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Instrumentation, Measurement
and
Analysis
Fourth Edition
About the Authors
(Late) B C Nakra was Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Senior Scientist,
at the Indian Institute of Technology (IIT), Delhi. Earlier, he was Acting Director,
Deputy Director, Dean (Academics) and RRM and BHEL Chair Professor as well
as HOD of Mechanical Engineering Department and Industrial Tribology, Machine
Dynamics and Maintenance Engineering Centre (ITMMEC), IIT Delhi. He was
Professor of Eminence at the Netaji Subhash Institute of Technology (NSIT),
New Delhi. In addition, he was, Pro Vice Chancellor, Director and Distinguished
Professor at the North Cap University (Formerly ITM University), Gurgaon
(Haryana). He did his PhD from Imperial College of Science and Technology,
London and started his career at IIT Kharagpur, followed by teaching, research

institutions. He was associated as Fellow with distinguished societies, namely FNA, FNAE, FNA Sc, FIE
and FIF. He was actively involved in the teaching and research in the areas of Vibrations, Engineering
Instrumentation, Automatic Controls, Mechatronics and Engineering Design.

K K Chaudhry has been Professor in the Department of Applied Mechanics

at the Indian Institute of Technology (IIT), Delhi and has been associated with
teaching, research, design, development and industrial consultancy assignments,
for more than four decades. He has also been Senior Professor and Head of the
Mechanical Engineering Department at the North Cap University (Formerly
ITM University), Gurgaon (Haryana). Further, he also has had a brief tenure as
Dean in the SGT, Institute of Engineering and Technology, Gurgaon (Haryana).
During his tenure at IIT Delhi, he had visiting faculty assignments for a year at
the Imperial College of Science and Technology, London. He has been actively

decades in the areas of Biomechanics, Fluid Mechanics, Instrumentation, Environmental Engineering,

Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics.
Instrumentation, Measurement
and
Analysis
Fourth Edition

B C Nakra (Late)
Former INSA Senior Scientist
Indian Institute of Technology
Delhi

K K Chaudhry
Former Professor, Applied Mechanics Department
Indian Institute of Technology
Delhi

McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited

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Instrumentation, Measurement and Analysis, 4e
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Preface xiii

Introduction 1.1
1.1 Typical Applications of Instrument Systems 1.2
1.2 Functional Elements of a Measurement System 1.5
1.3 Brief Description of the Functional Elements of the Instruments 1.11
1.16
1.5 Microprocessor-Based Instrumentation 1.21
1.6 Standards and Calibration 1.23
Review Questions 1.26
Answers 1.30

Introduction 2.1
2.1 Errors and Uncertainties in Performance Parameters 2.2
2.2 Estimation of Propagation of Uncertainties in Compound Quantities 2.5
2.3 Static Performance Parameters 2.10
2.4 Impedance Loading and Matching 2.18
2.20
2.6 Selection of the Instrument 2.22
Review Questions 2.23
Answers 2.28

Introduction 3.1
3.1 Generalised Governing Equations of Instruments 3.2
3.2 Formulation of Governing Equations of Systems 3.5
3.3 Dynamic Response of Systems 3.8
3.4 Frequency Response of High Order Systems 3.15
3.5 Response of Instrument Systems to Transient Inputs 3.23
3.6 Fourier Transform Method for Dynamic Response of System 3.31
3.7 Compensation Techniques for Improving Dynamic Response 3.33
Review Questions 3.37
Answers 3.40
 Contents

Introduction 4.1
4.1 Analog Transducers 4.2
4.2 Potentiometric Resistance Type of Transducer 4.3
4.3 Inductive-Type Transducers 4.5
4.4 Capacitive Type Transducer 4.10
4.5 Piezo-electric Transducer 4.13
4.6 Resistance Strain Gauge Transducer 4.18
4.7 Ionic Type Displacement Transducer 4.36
4.8 Optoelctrical Transducer 4.37
4.9 Digital Transducers 4.39
Review Questions 4.46
Answers 4.50

