formation Upper Keuper Claystone. It
may however be broken up into the following members:

 Upper Keuper Member

 Dolomite and Keuper Red Claystone
 Keuper Anhydrite Member
 Middle Keuper Member

The various members are difficult to distinguish from cuttings alone until the whole sequence has been
drilled when the old Keuper Dolomite and Anhydrite members can be distinguished by the pattern of
anhydrite and dolomite distribution. The dominant lithology in all cases is a red-brown claystone with
subordinate amounts of grey-green claystone. Traces of anhydrite and dolomite may occur throughout but
tend to be concentrated in the old Keuper Anhydrite and Keuper Dolomite members.

4.1.7.2 Dudgeon Saliferous

Keuper Halite
May dissolve in drilling fluids and only be observed as an increase in salinity of the water phase.

Lower Keuper Member (Lower Keuper Claystone)

Dominantly a red-brown claystone with lesser amounts of grey-green claystone and traces of anhydrite and
dolomite.

4.1.7.3 Dowsing Dolomitic

Upper Dowsing Member (Upper Muschelkalk Claystone)

Difficult to differentiate from the Lower Keuper Claystone from cuttings, although it tends to contain
slightly more dolomite. Dolomite tends to be more abundant than pyrite.

Muschelkalk Halite
Rock salt with thin red-brown clay interbeds and anhydritic dolomites. The halite may dissolve in drilling
fluids and only be observed as an increase in the salinity of the water phase.

Lower Dowsing Member

Comprises the former Lower Muschelkalk Claystone and Rot Claystone which were difficult to differentiate
from cuttings and drilling parameters alone. Dominant red-brown claystone with traces of grey-green
claystone and siltstone. Dolomite and anhydrite stringers.

Page: 30
DXC Geological Ltd.

Rot Halite
Rock salt with thin red-brown clay interbeds. The halite may dissolve in drilling fluids and only be observed
as an increase in the salinity of the water phase.

Rot Claystone (Lower Rot Claystone)

Thin red-brown silty clay sequence. Not always seen or differentiated from the Rot Halite/Bunter
Sandstone.

4.1.8 Bacton Group

4.1.8.1 Bunter Sandstone

Dominantly red-brown, very fine to medium grained sandstone. Often interbeds of siltstone and anhydritic
claystone which tend to be commoner near the top. The upper silts can be very hard and ROP tends to
increase with increasing depth. Anhydritic sandstone or anhydrite is common. Occasional trace of
claystone.

4.1.8.2 Bunter Shale

Rogenstein
Dominant red-brown claystone, often silty or associated with minor amounts of grey-green siltstone and
anhydrite. Limestone oolith beds are present but rarely seen in the cuttings (seen as low gamma ray spikes).
Reduced ROP compared to pure Bunter Sandstones.

Bunter Claystone
Difficult to pick top from cuttings alone. Red-brown claystones predominate and in places may be silty.
Traces of dolomite and anhydrite present. Overall, less silty than the Rogenstein.

Brockelschiefer
Red-brown clays and siltstones with occasional fine grained sandstones. Claystones often grade to silt. It is
generally coarser that the Bunter Claystone but it is not often clear in cuttings until the whole sequence has
been drilled. ROP may also be reduced in this member. Seen on petrophysical logs as a reduced gamma ray
level.

4.1.9 Zechstein Group

Halokinesis can lead to considerable thickening or thinning of the salt, especially the Stassfurt Halite. In
some instances a halite may be completely missing. Associated with halokinesis is the break-up and rafting
of the Hauptdolomit and Plattendolomit. These members may be completely absent or floating at any level
or angle in the salts and may sometimes be thrust over each other such that parts of the succession are
repeated.

4.1.9.1 Zechstein Z5 Cycle

Grenzanhydrit
Rarely seen.

4.1.9.2 Zechstein Z4 Cycle

Aller Halite
Clear to pink halite. Orange/deep pink/red potassium and magnesium salts occur, generally in the upper
half of the member. Anhydrite also occurs (and hence the possibility of polyhalite as an anhydrite alteration
product). The halite may also dissolve in water based drilling fluids. If so, top Zechstein may be picked from
a positive drilling break, decrease in torque, increase in salinity of the water phase of the drilling fluid and
the possible occurrence of orange-brown clay.

Pegmatitanhydrit
Light grey/white anhydrite and reduced ROP. Not always seen in cuttings.

Page: 31
DXC Geological Ltd.

Roter Salzton (Red Salt Clay)

Thin band of red or red-brown claystone or clay-rich halite. Not always seen in cuttings.

4.1.9.3 Zechstein Z3 Cycle

Leine Halite
Similar to Aller Halite and difficult to define it top Pegmatitanhydrit and Roter Salzton are absent. A dark
green clay is often present near the top. Potassium and magnesium salts are again concentrated in the
upper half. A 20-30ft band of anhydrite is commonly found near the base.

Hauptanhydrit
Negative drilling break. Off white, cream, light grey anhydrite.

Plattendolomit
Possible further negative drilling break. Upper portion dark grey/dark brown dolomite or dolomitic
limestone which may grade down into a marly dolomite with traces of clay or silt. Very rare ooliths are
found near the top. Increase in background gas is generally seen. The Hauptanhydrit cuttings may persist
through the Plattendolomit.

Grauer Salzton (Grey Salt Clay)

Thin grey claystone/siltstone (often carbonaceous). May not be seen in cuttings.

4.1.9.4 Zechstein Z2 Cycle

Deckanhydrit
Thin anhydrite band. May not be seen in the cuttings or is difficult to tell apart from the Hauptanhydrit
cavings.

Stassfurt Halite
Dominant rock salt with potassium and magnesium salts, especially in the upper portion. Anhydrite also
commonly occurs in the basal 200ft of the member where it may form the dominant cuttings.

Basalanhydrit
A thin bed of anhydrite which may be seen as an increase in anhydrite cuttings. However, it is not always
easy to define from cuttings especially if the base Stassfurt Halite is anhydrite rich. A negative drilling break
should be seen.

Hauptdolomit
Its occurrence is generally marked by a negative drilling break and the first re-appearance of carbonate
cuttings. Grey/dark grey, argillaceous dolomite, dolomitic limestone or limestone. Some anhydrite cuttings
may persist but should soon die out. Core shows the formation to comprise interbedded dolomitic
mudstone, limestone and dolomitic limestone. An increase in gas levels is also commonly seen. Can be a
common drilling fluid loss zone if fractures are encountered.

4.1.9.5 Zechstein Z1 Cycle

Werraanhydrit
Possible slight positive drilling break. The top is marked by the re-appearance of anhydrite in the cuttings
(or increase in anhydrite if Basalanhydrit persisted through the Hauptdolomit). Cores of this member show
it to comprise calc-dolomite, dolomitic limestone interbedded with anhydrite stringers. The proportion of
anhydrite tends to increase downward although the basal 10ft may be more dolomitic. The base of the
formation in cores is marked by the final occurrence of anhydrite. Considerable thickness differences in this
member are seen across the southern North Sea.

Werra Halite
Found in the Leman field in the middle of the Werraanhydrit member. It is formed of interbedded halite
and anhydrite.

Page: 32
DXC Geological Ltd.

Zechsteinkalk
A possible slight drilling break and increase in gas levels. Its top is generally marked by a marked increase
in dolomitic/dolomitic limestone cuttings. Core shows the lower part of the Zechsteinkalk to be dolomites
interbedded with anhydrite stringers and nodules.

Kupferschiefer (Copper Shale)

Possible negative drilling break. This band of black carbonaceous, possibly micaceous shale. May not be
seen in the cuttings however it displays a characteristically strong gamma ray peak.

4.1.10 Rotliegendes

4.1.10.1 Leman Sandstones

Clear white or light grey fine to medium grained sand and sandstone which generally coarsens and reddens
with depth. Occasional red-brown siltstone and claystone bands occur. Positive drilling break below the
Kupferschiefer. It can be difficult to spot the top if drilling with a PDC bit which can pulverise the sand to
rock flour. The torque should be monitored and a break/change in trend should be checked for penetration
of the Leman Sandstone. Some sand grains may persist (especially in mud cleaner samples), and the size
and amount of any residual anhydrite cuttings will both decrease. There should be an increase in gas levels.

4.1.10.2 Silverpit

The lateral equivalent of the Leman Sandstone which is found in the Silverpit area. It comprises red-brown
claystones and siltstone interbedded with halites in the lower section. At the top of the formation a thin
Upper Leman Sandstone is often seen.

4.1.11 Carboniferous

The Carboniferous tends to be hard with reduced ROP throughout. Any sands may be gas bearing. The
Carboniferous lies unconformably below the Rotliegendes and may be entered at any level down to the
Westphalian A.

4.1.11.1 Barren Red Beds

Interbedded red-brown sandstones, siltstones and shales of the Stephanian. Occasional gravel and pebble
beds. The barren Red Beds may be subdivided into three zones:

 Zone 3 - Sand Prone

 Zone 2 - Shale Rich
 Zone 1 - Sand Rich

4.1.11.2 Westphalian

Typically white to grey in colour (with the finer sediments being darker) as opposed to the Barren Red
Beds. Similar lithologies with the addition of coals and fragments. A transition zone exists above the top
coal and the top is difficult to define from cuttings.

4.1.11.3 Namurian

Interbedded Sandstones, Siltstones and Shale cyclothems. Medium to dark grey, dark blue-grey, hard,
blocky, silty, carbonaceous and micromicaceous Claystones. Very pale grey to pale yellow-brown, very fine
to medium , rarely coarse grained Sandstones. Non or very rare Coal seams.

Page: 33
DXC Geological Ltd.

Page: 34
DXC Geological Ltd.

4.2 Central North Sea

4.2.1 Nordland Group (Miocene to Recent)

A mixed sequence of soft to firm sands, gravel and clays.

4.2.2 Hordaland Group

Shales, light grey to brown, soft and fossiliferous. Thin brown limestone and dolomite stringers.

4.2.3 Tay Group

4.2.3.1 Tay Shale

Grey-green occasionally red-brown silty claystones alternating with calcareous siltstones. Streaks of
dolomitic limestone and fine grained light brown sandstones can be found.

4.2.3.2 Tay Sand

Very fine to very coarse sometimes lithic sandstones with grey silty claystones.

4.2.4.1 Rogaland Group

The group consists generally of carbonaceous shales at the base (Sele formation) overlain by tuffs, siltstones
and shales (Balder formation). Sandstones are present in the form of streaks, if the Central Sand formation
is distinguished.

4.2.4.1 Balder (Early Eocene)

Laminated varicoloured fissile shales with interbedded grey, green or buff, often pyritic, sandy tuffs.
Occasionally stringers of limestone and dolomite are encountered. Green-blue glaucophane, brick red tufa
particles and minute, clear, volcanic glass shards are often found in the Balder formation. The gamma ray
and sonic log response has a typical bell shape.

4.2.4.2 Sele (Late Paleocene to Early Eocene)

Finely laminated carbonaceous, tuffaceous, dark-green to black shales and siltstones. Fine sandstone
streaks can be present. The claystones are generally non-calcareous. A characteristic high gamma ray
response and low sonic velocity.

4.2.4.3 Rogaland Sand

Light brown sandstones, the sorting and grain size range is large, grey-green silty claystones are
interbedded.

4.2.5 Montrose Group (Paleocene)

The group consists of a mixed sequence of lithologies, the base of the group consists of marls, re-deposited
limestones of the Chalk Group, sandstones and shales. The major part of the group consists of a sequence of
sands and shales. The sands are the dominant lithology in this sequence.

4.2.5.1 Lista (Late Paleocene)

A sequence of grey, silty claystones and shales with minor interbeds of limestone. Sandstone beds can occur
locally. A synonym sometimes used is Heather Clay formation. Laterally the formation grades into sandy
formations, (Forties and Fergus) the boundary is arbitrarily set at the Lista formation containing less than
50% sandstone.

Page: 35
DXC Geological Ltd.

4.2.5.2 Lower Forties / Forties

Sandstones, firm, friable, very fine grained, poorly to moderately sorted, light brown to light grey
micaceous and slightly to non-calcareous. The sandstones can be silica and calcite cemented and tuffaceous
material can be present. Grey-green non-calcareous claystones are interbedded with the sandstones, these
claystones may be carbonaceous and micromicaceous. The top of the Forties formation can be developed as
shale.

4.2.5.3 Fergus

Poorly sorted very fine to very coarse sandstones alternating with grey shales. Hard well cemented
sandstone and limestone stringers are found.

4.2.5.4 Andrew

Fine to medium to coarse sandstones, locally coarse to sub angular to sub rounded grains, moderately
sorted, white to very light grey. Grey, firm, sub fissile claystones are interbedded with the sandstones. The
formation has a characteristic log response, a low gamma ray and a blocky sonic. This log differs
considerably from the heterolithic lithologies of the underlying Maureen formation. Laterally the Andrew
formation grades into the Lista formation at 50% sandstone content. Pyrite, carbonaceous debris and some
glauconite are found in the formation.

4.2.5.5 Maureen

Mixed lithologies with irregular distribution patterns. Dark grey shales, grey-brown siltstones and fine to
medium sandstones for a matrix for pebbles and larger clasts of reworked limestone. Laterally the Maureen
formation grades into the Maureen Marl (Central Graben).

4.2.5.6 Maureen Marl

Grey marls and calcareous claystones.

4.2.6 Chalk Group (Upper Cretaceous)

4.2.6.1 Ekofisk (Danian)

A sequence of cream to white, occasionally light green, pink and pale red chalks and chalky limestones and
hard microcrystalline limestones. Red-brown calcareous claystones can be interbedded with the limestone.
Chert may be present in the formation.

4.2.6.2 Tor

White to light grey, tan and pink hard chalky limestones, the limestones can be earthy and less firm in
places, on the whole the formation is homogeneous. The top of the formation can be locally earthy.

4.2.6.3 Hod

White to light grey, cryptocrystalline to microcrystalline hard limestones which are locally chalky or
argillaceous. Thin silty claystones and dark grey to black micaceous shales can be present. Orange pink
limestone layers may be found. The formation is more glauconitic in the lower part. The lateral equivalent
of the Hod formation is the Flounder formation which is more marly/clayey in composition.

4.2.6.4 Flounder

A sequence of light to dark grey, pink or pale red very calcareous claystones and argillaceous limestones
with thin shale and clean limestone stringers. The formation is distinguished on log by its lower gamma ray
and slower sonic values than the over and under lying more calcareous formations.

Page: 36
DXC Geological Ltd.

