Waveform Generator

A waveform generator is an electronic circuit, which generates a standard wave.

There are two types of op-amp based waveform generators −

•Square wave generator
•Triangular wave generator
 Square Wave Generator

This square wave generator is also called a free-running or a stable multi vibrator.

The output of the op-amp in this circuit will be in positive or negative saturation, depending on whether the differential
voltage vid is negative or positive, respectively.
The square wave generator is defined as an oscillator that gives the output without any input.
Without any input in the sense we should give input within zero seconds that means it must be an impulse input.
This generator is used in digital signal processing and electronic applications.
The square wave generator is also known as Astable Multivibrator or free-running and the frequency of the square wave
generator is independent of the output voltage.

It looks like a comparator with hysteresis (schmitt trigger), except

that the input voltage is replaced by a capacitor.
The circuit has a passive elements such as resistor and capacitor to set
the frequency of oscillation.

As shown in the figure the comparator and positive feedback resistors

R1 and R2 form an inverting schmitt trigger.
The Resistors R1 and R2 form a voltage divider network.
If the initial output voltage is non-zero we get +ve voltage at input terminals. Vn
Vp
Thus we get a positive input at the non-inverting terminal and the inverting
terminal.

And the output gets amplified by its gain and reaches the maximum output
voltage thus we get the half of the square wave as shown in waveform.

When power is turned ON, Vo automatically swings either to

+Vsat or to -Vsat since these are the only stable states allowed by the
schmitt trigger.

With Vo = +Vsat , Vp = VUT and capacitor starts charging towards +Vsat through
the feedback path provided by the resistor Rf to the inverting (-) input.

As long as the capacitor voltage VC < VUT, (V(+) – V(-)) = Vid > 0 & VO = +Vsat.
As soon as VC charges to a value slightly greater than VUT,
i.e. the inverting input voltage (V-) > non-inverting input voltage i.e. Vid < 0
The output voltage switches from +Vsat to -Vsat and we have Vp = VLT ,
which is negative with respect to ground.

As Vo switches to -Vsat, capacitor starts discharging via Rf .

The current ‘I’ discharges capacitor to 0 V and recharges it to VLT.

When VC becomes slightly more negative than the feedback voltage VLT,
output voltage Vo switches back to +Vsat. (V(+) – V(-)) = Vid > 0 & VO = +Vsat.

The capacitor will discharge from VLT to 0V and then recharge to VUT, and the process is repeating. Once the, initial cycle
is completed, the waveform become periodic, as shown in the figure.
 Output frequency

The frequency of oscillation of Square Wave Generator Using Op amp is determined by the time it takes the capacitor to
charge from VUT to VLT and vice versa. The voltage across the capacitor as a function of time.
𝑣id = v1 − v2
With the op-amp’s output voltage at negative saturation, -Vsat,
the voltage v1 across R1 is also negative since R1 v2
v1 = R +R (- Vsat)
1 2
v1
With the op-amp’s output voltage at positive saturation, +Vsat,
the voltage v1 across R1 is also positive i.e. v1 = R1 (+Vsat)
1R +R
2

Time period of output voltage waveform is given by

2R1+R2
T = 2RC ln R2
Thus the frequency of output voltage waveform is given by
1 1
fo = T =
2RC ln 2R1+R2
R2
Thus output frequency, fo is not only the function of time constant but
also a function of relationship between R1 and R2. e.g. If R2 = 1.16R1
1
fo = RC
Q.1. Design a Square wave oscillator so that fo= 1kHz. The Op-amp used is 741 with dc supply voltage = + 15V

Solution: Square wave oscillator ;fo= 1kHz. Vcc = + 15V

To find R (=Rf) , C , R1, R2

R2 = 1.16R1
Assume R1= 10 kΩ
Thus R2 = 1.16R1 = 11.6 kΩ (Assume R2 = 20 kΩ potentiometer)
1
fo = RC

Assume C = 0.05 𝛍 F

1
R= = 10 kΩ
foC
 Triangular Wave Generator Using Op amp

Triangular wave can be obtained from an integrator circuit Using Op amp if its input is a square wave.
Triangular wave is generated by alternatively charging and discharging a capacitor with a constant current.
This is achieved by connecting integrator circuit at the output of square wave generator.