Introduction 5.1
5.1
5.7
5.3 Differentiating and Integrating Elements 5.12
5.4 Filters 5.14
5.5 A–D and D–A Converters 5.16
5.6 Terminology and Conversions 5.20
5.7 Data Transmission Elements 5.21
Review Questions 5.25
Answers 5.26

Introduction 6.1
6.1 Digital Voltmeters (DVMs) 6.2
6.2 Cathode Ray Oscilloscopes (CROs) 6.2
6.3 Galvanometric Recorders 6.6
6.4 Servo-Type Potentiometric Recorders 6.6
6.5 Magnetic Tape Recorders 6.7
6.6 Digital Recorder of Memory Type 6.9
6.7 Data Acquisition Systems 6.10
6.8 Data Display and Storage 6.11
6.9 Electronic Display Devices 6.12
6.10 Digital Display Systems 6.15
6.16
Review Questions 6.17
Answers 6.20

Introduction 7.1
7.1 Relative Motion Type Vibration Measuring Devices 7.1
7.2 Absolute Motion Type Vibration Measurement Devices 7.6
Contents

7.3 Calibration of Motion Devices 7.16

Review Questions 7.18
Answers 7.20

Introduction 8.1
8.1 Linear Dimensional Gauging 8.2
8.2 Mechanical Type of Dimensional Gauging Devices 8.2
8.3 Electromechanical Dimensional Gauging Devices 8.9
8.4 Pneumatic Dimensional Gauging Technique 8.10
8.5 Hydraulic Dimensional Gauging Technique 8.13
8.6 Optical Dimensional Gauging 8.14
8.7 Surface Roughness Measurement 8.17
8.8 Measurement of Area using Polar Planimeter 8.18
Review Questions 8.22
Answers 8.25

Introduction 9.1
9.1 Balance Principle of Force Measurement 9.1
9.2 Hydraulic Load Cell 9.2
9.3 Pneumatic Load Cell 9.2
9.4 Elastic Force Devices 9.3
9.5 Electromechanical Methods 9.4
9.6 Separation of Force Components 9.7
9.7 Calibration of Force Transducers 9.9
Review Questions 9.10
Answers 9.10

Introduction 10.1
10.1 Transmission Dynamometers 10.2
10.2 Torsion Dynamometers 10.2
10.3 Driving Type Dynamometer 10.9
10.4 Absorption Dynamometers 10.9
10.5 Calibration of Dynamometer 10.12
Review Questions 10.13
Answers 10.14

Introduction 11.1
11.1 Moderate Pressure Measurement Techniques 11.2
11.2 High Pressure Bridgeman Gauge 11.14
11.3 Low Pressure (Vacuum) Measurement 11.15
11.4 Calibration of Pressure Gauges 11.23
11.5 Summary of Pressure Ranges of Various Pressure and Vacuum Gauges 11.25
Review Questions 11.26
Answers 11.27
 Contents

Introduction 12.1
12.1 Temperature Scales 12.2
12.2 International Temperature Scale-1990 (ITS-90) 12.3
12.3 Measurement of Temperature 12.4
12.4 Non-Electrical Methods of Temperature Measurement 12.5
12.5 Electrical Methods of Temperature Measurement 12.9
12.6 Radiation Methods (Pyrometry) 12.19
Review Questions 12.23
Answers 12.26

Introduction 13.1
13.1 Primary or Quantity Meters 13.2
13.2 Positive-Displacement Meters 13.2
13.3 Secondary or Rate Meters 13.4
13.4 Calibration of Flow Meters 13.22
13.5 Special Methods of Flow Measurements 13.23
13.6 Thermal and Laser Doppler Type Anemometers 13.28
Review Questions 13.34
Answers 13.38

Introduction 14.1
14.1 Characteristics of Sound 14.2
14.2 Sound Pressure, Power and Intensity Levels 14.2
14.3 Loudness 14.8
14.4 Typical Sound Measuring Systems 14.9
14.5 Microphones 14.13
Review Questions 14.17
Answers 14.19

Introduction 15.1
15.1 Analog Filters and Frequency Analysers 15.1
15.2 Frequency Analysis for Various Input Signals 15.4
15.3 Digital Frequency Analysers 15.6
15.4 System Analysis by Harmonic Testing 15.11
15.5 System Analysis by Transient Testing 15.12
15.6 Random Force Testing 15.15
Review Questions 15.16
Answers 15.16

