MATH 235 - Homework 3 - Solutions

Exercise 1
First, we can observe that νp (n) is nothing but the exponent of p in the prime factorization of n. More
precisely we have:
Lemma 1. The prime factorization of n is exactly
Y
n= pνp (n)
p|n
prime

where the product is over all prime divisors of n. Moreover, νp (n) = 0 if p is a prime not dividing n.

Proof. By the fundamental theorem of arithmetic, n has a unique prime factorization

for some exponents ep ∈ N. Note that, for every prime divisor p of n, pep divides n, so νp (n) ≥ ep . To show
that this is inequality is in fact an equality, we need to check that pk does not divide n for k > ep . But if
this was the case, we would have n = pk · m for some positive integer m. Taking a prime factorization of m
and multiplying it by pk would yield a prime factorization of n in which p has exponent at least k, hence
greater than ep . This would contradict uniqueness of the prime factorization of n, so pk cannot divide n for
k > ep . This shows that νp (n) = ep .
If p is a prime not dividing n, then it is clear from the definition of νp that νp (n) = 0, since no power of
p will divide n neither.
Equipped with this lemma, we now prove the three parts of the problem:

1. Let S be a finite set of primes given by the union of the prime divisors of x and the prime divisors of
y. By the lemma, we have Y
x= pνp (x)
p∈S

(note that S might contain primes not dividing x in addition to all prime divisors of x, but for those
primes pνp (x) = p0 = 1, so these factors do not affect the product). Similarly
Y
y= pνp (y) .
p∈S

Multiplying these two prime factorizations, we get the following prime factorization of xy:
Y
xy = pνp (x)+νp (y)
p∈S

By the lemma (and uniqueness of prime factorization), it follows that νp (xy) = νp (x) + νp (y).

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 2. Without loss of generality, suppose that νp (x) ≤ νp (y) (the case νp (y) ≤ νp (x) has the same proof with
x and y swapped). By definition of νp , we can write x as pνp (x) x′ and y as pνp (y) y ′ . Then
x + y = pνp (x) x′ + pνp (y) y ′ = pνp (x) (x′ + pνp (y)−νp (x) y ′ ),
so x + y is divisible by pνp (x) = pmin(νp (x),νp (y)) .
3. Let S = {p1 , . . . , pk } ∩ {q1 , . . . , ql }, the set of primes dividing both a and b. Note that for any prime
p, we have min(νp (a), νp (b)) > 0 if and only if p ∈ S, since νp (a) > 0 if and only if p divides a and
νp (b) > 0 if and only if p divides b. Hence, we have
k
Y min(νpi (a),νpi (b)) Y
pi = pmin(νp (a),νp (b))
i=1 p∈S

as the factors in the product of the left corresponding to primes not in S are all 1, so they don’t
contribute to the product. Similarly,
l
Y min(νqj (a),νqj (b)) Y
qj = pmin(νp (a),νp (b)) ,
j=1 p∈S

so
k l
Y min(νpi (a),νpi (b)) Y Y min(νqj (a),νqj (b))
pi = pmin(νp (a),νp (b)) = qj
i=1 p∈S j=1

Exercise 2
For every x, y ∈ G we have
xyxy = (xy)2 = eG
by applying the hypothesis the the element xy. Multiplying by x on the left and y on the right, we get
x2 yxy 2 = xy
Using the hypothesis, we have x2 = y 2 = eG , so our identity simplifies to
eG yxeG = xy
yx = xy.
This holds for any x, y, so G is abelian.