C1

VINT
Triangular Wave Generator Using Op amp

R4 is connected across C to avoid the saturation problem at low frequencies as in the case of practical integrator.
Let the output of the integrator circuit be VINT . Assume that VINT is high at +Vsat.
This forces a constant current (+Vsat / R3) through C1 (left to right) to drive Vo negative linearly.
When VINT = -Vsat, it forces a constant current (-Vsat / R3) through C1 (right to left) to drive Vo positive, linearly.
The frequency of the triangular wave is same as that of square wave.
The reactance of capacitor decreases at high frequencies and increases at low frequencies.
Hence though the amplitude of the square wave is constant (± Vsat), the amplitude of the triangular wave decrease with
increase in its frequency and vice versa.
Triangular Wave Generator Using Op amp
It consists of a comparator (A) and an integrator (B).

The output of comparator A is a square wave of amplitude ±Vsat &

is applied to the inverting (-) input terminal of the integrator B.

The integrator output is a triangular wave and it is fed back as

input to the comparator A through a voltage divider R2 -R3.

To understand circuit operation, assume that the output of

comparator A is at + Vsat . Vsat
This forces a constant current (+ Vsat / R1) through C to give a
negative going ramp at the output of the integrator.
Therefore, one end of voltage divider is at a voltage +Vsat and -Vsat
the other at the negative going ramp.
When the negative going ramp reaches a certain value -Vramp,
the effective voltage at point p becomes slightly below 0V.
As a result, the output of comparator A switches from positive
saturation to negative saturation (-Vsat).
This forces a reverse constant current (right to left) through C1 to
give a positive going ramp at the output of the integrator, as shown
When positive going ramp reaches +Vramp, the effective voltage at
point p becomes slightly above 0V.

As a result, the output of comparator A switches from negative

saturation to positive saturation (+Vsat).

The sequence then repeats to give triangular wave at the output of

integrator B.
Vsat
Amplitude and Frequency Calculations:
The frequency and amplitude of the Triangular Wave Generator using
Op amp wave can be determined as follows : -Vsat
When comparator A1 output is at +Vsat, the output of the integrator A2
steadily decreases until it reaches -Vramp .
At this time the output of A1 switches from +Vsat to (-Vsat)
Just before this switching occurs, the voltage at point P is 0V.
-Vramp must be developed across R2, and +Vsat must be developed across R3.
-Vramp must be developed across R2, and +Vsat must be developed across R3.
−Vramp +Vsat
= -
R2 R3
R2(+Vsat) ---- Eqn 1
-Vramp = - R3

Similarly, +Vramp , the output of A2 at which the output of A1 switches from -Vsat to (+Vsat) , is given by,
R2(−Vsat) ---- Eqn 2
+Vramp = - R3
Peak to peak output amplitude of triangular wave is,
VO(P-P) = +Vramp – (-Vramp)
2R2(Vsat) ---- Eqn 3 (The amplitude of triangular wave decreases with an increase in R3 )
VO(P-P) = R3

Where Vsat = +Vsat = −Vsat

The time taken by Vo to swing from –Vramp to +Vramp (or from +Vramp to –Vramp) is equal to half the time period T/2.
This time can be calculated from the integrator output equation as follows :
−1 𝑇/2
VO(P-P) = R C ‫׬‬0 (−Vsat) dt
1 1
This time can be calculated from the integrator output equation as follows :
(Vsat) T
VO(P-P) = R C 2
1 1

T VO(P−P)R1C1
2 = (Vsat)

2VO(P−P)R1C1 ---- Eqn 4

T =
(Vsat)

2R2(Vsat)
But VO(P-P) = R3
4R2 R1R2C1
T = R3

The frequency of oscillation is given by;

R3
fo =
4R2 R1R2C1
Design a triangular wave generator so that fo= 2 kHz and Vop-p is 7V. The Op-amp is IC 741 and supply voltage is +15V

Soln: triangular wave generator ; fo= 2 kHz and Vop-p is 7V.; The Op-amp is IC 741 and Vcc = +15V
Assume Vsat = 14V

2R2(Vsat)
VO(P-P) = R3
R2 VO(P−P))
R3 = 2(Vsat)
R
Thus R2 = 43
R-C Phase Oscillator

R-C phase shift oscillaotr using op-amp uses op-amp in

inverting amplifier mode.
Thus it introduces the phase shift of 180° between input and
output.
The feedback network consists of 3 RC sections each
producing 60° phase shift.
The output of amplifier is given to feedback network and
the Output of feedback network drives the amplifier.
The total phase shift around a loop is 180° of amplifier and 180° due to 3 RC section, thus 360°.
The frequency of sustained oscillations generated depends on the values of R and C and is given by,
1 0.065
fO = =
2π √6RC RC
At this frequency the gain of the op-amp must be at least 29 to satisfy Aβ = 1. Now gain of the op-amp inverting
amplifier is given by, R
A > R f > 29
1
Thus circuit will work as an oscillator which will produce a sinusoidal waveform if gain is 29 and total phase shift
around a loop is 360°.
This satisfies the Barkhausen criterion for the oscillator. These oscillators are used over the audio frequency range i.e.
about 20 Hz upto 100 kHz.
Advantages of RC Phase Shift Oscillator:
1.The circuit is simple to design.
2.Can produce output over audio frequency range.
3.Produces sinusoidal output waveform.
4.It is a fixed frequency oscillator.