Introduction 16.1
16.1 Vibration and Noise Monitoring 16.2
16.2 Temperature Monitoring 16.8
Contents

16.3 Wear Behaviour Monitoring 16.9

16.4 Corrosion Monitoring 16.13
16.5 Material Defect Monitoring 16.14
16.6 Acoustic Emission (AE) Monitoring Technique 16.18
16.7 Performance Trend Monitoring 16.21
16.8 Selection of Condition Monitoring Techniques 16.23
16.9 Expert System Technique in Fault Diagnosis 16.24
Review Questions 16.26
Answers 16.26

Introduction 17.1
17.2
17.2 Measurement of Liquid Level 17.7
17.3 Viscosity Measurements 17.14
17.4 Measurement of Humidity and Moisture 17.19
17.5 Measurement of pH Value 17.23
17.6 Biomedical Measurements/Biometrics 17.25
17.7 Environmental Air Pollution Parameters 17.31
17.8 Environment Pollution Measurement Techniques and Devices 17.31
17.9 Smoke Density Measurement Techniques 17.38
Review Questions 17.40
Answers 17.43

Introduction 18.1
18.1 Fibre Optic Transducers 18.2
18.2 Microsensors 18.5
18.3 Smart Sensors 18.7
18.4 Smart Transmitters and Field Bus 18.8
18.5 Virtual Instrumentation 18.9
Review Questions 18.12
Answers 18.13

Introduction 19.1
19.1 Types of Control Systems 19.2
19.2 Examples of Feedback Control Systems and Their Block Diagrams 19.5
19.3 Transfer Functions of Elements, System and Processes 19.7
19.4 Transfer Function of Typical Feedback Control System 19.14
19.5 Transient and Steady State Response of Control Systems 19.16
19.6 Effect of Various Types of Control Actions on Dynamic Performance 19.18
19.7 Stability of Control Systems 19.26
Review Questions 19.29
Answers 19.32
x Contents

20. Computer-Aided Measurements 20.1–20.9

Introduction 20.1
20.1 Computer-Aided Measurements 20.1
20.2 Microprocessor Based Data Acquisition System 20.2
20.3 Peripherals of Microprocessor Unit 20.3
20.4 Data Transfer and Communication 20.4
20.5 P.C. Based Data Acquisition System 20.6
Review Questions 20.7
Answers 20.9
21. Mechatronics and Applications 21.1–21.20
Introduction 21.1
21.3
21.2 Examples of Mechatronic Systems 21.4
21.3 Main Elements of Mechatronic Systems 21.5
21.4 Advantages and Limitations of Mechatronic Systems 21.7
21.5 Design Procedure for Mechatronic Systems 21.8
21.6 Mechatronic System Control Architecture 21.12
21.7 Automobile Engine Management System 21.14
21.8 Automatic Washing Machine 21.16
21.9 Automatic Camera 21.17
Review Questions 21.18
Answers 21.20
22. Electrical Measurements 22.1–22.46
Introduction 22.1
22.1 Advantages of Electrical Measuring Instruments 22.1
22.2 Measurement of Resistance, Inductance and Capacitance 22.2
22.3 Measurement of Voltage, Current and Power 22.10
22.4 Magnetic Flux Measurements 22.30
22.5 Waveform Generation and Measurements 22.32
22.6 Frequency and Phase Measurements 22.38
Review Questions 22.41
Answers 22.45

23. Basic Statistical Concepts 23.1–23.36

Introduction 23.1
23.1 Types of Measured Quantities 23.1
23.2 Central Tendency of Data 23.10
23.3 Best Estimate of True Value of Data 23.13
23.4 Measures of Dispersion (Spread or Variability) 23.16
23.5 Standard Deviation of the Sample Means 23.20
23.6 Evaluation of Sample Mean and Standard Deviation by Method of Coding 23.23
23.7 Evaluation of Best Estimate Mean Value and Least Error in a Multiple Set of Data 23.26
Review Questions 23.28
Answers 23.34
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Contents