4.2.6.5 Herring

White to light grey, very hard, dense, crystalline limestones. The limestones are occasionally pinkish grey
and sometimes chalky.

4.2.6.6 Plenus Marl

Varicoloured shaly claystones, often very pyritic and glauconitic and sometimes with recrystallised
argillaceous limestones at the top of the formation. The formation is usually difficult to spot in cuttings as
its thickness is limited. On a log however, it has a characteristic high gamma ray peak and an increase in
sonic values.

4.2.6.7 Hidra

White to light grey, hard, dense limestones and dolomites interbedded with calcareous claystones and black
shales. The limestones can be pinkish grey and marly.

4.2.7 Cromer Knoll Group (Lower Cretaceous)

The group consists of mainly fine grained, argillaceous and marly sediments with some limestones.
Sandstones are present near the base.

4.2.7.1 Valhall

A monotonous sequence of grey to brown shales, calcareous claystones with thin interbedded sandstones
and limestones. This name is only used when no further subdivision of the Cromer Knoll is possible.

4.2.7.2 Upper Valhall

This formation is subdivided into the Rodby and Sola formations. Where these formations can be
recognised, the formation consists of a monotonous sequence of brown grey-light grey claystones
interbedded with red-brown claystones and dark brown to black shales. The shales are more common in the
lower half of the formation, marly and chalky limestones can be present near the top of the formation. The
top of the formation is on the whole more calcareous, the bottom is more shaly.

4.2.7.3 Rodby

Grey-brown often silty claystones and pink-grey to red marls and calcareous claystones with marly and
chalky limestones found near the top of the formation.

4.2.7.4 Sola

The formation consists of dark grey to black generally non-calcareous shales and grey-brown calcareous
claystones and marls. The lower boundary is usually a prominent shale bed. The formation is characterised
on log by a high gamma ray/low sonic response.

4.2.7.5 Kopervik

A sequence of sandstones interbedded with shales, marls and limestones. The sandstones are very light to
dark grey, the grain sizes vary from very fine to very coarse and are non or very poorly sorted.

4.2.7.6 Lower Valhall

A composite sequence consisting of limestones and marls and the top, a monotonous sequence of shales
and calcareous claystones forming the main body of the formation, and argillaceous limestones and grey to
red-brown calcareous shales and marls in the bottom part of the formation. In some areas a basal limestone
member of the formation is present.

Page: 37
DXC Geological Ltd.

4.2.7.7 Devils Hole

Grey sandstone, slightly calcareous and micaceous. Anhydrite nodules can be found (Auk area). The lower
Cretaceous found on high areas can be conglomeratic with clasts of various lithologies embedded in a
sandy or gravelly matrix.

4.2.8 Humber Group (Upper Jurassic)

4.2.8.1 Kimmeridge Clay

Dark grey to black micromicaceous, carbonaceous claystones and shales, very slightly to non-calcareous.
The very high gamma ray signature is characteristic. Thin limestone, siltstone and sandstone beds are
present.

4.2.8.2 Kimmeridge Sandstone

Very fine to very coarse, pebbly, poorly to well sorted sandstone interbedded with dark grey silty claystone.
The member is found embedded in the shales of the Kimmeridge Clay formation.

4.2.8.3 Heather

A monotonous sequence of grey-brown claystones and shales. The claystones can be moderately calcareous
and thin sandstones can be present and are more common towards the base. The middle member of the
formation can be developed as grey-brown to black non-calcareous, carbonaceous claystones. Gamma ray
normally below 100api.

4.2.8.4 Piper

Fine to medium sometimes coarse to very coarse well sorted sandstone. Hot shales might be present.
Brown siltstone and very silty shales can be found near the top of usually well defined cycles.

4.2.8.5 Fulmar

Massive fine to medium grained well sorted sandstones becoming finer and moderately sorted with very
fine sands and silts towards the base of the formation. A pebbly lag deposit can be present at the base of the
formation, the top can be developed as silty very fine grained sandstones.

4.2.8.6 Hugin

A sequence of massive fine to coarse grained argillaceous well sorted sandstones and brown-grey shales and
claystones. The claystones can be silty. The sandstone beds can be capped by coal and well cemented
sandstone (calcite, siderite, baryte) can be found, usually near the top of sequences. Coal is usually found
dispersed in the sandstone instead of being found in in-situ layers.

4.2.9 Fladen Group (Jurassic)

4.2.9.1 Pentland

An alternation of fine to medium rarely pebbly/conglomeratic poorly sorted sandstones, grey-brown

carbonaceous siltstones and claystones with in-situ coal beds. These coal beds with think interbedded
sandstones can be more than 50ft thick in places. Tuffaceous horizons can be present. The characteristic
feature of the formation is the presence of in-situ coal beds, with very low densities seen on log recordings.
Distinctive are the high amplitudes on the sonic and gamma ray.

4.2.9.2 Rattray

A sequence of grey to purplish vesicular lavas, interbedded tuffs and aglomerates (volcanic conglomerates).
Red-brown to grey-green siltstones and calcareous claystones are found at the base of the formation. The

Page: 38
DXC Geological Ltd.

Rattray formation laterally passes into the Pentland formation with the boundary being defined at 50%
volcanic lithologies.

4.2.9.3 Fladen Sandstone

Very fine to very coarse grained, poorly sorted, pyritic, micaceous sandstones alternating with dark grey
carbonaceous, non-calcareous shales and siltstones. Tuff layers and coal seams may be present in the top of
the formation. The formation passes laterally into the Pentland formation (lateral equivalent of the Tarbert
formation found further to the north).

4.2.10 New Red Group (Triassic)

The sequence is characterised by the presence of redbeds in most of the formations.

4.2.10.1 Skagerrak

Upward coarsening sequence of claystones, siltstones and sandstones with local conglomeratic layers found
in the top of the formation. The sediments are mostly red coloured, at the top of the formation white-grey
sandstone and grey to green claystone can be encountered.

4.2.10.2 Smith Bank

Brick red silty claystones, siltstones and occasional interbeds of fine to medium grained sandstones.
Anhydrite and dolomite bands can also be found.

4.2.11 Zechstein Group (Late Permian)

Sediments of this group underlie the Cormorant formation. Evaporite deposits are widespread in the
Central North Sea. Salt movement has been one of the most important structural controls on reservoir
development.

4.2.11.1 Zechstein Caprock

Massive crystalline anhydrite sometimes with interbeds of dolomite and halite.

4.2.11.2 Zechstein Salt

Halite sequences with dolomites and anhydrites at the base of the formation. The sequences are normally
disturbed by the previous movements of the salt.

4.2.11.3 Argyll

Leached and fractured dolomitic limestones and dolomites. No interbedded shales are present and little
anhydrite or halite.

4.2.11.4 Kupferschiefer

Thin layer of dark brown to black organic rich, dolomitic shale. The shale is usually laminated and normally
high concentrations of metal sulphides (lead, zinc, copper, pyrite) are present in the shale.

4.2.12 Rotliegendes Group (Permian)

The sediments consist of red coloured sandstones and claystones with thin interbedded halites.

4.2.12.1 Frazerburgh

Hard and dense dolomitic shales, dark grey to red-brown with interbedded dolomite and micaceous
sandstone stringers.

Page: 39
DXC Geological Ltd.

4.2.12.2 Auk

Grey to red-brown sandstones, locally dolomitic and anhydritic, often a conglomeratic layer is found at the
base of the formation. The sandstones can be divided into subunits based on the texture (roundness,
sorting and grain size).

4.2.13 Old Red Sandstone Group (Devonian)

A sequence of red coloured, commonly micaceous sandstones of varying grain size and sorting, interbedded
with red-brown claystones, siltstones and conglomerates.

4.3 Northern North Sea

4.3.1 North Sea Group (Late Eocene to Recent)

A mixed sequence of soft to firm sands, gravels and clays. Boulder beds or isolated glacial dropstones can be
encountered in the sediment, these consist of hard to very hard lithologies which are mostly metamorphic
in origin. Two main formations are distinguished.

4.3.1.1 Hutton Sand

Sands of variable grain size, very fine to coarse with occasional granules and pebbles, glauconite and
abundant fossil debris. The sands are interbedded with dark grey-green to black silty, slightly calcareous
claystones. The formation laterally shales out towards block 211/13, the base of the formation is sandy and
can be traced over large areas.

4.3.1.2 Hutton Clay

Claystones and siltstones, light brown to dark grey, micaceous, glauconitic and carbonaceous. Thin beds of
brown to red-brown limestone and dolomite. Thin sand layers occur near the top, thin tuff layers can be
present near the base. The claystones are sometimes varicoloured and contain traces of pyrite. In the Viking
Graben the formation passes laterally into the Hutton Sand formation.

4.3.1.3 Frigg (Early Eocene)

Monotonous structureless sands laterally passing into interbedded sandstones and mudstones and into
silty claystones with thin fine to medium grained sandstone stringers. The main sandstone development is
found mainly in blocks 3/18, 19, 20 and 3/24, 25. The base of the sandstone is taken as the lower boundary
with the Balder formation. The lower boundary with the underlying Balder formation might be difficult to
pick in the areas with a more shaly development.

4.3.2 Rogaland Group

The group consists generally of carbonaceous shales at the base (Sele formation) overlain by tuffs, siltstones
and shales (Balder formation). Sandstones are present in the form of streaks, in the Central North Sea they
are found as thicker units and the Rogaland formation is distinguished. Westward the group grades into the
Moray Group.

4.3.2.1 Balder (Early Eocene)

Laminated varicoloured fissile shales with interbedded grey, green or buff, often pyritic, sandy tuffs.
Occasionally stringers of limestone and dolomite are encountered. Green-blue glaucophane, brick red and
blue tufa particles and minute, clear, volcanic glass shards are often found in the Balder formation. The
appearance of the Balder is often speckled. A high gamma ray peak may also be found at the top of the
Balder formation. The gamma ray and sonic log response has a typical bell shape.

Page: 40
DXC Geological Ltd.

4.3.2.2 Sele (Late Paleocene to Early Eocene)

Finely laminated carbonaceous, tuffaceous, dark green to black shales and siltstone. Some fine sandstone
streaks can be present. The claystones are generally non calcareous and can be pyritic. The claystone can be
slightly tuffaceous and may be silty near the base. A characteristic high gamma ray response and low sonic
velocity. The formation can usually be recognised as far north as block 3/15.

4.3.3 Moray Group (Late Paleocene to Early Eocene)

A sequence of mixed sandstones and claystones with coal seams near the top. The group is more or less the
time equivalent of the Rogaland Group and is found laterally to the west of the Rogaland Group. It is
overlain by the North Sea Group. The group contains considerably more clastic sand sized sediment than
the Rogaland Group. Two formations, the Beauly and the Dornoch, are distinguished.

4.3.3.1 Beauly

An interbedded sequence of sandstones, siltstones, claystones and lignites. Poorly sorted, silty to very
coarse granular or pebbly sub angular to well rounded sands often with abundant lignite. The claystones
and shales are often highly carbonaceous and well developed black, red-black, brittle lignites are found. The
lignites are the distinctive feature of this formation, the first appearance of lignite beds marks the base of
the formation. The upper boundary is unconformable and is marked by a change of log trends.

4.3.3.2 Dornoch

A sequence of sandstones and mudstones. Very coarse, poorly sorted, pebbly sands are found with
substantial amounts of pyrite and lignite in the upper portion of the formation, the middle part consists of
siltstones and shales and the lower part is an interbedded sandstone/shale sequence. Green-grey to brown-
grey lignitic, slightly tuffaceous shales are found but not common. The sands in the bottom unit are fine to
medium with grey-green fissile claystones and shales.

4.3.4 Montrose Group (Paleocene)

The group consists of mixed sequences of lithologies, the base of the group consists of marls, re-deposited
limestone of the Chalk Group, sandstones and shales. The major part of the group consists of a sequence of
sands and shales. The sands are the dominant lithology in this sequence.

In the Northern North Sea the following formations are encountered: Maureen North, Maureen, Andrew,
Lista, Lyell and Ninian.

4.3.4.1 Ninian

Medium to very coarse, granular to pebbly, poorly sorted, thick bedded sandstones. Occasional beds of hard
coal and thin clay occur. Both upper and lower boundaries are normally sharp with the shaly/clayey Lista
formation and Sele/Balder formation.

4.3.4.2 Lyell / Lower Sand

A widespread sand wedge thinning in an easterly direction present in the North Viking Graben, northern
part of the South Viking Graben and adjacent high areas.

The boundaries are normally taken to be first and last significant sand layer in the sequence as the sequence
is transitional to the Lista at the base and top.

Two facies can be recognised in this formation:

A. Fine to coarse, sub rounded, unsorted to poorly sorted sandstone, brown silty clay and minor lithic
layers. Beds of very coarse gravelly sandstone are generally common throughout the formation and
in the east are more common towards the top.

Page: 41
DXC Geological Ltd.

B. Fine to medium, sometimes coarse, poorly sorted sandstone often argillaceous and some layers are
calcite cemented. The sandstones are interbedded with shales. Facies B is found in the northern
part of the Viking South Graben.

4.3.4.3 Lista (Late Paleocene)

A sequence of grey, silty claystones and shales with minor interbeds of limestone. Sandstone beds can occur
locally. (A synonym sometimes used is the Heather Clay formation). Laterally the formation grades into
sandy formation (Andrew, Lyell, Heimdal and Ninian), the boundary is arbitrarily set at the Lista formation
containing less than 50% sandstone.

4.3.4.4 Andrew (Late Paleocene)

Fine to medium, coarse sandstones, locally coarse sub angular to sub rounded grains, moderately sorted,
white to very light grey. Grey, firm, sub fissile claystones are interbedded with the sandstones. The
formation has a characteristic log response marked by a low gamma ray and a blocky sonic. This log
response differs considerably from the heterolithic lithologies of the underlying Maureen formation.
Laterally the Andrew formation grades into the Lista formation at 50% sandstone content. Pyrite,
carbonaceous debris and some glauconite are found in the claystones. Tuff particles may be found (pale
blue) in the claystones. The finer sandstones can be ground to rock flour by bit action.

4.3.4.5 Heimdal (Late Paleocene)

Fine to coarse, poorly sorted, slightly cemented sandstone, with mica, glauconite and detrital lignite. The
formation is found in the South Viking Graben.

4.3.4.6 Maureen (Paleocene)

Mixed lithologies with irregular distribution patterns. Dark grey shales, grey-brown siltstones and fine to
medium sandstones form the matrix for pebbles and larger clasts of reworked limestone. The change from
the underlying non clastic Chalk Group of the calcareous mudstones of the Shetland Group is clearly visible
on logs as in cuttings. Laterally the Maureen formation can grade into more sandy or more marly
formations (Maureen North, Maureen Marl, Heimdal).

