Biology Unit 7: Human Nutrition - Theory
1. Diet
Balanced Diet Definition: A diet that provides all the necessary constituents in their
required amounts for the good health of a person.
Principal dietary sources and importance
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2. Digestive system
2.1. Organs of the digestive system
2.2. Human nutrition involves 5 basics stages:
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2.3. Functions of the organs of the digestive system
Alimentary Functions
Canal
The mouth: i) Mechanically digest the food
I) Teeth ii) Secrete saliva of the enzyme amylase to digest starch and the protein mucin. To
bind the food together and to lubricate it.
II) Salivary
glands iii) Rolls the food into balls (boli - bolus in the singular) and pushes them to the
back of the cavity for swallowing.
III) Tongue
Oesophagus Muscular tube down which waves of muscular contractions (peristalsis) pass,
pushing each bolus towards the stomach.
Stomach Muscular bag that churns the food for up to around 4 hours.
Its wall secretes gastric juice which contains:
Enzyme protease - starting the digestion of protein, changing them to
polypeptides.
Hydrochloric acid - to provide the correct pH for protease to work, and to kill
potentially harmful bacteria in food.
Enzyme rennin (for child only) - to clot protein in milk.
Duodenum Receives bile via the bile duct from the liver
Receives pancreatic juice via the pancreatic duct from the pancreas
Releases from its walls a digestive juice called intestinal juice containing:
- the enzyme protease: change polypeptides to amino acids
- the enzyme lipase for fat digestion.
Pancreas Secretes pancreatic juice, and passes to the duodenum to help in digestion.
Pancreatic juice contains following enzymes:
I) Amylase for digesting starch to maltose sugar
II) Protease for digesting protein to polypeptides.
(Protease working in slightly alkaline conditions)
III) Lipase for digesting fat to fatty acids and glycerol
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Liver Largest internal organ
Produce bile ( greenish-coloured fluid, alkaline) and stored in the gall bladder.
Bile functions are:
I) Neutralise acidic chyme from the stomach (alkaline bile from the liver
neutralises the acidity of the hydrochloric acid)
II) Emulsify fat (fats are broken up into small droplets - emulsified - by the bile,
to increase their surface area which enzymes can operate)
Deamination: removal of the nitrogen-containing part of amino acids in
excess to our needs, followed by release of energy from the remainder of the
amino acids.
Deamination is an important function of the liver, which produce 2 separate
molecules:
I) Urea - nitrogenous waste product that passes from the liver, through the
blood and to the kidneys for excretion in urine.
II) A carbohydrate that can be changed to glycogen and stored.
Detoxification: the removal and breakdown of poisons, eg: toxins from the
blood. One such toxin is alcohol.
Ileum Digested food is absorbed but much of the water consumed is also absorbed
here.
To increase absorption efficiency, ileum surface area is increased by:
I) 7 metres long
II) Walls are folded (pleated) longitudinally
III) Walls have the appreance of velvet due to milions of microscopic finger-
like projections called villi.
Small intestine = duodenum + ileum
Colon For water absorption. To increase its suface area, the walls of the colon are
folded transversely.
Food is moved steadily along the duodenum, ileum and colon by peristalsis.
The indigestible fibre forms the bulk against which the muscles of the
intestines can push.
Rectum Muscular storage chamber where the undigested food (faeces) is held and
moulded before being pushed out through the anus during egestion
Anus The exit to the alimentary canal.
Closed by a ring of muscle which is relaxed during egestion
Large intestine = colon + rectum + anus
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Infections Reasons Treatment
Cholera Water is not being absorbed Oral rehydration therapy (ORT)
Diarrhoea (watery faeces) Water is being drawn from the Drinking a solution of mineral
cells in the wall of the colon which ions (salts) to replace the water
might hlp to ‘flush-out’ the that is lost, to avoid
pathogens. dehydration and replace the
mineral ions (salts) that are
Caused by Bacteria that survive
drawn from the walls of the
until they reach the small intestine
intestine.
where they become active again.