Introduction 24.1
24.1 Properties of Gaussian Distribution 24.2
24.2 Area Under the Normal Distribution Curve 24.4
24.3 Determination of Mean Value and Standard Deviation of the Continuous
Distribution of Gaussian Type 24.5
24.4 Standardised Normal Distribution 24.6
24.10
24.6 Central Limit Theorem 24.16
24.18
24.8 Chi-Square Test for Goodness of Fit 24.20
24.9 Criteria for Goodness of Fit 24.21
24.10 Contingency Tables 24.25
Review Questions 24.27
Answers 24.32

Appendix A-1 Fundamental and Derived Quantities in International System of Units A.1
Appendix A-2 Derivation of Solution for Step Response of Second-Order System A.3
Appendix A-3 Principal Strain and Stress Relations A.5

Bibliography B.1–B.2
Index I.1–I.7
Measurements form an integral component for the interaction of humanity with the physical world.
Measurements of commodities, quantities, various parameters of products/processes/systems have been
used from times immemorial in day-to-day trade, commerce and industrial activities. With the latest
advances in the areas of instrumentation and control, together with the advances in computation and
information processing, a new era of industrial automation has emerged. With the rapid growth of
industrial economy, a plethora of high technology automated products/processes/machines has emerged
to satisfy the consumer needs and requirements. Such products have a large number of applications in
diverse areas namely, domestic home appliances, defense equipments, automobile, aviation and space
systems, process industries and manufacturing systems, health services and host of other applications.
As a consequence of this, there is a strong demand of trained professionals in this area and the present
textbook would be found to be very useful for the budding professionals in this area.
This fourth edition of the textbook is based on our wide and long-standing experience of teaching and

the three basic sections namely, instrumentation principles, measurement techniques and data analysis.
These sections have been presented in the form which is lucid and easily comprehensible to the students.
In fact, it covers comprehensively the syllabi of most courses in instrumentation/experimental methods
for various undergraduate and postgraduate disciplines comprising these three aspects.
Instrumentation, Measurement and Analysis was published in 1985 and the second
and third editions were introduced in 2004 and 2009 respectively. Subsequently, there have been several
reprints each year, of all the editions of this textbook. In view of the truly interdisciplinary nature and
several developments taking place in this area, a need for revision of the book was felt. Comments/
suggestions were invited and received by the publishers from several reputed teachers in this area. These
were carefully looked into by us and this edition has been revised by weeding out the old concepts and
incorporating new useful information.
The fourth (current) edition includes the following new features:
Addition of a new chapter namely, Mechatronics and Applications.
Listing of Learning Objectives (LOs) at the begining of each chapter followed by their comprehensive
coverage.
Tagging of each ‘Learning Objective’ with the text.
Begining each chapter with an introductory paragraph highlighting the importance of topics described
in the chapter.
Includes, extensively revised chapters namely, Dynamic Characteristics of Instruments, Transducer
Elements, Indicating, Recording and Display Elements, Torque and Power Measurement,
Force Measurement, Pressure Measurement, Temperature Measurement, Flow Measurement,
Acoustic Measurement and Miscellaneous Instruments in Industrial, Biomedical and
Environmental Applications.
 Preface

Includes, not only extensive description of the traditional measurement techniques but also covers
specialized revised topics like: Signal and System Analysis, Condition Monitoring and Signature
Analysis and Applications, Recent Developments in Instrumentation and Measurements, Control
Engineering Applications, Electrical Measurements and Computer Aided Measurements.
Chapter on ‘Graphical Representation of Data and Curve Fitting’ has been moved to OLC.
Addition of a number of problems in various chapters in this revised edition.
The textbook has been divided into three parts. Part 1, containing Chapters 1 to 6, deals with the
general treatment of the instruments and their characteristics without referring to a particular measurement
situation. Chapter 1 gives the introduction to instruments and their representation. Chapters 2 and 3
discuss the static and dynamic characteristics of the instruments respectively. Chapters 4 and 5 discuss
the transducer elements and intermediate signal conditioning elements. The last chapter of Part 1,
Chapter 6 describes the various indicating, recording and display elements.
Part 2 gives the details of the measurements of the actual physical variable, while referring to
Part 1, wherever necessary. In addition, it incorporates the special sections on Signal and System Analysis,
Condition Monitoring and Signature Analysis and Applications, Recent Developments in instrumentation
and Measurements, Control Engineering Applications, Electrical Measurements and Computer Aided
Measurements.
Chapter 7 describes the motion and vibration measurements, while Chapter 8 deals with dimensional
metrology. Chapters 9 and 10 have been devoted to description of different types of force as well as
torque and power measuring devices respectively. Measurements of moderate, high and vacuum pressures
have been dealt with in Chapter 11; while, Chapter 12, which is on temperature measurements explains
the different types of temperature scales, electrical, non-electrical and radiation methods of temperature
measurements. Chapter 13