4.3.4.7 Maureen North (Early to Late Paleocene)

A sequence of mainly calcareous claystones and minor limestone stringers. The upper boundary is sharp to
the soft shales of the overlying Lista formation.

4.3.5 Shetland Group (Upper Cretaceous)

A mixture of lithologies consisting mainly of claystones, calcareous claystones, limestones and dolomites.

The Shetland Group is found in the Viking North Graben and in the northern part of the South Viking
Graben. The group lies unconformably on sediments of the Cromer Knoll Group and passes laterally to the
south into the sediments of the Chalk Group. The boundary between the Chalk Group and the Shetland
Group lies arbitrarily at 20% limestones. The base of the group is present only in the deeper parts of the
basin. The subdivision of the group where subdivisions can be recognised is as follows: Shetland A to E and
where no subdivision into A to D can be made as Shetland Clay formation.

4.3.5.1 Shetland E

The sequence consists of shales, calcareous claystones and limestones. The formation top may be marked
by the presence of massive, chalky limestone with thin light grey shale interbeds. Some red colouration may
be found in this top formation of the group. The Shetland E formation is synchronous with the Tor
formation of the Chalk Group into which it passes laterally to the south. The Shetland E formation is easily
recognisable on log by its low gamma ray signature and high sonic log values.

Page: 42
DXC Geological Ltd.

4.3.5.2 Shetland D

A monotonous sequence consisting o flight to dark grey shales and calcareous claystones with some minor
dolomite and limestone stringers. The Chalk Group equivalent is the Flounder formation into which the
formation passes to the south.

4.3.5.3 Shetland C

A sequence of interbedded to massive limestones with calcareous shales and claystones. The formation
becomes more calcareous to the south and shales out towards the north. The Chalk Group equivalent is the
Herring formation. The limestones are hard, crystalline, white to grey and can be found in layers up to
100ft thick. Red-brown claystone and orange brown claystone can be interlayered with the limestone; the
main claystone component is dark grey, fissile, calcareous and moderately hard.

4.3.5.4 Shetland B

A thin sequence of shales and claystones, dark grey, fissile and calcareous. The Chalk Group equivalent is
the Plenus Marl formation.

4.3.5.5 Shetland A

A mixed sequence of limestone, calcareous claystone and shales becoming more shaly upward and more
calcareous to the south where it passes into the Hidra formation of the Chalk Group.

4.3.6 Chalk Group (Upper Cretaceous)

In the Northern North Sea the Chalk Group is present in the South Viking Graben and Outer Moray Firth.
The group is characterised by a mixture of limestones, calcareous claystones and chalk. Shales are only
present as a subordinate lithology.

4.3.6.1 Ekofisk (Danian)

A sequence of cream to white, occasionally light green, pink and pale red chalks and chalky limestones and
hard, microcrystalline limestones. Red-brown calcareous claystone can be interbedded with the limestone.
Toward the north the formation becomes more argillaceous. In parts of the South Viking Graben and Witch
Ground Graben a sandstone unit is present. The sandstone is fine to medium grained, white and calcareous.
Locally chert may be present in the formation. The ROP is variable, reflecting the various lithologies, the
trend is to slower penetration than the overlying formations.

4.3.6.2 Tor

White to light grey, tan and pink, hard, chalky limestone. The limestones can be earthy and less firm in
places, on the whole the formation is homogenous. The top of the formation can locally be cherty. The
limestone is normally hard and ROP and sonic reflect this.

4.3.6.3 Hod

White to light grey, crypto to microcrystalline, hard limestones, which are locally chalky or argillaceous.
Thin silty claystones, and dark grey to black micaceous shales can be present. Orange and pink limestone
layers may be found. The formation is more glauconitic in the lower part. The lateral equivalent of the Hod
is the Flounder formation which is more marly/clayey in composition.

4.3.6.4 Flounder

A sequence of light to dark grey, pink or pale red, very calcareous claystones and argillaceous limestones
with thin shale and clean limestone stringers. The formation is distinguished on a log by its lower gamma
ray and slower sonic values than the over and underlying more calcareous formations.

Page: 43
DXC Geological Ltd.

4.3.6.5 Herring

White to light grey, very hard, dense, crystalline limestones. The limestones are occasionally pinkish-grey
and sometimes chalky. In the South Viking Graben the lower part of the formation is slightly more shaly
whereas the top consists of clean limestones.

4.3.6.6 Plenus Marl

Varicoloured, shaly claystones, often very pyritic and glauconitic and sometimes with recrystallised
argillaceous limestones at the top of the formation. The formation is usually difficult to pick in the cuttings
as its thickness is limited, on log however it has a characteristic high gamma ray peak and increase in sonic
values.

4.3.6.7 Hidra

White to light grey hard dense limestones and dolomites interbedded with grey calcareous claystones and
black shales. The limestones can be pinkish grey and marly.

4.3.7 Cromer Knoll Group (Lower Cretaceous)

The group consists of mainly fine grained, argillaceous and marly sediments with some limestones.
Sandstones are present near the base of the formation. The top of the formation is usually marked by an
increase in ROP, a decrease in calcimetry values and an appearance of red-brown sediment. The gamma ray
values increase markedly and the sonic interval transit time increases as softer sediments are penetrated.

4.3.7.1 Valhall

A monotonous sequence of grey to brown shales, calcareous claystones with thin interbedded sandstones
and limestones. This name is only used when no further subdivision of the Cromer Knoll is possible.

4.3.7.2 Upper Valhall

This formation is normally subdivided into the Rodby and Sola formations where these can be recognised,
in the North Viking Graben, however this distinction is difficult to make. The formation consists of a
monotonous sequence of brown-grey to light grey claystones with interbedded red-brown claystones, and
dark brown to black shales. The shales are more common in the lower half of the formation, marly and
chalky limestone can be present near the top of the formation The top of the formation is on the whole
more calcareous the bottom more shaly.

4.3.7.3 Rodby

Grey-brown often silty claystones and pink-grey to red marls and calcareous claystones with marly and
chalky limestones found near the top of the formation.

4.3.7.4 Sola

The formation consists of dark grey-black, generally non-calcareous shales and grey-brown calcareous
claystones and marls. The lower boundary is usually a prominent shale bed. The formation is characterised
on log by a high gamma ray and low sonic response.

4.3.7.5 Kopervik

A sequence of sandstones interbedded with shales, marls and limestones. The sandstones are very light to
dark grey, the grain sizes vary from very fine to very coarse and are non or very poorly sorted. Sandstones
are coarser and thicker in the Moray Firth area and the formation grades into the Moray Firth formation
towards the west. The sandstones are thinner and finer towards the north and east.

Page: 44
DXC Geological Ltd.

4.3.7.6 Lower Valhall

A composite sequence consisting of limestones and marls at the top, a monotonous sequence of shales and
calcareous claystones forming the main body of the formation with argillaceous limestones and grey to
brown to red-brown calcareous shales and marls in the bottom part of the formation and in some areas a
basal limestone member of the formation. In the North Viking Graben the bottom part of the formation, the
red-brown marly claystone, is also named the Alwyn Marl. This clearly recognisable member is used as a
marker before penetrating the over pressured Jurassic or older formations.
4.3.7.7 Basal Limestone Member

The member consists of white to light grey, hard, partly recrystallised limestones/dolomitic limestones
often sandy and argillaceous with marly interbeds. The member is present at the very base of the Cromer
Knoll Group (in the North Viking Graben also called the Barremian Limestone).

4.3.8 Humber Group (Upper Jurassic)

4.3.8.1 Kimmeridge Clay

Dark grey to black, micromicaceous, carbonaceous claystones and shales, very slightly to non-calcareous.
The very high gamma ray signature is characteristic. Thin limestone, siltstone and sandstone beds are
present. The sandstones can thicken laterally into thicker units of sandstones. The most important
sandstone members are the Magnus, Kimmeridge and Brae. Organic rich with organic contents varying
between 5% and 10%, often the shales are highly radioactive (‘hot’).

4.3.8.2 Kimmeridge Sandstone Member

Very fine to very coarse, pebbly, poorly to well sorted sandstones interbedded with dark grey silty
claystones. The member is found embedded in the shales of the Kimmeridge Clay formation.

4.3.8.3 Brae Member

A mix of very coarse sandstones, conglomerates and fine sands and shales. The conglomerate is diverse in
its components ranging from quartzite to anhydrite.

4.3.8.4 Magnus Member

Light brown, poorly sorted, fine to medium, sometimes coarse grained sandstones interbedded with grey-
brown carbonaceous silty claystones. Coal can be present.

4.3.8.5 Heather

Medium to dark grey, micromicaceous, silty claystones and shales. The claystones can be moderately
calcareous and thin sandstones can be present and are more common towards the base. The middle
member of the formation can be developed as grey-brown to black non-calcareous, carbonaceous
claystones. Gamma ray values are normally below 100api which is a marked drop from the very high values
of the Kimmeridge shales.

4.3.8.6 Piper

Fine to medium, sometimes coarse to very coarse, well sorted sandstones. Hot shales might be present.
Brown siltstones and silty shales can be found near the top of usually well defined cycles.

4.3.8.7 Hugin

A sequence of massive, fine to coarse grained argillaceous, well sorted sandstones and brown-grey shales
and claystones. The claystones can be silty. The sandstone beds can be capped by coal and well cemented
sandstone (calcite, siderite, baryte) can be found, usually near the top of sequences. Coal if present is
usually found dispersed in the sandstone.

Page: 45
DXC Geological Ltd.

4.3.9 Brent Group (Middle Jurassic)

4.3.9.1 Tarbert

Fine to medium, sometimes coarse-grained, well-sorted micaceous sandstones, the formation is absent in
many places due to erosion. Thin siltstones, shales and coal can be intercalated in otherwise massive
sandstones.

4.3.9.2 Ness

This unit is divided into two reservoir sections separated by a shale unit.

4.3.9.3 Upper Ness

A sequence of fine to medium grained sands, dark grey shales and coals.

4.3.9.4 Mid Ness Shale

Dark grey-brown to black pyritic shales with often thin sand layers interbedded in the shale. The shales are
usually massive.

4.3.9.5 Lower Ness

Fine to medium grained argillaceous sands interbedded with pyritic dark-grey silty shales. Coal layers can
be found.

4.3.9.6 Etive

Massive, fine to coarse grained, well sorted, non-micaceous sandstones. Characteristics are the low gamma
ray and the low mica content of the sandstones.

4.3.9.7 Rannoch

A sequence of fine grained, well sorted micaceous sandstones and micaceous siltstones. The base of the
formation is siltier. Laterally the formation can be developed in a shale facies and grey to dark grey silty and
occasionally sandy shales are found. The formation is shalier in the northern part of the Viking Graben and
East Shetland Basin. Characteristic is the high mica content of the sandstones. Where the formation is shaly
a Rannoch Shale may be distinguished.

4.3.9.8 Broom

Medium to coarse grained, feldspathic sandstone, occasionally pebbly with shale clasts, very poorly sorted.
The formation is micaceous and argillaceous. The base is normally sharp with the underlying deposits a
distinct log break is observed.

4.3.10 Fladden Group (Jurassic)

4.3.10.1 Pentland

An alternation of fine to medium rarely pebbly/conglomeratic poorly sorted sandstones, grey-brown

carbonaceous siltstones and claystones with in-situ coal beds. These coal beds with thin interbedded
sandstones can be more than 50ft thick in places. Tuffaceous horizons can be present. The characteristic
feature of the formation is the presence of in situ coal bed with very high amplitudes on the sonic and
gamma ray.

4.3.10.2 Rattray

A sequence of grey to purplish vesicular lavas and interbedded tuffs and agglomerates (volcanic
conglomerates). Red-brown to grey-green siltstones and calcareous claystones are found at the base of the

Page: 46
DXC Geological Ltd.

formation. The Rattray formation laterally passes into the Pentland formation with the boundary being
defined at 50% volcanic content.

4.3.10.3 Fladden Sandstone

Very fine to very coarse grained, poorly sorted, pyritic, micaceous sandstones alternating with dark grey
carbonaceous non-calcareous shales and siltstones. Tuff layers and coal steaks can be present in the top of
the formation. The formation passes laterally into the Pentland formation (lateral equivalent of the Tarbert
formation found further to the north).

4.3.11 Dunlin Group (Jurassic)

The group consists of two thinning and fining upwards cycles consisting of sandstones, siltstones and dark
shales. The Drake and Burton formations have in general a relatively even gamma ray signature compared
to the more serrated gamma ray trace of the Cooke and Amundsen formations.

4.3.11.1 Drake

A monotonous sequence of dark grey micromicaceous shales with some thin sandstone stringers. The base
is more calcareous.

4.3.11.2 Cook

Dark grey, micromicaceous siltstones and slightly calcareous shales with interbedded fine to coarse grained
calcareous sandstones. Sandy limestones can be found.

4.3.11.3 Burton

Grey non-calcareous slightly silty carbonaceous shales.

4.3.11.4 Amundsen

Grey, silty shales and grey, non-calcareous siltstones. The siltstones dominate and are pyritic and
carbonaceous. Streaks of calcareous iron rich sandstone and limestone are present.

4.3.11.5 Dunlin Shale

In the South Viking Graben and Beryl embayment the Dunlin Group is represented by the Dunlin Shale
formation, this formation consists of light to dark grey non-calcareous shales with sandstones stringers.

4.3.11.6 Nansen

The base Nansen formation is included in the Dunlin Group and forms its base. The formation consists of
massive medium to coarse, poorly to fairly well sorted, light grey sandstone interbedded with thin dark grey
shale layers. The sandstones can be pebbly at the base and are calcite cemented in the top of the formation.
This Nansen formation is also known as Unit 1 of the Statfjord reservoirs but as it was deposited in a
marine environment as a transgressive sheet sand it should be included in the Dunlin Group opposed to the
strictly fluvial deposits of the underlying Statfjord formation. The Nansen formation is developed as a
marine limestone/calcareous sandstone/shale sequence further to the north, the limestones can be
microcrystalline and dense with low porosities. The sandstone can be tightly calcite cemented. Dolomite
nodules can be found in the shale.

4.3.12 New Red Group (Triassic)

The whole sequence is characterised by the presence of redbeds in most of the formations.

Page: 47
DXC Geological Ltd.

