University of the East

Basic Education Department

Caloocan Campus

FREQUENCIES AND GRAPHICS

Construct frequency (and percentage) tables for each set of information and present
the quantitative results graphically.

SET A. Incidence of reporting of election problems in ARMM, by sub-region.

BASULTA (Basilan, Sulu, and Tawi-tawi)
Yes – 153
No – 844
Don’t Know – 351
Refused – 260
Total – 1609
LAMARMA (Lanao and Maguindanao)
Yes – 109
No – 750
Don’t Know – 57
Refused – 111
Total – 1027
SET B. Incidence of reporting of election problems in ARMM, by gender.
Male
Yes – 124
No – 509
Don’t Know – 144
Refused – 100
Total – 877
Female
Yes – 139
No – 1085
Don’t Know – 264
Refused – 271
Total – 1759
SET C. Incidence of reporting of election problems in ARMM, by province and sub-
region.

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BASULTA (Basilan, Sulu, and Tawi-tawi)

Barangay – 116
Police – 12
Religious Leaders – 9
Media – 3
Government Officials/Agencies – 6
Influencial Private Citizens/Agencies – 2
LAMARMA (Lanao and Maguindanao)
Barangay – 27
Police – 15
Religious Leaders – 6
Media – 1
Government Officials/Agencies – 12
Influencial Private Citizens/Agencies – 2

In the previous modules, learned how to organize, and analyze the data you’ve
gathered. In this module, you will create graphs, charts, and tables of your analyzed
data.

Visual Presentations
Once the data have been analyzed using the proper statistical tool, the
computed values are interpreted either in tabular form or in graphical form.

Table
• Arrange and presents data in rows and columns.
• Used best when presenting large sets of numbers or data.
• Useful in presenting data in a compact, concise, and comprehensive manner.
• Useful in cases when the information presented is frequently used as the basis
for making graphs.
• Use if there is a large number of numerical data is needed.

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• Useful in comparing two or more sets o data. However, as more numerical data
are added to the table, the table becomes complex; hence, reduce the data by
summarizing them as ranges or percentages.

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1

2 4

Figure 1. Table example. (1) A Tabulated raw data; (2) categorized in age category; (3) converted to average; and (4) converted to
percentage

• It is composed of intersecting series of cells called rows (horizontal series of

cells) and columns (vertical series of cells). It also bears the title to identify what
the data are about.
• The data in the table should not be mentioned in the text except for the major
findings.
o Frequency Tables – created to organize raw data before presenting
graphically.

Figures
• Includes pictures, diagrams, drawings, maps, graphs, and charts
• Often used to visually present data.
• In creating this, draw the figure first and revise as needed. It will be best to have
someone evaluate the figure. If he or she was not able to get the message
within a brief period and then redo the figure,
• You may use software that can make the figure visually appealing.
• Visual Presentation under figures includes pictures, Maps, Diagrams, and
Graphs.

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Maps
• Use to show maps
• Can be created using free software
such as DIVA-GIS or Google Earth.
The coordinates (latitude, longitude)
can be gathered from Google Earth. Figure 2. Historical Map. Detailed view of a portion of the
original map on the left and the corresponding raster
Diagrams classification of the same area on

• Used to depict processes or relationships

or workflows.
• This can be created by using Microsoft
PowerPoint or Microsoft Word.

Pictures
• Use for data showing morphological
characteristics of a plant or an animal.
• Often used to present data as a picture or Figure 3. Research methodology flow chart. The
flow chart shows the steps in production of
drawing with relevant parts properly rHDPE/PCB composites including the testing
carried out.
labeled.
• In using this, discuss the structures
descriptively in the text.