Wire and Laser Doppler Anemometers have also been discussed.

Chapters 15 to 22 are devoted to the advanced instrumentation techniques including micro sensors,
computer based instrumentation, mechatronics etc. Chapter 15 on Signal and System Analysis deals with
Chapter 16 presents
the condition monitoring and signature analysis techniques for fault diagnosis. Miscellaneous types of
instruments have been discussed in Chapter 17, which are commonly used in industrial, bio-medical

sensors and smart type sensors have been discussed in Chapter 18. A closely related instrumentation
area of control engineering and its applications has been discussed in Chapter 19. Further, application
oriented area namely computer aided measurements has been described in Chapter 20. A new chapter
21,
industrial products, processes, and machines are generally mechatronic type systems. Chapter 22 on
Electrical Measurements, explains different types of instruments for the measurements of resistance,
capacitance, inductance, voltage, current, electrical power, frequency and phase difference of signals, as

Lastly, Part 3, consisting of chapters 23 and 24 has been included with extensive coverage to
‘Data Analysis’ to highlight the evaluation of useful parameters/functional relationships based on the
measured data. Chapter 23, on Basic Statistical Concepts describes the types of measured quantities,
central tendencies of data, measures of deviations, mean and standard deviation of mean. The last chapter
Preface

(Chapter 24) of the book is on Normal Distribution in which central limit theorem, important tests like

Besides 24 chapters, the book also has three appendices. Appendix A-1 is on fundamental and derived
quantities in the International System of Units. Appendix A-2 deals with the derivation of solution of
the step response of a second order system. Appendix A-3 describes the principal strain and stress rela-
tions of the strain rosettes. A bibliography has also been provided at the end of the book, which has the
reference material for further study.
An attempt to include the following useful and notable features in the textbook has been made:
Interdisciplinary treatment in selecting the content of the book by incorporating the applications from
various engineering and applied science disciplines.
Discussion on the measurement principles, constructional features, advantages, limitations etc. of
various possible instruments for a particular measurement situation.
Clear and lucid explanation of concept of a system, process or situation in each section and sub-
section in the textbook, which in most cases is followed by a well labeled schematic diagram for
providing better understanding of the subject matter.
Emphasis on the measurement standards and calibration methods which are essential features of any
measurement program.

type review questions within each chapter.

Inclusion of special chapters on current applications in the area of condition monitoring and signature
analysis in machines, in process measurements, biomedical and environmental air pollution
measurements along with control engineering and digital computer and mechatronics.
Simple and lucid treatment of statistical treatment of data.
Introduction of various systems of units in use.
Inclusion of relevant data and tables wherever necessary.
Lastly, suitability for professional engineers in industry, as the textbook not only emphasizes the
fundamental concepts but also gives practical details on the various aspects of instrumentation
including the latest advances in the area.
The Publisher of the book, M/s McGraw Hill Education (India) Pvt. Ltd. has included another additional
valuable educational resource, which is as follows:
The website of this book can be accessed at http://www.mhhe.com/nakra/ima4 and contains the
following useful material.
For Instructors
o Solution Manual of Numerical Problems
o PowerPoint Slides
For Students
o Chapter on ‘Graphical Representation and Curve Fitting of Data’
o Web Link for additional reading
We are grateful to many of our academic colleagues, industrial contacts and numerous students who
have contributed in many ways by giving us constructive and useful suggestions. Although due care
has been taken to avoid inadvertent errors in the textbook as well as in the numerical examples, yet
 Preface