4.3.12.1 Statfjord

An upward coarsening sequence of fluvial sediments consisting of sandy shales interbedded with siltstone,
sandstones and finally pebbly conglomerates. Two members can be distinguished.

4.3.12.2 Raude Member

Sandy shale with interbedded sandy siltstones and sandstone. Very light grey-white calcareous sands and
carbonate streaks can be present. The shales can be red-grey at the base.

4.3.12.3 Eirikson Member

Massive blocky locally conglomeratic light brown, light grey sandstones interbedded with sandy claystones.
The sands are well cemented and fairly poorly sorted.

4.3.12.4 Beryl

Fine to coarse grained, moderately well sorted sandstones, interbedded with argillaceous siltstones and
grey-brown to black claystones. A basal conglomeratic sandstone might be present. The formation is a
lateral equivalent of the Statfjord formation.

4.3.12.5 Cormorant

A complex of red coloured sediments including claystones, siltstones, sandstones and conglomerates. The
top is usually gradually gradational to the overlying Beryl and Statfjord formations which contain some red-
grey shales and claystones at the base.

4.3.12.6 Skagerrak

An upward coarsening sequence of claystones siltstones and sandstones with local conglomeratic layers
found in the top of the formation. The sediments are mostly red coloured, at the top of the formation white
grey sandstone and grey to green claystone can be encountered.

4.3.12.7 Smith Bank

Brick red, silty claystones, siltstones and occasional interbeds of fine-medium sandstones. Anhydrite and
dolomite bands can be found.

4.3.13 Zechstein Group (Late Permian)

Sediments of this group underlie the Cormorant formation. Evaporites are found in the Northern North
Sea, halites can be developed in the South Viking Graben. No clear cycles can be differentiated in the
northern basin, the Zechstein deposits mainly consist of anhydrites, dolomites and limestones. The
distribution of the Zechstein is relatively unknown compared to the overlying deposits. Its depth and
general lack of reservoir quality sediments in the Northern North Sea do not make it a zone of interest.

4.3.13.1 Fringe Zechstein

A mixed clastic-carbonate sequence consisting of conglomerates, sandstones of various texture and sorting
and grey mottled claystones. Red-brown to grey, hard limestones and dolomites alternate with these
clastics. The carbonates are usually microcrystalline, sometimes sandy. The formation is found near the
basin edges (Inner Moray Firth).

4.3.13.2 Turbot Bank

White crystalline anhydrite interbedded with red-brown silty shales and hard, microcrystalline dolomites.
The Turbot Bank formation directly underlies the New Red Group in the Viking Graben.

Page: 48
DXC Geological Ltd.

4.3.13.3 Halibut Bank

Light brown-grey, microcrystalline, often vuggy dolomites, occasionally anhydritic or argillaceous,

interbedded with grey-green dolomitic shales. The boundaries are distinct lithologically and on the log. The
top lies at the base of the first anhydrite bed of the Turbot Bank formation, the base at the gamma ray break
on log and the appearance of dark-brown to black shales with the Kupferschiefer formation.

4.3.13.4 Kupferschiefer

Thin layer of dark brown to black organic rich, dolomitic shale. The shale is usually laminated and normally
high concentrations of metal sulphides (lead, zinc, copper, pyrite) are present in the shale.

4.3.14 Rotliegendes Group (Permian)

The group has not been subdivided in the northern North Sea, the sequence found is usually far from
complete and datings are difficult. The sediments consist of red coloured sandstones and claystones with
some thin interbedded halites.

4.3.15 Carboniferous Limestone Group (Visean)

Some scattered deposits have been encountered in the northern North Sea. The limestones are
recrystallised, very hard and can in places be very vuggy. Thin black shale partings are found in the
limestone.

4.3.16 Firth of Forth Group (Early Carboniferous)

Carbonaceous vary coloured shales with interbedded coal seams, silty shales and sandstones.

4.3.17 Old Red Sandstone Group (Devonian)

A sequence of red coloured commonly micaceous sandstone’s of varying grain size and sorting interbedded
with red-brown claystones, siltstones and conglomerates.

Page: 49
DXC Geological Ltd.

Page: 50
DXC Geological Ltd.

5.0 Drilling Problems

5.1 Drilling Problems in the Southern North Sea

5.1.1 Stuck Pipe

Claystones of the North Sea Group and Haisborough Group.

Halites of the Haisborough Group, Zechstein Halites and Silverpit Formation.

5.1.2 Mud Losses

Mud losses in top hole drilling, up to 200ft below the seabed.

Porous zones may be encountered in the carbonates of the Chalk Group.
Losses into the Bunter Sandstone and Brockelschiefer formations.
Mud losses into fractured Zechstein Carbonates.
Losses into fractured or depleted Rotliegendes.
Losses into depleted Silverpit sandstones.

5.1.3 Washouts

Notably in the North Sea Group and in the salts of the Zechstein Group.

5.1.4 Kicks / Flows

Magnesium brine flows within the Zechstein salts.

Gas, water or brine flows in Zechstein carbonates.
Gas kicks within the reservoir formation.

5.1.5 Hydrogen Sulphide (H2S)

Potential for hydrogen sulphide in the Zechstein carbonates.

5.1.6 Nodule Bands

Chert nodules and bands in the Chalk Group, especially Lower Chalk.
Pyrite in the Kupferschiefer.

5.2 Drilling Problems in the Central North Sea

5.2.1 Stuck Pipe

Clay swelling/caving in the Horda formation, Tay shale and the Lista formation. This problem is severe in
the Fulmar area. OBM has been used to reduce the risk of stuck pipe but does not offer complete protection
against swelling clays. The problem lies with the very high swelling clay (montmorrilite) content of the
claystones.

5.2.2 Mud Losses

Weak tuff layers in the Balder formation.

Porous zones may be encountered in the carbonates of the Chalk Group.
Thin Sands in the Kimmeridge formation.
Losses into weaker zones with high mud weights in the Heather formation.
Mud losses into fractured Zechstein carbonates.
Losses into fractured or depleted Rotliegendes.

5.2.3 Washouts

Washouts can occur in the poorly consolidated Tertiary sands and in the Zechstein salts.

Page: 51
DXC Geological Ltd.

5.2.4 Hydrogen Sulphide (H2S)

High concentrations of hydrogen sulphide can be present in the Piper formation of blocks 15 and 21.
High concentrations of hydrogen sulphide can be present in the Brae sands in block 16.
High to very high concentrations of hydrogen sulphide can be present in the Hugin formation in block 16
and in low concentrations in other blocks.
Low concentrations can be encountered in the Pentland formation.
Low to very low concentrations can be encountered in the Skagerrak formation and Zechstein carbonates.

5.2.5 Nodule Bands

Chert, mainly in the Chalk Group. Chert may be encountered near or at the top of formations especially
where hardgrounds developed. Chert is commonly found in the Tor and Hod formations.

5.3 Drilling Problems in the Northern North Sea

5.3.1 Stuck Pipe

Clay swelling and caving problems are encountered in the Hutton Clay and the Balder formation (very
severe in places, notably North Cormorant, Dunlin, severe on Eider, Tern, Cormorant and moderate on
Brent). The clay swelling/caving is more pronounced in the northern part of the Brent field. The Balder
formation is very variable in thickness and is dependent on the swelling clay component content of the
claystones. The Lista formation and the Shetland Group show less pronounced swelling behaviour.

5.3.2 Washouts

Washouts can occur in the Tertiary sections, especially where loose sands are present, (Frigg, Tay, Forties,
Ninian) and where claystones are tectonically fractured (Balder, Hutton Clay).

5.3.3 Mud Losses

Mud losses can be encountered in the Ninian formation, Chalk Group, Statfjord formation, Heather
formation and limestones of the Carboniferous.

5.3.4 Hydrogen Sulphide (H2S)

Moderate to high concentrations can be encountered in the Brae Sands and Hugin formation. Low
concentrations can be encountered in the Pentland and Kimmeridge formations.

5.3.5 Nodule Bands

Chert can be encountered in the Chalk Group, especially near or at formation tops. Pyrite nodules and
bands can be encountered in the Kimmeridge Clay and in the shales of the Ness formation of the Brent
Group. Siderite nodules can be found in the Hugin formation, Cormorant formation and Old Red
Sandstones.

Page: 52
DXC Geological Ltd.

6.0 A Guide to North Sea Geology

6.1 Cormorant Formation

6.1.1 Lithology

A sandstone dominated sequence of red beds showing great lateral variation; lithologies include red, silty,
locally calcareous claystones, siltstones, pinkish to white argillaceous sandstones, usually fine to medium
grained. Conglomerates are present along the graben margins. Red claystones are dominant in the upper
part of the formation.

6.1.2 Boundaries

The lower boundary corresponds to the Base New Red Unconformity; it is taken at the base of the red bed
sequence, at the contact with the underlying massive anhydrites of the Turbot Bank formation. Where the
Cormorant formation overlies the Fringe Zechstein formation, the contact is usually not clearly
recogniseable on the logs and circumstantial evidence is required to identify the lower boundary. The
boundary with the overlying Statfjord and Beryl formations is gradational and conformable. It is taken at
the top contact between the monotonous red claystones of the Cormorant formation and the overlying red
and grey claystones interbedded with thin blocky sandstones (fluvial channel and crevasse splay/sheet
sands). This boundary is usually taken at the base of the first sandstone bed and corresponding log break.
The Cormorant formation is often unconformably overlain by younger formations.

6.1.3 Distribution

Viking Graben.

6.1.4 Environment

Continental, fluvio-lacustrine under semi-arid (to humid?) climatic conditions.

6.1.5 Age

Triassic (limited biostratigraphic control). The distal alluvial plain red shales immediately underlying the
Statfjord formation have been dated as Norian to Early Rhaetian (Fisher, 1984).

6.1.6 Oil Field

6.1.7 Remarks

The Cormorant formation has been deposited in the rapidly subsiding/rifting Viking Graben;
sedimentation has been greatly influenced by local tectonic activity, resulting in great thickness/facies
variations from one fault block to another. Oil bearing in Cormorant Block II.

6.1.8 Synonyms

Hegre Group

Page: 53
DXC Geological Ltd.

6.2 Beryl Formation

6.2.1 Lithology

A sequence of fine to coarse grained, moderately to well sorted, locally argillaceous sandstones, interbedded
with variegated claystones, argillaceous siltstones and locally with poorly to well sorted conglomeratic
sandstones. A laterally continuous black claystone horizon is recognised in many wells of the Beryl Field.

6.2.2 Boundaries

The boundary with the underlying Cormorant formation is usually taken at the base of the first, broad,
blocky sandstone, as identified on the gamma ray log. A conspicuous, intra-Beryl, black claystone horizon
can be used for correlation and for establishing the formations lower boundary in wells where the basal
sandstone sequence is not properly developed. Hence, the basal contact with the Cormorant formation is
either conformable or marked by an unconformity. In block 9/28, the Beryl formation is marked by a hiatus
(Base Dunlin or Base Fladen Unconformity) expressed by an abrupt change in the gamma ray and sonic
logs.

6.2.3 Distribution

Beryl Embayment area/South Viking Graben.

6.2.4 Environment

Continental, fluvial (alluvial plain crossed by fluvial interpretation channel complex).

6.2.5 Age

Rhaetian to Hettangian (limited biostratigraphic control in wells 9/13-2, 5, 7; 9/19-3; 16/29-4).

6.2.6 Oil Field

Beryl

6.2.7 Remarks

The Beryl formation is, in part, the lateral equivalent of the Skagerrak, Gassum and Statfjord formations.
The onset of the fluvial Beryl deposits corresponds to the Late Triassic/Earliest Jurassic change from semi-
arid to humid, resulting in increased precipitation and in the development of wide spread alluvial
sediments.

6.2.8 Synonyms

Crawford Member (Bolliger, 1982).

Page: 54
DXC Geological Ltd.

6.3 Statfjord Formation

Subdivisions:
 Eirikson Member
 Raude Member

6.3.1 Lithology

A coarsening-upward sequence of variegated, often sandy shales, interbedded with thin siltstones,
sandstones of increasing bed thickness (multi-storey channel sand bodies) and occasionally pebbly
conglomerates. Carbonate streaks (calcrete) have also been reported.

6.3.2 Boundaries

The base of the Statfjord Formation should be taken below the first blocky channel and sand body (circa 3m
thick) and/or at the boundary between relatively sandy shales (=highly serrate, moderate negative
separation of the FDC/CNL overlay) and ‘clean’ shales (=relatively smooth logs with wide separation of the
FDC/CNL overlay) (Johnson & Wonink, 1982).
The upper boundary corresponds locally to an unconformity (Base Dunlin Unconformity) and is taken at
the base of the overlying marine sandstones of the Nansen Formation (now included in the Dunlin Group);
in many wells, the upper boundary is transitional. Vail & Todd (1981) indicate tilting and truncation of the
Statfjord formation prior to deposition of the Nansen formation.
Note that the boundaries as defined here depart from the original definition of the formation by Deegan &
Scull (1977).

6.3.3 Distribution

North Viking Graben / eastern margin of the East Shetland Basin.

6.3.4 Environment

Continental, fluvial (distal to proximal alluvial plain); under marginal marine influence in the upper part.

6.3.5 Age

Rhaetian to Hettangian (limited biostratigraphic control).

6.3.6 Oil Field

Statfjord, Alwyn

6.3.7 Remarks

The Statfjord formation is, in part, the lateral equivalent of the Beryl and Skagerrak Formations. The onset
of the fluvial Statfjord deposits corresponds to the Late Triassic/earliest Jurassic climatic change from
semi-arid to humid, resulting in increased precipitation an in the development of widespread alluvial
sediments. The Statfjord river system was flowing from south to north.
The formation definition is amended here in the sense that the overlying transgressive and onlapping
marine sandstone (Nansen formation) is now included in the Dunlin Group.

6.3.8 Synonyms

Page: 55
DXC Geological Ltd.

6.4 Dunlin Group

Subdivisions:
 Broom Formation
 Dunlin Shale Formation
 Drake Formation
 Cook Formation
 Burton Formation
 Amundsen Formation
 Nansen Formation

6.4.1 Lithology

Three thinning upwards mega-cycles (Nansen-Amundsen-Burton cycle, Cook-Drake cycle and Dunlin-
Broom cycle) consisting of grey to white sandstones, siltstones and grey to grey-brown, occasionally black
shales.

6.4.2 Boundaries

The lower boundary is taken at the base of the first massive, marine sandstone of the Nansen Formation.
This boundary represents in places an unconformity (Base Dunlin Unconformity), while, in the centre of
the basin, the boundary is conformable and in depositional continuity with the underlying Statfjord
formation, The upper boundary is marked by either a sharp break of Broom Sandstone and overlying
Rannoch formation.