Graphs and Charts

• Show connection between two or more
variables that can be represented as
lines, circles, bars or columns, or dots.
Figure 4. Different Stages of Development of Eggs
• Useful in showing relationships between of Ascaris suum under Optical Microscopy: (a)
One Cell Stage; (b) Late Morula; (C) Gastrula; (D)
Larval Stage (L2). :
variables.
• This includes:
o Bar Graph – used to show results that
occur one at a time or that are not
continuous (survey and inventories).
Also useful in comparing different
trials or different experimental
groups. This can be used in nominal Figure 5. Bar chart with horizontal bars. Categories
are on the y-axis. Image: SAMHSA.gov.
and ordinal data.

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o Column Graph – offer an alternative

illustration for one-time or single
events rather than continuous
occurrences. The data are organized
in columns.
o Line Graph – appropriate when Figure 6. Column Bar Example. Framing Scores for
Different Reward Sizes
continuous variables (change
continuously over time; such as plant
height). It shows the relationship
between dependent and independent
variables when both are numerical. Figure 7. Effect of PCB contents on the tensile strength
and Young's modulus of rHDPE/PCB composites.
Best used in interval/ratio data. Increases in tensile strength and Young's modulus were
found with additional nonmetallic PCB contents from
o Circle or Pie Graph – used to display 10-30 wt%.

the parts that make up a whole. It is

useful in comparing the sizes of the
parts. Best in presenting nominal data.
o Scatter Diagram or scatterplot-
appropriate graph if you are trying to
show how two independent variables Figure 8. Pie Chart Example. Market Share
of Automobile Companies
may be related to each other.
o Histogram – modification of the bar chart
to show the frequency distribution of the
data or to illustrate how many times a
variable occurs within a specific range.
This chart indicates equal intervals (bars
touching) compared to the bar chart Figure 9. Scatterplot with line of best fit capturing
the relationship between Recovery Self-Assessment
(separated by some space). This can be (RSA) and Questionnaire about Processes of
Recovery (QPR) scores (n = 110).
used in interval and ratio data.

Format of Visual Presentation

Tables:
• Numbering. Number all tables with Arabic
numerals sequentially. Do not use suffix letters
(e.g. Table 3a, 3b, 3c); instead, combine the Figure 10. Histogram sample. Histogram of
Pharmacy Drug Dispensing Turn Around Times
related tables (Table 1, Table 2). If the manuscript

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includes an appendix
with tables, identify
them with capital
letters and Arabic
numerals (e.g. Table
A1, Table B2).
• Title. Like the title of
the paper itself, each
table must have a clear
and concise title.
When appropriate, you may use the title to explain an abbreviation
parenthetically; example: Comparison of Median Income of Adopted Children
(AC) v. Foster Children (FC).
• Body. In reporting the data, consistency is key: Numerals should be expressed
to a consistent number of decimal places that is determined by the precision of
measurement. Never change the unit of measurement or the number of decimal
places in the same column. In reporting the data, consistency is key: Numerals
should be expressed to a consistent number of decimal places (3 decimal
places). Never change the unit of measurement or the number of decimal
places in the same
column. The
following image
illustrates the basic
structure of tables.

Figures: Charts, Drawings, Photographs, and Graphs such as scatter plots, line
graphs, bar graphs, pictorial graphs, pie graphs should be labeled as figures.
• Size. Figures of one column must be between 2 and 3.25 inches wide (5 to 8.45
cm). Two-column figures must be between 4.25 and 6.875 inches wide (10.6 to
17.5 cm). The height of figures should not exceed the top and bottom margins.
• Font. The text in a figure should be in Times New Roman. The font size must
be between eight and fourteen points.
• Caption. For figures, make sure to include the figure number and a title with a
legend and caption. These elements appear below the visual display. For the

