BLM1612 - Circuit Theory

The Instructors:
Dr. Öğretim Üyesi Erkan Uslu
[email protected]
Dr. Öğretim Üyesi Hamza Osman İlhan
[email protected]
Lab Assistants:
Arş. Gör. Hasan Burak Avcı
http://avesis.yildiz.edu.tr/hbavci/
Arş. Gör. Kübra Adalı
http://avesis.yildiz.edu.tr/adalik/
Arş. Gör. Alper Eğitmen
http://avesis.yildiz.edu.tr/aegitmen/
1
Operational Amplifiers
(Op-Amps)

2
 Objectives of Lecture
• Describe how an ideal operational amplifier (op-amp)
behaves.
• Define voltage gain, current gain, transresistance gain, and
transconductance gain.
• Explain the operation of an ideal op amp in a voltage
comparator and inverting amplifier circuit.
– Show the effect of using a real op-amp.
• Apply the ‘almost ideal’ op-amp model in the following
circuits:
– Inverting Amplifier
– Noninverting Amplifier
– Voltage Follower
– Summing Amplifier
– Difference Amplifier
– Cascaded Amplifiers

3
 The Operational Amplifier
• An operational amplifier (Op-Amp) is a DC-
coupled high-gain electronic voltage amplifier
with a differential input and, usually, a single-
ended output.
• An Op-Amp produces an output potential
(relative to circuit ground) that is typically
hundreds of thousands of times larger than the
potential difference between its input terminals.
• The operational amplifier finds daily usage in a
large variety of electronic applications.
4
 Op Amps Applications
• Audio amplifiers
– Speakers and microphone circuits in cell phones,
computers, mpg players, boom boxes, etc.
• Instrumentation amplifiers
– Biomedical systems including heart monitors and
oxygen sensors.
• Power amplifiers
• Analog computers
– Combination of integrators, differentiators,
summing amplifiers, and multipliers
5
Symbols for Ideal and Real Op Amps

OpAmp uA741

LM111 LM324

6
 Terminals on an Op Amp

Positive power supply

(Positive rail)

Non-inverting
Input terminal

Output terminal

Inverting input
terminal

Negative power supply

(Negative rail)

7
 Op Amp Equivalent Circuit

vd = v2 – v1
A is the open-loop voltage gain
v2

v1
Voltage controlled
voltage source

8
 The Operational Amplifier

Ideal Op-Amp Rules

– No current ever flows into either input terminal.
–There is no voltage difference between the two input terminals.
9
 Typical Op-Amp Parameters

Parameter Variable Typical Ideal Values

Ranges
Open-Loop
Voltage Gain
A 105 to 108
∞
Input
Resistance
Ri 105 to 1013 W
∞W
Output Ro 10 to 100 W 0W
Resistance
Supply Voltage Vcc/V+ 5 to 30 V N/A
-Vcc/V- -30V to 0V N/A
10
 How to Find These Values
• Component Datasheets
– Many manufacturers have made these freely
available on the internet
• Example: LM741, LM 324, etc.

11
The Operational Amplifier

12
13
 dB
• Decibels
Since P = V2/R
10 log (P/Pref) or 20 log (V/Vref)

In this case:
20 log (Vo/Vin) = 20 log (A) = 100
A = 105 = 100,000

14
15
 Large Signal Voltage Gain = A
• Typical
– A = 100 V/mV = 100V/0.001V = 100,000
• Minimum
– A = 25 V/mV = 25 V/0.001V = 25,000

16
Caution – A is Frequency Dependent

http://www.national.com/ds/LM/LM124.pdf

17
 Modifying Gain in Pspice OpAmp
• Place part in a circuit
• Double click on component
• Enter a new value for the part attribute called
GAIN