6.4.3 Distribution

East Shetland Basin and Viking Graben down to the Beryl Embayment. The formation is thickest in the
Viking Graben and thins out towards the western part of the East Shetland Basin and towards the South
Viking Graben.

6.4.4 Environment

Two successive, depositional cycles, ranging from marginal marine nearshore to offshore, low energy
environments.

6.4.5 Age

Hettangian?/Sinemurian to Aalenian.

6.4.6 Oil Fields

Statfjord, Brent, Gullfaks.

6.4.7 Remarks

Thickness variations within the Dunlin Formations provide evidence for a N-S trending fault system within
the Graben; it includes tilting of individual fault blocks to the west superimposed on a gradual plunge of the
Graben to the North (Bolliger et al., 1979).

6.4.8 Synonyms

Page: 56
DXC Geological Ltd.

6.5 Nansen Formation

6.5.1 Lithology

A sequence of massive, medium to coarse-grained, poorly to fairly well sorted, light grey sandstones,
occasionally glauconitic, interbedded with thin shale layers; pebble horizons are present at the base. The
sandstones become distinctly calcareous cemented in the upper part and occasionally grade into siltstones;
presence of marine fossils.

6.5.2 Boundaries

The Formation's boundaries are taken at the limits of the massive, marine sandstones. The lower boundary
is sharp; it represents in places an unconformity (Base Dunlin Unconformity), while, in the centre of the
basin it rests conformably and in depositional continuity on the underlying Statfjord formation. Vail &
Todd (1981) indicate that the Nansen Formation rests unconformably on truncated and tilted strata.

6.5.3 Distribution

North Viking Graben/Eastern part of the East Shetland Basin. The Formation thins towards the East.

6.5.4 Environment

Transgressive, marginal to shallow marine (bar sands/nearshore sheet sands).

6.5.5 Age

Early Sinemurian.

6.5.6 Oil Fields

Statfjord, Brent, Gulfaks.

6.5.7 Remarks

The Nansen sandstones and the stratigraphically underlying non-marine Statfjord formation can be
distinguished on the basis of their unconformable, onlap relationship as seen in the East Shetland Basin.

6.5.8 Synonyms

Page: 57
DXC Geological Ltd.

6.6 Amundsen Formation

6.6.1 Lithology

A siltstone dominated sequence consisting of grey, silty shales and greyish, non-calcareous siltstones, in
part carbonaceous and pyritic. Streaks of fine to coarse grained, glauconitic, calcareous sandstones, locally
rich in siderite, chamosite and siderite ooliths; occasional presence of limestone stringers

6.6.2 Boundaries

The lower boundary is taken at the base of the sub linear, slightly serrate gamma ray and sonic logs, at the
contact with the underlying sandstones of the Statfjord or Nansen formations. A calcareous member is
locally present at the base of the formation and is characterised by a bell-shaped response on the gamma
ray and sonic logs. The boundary with the underlying Nansen formation is always expressed by a distinct
log break. The upper boundary is taken at the base of the monotonous shales of the Burton formation,
characterised by smooth, linear, almost constant gamma ray and sonic log readings, and wider separation
between the FDC and CNL logs.

6.6.3 Distribution

North Viking Graben and East Shetland Basin.

6.6.4 Environment

Slowly subsiding basin under marginal to shallow marine conditions. The lack or sporadic presence of
marine fossil assemblages indicate partial restriction of the offshore depositional environment.

6.6.5 Age

Sinemurian.

6.6.6 Oil Fields

6.6.7 Remarks

Vail & Todd (1981) indicate onlap of the Amundsen Formation onto the Statfjord/Cormorant formation
towards the basin margins.

6.6.8 Synonyms

Page: 58
DXC Geological Ltd.

6.7 Burton Formation

6.7.1 Lithology

A monotonous sequence of grey, non-calcareous occasionally slightly silty and carbonaceous shales.

6.7.2 Boundaries

The Burton formation is characterised by smooth linear, parallel gamma ray and sonic log responses with
lower sonic log readings and wider FDC/CNL log separations than in the underlying and overlying
formations. ‘The upper and lower boundaries are taken where this log character changes’ (Deegan & Scull,
1977).

6.7.3 Distribution

North Viking Graben and East Shetland Basin.

6.7.4 Environment

Distal marine, offshore system; under low energy conditions. The Burton shales reflect the furthest
southward transgression of the Arctic Seas and the concomitant gradual deepening of the basin.

6.7.5 Age

Late Sinemurian to Early Pliensbachian.

6.7.6 Oil Fields

6.7.7 Remarks

Vail & Todd (1981) indicate tilting and truncation at the top of the Burton formation; towards the basin
margins, the formation is found to be onlapping onto the Statfjord/Cormorant formations.

6.7.8 Synonyms

Page: 59
DXC Geological Ltd.

6.8 Cook Formation

6.8.1 Lithology

A siltstone dominated sequence consisting of light to dark grey, micromicaceous, locally calcareous shales
and siltstones, interbedded with fine to coarse-grained, occasionally glauconitic and calcareous sandstones.
Sandy limestones containing chamosite-ooliths are locally present at or close to the top formation.

6.8.2 Boundaries

On logs, the lower boundary is taken at the top of the monotonous, smooth, parallel gamma ray and sonic
log responses, characteristic for the underlying Burton formation. According to Vail & Todd (1981), it
corresponds to a major unconformity, involving locally tilting and truncation of the underlying strata. The
upper boundary is taken at the top of the siltstone-dominated sequence; on logs, it corresponds to the top
of the roughly bell-shaped Sonic log response, at the contact with the low-velocity shales of the overlying
Drake formation.

6.8.3 Distribution

North Viking Graben and East Shetland Platform.

6.8.4 Environment

Marginal to shallow marine; with renewed detritus supply following a drop in sea level (and rotation of
fault blocks).

6.8.5 Age

Late Pliensbachian to Early Toarcian.

6.8.6 Oil Fields

Gulfaks.

6.8.7 Remarks

6.8.8 Synonyms

Page: 60
DXC Geological Ltd.

6.9 Drake Formation

6.9.1 Lithology

A monotonous sequence of dark grey, micromicaceous shales with occasional sandstone stringers; near its
base the sequence is more calcareous and occasionally glauconitic. Rare shell fragments and belemnites.

6.9.2 Boundaries

The lower boundary is taken at the log break corresponding to the base of the higher gamma ray - lower
velocity shales of the Drake formation. Based on well correlations, Vail & Todd (1981) argue that this
boundary is unconformable in places i.e. with an onlap to the Burton formation. The upper boundary of the
formation is well defined by a gamma ray log break at the base of the Broom sandstones. In the northerly
basinal areas, shale sedimentation has been continuous and the Rannoch shales overlie (conformably?) the
Drake formation (e.g. northern part of blocks 211/12, 14, 19).

6.9.3 Distribution

East Shetland Basin/North Viking Graben.

6.9.4 Environment

Offshore "prodelta" basinal system under low energy conditions.

6.9.5 Age

Toarcian to Aalenian.

6.9.6 Oil Fields

6.9.7 Remarks

‘During deposition of the Drake formation, major fault zones became active. The newly created fault blocks
started to rotate to the west, thus allowing thickest sedimentation near the down throw sides of the major
faults’ (Bolliger et al., 1979). Intra-Drake sandstones in well Norsk Hydro 33/5-2 are interpreted to
represent the regressive stage of cycle UAB-4.6.

6.9.8 Synonyms

Page: 61
DXC Geological Ltd.

6.10 Dunlin Shale Formation

6.10.1 Lithology

A sequence of light to dark grey non-calcareous, locally carbonaceous and micaceous shales and siltstones
with stringers of sandstones.

6.10.2 Boundaries

The lower boundary is taken at the contact with the underlying red beds of the Beryl or Cormorant
formations; it is an abrupt lithological and facies change marking the Base Dunlin Unconformity. The
Dunlin Shale formation overlies an undated sandstone unit, supposedly part of the underlying Beryl
formation (see Bolliger et al 1982). The upper boundary is taken at the contact with the lowest sandstone of
the overlying coal-bearing Pentland formation. This boundary is expressed by a hard kick on the sonic log.

6.10.3 Distribution

Beryl Embayment.

6.10.4 Environment

Marine, open shelf.

6.10.5 Age

Pliensbachian to Aalenian.

6.10.6 Oil Fields

6.10.7 Remarks

This formation includes the marine Liassic shales in the Beryl Embayment.

6.10.8 Synonyms

Basal Shale Member (Bolliger et al., 1982).

Page: 62
DXC Geological Ltd.

6.11 Broom Formation

6.11.1 Lithology

Medium to very coarse grained, poorly sorted feldspathic sandstone with occasional pebbles and shale
clasts. The matrix is very argillaceous and may contain significant amounts of mica. A generally massive
appearance with minor planer cross lamination, much of the primary sedimentary structure has been
destroyed by intense bioturbation.

6.11.2 Boundaries

Four Broom sequences have been identified (Giles et al., 1989) of which the most typical has a generally
blocky to bell- shaped gamma ray and Sonic log response. In this case the boundaries are sharp, especially
the lower one which rests on Dunlin Group shales. In the other cases the sequence is frequently gradational
and boundaries may be difficult to pick without core data especially as the Broom formation may be
represented as a very thin layer of coarse sand granules.

6.11.3 Distribution

East Shetland Basin; Tampen Spur and North Viking Graben.

6.11.4 Environment

Syn-rift fan delta system which pro-graded from the west and which appear to young to the south (Giles et
al., 1989).

6.11.5 Age

Aalenian to Earliest Bajocian.

6.11.6 Oil Fields

6.11.7 Remarks

Broom sequences show distinct proximal-distal relationships (Giles et al., 1989) with a marked thickening
across faults, forming distinct wedges which thin to the west. In the northern areas (blocks 211/13, 14) the
Broom formation is very thinly developed or absent and may pass laterally into deeper marine shales of the
Dunlin Group. The relationship with the overlying Rannoch formation is complex; the Broom formation
appears to be reworked by the Rannoch Sands in the south and to be directly overlain by the Rannoch Shale
Member in the north.

6.11.8 Synonyms

Page: 63
DXC Geological Ltd.

6.12 Heather Formation

Subdivisions:
 Upper Heather Member
 Middle Heather Member
 Lower Heather Member

6.12.1 Lithology

A monotonous sequence of medium to dark grey, micromicaceous to silty claystones and shales, moderately
calcareous, locally with streaks of sandstones and/or carbonates. In the East Shetland Basin, a unit of non-
calcareous, carbonaceous (SOM-rich), dark grey-brown to black claystones (Middle Heather Member) is
intercalated in a sequence of otherwise silty, calcareous claystones. Beds of carbonaceous claystones,
characterised by a ‘soft’ expression on the sonic log, occur at the base of Heather sequences in the Inner
Moray Firth.

6.12.2 Boundaries

The Heather claystones are usually characterised by a sub linear, almost parallel gamma ray and sonic log
curves, with gamma ray log values below 100api. Hence, the formations boundaries are taken where this
character changes. Distinct log breaks usually separate the Heather formation from the underlying coarser
clastic units (e.g. Brent Group) and from the overlying Kimmeridge Clay formation.

6.12.3 Distribution

The formation can be recognised over most of the North Sea.

6.12.4 Environment

Shallow marine to outer shelf and bathyal low energy setting.

6.12.5 Age

Bathonian to Berriasian.

6.12.6 Oil Fields

6.12.7 Remarks

Carmichael (1979) demonstrated the cyclic pattern of deposition for the Heather shales in the East Shetland
Basin. Cyclic patterns, in part correlative with those of the East Shetland Basin, can be recognised in the
Heather sequences throughout the North Sea. In the Inner Moray Firth, ‘regressive’ Piper sandstones occur
in the middle of the Heather Shales, however, no formal subdivisions of the Heather formation is thought
advisable at this stage.
Angular unconformities (related to synsedimentary tectonism), submarine hiati and condensed sequences
are frequently recorded in the Heather formation.
Units of re-deposited sandstones are occasionally present within the Heather Shales and have been related
in part to the Hugin formation. Due to the limited number of occurrences, no formal member is proposed
yet.

6.12.8 Synonyms

Ampthill Clays, Viking Shales (previously included in the Kimmeridge Clay formation in the Central
Graben).

Page: 64
DXC Geological Ltd.

6.13 Lower Heather Member

6.13.1 Lithology

‘Grey, calcareous silty claystones with occasional thin limestones, particularly near the base and at the top.
The log expression is typically a blocky sonic and FDC with high density and velocity values’ (Carmichael
1979).

6.13.2 Boundaries

The lower boundary corresponds to a sharp log break at the contact with the sandstones of the underlying
Brent Group. In a few cases (see Tarbert formation), this boundary may be gradational and the
lithostratigraphic limits are set on individual criteria.
The upper boundary with the Middle Heather Member corresponds to a sharp decrease in sonic and
density log values.

6.13.3 Distribution

East Shetland Basin.

6.13.4 Environment

Shallow marine, low energy, mainly inner shelf.

6.13.5 Age

Latest Bajocian? to Bathonian.

6.13.6 Oil Fields

6.13.7 Remarks

See Upper Heather Member.

6.13.8 Synonyms

Page: 65
DXC Geological Ltd.

6.14 Middle Heather Member

6.14.1 Lithology

A sequence of dark grey brown to black, non-calcareous carbonaceous (SOM-rich) claystones.

6.14.2 Boundaries

‘The contact with the underlying Lower Heather Member is marked by a relatively sharp increase in density
and velocity and a relative increase in FDC/CNL separation. In wells with a thick Heather development (e.g.
211/21-5), this contact may be transitional, in which case the boundary is picked at the point where the
velocity starts to decrease.’ (Carmichael, 1979). The upper boundary is an unconformable contact (Mid
Callovian Unconformity) expressed by a log change towards higher velocities and densities.

6.14.3 Distribution

East Shetland Basin.

6.14.4 Environment

Marine, outer shelf setting under very low energy conditions (no oxygenation of the bottom waters).

6.14.5 Age

Latest Bathonian-Earliest Callovian.

6.14.6 Oil Fields

6.14.7 Remarks

6.14.8 Synonyms

Page: 66
DXC Geological Ltd.

6.15 Upper Heather Member

6.15.1 Lithology

‘The lithology of this interval consists of grey calcareous claystones with frequent thin interbedded
limestones’ (Carmichael, 1979), and rare sandstone intercalations.

