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So, we will continue with our discussions that we had in the last lecture on the principle of virtual work
as applied to connected systems of rigid bodies. For your reference, this is module 8, lecture number
19 of the Engineering Mechanics course. Before taking up some problems, we will first define what we
call the degree of freedom of a system, which defines the number of individual coordinates that are
required to define the position or configuration of a rigid body or a system of connected rigid bodies.
Before going into the details, let us recapitulate what we studied in the last lecture. We defined the
equilibrium of an ideal system of rigid bodies; we defined ideal systems as systems that do not absorb
energy and also do not dissipate energy because of friction. So, the principle of virtual work as applied
to the ideal system of rigid bodies is that the work done by the external active forces on an ideal
mechanical system in equilibrium is zero, for all virtual displacements consistent with constraints. That
is, delta U = 0.
We also saw that it is not needed to dismember the connected bodies for analysis. The relation
between active forces can be determined without any reference to the reactive or internal forces; that
means, we do not need to find the reaction forces also. Additionally, it is useful in establishing
equilibrium configurations under known loads. We will see some problems to realize these advantages.
You should note that we are neglecting friction, because we are idealizing the system and assuming
that friction does not exist. If friction is appreciable, then it does work and must be included in the
expression. In this case, one has to dismember the bodies to determine friction, and the advantage of
this virtual work method is lost, because in order to determine the internal forces, we have to
dismember the bodies. Once we do that, the advantage of the virtual work method is lost.
Now, let us define what we mean by the degrees of freedom of a system. The degree of freedom is the
number of independent coordinates needed to specify the configuration of a system completely. Let
us take one example of a 1-degree-of-freedom system, where we define the configuration of the
system completely by specifying only one coordinate. Here, you see a link B-C linked at C and the link
A-B connected by a roller at A, with some external forces acting on the system. The system undergoes
displacement.
If we assume that the system undergoes displacement consistent with the constraints, then this point
A can move along this roller, say in this direction, and can take up some new position. Since this is
constrained at point C, this point B can trace a circular path. Any new position, say B prime, will be
such that the virtual displacement, due to the application of these external forces, is consistent with
the constraints. This means that point A moves along the roller, and this link undergoes pure rotation.
Now, this new configuration can be defined if we know the new position of point A prime and the
angle of rotation of link B-C. That means, if we know the coordinates of A prime and B prime, then we
know the new configuration completely. Since these bodies are rigid, the distances do not change, that
is, the lengths A prime-B prime or B prime-C remain the same. So, if we define the distance x from a
datum, it is possible to obtain the position theta of link B-C in terms of this x. For any displacement dx,
we can determine the displacement d theta. So, it is possible to define the required coordinates for the
configuration of this system by specifying a single coordinate, x. We call this a single degree-of-
freedom system, where we only need one coordinate to specify the configuration completely.
We can see another example, like the piston, connecting rod, and crank that you normally see in any IC
engine. The piston undergoes a reciprocating motion, and the crank undergoes rotation. The
coordinate of the piston, say with respect to some datum, x, can be defined if we can define the angle
theta. So, for any displacement d theta of the link, the displacement dx is known. So, by specifying
either theta or x, we can completely define the configuration of the system. Again, this is a 1-degree-
of-freedom system.
Next, consider another example, which is a four-bar mechanism. In this mechanism, the position A is
fixed, and points C and D are also fixed. The link A-D is also fixed because both its orientation and the
distance between points A and D are fixed. Let’s say this is the crank or input link, and its angle is
theta. The link lengths are constant because the links are rigid. If this crank undergoes displacement to
a new position, B prime, with an angular displacement d theta, then the new orientation of C will be
determined by the change in angles, say theta 1 and theta 2.
These angles, theta 1 and theta 2, can be written in terms of the angle theta, so any displacement d
theta will result in the displacements d theta 1 and d theta 2, which can be determined because the
link lengths are constant. So, this is again a single degree-of-freedom system. Four-bar mechanisms
are used to traverse some path for the rotation of the crank, and they are used in many machineries to
generate paths. These mechanisms are called path-generating mechanisms, which you will study in
more detail in the mechanical engineering course on machines.
So, here, our discussion is to understand the concept of the degree of freedom of a connected system
of rigid bodies. Let us see another example of a 2-degree-of-freedom system. This is similar to an
articulated arm, like the human arm. The position of the end, say A, or the end effector, in the case of a
robot or our hand, can be positioned by rotating two links, B-C and B-A. Various forces act on the
system, like the self-weight of these members and other forces. The configuration of this system can
be defined by these two coordinates, say theta 1 and theta 2.
So, this is a 2-degree-of-freedom system because you need to define both theta 1 and theta 2
independently to obtain the position of point A. Any virtual displacements consistent with the
constraints can be defined by specifying both d theta 1 and d theta 2. So, the system can be uniquely
defined if we specify these two coordinates. Thus, this is a two-degree-of-freedom system.
Now, let us consider an example of a 5-bar mechanism. Similar to how we defined the 4-bar
mechanism, here we have an input link, say theta 1, and the link lengths are fixed. To completely define
the configuration, we have to define one more angle, say theta 4, and then the other angles, theta 2
and theta 3, can be determined in terms of theta 1 and theta 4. So, this is also a two-degree-of-
freedom system, where the configuration is completely defined if we define theta 1 and theta 4.
These are examples of two-degree-of-freedom systems. We can also have systems with more degrees
of freedom, where the analysis becomes more complicated as the number of degrees of freedom
increases. Initially, we will limit our discussion to single-degree-of-freedom systems, and perhaps we
will look at some problems on two-degree-of-freedom systems as well.
Now, let us define the equilibrium of an ideal system of rigid bodies. To solve such problems, the first
step is to construct what we call the active force diagram, where we only depict the forces that do
work; we do not show the reactive forces and internal forces. The way we have constructed free body
diagrams for equilibrium problems, here we construct an active force diagram, where we only show
those forces which do work when a virtual displacement occurs in the system.
Then, we determine the number of degrees of freedom, define the datum, and determine the virtual
displacement consistent with the constraints. After that, we write the principle of virtual work, which is
the virtual work equation, and equate the sum of all the virtual work to zero. That is, delta U = 0.
For multiple degree-of-freedom systems, a virtual displacement is given to each individual coordinate.
We apply the principle of virtual work for each of these virtual displacements. For each small angular
displacement, say delta theta 1, the virtual displacement is delta theta 1, and for delta theta 2, the
displacement is delta theta 2. We apply the virtual work equation for each of these, resulting in n
equations for an n-degree-of-freedom system. It is possible to solve for the n unknowns in such a
system, but initially, we will limit our discussion to single-degree-of-freedom systems.
Each of these results in one equation, and we have n equations for an n-degree-of-freedom system.
Let us now consider an example and see how we apply the method of virtual work to a system of
connected rigid bodies. In this case, we are considering an ideal system of rigid bodies. Here, you see a
collar B that can slide on the rod A-C. This collar is attached to a pin, and there is a block that can slide
in a vertical slot. The block and collar are connected by a pin at B. We are interested in deriving an
expression for the magnitude of the couple M, which is applied at point A, required to maintain the
equilibrium position when a force P is acting on the block attached to the pin.

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