we (authors/publishers) would be obliged if any error present is brought to our notice. Lastly, comments/
suggestions for the improvement of the book from the readers would be gratefully received.
During the course of preparation of this book, we have had useful discussions and interactions with
academicians from different universities. Their cooperation is highly acknowledged. We would like to
thank the following reviewers for sparing their valuable time to review the book.
S P Singh Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) Delhi
M K Ghosh Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) BHU, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh
S K Sen University College of Science and Technology (UCST), Kolkata
Amit Ray Bengal College of Engineering and Technology, Durgapur, West Bengal
Mr Chitrak Dutta Dream Institute of Technology, Kolkata, West Bengal
Samir Ekbote Datta Meghe College of Engineering, Airoli, Navi Mumbai, Maharashtra
G Balaji PSNA College of Engineering and Technology, Tamil Nadu
Zachariah C Alex VIT University, Vellore, Tamil Nadu
Sandeep Kumar Kulkarni Poojya Doddappa Appa College of Engineering, Kalaburagi,
VTU-Belagavi, Karnataka

(Late) B C NAKRA
K K CHAUDHRY
(Email: [email protected])

McGraw Hill Education (India) invites suggestions and comments from you, all of which can be sent to
[email protected] (kindly mention the title and author name in the subject line).
Piracy-related issues may also be reported.
Part-1
INTRODUCTION
1. Introduction to Instruments and Their Representation
2. Static Performance Characteristics of Instruments
3. Dynamic Characteristics of Instruments
4. Transducer Elements
5. Intermediate Elements
6. Indicating, Recording and Display Elements
 Chapter

1
LEARNING OBJECTIVES

LO 1:
LO 2:
LO 3:
LO 4:
LO 5:
LO 6:
LO 7:

INTRODUCTION LO 1
air-conditioning systems and engine operations at
of instrumentation in the recent times. Presently, it
encompasses the areas of detection, acquisition, control Instrumentation is very vital to modern industries
and analysis of data in almost all areas of science and too. Figure 1.1 shows some typical application areas
technology. Even in our day-to-day life, instrumentation of instrumentation systems and has been discussed in
is indispensable. For example, an ordinary watch—an detail in the following section. In fact, the use of instru-
instrument for measuring time—is used by everybody. mentation systems in certain areas like power plants,
Likewise, an automobile driver needs an instrument process industries, automatic production machines, bio-
panel to facilitate him in driving the vehicle properly. medical systems, consumer electronics, etc., have revo-
Modern-day state-of-the-art automobiles are equipped lutionised the old concepts. Consequently, they have
with a variety of sensors and indicators. The common brought about tremendous savings in time and labour
automobile sensors are for knock detection, manifold involved. Additionally, instrumentation systems act as
pressure, coolant level and temperature, oil level and extensions of human senses and quite often facilitate
the retrieval of information from complex situations.
Nowadays ‘Instrumentation’ has become a distinct
of the engine, crank shaft and wheels. In addition, discipline. In fact, the use of instrumentation in a myriad
these vehicles are provided with special Micro-Electro- of systems has proved to be extremely useful and cost
Mechanical Systems (MEMS) to operate the safety -
airbags for passengers; Global Positioning System (GPS) ing better quality control, higher plant utilization, better
for geographical information and on board computers/ manpower productivity, material and energy savings
micro-processors for controlling and optimising comfort alongwith speedier and accurate data reductions.
1.2 Instrumentation, Measurement and Analysis

Fig. 1.1 Typical application areas of instrumentation systems

1.1 LO 2
The objectives of performing experiments are too numerous to be enumerated. However, certain common
motivating factors for carrying out the measurements are as follows:
Measurement of system parameters informations One of the important functions of the instruments
is to determine the various parameters/informations of the system or a process. In addition, they present
the desired information about the condition of the system in the form of visual indication/registering/
recording/monitoring/suitable transmission according to the needs and requirements of the system. For

the potentiometric type of temperature recorder gives the printout of instantaneous values of temperatures
with respect to time in the form of printout. In addition, condition-based system of operation is being used
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