6.15.2 Boundaries

The lower boundary corresponds to an unconformable contact (Mid Callovian Unconformity) expressed on
the logs by an abrupt change towards higher log densities and velocities and a relative decrease in
FDC/CNL log separation, as compared to the underlying Middle Heather Member.
The upper boundary, with the Kimmeridge Clay formation, is expressed by a decrease in velocity and
density log values and an increase in the gamma ray and resistivity log readings.

6.15.3 Distribution

East Shetland Basin.

6.15.4 Environment

Marine, outer shelf to bathyal setting under low energy conditions, with occasional turbidite deposition.

6.15.5 Age

Callovian to late Oxfordian.

6.15.6 Oil Fields

6.15.7 Remarks

6.15.8 Synonyms

Page: 67
DXC Geological Ltd.

6.16 Kimmeridge Clay Formation

Subdivisions:
 Upper Kimmeridge Clay Member
 Kimmeridge Sandstone Member
 Magnus Sandstone Member
 Claymore Sandstone Member
 Brae Member
 Lower Kimmeridge Clay Member

6.16.1 Lithology

A sequence of organic rich claystones and shales, dark grey to black in colour, micromicaceous to silty,
carbonaceous, slightly to non-calcareous. Thin beds of siltstones and sandstones are present locally, which
may develop laterally into thicker units of sandstones (Kimmeridge Sandstone Member). Stringers of
carbonates (mostly dolomite) occur, mostly in the lower part of the formation.

6.16.2 Boundaries

When overlying the Heather formation, the lower boundary corresponds to a log break expressed by higher
gamma ray values (usually above 100api), a decrease in sonic and density log readings. When overlying the
Brae, Helmsdale, Piper or Fulmar formations, the lower boundary is a marked log break at the top of the
sandstones. An abrupt facies, log and lithological break (unconformity?) is also recorded at the base of the
Kimmeridge Clay formation when in contact with the Corallian formation.
The upper boundary corresponds to a regional, North Sea wide unconformity (Late Kimmeridgian
Unconformity or Base Cromer Knoll Unconformity), expressed by a major log break. The contact with the
overlying Cromer Knoll Group is taken at the top of the shales characterised by low sonic and density log
values, and high gamma ray log readings (in excess of 100api).

6.16.3 Distribution

The Kimmeridge Clay formation can be recognised over most parts of the North Sea region. It pinches out
towards the inner parts of the Western Platform and is absent over some paleo high features of the Central
North Sea.

6.16.4 Environment

Marine, bathyal/outer neritic (Central Graben areas) to inner neritic (Graben margin/platform); under
restricted bottom circulation/stagnant conditions.

6.16.5 Age

Late Oxfordian to Intra-Late Berriasian. The most regional, North Sea-wide development of the formation
was reached during Portland and Berriasian times.

6.16.6 Oil Fields

6.16.7 Remarks

The Kimmeridge Clay formation, mainly in its upper part, has a very high organic carbon content and is
considered as the main source rock for the hydrocarbon accumulations in the Central and Northern North
Sea. Accounting for the fact that organic-rich shales were deposited throughout the North Sea during Late
Jurassic/Early Cretaceous times, the name ‘Kimmeridge Clay Formation’ is retained here, against the
proposals of Vollset & Dore (1984).

6.16.8 Synonyms

Page: 68
DXC Geological Ltd.

Draupne Formation, Mandal formation, Helmsdale Sandstone Member.

Page: 69
DXC Geological Ltd.

6.17 Lower Kimmeridge Clay Member

6.17.1 Lithology

A sequence of dark to black, micromicaceous to silty claystones and carbonaceous shales, very slightly to
non-calcareous; stringers of dolomites and occasionally, minor interbeds of sandstones. In the Inner Moray
Firth, thicker units of sandstones are interbedded in shales which tend to have higher gamma ray log values
towards the base of the member.

6.17.2 Boundaries

The lower boundary corresponds to the formations lower boundary. The upper boundary is taken either at
the top of the shaly sequence, at the contact with the first massive sandstone member, or, if present, to the
first sonic log break (cycle boundary) in the shales immediately underlying the sandstones. In the Inner
Moray Firth the boundary with the overlying Kimmeridge Sandstone Member is expressed by a soft sonic
log break, at or near the top of the hot shales/clastics sequence.

6.17.3 Distribution

Approximately same distribution as the Kimmeridge, Magnus, Helmsdale and Claymore Sandstone
Members.

6.17.4 Environment

Marine bathyal/outer neritic under restricted bottom circulation/stagnant conditions.

6.17.5 Age

Kimmeridgian.

6.17.6 Oil Fields

6.17.7 Remarks

In the Inner Moray Firth, proximal active fault scarps supply coarse clastics.

6.17.8 Synonyms

Black Shale.

Page: 70
DXC Geological Ltd.

6.18 Cromer Knoll Group

Subdivisions:
 Valhall Formation
 Upper Valhall Formation
 Lower Valhall Formation
 Kopervik Formation
 Moray Firth Formation
 Devils Hole Formation
 Red Chalk Formation
 Speeton Clay Formation
 Spilsby Sandstone Formation

6.18.1 Lithology

The Group consists mainly of fine grained, argillaceous and marly sediments with some limestones;
sandstones are locally present at the base and within the sequence (e.g. Moray Firth formation, Devils Hole
formation, Spilsby Sandstone formation, Kopervik formation).

6.18.2 Boundaries

The lower boundary corresponds to a major North Sea wide unconformity (Base Cretaceous or Late
Kimmerian Unconformity), usually expressed by a strong contrast on the Sonic log (i.e. increase of the
velocities), whereby the group unconformably overlies the Humber or older groups.
The Boundary with the overlying Chalk or Shetland Group is in places gradational and conformable, with
minor lithological or log contrast at the contact, requiring biostratigraphic analysis and log correlations to
identify the boundary. Where the upper boundary is sharp (e.g. on the basis of a sonic log break), it often
coincides with an unconformity.

6.18.3 Distribution

Witch Ground Graben; South Halibut Basin; Inner Moray Firth; Outer Moray Firth.

6.18.4 Environment

Inner/outer shelf to bathyal; mainly under normal marine, low energy conditions.

6.18.5 Age

Latest Berriasian to earliest Cenomanian.

6.18.6 Oil Fields

6.18.7 Remarks

6.18.8 Synonyms

Page: 71
DXC Geological Ltd.

6.19 Upper Kimmeridge Clay Member

6.19.1 Lithology

A sequence of dark grey to black, micromicaceous and carbonaceous claystones and shales, very slightly to
non-calcareous.

6.19.2 Boundaries

The lower boundary corresponds to the base of the ‘hot shale’ sequence, at the contact with the first major
sandstone unit of the underlying Kimmeridge Sandstone Member, or when present, to the first sonic log
break (cycle boundary) in the shales immediately overlying the sandstones.
The upper boundary corresponds to the upper boundary of the formation and group.

6.19.3 Distribution

Same distribution as the Kimmeridge Sandstone Member.

6.19.4 Environment

Bathyal/Outer neritic to inner neritic; under restricted bottom circulation/stagnant conditions.

6.19.5 Age

Late Kimmeridgian to Intra-Late Berriasian.

6.19.6 Oil Fields

6.19.7 Remarks

6.19.8 Synonyms

‘Hot Shales’, Radioactive Clay, Kimmeridge Clay Formation.

Page: 72
DXC Geological Ltd.

6.20 Kimmeridge Sandstone Member

6.20.1 Lithology

Very fine to very coarse, occasionally pebbly, poorly to well sorted sandstones, interbedded with dark grey
to brown mudstones. The sandstones vary from blocky, with no or poorly defined bedding, to vertically
graded units, the most common facies consisting of interbedded, thin graded sandstones (turbidites) and
finely laminated dark grey shales which give a high frequency/high amplitude response on the gamma ray
log. Slumped ad contorted sandstones and mudstones have locally been recognised in cored sections. At the
base and at the top of the member, the shales are often well developed, to the extent that the sandstones
occasionally constitute the secondary lithology.

6.20.2 Boundaries

The Kimmeridge Sandstone Member is embedded in the shales of the Kimmeridge Clay Formation; both its
boundaries are transitional, reflecting he gradual development of the submarine fan and its subsequent
abandonment.
The lower boundary is either taken at the base of the first distinct sandstone bed or, if recognisable, at a
deeper sonic log break marking the onset of the new sedimentation regime. In such a case, the lower
boundary may not correspond to a change in lithology.
In some cases (Beryl Embayment), the Kimmeridge Sandstone Member possibly lies directly on top of the
Heather formation.
The upper boundary is taken either at the top of the uppermost sandstone bed or, if recognisable, at a
shallower sonic log break marking the return to the ‘hot shale’ sedimentation regime.

6.20.3 Distribution

South Halibut Basin, Moray Firth Basin, Witch Ground Graben, Viking Graben, Beryl Embayment and
Magnus Embayment.

6.20.4 Environment

Submarine fan systems. The gravity flow deposits originated in response to relative sea-level low-stands.

6.20.5 Age

Kimmeridgian to Berriasian.

6.20.6 Oil Fields

Bruce, Ettrick, Claymore, Magnus.

6.20.7 Remarks

The Helmsdale Sandstone Member, the Claymore Sandstone Member and the Magnus Sandstone Member
are local equivalents of the Kimmeridge Sandstone Member. The ‘Bruce Sandstone’ in part is also a local
equivalent, included here into the Kimmeridge Sandstone Member.
In the absence of cores, the differentiation between the submarine fan deposits of the Kimmeridge
Sandstones Member and those of the shallow marine Piper formation may not always be possible on
lithology and logs only; palynofacies analysis will help to differentiate the lithostratigraphic units.

6.20.8 Synonyms

Page: 73
DXC Geological Ltd.

6.21 Lower Valhall Formation

Subdivisions:
 Lower Valhall C Member
 Lower Valhall B Member
 Lower Valhall A Member
 Main Lower Valhall Member
 Lower Valhall Sand Member

6.21.1 Lithology

The Formation consists of interbedded calcareous claystones and marls grading, in places, into argillaceous
limestones especially at the base. Occasionally dolomite and siltstones/sandstones are developed locally.
Over structural highs and on basin margins carbonate facies are developed.

6.21.2 Boundaries

The lower boundary is generally the groups boundary (Base Cretaceous or Late Kimmerian Unconformity),
corresponding to an abrupt lithological/log break, and recognised by a sharp increase in sonic log
velocities.
Where the Lower Valhall formation overlies the Moray Firth or Devils Hole formation, the lower boundary
is taken at the top of the uppermost sandstone bed, or, if present at a level immediately above it, at a
character change/break on the sonic log.
The upper boundary corresponds to an intra-Early Aptian event; it is taken at the base of the high gamma
ray/low sonic log velocity shale marker, at the contact with the overlying Upper Valhall formation. When
overlain by the Kopervik formation, the upper boundary is taken either at the base of the first distinct
sandstone bed, or, if present at a level immediately underneath, at a character change/break on the sonic
log.
The lateral boundary with the Moray Firth or Devils Hole formation is taken where the sequence becomes
predominantly shaly.

6.21.3 Distribution

Inner/Outer shelf to bathyal; mainly under normal marine conditions.

6.21.4 Environment

6.21.5 Age

6.21.6 Oil Fields

6.21.7 Remarks

6.21.8 Synonyms

Page: 74
DXC Geological Ltd.

6.22 Lower Valhall A Member

6.22.1 Lithology

A sequence of white to light grey, hard, partly recrystallised limestones/dolomitic limestones, often sandy
and argillaceous, with marly interbeds.

6.22.2 Boundaries

The lower boundary corresponds to the Base Cretaceous Unconformity, usually an abrupt log/lithological
change, characterised by an upward shift to lower gamma ray log values and high sonic log readings. The
upper boundary is taken at the top of the uppermost limestone bed, which is indicated by a distinct up hole
decrease in sonic log velocities.

6.22.3 Distribution

Patchy distribution, mainly in the Viking Graben and in the Greater Moray Firth Area. Often encountered
on paleo high features.

6.22.4 Environment

Transgressive, shallow marine; normal, oxygenated bottom conditions (Rawson & Riley, 1982).

6.22.5 Age

Latest Berriasian to Early Valanginian.

6.22.6 Oil Fields

6.22.7 Remarks

Gas shows in the type well.

6.22.8 Synonyms

Page: 75
DXC Geological Ltd.

6.23 Upper Valhall Formation

Subdivisions:
 Upper Valhall B Member
 Upper Valhall A Member

6.23.1 Lithology

The formation consists of calcareous claystones and marls sometimes grading into limestone towards the
top of the formation. Non-calcareous claystones are also developed during periods when dysaerobic bottom
conditions persisted.

6.23.2 Boundaries

The boundary with the Chalk Group is often unconformable (Base Cretaceous Unconformity) and marked
by an abrupt upward increase in sonic log velocities indicative of the onlap of the Chalk carbonates. Where
the Lower/Middle Cenomanian Lower Hidra Member is present, the log/lithological contrast between the
two formations is attenuated, often corresponding to a slight increase in sonic log velocities; in these cases,
the position of the boundary is best established on the basis of log correlations.
In the Northern North Sea the upper boundary with the Shetland Group is best established using a
combination of biostratigraphic evidence and log correlation.
The lower boundary is taken at the base of a prominent shale bed (Basal Aptian Shale Marker)
characterised by high gamma ray and low sonic log values.

6.23.3 Distribution

6.23.4 Environment

Inner/Outer shelf to bathyal; mainly under normal marine, low energy conditions.

6.23.5 Age

Early Aptian - earliest Cenomanian.

6.23.6 Oil Fields

6.23.7 Remarks

The Upper Valhall formation is used primarily when the individual A and B members cannot be
differentiated (e.g. condensed sequences); in this instance biostratigraphic correlation is essential.

6.23.8 Synonyms

Rodby formation, Sola formation; Valhall B and Valhall A (upper part); Valhall Units B2, B1, A2 and A1
(uppermost part); CK V, IV and III (Ribis, 1983); Alwyn Marl Member (Shell Expro, 1977); Cromer Knoll
Shale formation.

Page: 76
DXC Geological Ltd.

6.24 Shetland Group

Subdivisions:
 Shetland F Formation
 Shetland E Formation
 Shetland D Formation
 Shetland C Formation
 Shetland B Formation
 Shetland A Formation
 Shetland Clay Formation

6.24.1 Lithology

The Shetland Group is characterised by a mixture of lithologies. It consists mainly of fine grained
sediments, marls, claystones, shales with some chalk, limestone and dolomite. Arenaceous deposits are
extremely rare.