Assimilation Function In excess stored as
Glucose For respiration to release energy Glycogen
Stored in the cells of the liver and muscles
Glucose --> insulin --> glycogen
Glycogen --> adrenaline and glucagon --> glucose
(when blood sugar concentration falls)
Amino acids For build up proteins as the cells Never stored.
grow and for making special
When in excess, are broken down in the liver
proteins such as enzymes, blood
(deamination)
proteins
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3. Physical digestion
Breakdown of food into smaller pieces without chemical change to the food molecules.
Increases the surface area of food for the action of enzymes in chemical digestion.
Human teeth
Types of Functions in physical digestion
human teeth
Incisors I) Two incisors in the front of each quarter-jaw
II) Sharp spade-like teeth
III) Single-rooted teeth
IV) For biting and cutting food
Canines I) One anine per quarter-jaw
II) Conical in shape and sharp
III) Single-rooted teeth
IV) For biting and cutting food
Premolars I) Two premolars per quarter-jaw
II) Suface of each tooth has two projections (cusps)
III) Double-rooted teeth
IV) For crushing and grinding food
Molars I) 3 molars per quarter-jaw
II) Tooth surface is square with four cusps
III) Double-rooted teeth
IV) For crushing and grinding food
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Tooth Description
Structure
Enamel I) Hardest substance in human body
II) Covers the tooth crown that appears above the gum.
III) Non-living
IV) Provides surface that processes the food
Dentine I) Living part (similar to bone)
II) Supports the enamel coating to the tooth.
Pulp cavity I) Central part of the tooth
II) Contains nerves and blood vessels
Cement I) Soft bone-like substrance to which ligaments are
attached that hold the tooth firmly in its socket
II) Allowing for very limited movement to prevent
damage when chewing very hard materials.
Gums Soft tissue that surounds and protects the jawbone and
the roots of the teeth.
Function of the stomach in physical digestion
I) The stomach churns the food into a soup after which the original food has a
maximum surface area exposed ready for the next stage.
II) Peristalsis - a bolus of food is swallowed into the oesophagus and the circular
muscles of the oesophagus contract and close the oesophagus behind it. This
contraction then passes in a wave like motion, along the oesophagus towards the
stomach, pushing the bolus in front of it.
Role of bile in emulsifying fats and oils to increase the surface area for chemical digestion
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4. Chemical Digestion
Break down of large insoluble molecules into small soluble molecules
The role of chemical digestion - produce small soluble molecules that can be absorbed.
Functions of enzymes:
Enzymes Changing from into
1. Amylase starch Maltose sugar
-Maltase Maltose Glucose
2. Protease protein Polypeptides --> Amino acids
-Pepsin Break down protein in acidic condition in the stomach
-Trypsin Break down protein in alkaline condition in the small intestine
3. Lipase Fat Fatty acids and glycerol
Hydrochloric acid in gastric juice
Killing harmful microorganisms in food
Providing an acidic pH for optimum enzyme activity
Bile is an alkaline mixture
Neutrolises the acidic mixture of food and gastric juices entering the duodenum from
the stomach
To provide a suitable pH for enzyme action.
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5. Absorption
Small intestine is the region where nutrients are absorbed
Villi and microvilli - increase the internal surface area of the small intestine
Water is absorbed from the small intestine, but some also absorbed from the colon.
Capillaries in villi - absorb amino acids and glucose
Amino acids & glucose --> absorb by blood capillaries
--> hepatic portal vein (blood vessel) --> liver
Lacteals in villi - absorb fats
Fats --> lacteals --> lymphatic system --> circulatory system at a vein in the neck.
Villus Structure & Functions
I) Numerous - increasing the internal surface area
of the ileum
II) Very thin-walled - covered with single layer of
cells called epithelium
III) Cell membranes thrown into minute folds
(microvilli) to further increase their suface area.
IV) Contain blood capillaries beneath their walls
V) Contain lacteals for absorbing fatty acids and
glycerol
VI) Able to move to bring themselves into close
contact with food.
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