Disadvantages of RC Phase Shift Oscillator:

By changing the values of R and C, the frequency of the oscillator can be changed. But the values of R and C of all three
sections must be changed simultaneously to satisfy the oscillating conditions which is practically impossible. Hence
the phase shift oscillator is considered as a fixed frequency oscillator, for all practical purposes.

And the frequency stability is poor due to the changes in the values of various components, due to effect of
temperature, ageing etc.
Q.1. Design a RC Phase shift Oscillator using op-amp so that fO = 200 Hz.

Soln: RC-Phase shift oscillator; fo= 200 Hz; to find R, C, R1 and Rf

Assume C = 0.1 𝛍 F

1 0.065
fO = = RC
2π√(6RC)
0.065
R= = 3.25 kΩ
CfO
Thus use R= 3.3 kΩ

And R1> 10 R To prevent loading of amplifier because of RC network.

Thus R1 = 10 R = 33 kΩ

R
A > Rf > 29
1

Thus minimum value of Rf = 29 R = 957 kΩ

Select R1 = 1 MΩ potentiometer
Q.2. Design a RC Phase shift Oscillator using op-amp so that fO = 2k Hz.

Soln: RC-Phase shift oscillator; fo= 200 Hz; to find R, C, R1 and Rf

Assume C = 0.1 𝛍 F

1 0.065
fO = = RC
2π√(6RC)
0.065
R= = 3.25 kΩ
CfO
Thus use R= 3.3 kΩ

And R1> 10 R To prevent loading of amplifier because of RC network.

Thus R1 = 10 R = 33 kΩ

R
A > Rf > 29
1

Thus minimum value of Rf = 29 R = 957 kΩ

Select R1 = 1 MΩ potentiometer
Wein Bridge Oscillator using Op Amp:
In the Wein Bridge Oscillator using Op Amp, a Wein bridge circuit is used as a feedback network between
the amplifier output and input.
The bridge circuit has a series RC network in one arm and a parallel RC network in the adjoining arm.
In the remaining two arms of the bridge resistances Rf and R1 are connected.
The operational amplifier together with resistors Rf and R1 constitute a noninverting amplifier.
The feedback network from the amplifier output to its noninverting input terminal is made up of series and parallel RC
networks.
Series RC and parallel RC network are called frequency
sensitive arms.
The components of these two arms decide the frequency of the
oscillator.
Such a feedback network is called lead–lag network.
This is because at very low frequencies it acts like a lead while
at very high frequencies it acts like lag network.

The Wein bridge is an ac bridge that balances only at a particular supply frequency.
At the balance frequency of the Wein bridge, the feedback voltage is in phase with the amplifier output.
This (in-phase) voltage is amplified to reproduce the output.
At all other frequencies, the bridge is off balance; that is, the feedback and output voltages do not have the correct phase
relationship to sustain oscillations.
The Barkhausen requirement for zero loop phase shift is fulfilled in this circuit by the amplifier and feedback network
both having zero phase shift at the oscillation frequency (at resonance).
When the balance of the bridge is obtained :

i.e. Rf = 2R1

The frequency of oscillation fo, is the resonant frequency of the Wein Bridge and is given by

1 0.159
fo = 2πRC = RC

At this frequency the gain required for sustained oscillations can be derived as follows
1
Av= B = 3
R R
(1 + R f ) = 3 As Af = (1 + R f ) ---- non-inverting amplifier gain
1 1
Advantages
1.By varying the two capacitor values simultaneously, by mounting them on the common shaft, different frequency
ranges can be obtained.

2. The perfect sine wave output is possible.

3. It is useful audio frequency range i.e. 20 Hz to 100 kHz. Maximum frequency of operation is 1MHz.

Disadvantages
Cannot be used to generate high frequency signals.
Q.3. Design a Wein Bridge Oscillator using op-amp so that fO = 965 k Hz.

Soln: Wein Bridge oscillator; fo= 965kHz; to find R, C, R1 and Rf

Assume C = 0.05 𝛍 F

0.159 = 3.3 kΩ
R=
CfO

Let Rf = 2 R1

Assume R1 = 10 kΩ

Rf = 2R1 = 20 kΩ