6.24.2 Boundaries

The lower contact with the Cromer Knoll Group is mainly unconformable (Base Upper Cretaceous
Unconformity); it is expressed by a distinct log break, with lower gamma ray and higher sonic log values,
reflecting the higher calcareous content of the Shetland Group.
The Shetland Group is overlain, in part unconformably by the Montrose Group. The upper boundary is
taken at the top of the dominantly calcareous sequence, it corresponds to a log break, with higher gamma
ray and lower sonic log readings in the units immediately overlying the Shetland Group.
Near the Beryl Embayment the Shetland Group passes southwards into the equivalent Chalk Group; the cut
off point is arbitrarily defined where the Tor/Shetland E formation contains less than 20% limestones and
also where the Shetland E Marl Member is recognisable.

6.24.3 Distribution

6.24.4 Environment

Marine, deep water shelf to slope and basin. The absence of coarse clastics reflects the general high sea-
level stand throughout the deposition of the Group.

6.24.5 Age

Cenomanian to Maastrichtian.

6.24.6 Oil Fields

6.24.7 Remarks

The main source of data for the description of the Shetland Group is an unpublished exploration report (A
lithostratigraphic study of the Cretaceous in the U.K. part of the Viking Graben).

6.24.8 Synonyms

Page: 77
DXC Geological Ltd.

6.25 Shetland A Formation

6.25.1 Lithology

A sequence of interbedded limestones, marls, claystones and shales in the south, grading into calcareous
claystones and siltstones in the north.

6.25.2 Boundaries

The lower contact with the Cromer Knoll Group is mainly unconformable (Base Upper Cretaceous
Unconformity); it is expressed by a distinct log break, with lower gamma ray and higher sonic log readings
and a less quiet log response as compared with the one of the underlying shales of the Cromer Knoll Group.
The upper boundary is usually distinct, with lower gamma ray and a higher sonic log responses than the
overlying formation (Shetland B, C and D formations). The boundary becomes less distinct northwards.
The boundaries are the best established on the basis of log correlations.

6.25.3 Distribution

Deeper parts of the North Viking Graben and East Shetland Basin; absent from the highs, the Shetland
Platform and the Magnus trends, although it is traceable up to the End-of-the-World fault-zone in the
deeper areas. Southwards, this Formation passes into the equivalent Hidra formation of the South Viking
Graben.

6.25.4 Environment

Marine, deep water shelf to slope and basin. Mass flow deposits are probably present, adjacent to paleo
high areas.

6.25.5 Age

Cenomanian.

6.25.6 Oil Fields

6.25.7 Remarks

6.25.8 Synonyms

Page: 78
DXC Geological Ltd.

6.26 Shetland B Formation

6.26.1 Lithology

A thin unit of mainly shales and claystones.

6.26.2 Boundaries

The Shetland B Formation is characterised by relatively high gamma ray and low sonic log values. The
Upper boundary with the Shetland C formation is often transitional.

6.26.3 Distribution

The Shetland B formation is only 20-50 ft thick and is present only in the deeper parts of the North Viking
Graben, with a distribution very similar to that of the Shetland A formation. Southwards, the Shetland B
formation passes laterally into the equivalent Plenus Marl formation.

6.26.4 Environment

Marine, deep water shelf to basin; under partial dysaerobic conditions; low rates of sedimentation.

6.26.5 Age

Late Cenomanian to Mid Turonian.

6.26.6 Oil Fields

6.26.7 Remarks

6.26.8 Synonyms

Page: 79
DXC Geological Ltd.

6.27 Shetland C Formation

Subdivisions:
 Upper Shetland C Member
 Basal Shetland Limestone Member
 Lower Shetland C Member

6.27.1 Lithology

A sequence of bedded to massive limestones with calcareous shales, claystones and marls.

6.27.2 Boundaries

The lower boundary is distinct in so much that the top of the Shetland A formation with a lower gamma ray
response and a higher sonic log reading can be easily picked. The boundary with the Shetland B formation
can rarely be easily picked and must be established on the basis of log correlations. In places the Shetland C
formation unconformably overlies the Cromer Knoll Group.
The upper boundary is distinct; except in the far north, where the Shetland C formation is relatively
calcareous and characterised by a relatively low gamma ray and high sonic log expression as compared to
the overlying shalier Shetland D formation. North of Quadrant 3, the Shetland C formation becomes less
calcareous, especially in the lower part, until only a few calcareous stringers remain to mark the upper
boundary - even these eventually die out to the northeast where the Shetland C formation is not
distinguishable. North of Quadrant 3 a stronger marker becomes evident just below the calcareous stringers
which has a high gamma ray and low sonic log response. This marker is thought to be roughly equivalent to
the probably diachronous boundary between the shalier lower part and the more calcareous upper part of
the Herring formation in the South Viking Graben, which becomes progressively higher in the section going
northwards. Although this lower marker represents a strong boundary north of Quadrant 3, it is felt for
consistency reasons that it is better to maintain the original boundary. Although it is not so well marked, it
can still be picked at the top of the calcareous stringers.
In the far northeast, the formation becomes undistinguishable from the Shetland D formation.
Towards the south, the formation passes laterally into the Herring formation of the Chalk Group.

6.27.3 Distribution

Larger part of the South Viking Graben; absent from many of the highs, the Magnus Trend, the Unst Basin,
the Shetland Platform and the marginal areas of the Shetland Platform.

6.27.4 Environment

Marine, deep water shelf, slope (mass flows) to basin.

6.27.5 Age

Middle Turonian?

6.27.6 Oil Fields

6.27.7 Remarks

The formation becomes relatively calcareous to the South and adjacent to the Shetland Platform and the
high areas, where part of the formation may consist of mass-flow limestones.

6.27.8 Synonyms

Page: 80
DXC Geological Ltd.

6.28 Lower Shetland C Member

6.28.1 Lithology

As for the Formation.

6.28.2 Boundaries

The upper boundary corresponds with the base of the Basal Shetland Limestone Member and the lower one
is identical to the base of the formation.

6.28.3 Distribution

East Shetland Basin.

6.28.4 Environment

Open marine shelf.

6.28.5 Age

Middle Turonian (lower)?

6.28.6 Oil Fields

6.28.7 Remarks

6.28.8 Synonyms

Page: 81
DXC Geological Ltd.

6.29 Basal Shetland Limestone Member

6.29.1 Lithology

A unit consisting of hard to moderately hard limestone (wackestone - packstone), sometimes argillaceous,
white to grey. Within the unit one or more thin marl beds can be present. Losing its typical, well defined
character to the south.

6.29.2 Boundaries

The characteristically low gamma ray and high sonic log responses made this unit easily distinguishable
from the underlying and overlying shaly sequences. The boundaries are usually sharp, but are less well
defined towards the south.

6.29.3 Distribution

Widespread in the East Shetland Basin, typically in the Tern - Eider area, probably into the NW Magnus
Embayment and Alwyn Slope areas. Could be limited to structural highs.

6.29.4 Environment

Marine, relatively shallow, middle-outer neritic shelf with clear, well oxygenated conditions.

6.29.5 Age

Middle Turonian (middle)?

6.29.6 Oil Fields

6.29.7 Remarks

6.29.8 Synonyms

Page: 82
DXC Geological Ltd.

6.30 Upper Shetland C Member

6.30.1 Lithology

As for the formation.

6.30.2 Boundaries

The upper boundary is identical too the one for the formation. The lower boundary is usually well defined
by the underlying carbonate succession belonging to the Basal Shetland Limestone Member.

6.30.3 Distribution

East Shetland Basin.

6.30.4 Environment

Open marine shelf.

6.30.5 Age

Middle Turonian (upper)?

6.30.6 Oil Fields

6.30.7 Remarks

6.30.8 Synonyms

Page: 83
DXC Geological Ltd.

6.31 Shetland D Formation

6.31.1 Lithology

A fairly monotonous sequence consisting of marls, shales and claystones with minor dolomite and
limestone stringers.

6.31.2 Boundaries

The lower boundary is variable. In the shallower areas, the formation lies unconformably on the Cromer
Knoll Group which in general has a high gamma ray and low sonic response. In deeper areas, it overlies the
Shetland C formation with a distinct log break, i.e. with lower gamma ray and higher sonic log signatures in
the underlying formation.
In the far north, the Shetland C formation is undistinguishable from the lower part of the Shetland D
formation; here, the Shetland D formation directly overlies the Shetland B and A formations. The upper
boundary corresponds to a relatively good break, the Shetland A formation having a lower gamma ray and a
higher sonic log expression.
North of the End-of-the-World fault, the Shetland D formation is not always distinguishable from the
Shetland E formation.
Southwards, the Shetland D formation passes laterally into the Flounder formation of the Chalk Group.

6.31.3 Distribution

Entire North Viking Graben area, with the probable exception of a small area adjacent to the Unst Basin,
the Unst Basin itself and the Shetland Platform.

6.31.4 Environment

Marine, deep water shelf to basin.

6.31.5 Age

Late Turonian to Late Campanian (?)

6.31.6 Oil Fields

6.31.7 Remarks

6.31.8 Synonyms

Page: 84
DXC Geological Ltd.

6.32 Shetland E Formation

Subdivisions:
 Shetland E Limestone Member
 Shetland E Main Member

6.32.1 Lithology

The Shetland E formation can be divided into the following two members:
 Shetland E Limestone Member: massive chalky limestone with occasional shaly intervals.
 Shetland E Main Member: interbedded grey marls, shales and thin bedded argillaceous limestones
getting less calcareous and grading away into grey shales towards the base.

6.32.2 Boundaries

The relatively low gamma ray and high sonic log responses of the Shetland E Main Member produces in
general a good break at the contact with the underlying Shetland D formation; however, north of the End-
of-the-World fault, this boundary is not always recognisable.
The upper boundary is usually distinct with the formation being overlain, in part unconformably, by the
Maureen North formation, which has a higher gamma ray and a lower sonic log response.
A thin argillaceous limestone is also often present at the top of the Shetland E formation. Near the Shetland
Platform, the Shetland E Limestone Member is present, having a characteristic low gamma ray and a high
sonic log signature. Southwards, the Shetland E formation passes laterally into the Tor formation of the
Chalk Group (see Shetland Group).

6.32.3 Distribution

North Viking Graben.

6.32.4 Environment

Marine, deep water shelf, slope to basin.

6.32.5 Age

Late Campanian to Maastrichtian.

6.32.6 Oil Fields

6.32.7 Remarks

The previously distinguished Shetland E Marl Member is now regarded as a synonym of the Shetland E
Main Member.

6.32.8 Synonyms

Shetland Marl Formation.

Page: 85
DXC Geological Ltd.

6.33 Shetland E Main Member

6.33.1 Lithology

A unit of interbedded grey marls, shales and thin bedded argillaceous limestones becoming less calcareous
and grading into grey shales towards the base.

6.33.2 Boundaries

The characteristic low gamma ray and high sonic log values makes this rock unit easily distinguishable from
the underlying and overlying sequences.

6.33.3 Distribution

As for the formation.

6.33.4 Environment

6.33.5 Age

6.33.6 Oil Fields

6.33.7 Remarks

This rock unit comprises all Shetland E sequences consisting of marls and shales. Massive chalky limestone
is absent. It includes the previously distinguished Shetland E Marl Member.

6.33.8 Synonyms

Shetland E Marl Member.

Page: 86
DXC Geological Ltd.

6.34 Montrose Group

Subdivisions:
 Forties Formation
 Teal Formation
 Lista Formation
 Andrew Formation
 Heimdal Formation
 Maureen Formation
 Maureen Marl Formation
 Maureen North Formation

6.34.1 Lithology

The group typically comprises, at the base, a mixed sequence of marls, shales, sandstones and re-deposited
blocks of chalk, overlain by a shaly sequence with interbedded sandstones, where the sandstones often
constitute the main lithology.

6.34.2 Boundaries

The lower boundary is a widespread unconformity (Base Tertiary Unconformity), associated with a change
from dominantly calcareous (Chalk Group) to dominantly siliclastic sediment. In general, it is expressed by
an often abrupt, upward decrease in the Sonic log response. In the northern part of the South Viking
Graben, the Montrose Group unconformably overlies the Cromer Knoll or Humber Group. In the areas
where the Maureen Marl or Maureen North formation are developed, the lower boundary with the Chalk or
Shetland Group may be transitional. The upper boundary with the Rogaland Group is taken at the base of
the organic-rich shales of the Sele formation to their time correlative sediments (e.g. Rogaland Sand
formation).

6.34.3 Distribution

The Group is present throughout the Central and Northern North Sea. In the Southern North Sea, its
identification is sometimes difficult and the corresponding sediments are often referred to as the
(undifferentiated) North Sea Clay Formation.

6.34.4 Environment

‘Deep Marine’ (circa. 100 to 800 metres), hemipelagic depositional environment experiencing episodes of
mass flow sedimentation. Initially, the mass flows are mainly slumps and debris flows, which are then
gradually replaced by more mature turbidites. Two major depositional sequences can be recognised, the
first of which deposited the Andrew and Heimdal submarine fans, the second one the Forties and Teal fans.
Both fan systems are generally separated by claystones of the Lista formation, which was deposited during a
transgression phase of sedimentation.

6.34.5 Age

Paleocene (mainly late part).

6.34.6 Oil Fields

Forties, Montrose, Nelson, Gannet (part), Maureen, Andrew, Balmoral, Everest, Lomond.

6.34.7 Remarks

The Ninian Sand formation has been re-interpreted as belonging to the Moray Group rather than to the
Montrose Group. The Lyell Sand formation has been renamed Heimdal formation. The Lower Forties
formation has been re-interpreted as the upper part of the Andrew formation.

Page: 87
DXC Geological Ltd.

6.34.8 Synonyms

Page: 88
DXC Geological Ltd.

6.35 Maureen Formation

6.35.1 Lithology

‘The formation consists of mixed lithologies with rather irregular distribution patterns. It is frequently
conglomeratic and contains pebbles and clasts of reworked limestones and shales of Danian and late
Cretaceous age, in a matrix of, or interbedded with, brown and dark grey shales, siltstones and sandstones.’
(Deegan & Scull, 1977).

6.35.2 Boundaries

‘The Maureen Formation rests on the Chalk Group or Shetland Group and the change from the primarily
non-clastic deposits of the Chalk Group, or the calcareous mudstones of the Shetland Group, to the
heterogeneous deposits of the Maureen formation is well shown on the sonic, gamma and dipmeter logs.
The upper boundary is marked by the change from variably sandy deposits containing reworked limestone
fragments, to the commencement of submarine fan and turbidite deposits. This boundary can be difficult to
identify as the first deposits of the fan wedges may also be calcareous in nature.’ (Deegan & Scull, 1977).
Laterally, the Formation passes into the Maureen Marl formation (parts of the Central North Sea) and into
the Maureen North formation (Viking Graben).