18
OrCAD Schematics

19
 Open Circuit Output Voltage
• Open Circuit Output Voltage
vo = A vd

• Ideal Op-Amp
vo = ∞ (vd)
• Saturation in real Op-Amp
– An op-amp requires power supplies.
– Usually, equal and opposite voltages
are connect to the V+ and V-
terminals.
– Typical values are 5 to 24 volts.
– The power supply ground must be the
same as the signal ground.
• Above, +18V is connected to V+ and -18 V is connected to V-
20
 Open Circuit Output Voltage
• Real Op Amp

Voltage Range Output Voltage

Positive Saturation Avd > V+ vo ~ V+

Linear Region V- < Avd < V+ vo = A vd
Negative Saturation Avd < V- vo ~ V-

The voltage produced by the dependent voltage source inside the op amp is limited
by the voltage applied to the positive and negative rails.
21
Voltage Transfer Characteristic

Range where
we operate the
op amp as an
amplifier.

vd

22
 Ideal Op-Amp

Because Ri is equal to ∞W,

the voltage across Ri is 0V.

i2 = 0 v1 = v2
v2
vd = 0 V

i1 = 0

v1

23
 Almost Ideal Op Amp
• Ri = ∞ W
– Therefore, i1 = i2 = 0A

• Ro = 0 W
• Usually, vd = 0V so v1 = v2
– The op-amp forces the voltage at the inverting input terminal to
be equal to the voltage at the noninverting input terminal if there
is some component connecting the output terminal to the
inverting input terminal.
• Rarely is the op-amp limited to V- < vo < V+.
– The output voltage is allowed to be as positive or as negative as
needed to force vd = 0V.

24
Example 01: Voltage Comparator…

is = 0 i1 = 0

i2 = 0

Note that the inverting input and non-inverting input

terminals have rotated in this schematic.

25
 …Example 01…
• The internal circuitry in the op-amp tries to
force the voltage at the inverting input to be
equal to the non-inverting input.
– As we will see shortly, a number of op-amp circuits
have a resistor between the output terminal and the
inverting input terminals to allow the output voltage
to influence the value of the voltage at the inverting
input terminal.

26
…Example 01: Voltage Comparator

is = 0 i1 = 0

i2 = 0

When Vs is equal to 0V, Vo = 0V.

When Vs is smaller than 0V, Vo = V+.
When Vs is larger than 0V, Vo = V-.
27
 Electronic Response
• Given how an op-amp functions, what do you
expect Vo to be if v2 = 5V when:
1. Vs = 0V?
2. Vs = 5V?
3. Vs = 6V?

28
Example 02: Closed Loop Gain…

if

is i1 = 0

v1

v2
i2 = 0

29
 …Example 02…
if

is i1

io

i2

For an almost ideal op amp, Ri = ∞ W and Ro = 0 W.

The output voltage will never reach V+ or V-.
30
 …Example 02…
if
Virtual ground

is i1

i2

The op amp outputs a voltage Vo such that V1 = V2.

31
 …Example 02…

is
i1 if
i

i2

32
 …Example 02: Closed Loop Gain

v1 = 0V A B

VS = R1is C
vo = − R f i f
is = i f = i
vo / Vs = − R f / R1
AV = − R f / R1

This circuit is known as an inverting amplifier.

33
 Types of Gain

if

is i1
io

i2

34
 Types of Closed Loop Gain

Gain Variable Equation Units

Name
Voltage Gain AV vo/vs None or V/V
Current Gain AI io/is None or A/A
Transresistance Gain AR vo/is V/A or W
Transconductance AG io/vs A/V or W−1
Gain

35
Example 03: Closed Loop Gain with Real Op-Amp…

if

is i1

v1

v2
i2

36
 …Example 03
is = i1 + if
i = if
- i1 = i2
vd = v2 – v1 = Ri (- i1) = Ri (i2)
Vo = Avd - Ro(- i)
Vs = R1(is) – vd
Vs = R1(is) + Rf(if) + Vo

Vo /Vs = (-Rf/R1){Ab/[1 +Ab]}, where b = R1/(R1+Rf)