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figure number, type Figure X. Then type the title of the figure in sentence case.
Follow the title with a legend that explains the symbols in the figure and a
caption that explains the figure (example: Figure 1. How to create figures in
APA style. This figure illustrates effective elements in APA style figures.)
• Legend. Graphs should always include a legend that explains the symbols,
abbreviations, and terminology used in the figure. These terms must be
consistent with those used in the text and other figures. The lettering in the
legend should be of the same type and size as that used in the figure.
• Citation. If the image is reproduced from another source, include the citation
at the end of the caption.
• The following are some reminders in using some figures.
o Diagrams - Once the diagram is generated, place a caption under it and
label it as a Figure.
o Maps - Once the map is generated, place a caption under it and label it
as a Figure. Include the citation source on where the map is taken. You
may also write the coordinates in the caption.
o Pictures - Place a caption under the figure. Write in the caption what the
picture or drawing is about and identify the number or letter indicated by
the arrow. Be sure to mention in the text the figure number where the
descriptions are based on. Smaller pictures of samples that share similar
characteristics may be combined in one figure. Include set scale bars
with accurate measurements in the pictures.
o Graphs – plot independent variables on the x-axis of your graph (value
of the treatment applied to a factor), and plot dependent variables on the
y-axis (variable being measured). Do not forget to label the axes of your
graph and always include units of measurement. Include a legend with
clear labels. Place a caption under the graph and give a brief description
of what is shown in the graph and the type of treatment used.

Chapter 4
Here are the parts of Chapter 4: Analysis and Interpretation of Data.
• Research Question
o Introduction of the null hypothesis and specific question
o Introduction of statements/indicators used in data gathering, codes used
o Result and Discussion

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▪ Visual Presentation of Data

▪ Discussion
• Theoretical Implications
• Synthesis

Introduction of the null hypothesis and specific research question

The discussion of Chapter 4 should be aligned and based on the research
question listed in Chapter 1. Start this section by discussing the 1st research question
and its corresponding null hypothesis. Be sure to discuss the result and
discussion/interpretation o the first research question before moving on to the 2nd and
3rd research questions. The presentation of data should be logically arranged and
should follow the order stated in the objectives o the study and the methodology. Put
subheadings when necessary.

Introduction of statements/indicators used in data gathering, codes used

It is important to make the readers familiar with the coding terms used in the
tables, charts, and graphs.

Result and Discussion

This section pertains to the outcomes o your research. The results section
should answer the following questions:
1. How should data be presented (tables, graphs, figures, etc.)?
2. What were the results of your study?

• Visual Presentation of Data

This section pertains to the results of the research. Specifically, how to present
the data obtained from the experiments. Since most data obtained are
expressed in numbers, it is important to report the average and standard
deviation. Raw data should be placed in the appendices instead. You may
check the first section of this module for the different ways on how to organize
data visually. Make sure to label and write the captions properly.
• Discussion
This section should not contain any arguments, explanations, or
generalizations as to why the data was collected. The result can also be
described in two ways:

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o Positive versus negative results. Results are considered positive if the

response was seen from the identified target population or group. While
a negative result is when neither a response to the imposed condition
nor differences in the responses are seen.
o Expected versus unexpected results. The expected result is the
predicted answers to the specific questions formulated. There are times,
however, that a given experiment/survey yields unexpected results even
if the sources of error are eliminated. These unpredicted results are just
as important as the expected results and even lead to a new and useful
discovery.
The discussion section should also explain the results of the study and how
they are related to past findings or studies. The discussion should include:
o Describe the methods used
o Interpret the data – This is series of summarized statements from
precise quantitative measurements. In interpreting the results, you will
need to present the hypothesis you have formulated against the
analyzed data that you have gathered. The following are some tips for
interpreting results:
▪ Make sure that the analysis o the result is correct. Having Clear
Statements will make it easy to interpret the results and will not
lead to false interpretation and explanation. Some mistakes that
are encountered during analysis are misleading the graphs using
the wrong statistical test and ignoring a statistical result with high
significance.
▪ Methods must be correctly executed to give accurate results.
These are instances when the methods used have a direct impact
on the results. Some common mistakes that may be committed
are biased sampling, very small sample size, poor matching of
samples, inadequate controls, the bias in collecting the results
(ignoring results that are far from expected), and inappropriate
application of measurement techniques.
▪ Do not ignore the limitations imposed by a certain method. There
are cases when a certain method is limited in collecting accurate
data because the instrument used has a limited range of getting