6.35.3 Distribution

‘The generally coarse Maureen formation deposits were mainly derived from erosion and reworking of
underlying Danian and Cretaceous rocks, although fragments of pre-Cretaceous rocks may be locally
present. This coarse detrital facies is mainly developed in the Central Graben and Southern Viking Graben,
particularly around intra-basinal highs. It thins to the northwest in the Moray Firth Basin. A marl facies
equivalent of the Maureen formation is present over highs, and away from sand sources where the
underlying rock is marly’. (Deegan & Scull, 1977).

6.35.4 Environment

The Maureen formation contains abundant slumps, debris flows and "slurry deposits" interpretation with
frequent reworking from the Chalk Group. These reworked strata were deposited in response to a rapid
drop in relative sea level, which is correlative with a rapid uplift of the Shetland Platform/Scottish
Highlands area. This uplift is associated with sudden northward progradation of Atlantic spreading and
volcanism west of the Shetlands.

6.35.5 Age

Paleocene.

6.35.6 Oil Fields

6.35.7 Remarks

6.35.8 Synonyms

Page: 89
DXC Geological Ltd.

6.36 Andrew Formation

6.36.1 Lithology

‘The Andrew formation consists of sandstones, showing a characteristic cylindrical wireline log response,
with minor interbeds of claystones. The sandstones are composed of fine to medium, locally coarse, sub
angular to sub rounded grains, are moderately sorted, white to very light grey, locally calcareous and rarely
tuffaceous. The claystones are firm, sub fissile to blocky, medium grey, greenish grey and olive grey,
micromicaceous, locally silty add non-calcareous. Pyrite, carbonaceous debris, and rare amounts of
glauconite are present as accessories, Tuffaceous deposits occur in association with the claystones and
sandstones forming fairly thick layers within the Andrew formation in the north western portion of the
study area. These tuffaceous beds may be bonded sub aerial tuffs or concentrations of reworked older
volcanics, possibly Middle Jurassic’. (RRI. 1987).

6.36.2 Boundaries

The boundaries correspond to identified seismic markers (D11.6 and D12 for the Central North Sea area).
‘On log shape the Andrew formation is characterised by a low gamma ray response and a high box-shape,
sonic velocity, in contrast to the more irregular log response of the overlying unit’. (Alberts & Speelman.
1986). ‘The formation overlies the Maureen formation, the boundary being conformable and marked by an
upward change from the heterolithic lithologies with reworked limestones of the Maureen formation to the
interbeds of sand and claystone of the Andrew formation. There is a gradual upward increase in gamma ray
response across the boundary". (RRI, 1987). In places, the Andrew formation unconformably overlies the
Maureen formation or the Chalk Group. ‘The upper boundary is identified on the sonic log as the break
between the generally high velocity Andrew Formation and the overlying sandstones and siltstones (Fergus
formation), which have a distinctly lower velocity’. (Deegan & Scull, 1977).
Laterally and upward the Andrew formation grades into the shales of the Lista formation, the boundary
being arbitrarily taken when the sequence contains less than 50% sandstones.

6.36.3 Distribution

South Viking Graben, Outer Moray Firth, Central Graben.

6.36.4 Environment

The Andrew formation forms a large sand-dominated submarine fan, which spread over most of the Moray
Firth/Central Graben area. The high sand content causes turbidites in the Andrew fan to have a proximal
aspect. Maximum water depth is estimated to have been about 600 metres. The fan was deposited after the
rapid fall in relative sea level, which initially triggered deposition of the Maureen formation. Subsequent
relative sea level rise caused abandonment of the Andrew fan, with a gradual change from Andrew sands
into Lista shales as a result.

6.36.5 Age

Late Paleocene.

6.36.6 Oil Fields

Oil fields: Andrew, Maureen, Balmoral, Gannet D, Mabel, Maggie.

Gas/condensate fields: Everest (part), Judy, Joanne.

6.36.7 Remarks

6.36.8 Synonyms

Unit 1, Sequence A (Alberts & Speelman, 1986). Halibut Sand formation. The ‘Lower Forties Formation’
corresponds to the upper part of the Andrew Formation.

Page: 90
DXC Geological Ltd.

6.37 Lista Formation

Subdivisions:
 Upper Lista Member
 Lower Lista Member

6.37.1 Lithology

A sequence of claystones and shales, grey, micromicaceous to silty, usually poorly to non-calcareous. Minor
interbeds concretions of carbonate, occasionally including reworked chalk. Sandstone beds may be locally
quite common, although the overall sand content must be less than 50%. Bioturbidation is common in the
lower part of the Lista formation (typically Chondrites, Planolites), and becomes increasingly rare upward.
This upward change is associated with a colour change from greenish grey to dark grey (Forties formation
equivalent).

6.37.2 Boundaries

The Lista formation is characterised on logs by higher gamma ray and lower sonic readings and larger
negative FDC/CNL log separations than the surrounding formations. The most common occurrence of the
Lista formation is a ‘transgressive’ claystone between the Andrew and Forties formations or between the
Heimdal and Teal formations. However, the Lista formation can be a lateral clay-equivalent of all these
turbidite-bearing formations.

6.37.3 Distribution

Widely distributed throughout the North Sea.

6.37.4 Environment

Deep marine, hemipelagic with occasionally distal turbidites. Well oxygenated in the lower part, becoming
increasingly restricted towards the top.

6.37.5 Age

6.37.6 Oil Fields

6.37.7 Remarks

6.37.8 Synonyms

Page: 91
DXC Geological Ltd.

6.38 Balder Formation

6.38.1 Lithology

‘The Balder formation is composed of laminated varicoloured fissile shales with interbedded grey green or
buff, often pyritic, tuffs and occasional stringers of limestone, dolomite and siderite’. (Deegan & Scull,
1977).
In cores, the tuffs can be observed as discrete blue-grey or green-grey bands, typically 1-5cm thick, with
very sharp, flat boundaries. The tuffs in these bands are mostly very angular, interlocking crystals of
volcanic glass, quartz and plagioclase with abundant smectite in the pore spaces. The crystals are fine sand
to silt-sized and often display a perfect fining-up within the tuff band, due to the more rapid sinking of
coarser ash particles. The colour of the tuff bands contrasts strongly with the background sedimentation of
dark, grey-black hemipelagic clay.

6.38.2 Boundaries

‘The upper boundary is placed at the change from the laminated shales of the Balder formation to the non-
laminated, often glauconitic, occasionally reddish, overlying sediments. The lower boundary with the Sele
formation is generally identified on wireline logs as the upward change from higher to lower gamma ray
response and lower to higher sonic velocity readings, probably corresponding to the sharp increase in the
tuffaceous component of the Balder formation’. (Deegan & Scull, 1977). This effectively means, that both
the lower and the upper boundary are picked on gamma ray log maxima. In the absence of sand, the Balder
formation can often be recognised on seismic as a double black loop which can be followed over large
distances.

6.38.3 Distribution

‘This Formation is distributed over most of the North Sea and may correspond in part to the Mo Clay
Formation in Denmark’. (Deegan & Scull, 1977).

6.38.4 Environment

Marine, outer shelf to bathyal setting with restricted water circulation. Strong input of volcaniclastics
(tuffs). The bloom of siliceous diatoms (Coscinodiscus) at that time is indicative of an abnormally low pH of
the surface waters (silica-enrichment related to Thulean volcanism).

6.38.5 Age

Early Eocene.

6.38.6 Oil Fields

6.38.7 Remarks

6.38.8 Synonyms

The Scaup formation, forms the upper part of the Balder Formation.

Page: 92
DXC Geological Ltd.

6.39 Hutton Clay Formation

Subdivisions:
 Upper Hutton Clay Member
 Lower Hutton Clay Member

6.39.1 Lithology

Claystone and siltstone, light brown, grey green or dark grey, non-to slightly calcareous, micaceous,
glauconitic, carbonaceous. Contains thin beds of brown, red brown limestone and dolomite. May have thin
beds of sandstone at the top (transition to Hutton Sand) or at the base (lateral equivalent of Frigg Sand).

6.39.2 Boundaries

The upper boundary is taken at the base of the lower most prominent sandstone in the Hutton Sand
formation. This is quite a clear boundary in most areas but in some eastern sectors this is less clear due to
shaling out of the lower sands of the Hutton Sand formation. The base is taken at the top of the Frigg
Sandstone, where present, or at the top of the Balder tuff sequence.
The joint Central North Sea equivalents of the Hutton Clay formation are the Tay Shale, Horda and Lark
formations, which are lithologically identical to the Hutton Clay formation.
In the Viking Graben, the Hutton Sand Formation progrades over the Hutton Clay formation. This
progradation occurs in advancing cycles, and during the Late Miocene the entire North Sea was covered.
The boundary between the formations is taken at an overall sand content of 20%. The transition is
frequently marked by a gradual coarsening-up sequence.

6.39.3 Distribution

Northern North Sea.

6.39.4 Environment

Marine; moderately deep basin.

6.39.5 Age

Eocene to Miocene.

6.39.6 Oil Fields

6.39.7 Remarks

The Hutton Clay formation is a composite unit comprising several depositional sequences, sequences E – I.
(Alberts & Speelman, 1986).

6.39.8 Synonyms

Page: 93
DXC Geological Ltd.

6.40 Upper Hutton Clay Member

6.40.1 Lithology

As for the Formation.

6.40.2 Boundaries

The upper boundary is taken at the base of the lowermost prominent sandstone in the Hutton Sand
formation. The lower boundary is taken at the top of the highest sand bed of the Alba North formation.

6.40.3 Distribution

Viking Graben. East Shetland Basin.

6.40.4 Environment

Marine, moderately deep basin.

6.40.5 Age

Oligocene to Miocene.

6.40.6 Oil Fields

6.40.7 Remarks

6.40.8 Synonyms

Page: 94
DXC Geological Ltd.

6.41 Hutton Sand Formation

6.41.1 Lithology

Sands of variable grain size, very fine to coarse, with occasional granules and pebbles, glauconite, with
abundant fossil debris (corals, bryzoa, gastropods, forams, bivalves at some levels, also lignitic beds.
Interbedded with claystones, grey green to black (carbonaceous), silty and slightly non-calcareous.

6.41.2 Boundaries

The top of the formation is generally assumed to be the seabed, although the lithology of the first few
hundred feet is usually poorly known. The lowermost prominent sand is taken to be the base, which
sometimes lends to the inclusion of thick intervals of shale in the Hutton Sand formation. The basal sand
unit, however, can be traced over large areas and can be observed to thin and effectively pass into the
Hutton Clay formation. Because of this interfingering with the Hutton Clay the base of the Hutton Sand
formation is diachronous. Lateral equivalents of the Hutton Sand formation are the sandy parts of the Lark
formation and the Nordland Group in the Central North Sea, and the North Sea Sand formation in the
Southern North Sea. Lithologically, these are all identical.

6.41.3 Distribution

Most parts of the Northern North Sea.

6.41.4 Environment

Marine, shallow to intermediate shelf, shallowing up to marginal marine and glacial.

6.41.5 Age

Oligocene to Recent.

6.41.6 Oil Fields

6.41.7 Remarks

The Hutton Sand formation is a composite unit comprising several depositional sequences.

6.41.8 Synonyms

Page: 95
DXC Geological Ltd.

6.42 North Sea Clay Formation

6.42.1 Lithology

In the type well, this rock unit consists of a sequence of grey to light brown, micromicaceous, in places
silty/sandy, soft clays grading downward into claystone. Occasional streaks of dolomitic limestones.

6.42.2 Boundaries

A composite unit, the lower boundary of which is usually picked at the top of the Balder tuff sequence,
where the tuffs are not recognisable (e.g. parts of the Southern North Sea), the North Sea Clay formation
may extend down to the top of the Chalk Group.
The upper boundary is taken at the unconformable contact with the overlying North Sea Sand formation.

6.42.3 Distribution

Southern North Sea.

6.42.4 Environment

Marine, mainly middle to outer shelf.

6.42.5 Age

Eocene to Miocene.

6.42.6 Oil Fields

6.42.7 Remarks

6.42.8 Synonyms

Page: 96
DXC Geological Ltd.

6.43 North Sea Sand Formation

6.43.1 Lithology

This formation consists of a sequence of very fine to medium (coarse), poorly to moderately sorted loose
sands becoming very argillaceous and carbonaceous towards the base. Occasional streaks of limestones and
shell fragments. In places thick lignite beds are present.

6.43.2 Boundaries

A composite unit, the lower boundary of which is taken at the base of the sand sequence, at the contact with
the clays/claystones of the underlying North Sea Clay formation, or at the contact with older groups (e.g.
Chalk Group, Lias Group, Haisborough Group). The upper boundary is the seafloor.

6.43.3 Distribution

Southern North Sea and Mid North Sea High.

6.43.4 Environment

Shallow marine, marginal marine and glacial.

6.43.5 Age

Pliocene to Recent.

6.43.6 Oil Fields

6.43.7 Remarks

The North Sea Sand formation is apparently separated from the underlying North Sea Clay Formation by a
regional unconformity (Veeken, 1987) and as such could be identified as a separate group. However, in
order to avoid unnecessary proliferation of names over unprospective intervals (where stratigraphic control
is anyway very limited), this unit should retain its undifferentiated formation status for practical reasons.

6.43.8 Synonyms

Page: 97
DXC Geological Ltd.

7.0 Acknowledgements

Compiled from a series of Geology notes, well programs, manuals and various texts including;

D. F. Lapidus. (1990). Collins Dictionary of Geology. AbeBooks.

R. Anderton, P. Bridges, et.al. (1979). A Dynamic Stratigraphy of the British Isles: A Study in Crustal
Evolution. HarperCollins.

K. W. Glennie. (1990). An Introduction to the Petroleum Geology of the North Sea. Wiley-Blackwell.

M. E. Tucker. (1981). Sedimentary Petrology: An Introduction to the Origin of Sedimentary Rocks. Wiley-
Blackwell.

R. C. Selley. (1978). Ancient Sedimentary Environments and their Sub-surface Diagnosis. Routledge.

Journals of the Geological Society.

All copyrights respectfully acknowledged.

Page: 98
DXC Geological Ltd.

www.dxcgeological.co.uk

Page: 99