37
 Summary

• The output of an ideal op-amp is a voltage from a dependent

voltage source that attempts to force the voltage at the inverting
input terminal to equal the voltage at the non-inverting input
terminal.
– Almost ideal op-amp: Output voltage limited to the range between V+
and V-.
• Ideal op amp is assumed to have Ri = ∞ W and Ro = 0 W.
– Almost ideal op-amp: vd = 0 V and the current flowing into the output
terminal of the op-amp is as much as required to force v1 = v2 when V+<
v o < V -.
• Operation of an op-amp was used in the analysis of voltage
comparator and inverting amplifier circuits.
– Effect of Ri < ∞ W and Ro > 0 W was shown.

38
Op-Amp Circuits

39
Almost Ideal Op-Amp Model

Ri = ∞ W and Ro = 0 W

Linear Region:
When V+< vo< V- , vo is
determined from the closed
loop gain Av times v2 as
v1 = v2 (vd = 0 V).

Saturation:
When Av v2 ≥ V+, vo = V+.
When Av v2 ≤ V-, vo = V-.

40
Example 04: Inverting Amplifier…

if

is i1 =
0
i
V+ = 15V
V- = -
i2 = 0 10V

41
 …Example 04…

if

is i1 =
0
i

i2 = 0
V+ = 15V
V- = -10V

42
 …Example 04…
• Closed loop gains are dependent on the values
of R1 and Rf.
– Therefore, you have to calculate the closed loop
gain for each new problem.

43
 …Example 04…

is = i f + i1 + i2 = i f
is = VS / R1
if
i f = −Vo / R f
Av = Vo Vs = − R f R1
is i1 = 0
R f = 10kW
i
R1 = 1kW
i2 = 0
Av = −10
vo

44
 …Example 04…
• Since AV = -10
– If Vs = 0V, V0 = -10(0V) = 0V
– If Vs = 0.5V, Vo = -10(0.5V) = -5V
– If Vs = 1V, Vo = -10(1V) = -10V
– If Vs = 1.1V, Vo = -10(1.1V) < V-, Vo = -10V
– If Vs = -1.2V, V0 = -10(-1.2V) = +12V
– If Vs = -1.51V, Vo = -10(-1.51V) > V+, Vo = +15V

45
 …Example 04
• Voltage transfer characteristic

Slope of the voltage transfer

characteristic in the linear
region is equal to AV.

46
Example 05: Noninverting Amplifier…

47
…Example 05…

48
 …Example 05…

V2 = V1 = VS

49
 …Example 05…

is = − VS R1
i f = (VS − Vo ) R f
Vo = VS − R f i f

50
...Example 05: Noninverting Amplifier…

i f = is

Vo = VS − R f is
VS
Vo = R f + VS
R1
Vo Rf
Av = = 1+
VS R1

51
…Example 05…

• AV = +11
– If Vs = 0V, V0 = 11(0V) = 0V

– If Vs = 0.5V, Vo = 11(0.5V) = +5.5V

– If Vs = 1.6V, Vo = 11(1.6V) > V+,
Vo = +15V

– If Vs = -0.9V, V0 = 11(-0.9V) = -
9.9V
– If Vs = -1.01V, Vo = 11(-1.01V) > V+
Vo = +15V

52
 …Example 05
• Voltage transfer characteristic

Slope of the voltage transfer

characteristic in the linear
region is equal to AV.

53
 Example 06: Voltage Follower

A voltage follower is a
noninverting amplifier where
Rf = 0W and R1 = ∞W.

Vo /Vs = 1 +Rf/R1 = 1 + 0 = 1

54
 Example 07: Summing Amplifier…

V+ = 30V
V-=-30V

A summing amplifier is an inverting amplifier with multiple inputs.