Exercise 3
We need to check injectivity and surjectivity.
• Injectivity: Suppose that λa (x) = λa (y) for x, y ∈ G. This means that ax = ay. Multiplying by a−1
on both sides, it follows that x = y, which shows injectivity:
ax = ay
⇒ a−1 ax = a−1 ay
⇒ eG x = eG y
⇒x=y

• Surjectivity: Given x ∈ G, I claim that λa (a−1 x) = x. Indeed,

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Exercise 4
We prove the contrapositive statement: given a permutation σ ∈ Sn which is not the identity, we need to
show that there exists τ ∈ Sn which does not commute with σ (i.e. τ σ ̸= στ ).
Since σ is not the identity, there exist i, j ∈ {1, . . . , n} with i ̸= j and σ(i) = j. Since n ≥ 3, we can
find a third element k ∈ {1, . . . , n} different form i, j. Let τ be a permutation of n sending i to i and j to k
(there exists such a permutation since i ̸= j and i ̸= k). Then

τ σ(i) = τ (σ(i)) = τ (j) = k

and
στ (i) = σ(τ (i)) = σ(i) = j.
Since k ̸= j, this shows that τ σ ̸= στ .

Exercise 5
We check the three axioms of groups.

• Associativity: Given (g1 , h1 ), (g2 , h2 ), (g3 , h3 ) ∈ G × H, we have

((g1 , h1 ) ◦ (g2 , h2 )) ◦ (g3 , h3 ) = (g1 ◦G g2 , h1 ◦H h2 ) ◦ (g3 , h3 ) = ((g1 ◦G g2 ) ◦G g3 , (h1 ◦H h2 ) ◦H h3 )

and similarly

(g1 , h1 ) ◦ ((g2 , h2 ) ◦ (g3 , h3 )) = (g1 , h1 ) ◦ (g2 ◦G g3 , h2 ◦H h3 ) = (g1 ◦G (g2 ◦G g3 ), h1 ◦H (h2 ◦H h3 )).

By associativity of the binary operations of G and H, the right hand side of the two lines above are
equal. It follows that the left hand sides are equal, which shows associativity of the binary operation
on G × H.
• Neutral element: I claim that (eG , eH ) is a neutral element for the binary operation on G × H.
Indeed, for all (g, h) ∈ G × H,

(eG , eH ) ◦ (g, h) = (eG ◦G g, eH ◦H h) = (g, h)

and
(g, h) ◦ (eG , eH ) = (g ◦G eG , h ◦H eH ) = (g, h).

• Inverses: Given (g, h) ∈ G × H, I claim that (g −1 , h−1 ) is an inverse for (g, h). Indeed, we have

(g −1 , h−1 ) ◦ (g, h) = (g −1 ◦G g, h−1 ◦H h) = (eG , eH )

and
(g, h) ◦ (g −1 , h−1 ) = (g ◦G g −1 , h ◦H h−1 ) = (eG , eH ).

Exercise 6
For this function to be well defined, we need to check that if x ≡ y (mod n), then gcd(x, n) = gcd(y, n). By
definition of the gcd, this is equivalent to proving that for every d ∈ N, d divides both x and n if and only if
d divides both y and n.
If d divides both x and n, then it must divide y since we can write y as x + (y − x) and y − x is divisible
by n, hence by d. Conversely, the same argument with x and y swapped shows that if d divides both y and
n, then it also divides x. This proves what we wanted to.

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Exercise 7
We check both implications separately

• ⇒: Suppose that the equation has a solution x. Then we have ax − b = kn for some k ∈ Z. We can
rewrite this as b = ax − kn. Note that ax − kn is divisible by gcd(a, n), so b also is.
• ⇐: Suppose that gcd(a, n) divides b, i.e. b = k · gcd(a, n) for some k ∈ Z. By Bezout’s lemma, we can
write gcd(a, n) = ua + vn for u, v ∈ Z. Then we have b = k · gcd(a, n) = kua + kvn. Taking this last
equality modulo n, we obtain that b ≡ kua (mod n), so x = ku is a solution of the equation.