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samples or is inaccurate in reading between the maximum and

minimum levels.
▪ Talk to your researcher teacher and other consultants. Discuss
the results with them, it can enrich your insights and findings.
Take advantage of these informal opportunities as they can also
shed light on some stumbling blocks that may be encountered
while writing the results and discussion o your paper.
o Analyze the result – Discuss the facts presented and the connection
among them. Begin with a general explanation before diving into the
specifics. To do this, answer the following questions:
▪ Were your expectations of the study met?
▪ Were the objectives of the study fulfilled?
▪ What problems were encountered in the study?
▪ How do these problems relate to your study?
▪ Highlight why the results are significant.
▪ If negative results are obtained:
• develop a new hypothesis to explain these results.
Demonstrate this hypothesis based on results from other
studies.
• Needed especially when results are not those expected by
the researcher.
• Cite all things that happened that may have affected
findings.
• Look at limitations of the study, e.g., in sampling,
instrumentation, intervention, and data collection.
▪ Link the study with other studies. Compare results of the present
study with related studies, as follows: This result is consistent with
or similar to that of… (related study); contradicts/opposes that
of… (related study).

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Creating Charts, Tables, and Graphs

Requirements:
• Compile all the analyzed data and choose which will be presented as a Chart,
tables, or Graphs.
• Follow the correct format of writing charts, tables, and graphs (as discussed
above).
• Submit a summary of all the Charts, tables, and graphs created in a pdf
format.
• Incorporate the charts in your Chapter 4

Rubric:
Criteria Description Points
Presentation Appropriate color, design, 5pts
and size of charts, tables,
and graphs were created.
Content There are no errors in the 10pts
Chart, table, and graphs.
Appropriateness The appropriate type of 10pts
Chart, table, and graphs
was chosen for the data.
TOTAL 30PTS

CHAPTER 4
Using the information past activities to create your chapter 4.

Requirements:
• Chapter 4 should contain the following:
o Research Question 1
▪ Introduction of the null hypothesis and specific question
▪ Introduction of statements/indicators used in data gathering,
codes used
▪ Result and Discussion
• Visual Presentation of Data
• Discussion

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o Research Question 2
▪ Introduction of the null hypothesis and specific question
▪ Introduction of statements/indicators used in data gathering,
codes used
▪ Result and Discussion
• Visual Presentation of Data
• Discussion
o Research Question 3
▪ Introduction of the null hypothesis and specific question
▪ Introduction of statements/indicators used in data gathering,
codes used
▪ Result and Discussion
• Visual Presentation of Data
• Discussion
o Theoretical Implications
o Synthesis

• The following format should be followed

o Font Style – Times New Roman
o Font Size
▪ Title – 18
▪ Heading – 14
▪ Paragraph – 12
o Spacing – 2
o Margin – Normal (2.54 cm top, bottom, right, & left)

• A template will be given by your research teacher.

• This will serve as your Performance Task 5.
• You will be graded using the rubric below:

CRITERIA DESCRIPTION POINTS

Presentation Clearly and concisely presents the data excellently and 10 pts
engagingly, and is thought-provoking. Includes tables and
charts to convey results.
Analysis Demonstrates logical and subtle analysis of data through 10 pts
well-developed paragraphs. Complete and correct
analysis of data is provided.
Interpretation Shows great depth of knowledge to interpret data. All data 10 pts
is recorded and organized clearly. All visible observations
are provided.

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Statistics Correct statistical treatment was used. The correct 10 pts

procedure in analyzing the data statistically. Complete
statistical treatment was used in all SOP.
Others Submitted on time. Less than 10% in plagiarism 10 pts
percentage. No distinct grammatical error. The format was
followed. The tone is mostly professional. Sentences are
well phrased and flow smoothly. Word choice is
appropriate and accurate. Ideas are excellently connected.
APA style is applied accordingly
TOTAL 50

There are cases where you’ll have to reject the hypothesis or you will receive a
negative result. How do you plan to deal with this? Share your thoughts below.

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