55
 …Example 07…
if

iA i1 = 0

iB v1
i2 = 0

v2

iC

We apply superposition to obtain a relationship between Vo and

the input voltages.
56
 …Example 07…

A virtual ground

57
…Example 07…

KCL :
i A + iB + iC = i f
58
 …Example 07…

Note that the voltages at iC = (0V − 0V ) / RC

both nodes of RC are 0V. iC = 0 A
59
…Example 07…

i A + iB + iC = i f
iA = i f
i A = (VA − 0V ) RA
i f = (0V − Vo ) R f
Rf
Vo = − VA
RA

60
…Example 07…

i A = iC = 0
iB = i f
iB = (VB − 0V ) RB
i f = (0V − Vo ) R f
Rf
Vo = − VB
RB

61
…Example 07…

i A = iB = 0
iC = i f
iC = (VC − 0V ) RC
i f = (0V − Vo ) R f
Rf
Vo = − VC
RC

62
…Example 07

 Rf Rf Rf 
Vo = −  V A + VB + VC 
 RA RB RC 
10kW 10kW 10kW 
Vo = −  VA + VB + VC 
 5kW 2kW 4kW 
Vo = −2V A + 5VB + 2.5VC 
Vo = −2(1V ) + 5(3V ) + 2.5(−2V )
Vo = −12V

63
Example 08: Difference Amplifier…

64
 …Example 08…

if

iA i1 = 0

v1
iB i2 = 0

iC v2

65
 …Example 08…

if

iA i1 =
0
v1
iB i2 =
0
iC v2 iB = i2 + iC
i2 = 0 A
iB = iC

66
 …Example 08…

if

iA i1 =
0
v1
iB i2 =
0 RC
iC v2 v2 = VB
RB + RC
v2 = v1
RC
v1 = VB
RB + RC
67
 …Example 08…

if

RC
v1 = VB
iA RB + RC

i A = (VA − v1 ) RA
iA = i f
i f = (v1 − Vo ) R f

68
…Example 08…

R f (1 + RA R f ) Rf
Vo = VB − VA
RA (1 + RB RC ) RA

30kW (1 + 6kW 30kW ) 30kW

Vo = (3V ) − (2V )
6kW (1 + 8kW 4kW ) 6kW
Vo = −4V
69
…Example 08

• If RA/Rf = RB/RC
Rf
Vo = (VB − VA )
RA
• And if RA = Rf

Vo = VB − VA

70
Example 09: Cascading Op Amps…

71
 …Example 09…
• Treat as two separate amplifier circuits

72
 …Example 09…

1st Circuit 2nd Circuit

73
…Example 09…
• It is a noninverting
amplifier.

 Rf1 
Vo1 = 1 + VS
 R1 
Vo1  R f 1 
AV 1 = = 1 + 
VS  R1 

74
…Example 09…
• It is a inverting
amplifier.

Rf 2
Vo = − V01
R2
Vo R f 2
AV 2 = −
V01 R2

75
 …Example 09…
• The gain of the cascaded amplifiers is the
multiplication of the two individual amplifiers
Rf 2 Rf 2  Rf 2 
Vo = − V01 = − 1 + VS
R2 R2  R1 

AVtotal = AV 1 AV 2

76
 Instrumentation amplifier
• This device allows precise amplification of
small voltage differences:

(a) The basic instrumentation amplifier. (b) Commonly used symbol.

77
 Summary
• The ‘almost ideal’ op amp model:
– Ri = ∞W.
• i1 = i2 = 0A; v1 = v2
– Ro = 0W.
• No power/voltage loss between the dependent voltage source and vo.
– The output voltage is limited by the voltages applied to the
positive and negative rails.
• V+ ≥ vo ≥ V-
• This model can be used to determine the closed loop
voltage gain for any op amp circuit.
– Superposition can be used to solve for the output of a
summing amplifier.
– Cascaded op amp circuits can be separated into individual
amplifiers and the overall gain is the multiplication of the
gain of each amplifier.

78
Summary of Basic Op Amp Circuits

79
Summary of Basic Op Amp Circuits

80