Exercise 8
(a) To calculate σ = (1345)(234), we need to first apply the cycle (234) and then the cycle (1345) to every
element {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}. For example (234) sends 2 to 3 and then (1345) sends 3 to 4, so σ sends 2 to 4.
The calculation gives:
(234) (1345)
1 7−→ 1 7−→ 3
(234) (1345)
2 7−→ 3 7−→ 4
(234) (1345)
3 7−→ 4 7−→ 5
(234) (1345)
4 7−→ 2 7−→ 2
(234) (1345)
5 7−→ 5 7−→ 1
 
1 2 3 4 5
so, in two-line notation, σ is the permutation .
3 4 5 2 1

(b) We use the same method as in (a) for all the remaining examples.
(12) (1253)
1 7−→ 2 7−→ 5
(12) (1253)
2 7−→ 1 7−→ 2
(12) (1253)
3 7−→ 3 7−→ 1
(12) (1253)
4 7−→ 4 7−→ 4
(12) (1253)
5 7−→ 5 7−→ 3
 
1 2 3 4 5
The product is
5 2 1 4 3

(c)
(24) (23) (143)
1 7−→ 1 7−→ 1 7−→ 4
(24) (23) (143)
2 7−→ 4 7−→ 4 7−→ 3
(24) (23) (143)
3 7−→ 3 7−→ 2 7−→ 2
(24) (23) (143)
4 7−→ 2 7−→ 3 7−→ 1
 
1 2 3 4
The product is .
4 3 2 1

4
(d)
(1324) (56) (34) (1423)
1 7−→ 3 7−→ 3 7−→ 4 7−→ 2
(1324) (56) (34) (1423)
2 7−→ 4 7−→ 4 7−→ 3 7−→ 1
(1324) (56) (34) (1423)
3 7−→ 2 7−→ 2 7−→ 2 7−→ 3
(1324) (56) (34) (1423)
4 7−→ 1 7−→ 1 7−→ 1 7−→ 4
(1324) (56) (34) (1423)
5 7−→ 5 7−→ 6 7−→ 6 7−→ 6
(1324) (56) (34) (1423)
6 7−→ 6 7−→ 5 7−→ 6 7−→ 5

 
1 2 3 4 5 6
The product is .
2 1 3 4 6 5
(e)
(25) (13) (1254)
1 7−→ 1 7−→ 3 7−→ 3
(25) (13) (1254)
2 7−→ 5 7−→ 5 7−→ 4
(25) (13) (1254)
3 7−→ 3 7−→ 1 7−→ 2
(25) (13) (1254)
4 7−→ 4 7−→ 4 7−→ 1
(25) (13) (1254)
5 7−→ 2 7−→ 2 7−→ 5

 
1 2 3 4 5
The product is .
3 4 2 1 5
(f) Note that (25)2 is the identity permutation, so we can ignore the (25)2 factor.
(13) (1254)
1 7−→ 3 7−→ 3
(13) (1254)
2 7−→ 2 7−→ 5
(13) (1254)
3 7−→ 1 7−→ 2
(13) (1254)
4 7−→ 4 7−→ 1
(13) (1254)
5 7−→ 5 7−→ 4
 
1 2 3 4 5
The product is .
3 5 2 1 4
(g) Note that (1254)−1 = (1452).
(1254) (45) (123) (1452)
1 7−→ 2 7−→ 2 7−→ 3 7−→ 3
(1254) (45) (123) (1452)
2 7−→ 5 7−→ 4 7−→ 4 7−→ 5
(1254) (45) (123) (1452)
3 7−→ 3 7−→ 3 7−→ 1 7−→ 4
(1254) (45) (123) (1452)
4 7−→ 1 7−→ 1 7−→ 2 7−→ 1
(1254) (45) (123) (1452)
5 7−→ 4 7−→ 5 7−→ 5 7−→ 2

5
  
1 2 3 4 5
The product is .
3 5 4 1 2

(h)
(45) (123) (1254) (1254)
1 7−→ 1 7−→ 2 7−→ 5 7−→ 4
(45) (123) (1254) (1254)
2 7−→ 2 7−→ 3 7−→ 3 7−→ 3
(45) (123) (1254) (1254)
3 7−→ 3 7−→ 1 7−→ 2 7−→ 5
(45) (123) (1254) (1254)
4 7−→ 5 7−→ 5 7−→ 4 7−→ 1
(45) (123) (1254) (1254)
5 7−→ 4 7−→ 4 7−→ 1 7−→ 2

 
1 2 3 4 5
The product is .
4 3 5 1 2