1 a) In research, primary and secondary data differ based on their source, purpose, and

collection method. Here’s a breakdown of their distinctions:

Feature Primary Data Secondary Data

Data collected first-hand for a specific Data that has already been collected by
Definition
purpose someone else for a different purpose

Books, journals, government reports,

Direct from respondents, observations,
Source previous research, newspapers, or online
experiments, surveys, or interviews
sources

Already exists and may have been analyzed

Originality Original and firsthand information
before

Collected for a specific research Collected for other research but can be used
Purpose
problem for a new study

Cost &
Expensive and time-consuming Cheaper and quicker to obtain
Time

Reliability More reliable and specific to the study May be outdated or not fully relevant

Survey responses, interviews, field Census reports, academic articles, company

Examples
observations, experiments records, online databases

Conclusion

 Primary data is best for specific and current research needs but requires more effort.

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  Secondary data is useful for background information, literature reviews, and

comparative studies but may not fully match the researcher's needs.

b) When choosing a research topic from a broader area, follow these five key rules:

1. Relevance and Significance – The topic should be meaningful and contribute to

knowledge in your field, addressing real-world issues or academic gaps.

2. Specificity and Focus – Avoid overly broad topics; narrow it down to a manageable

scope that allows in-depth analysis.

3. Availability of Data – Ensure there are sufficient primary or secondary data sources to

support your research.

4. Feasibility – Consider the time, resources, and expertise required to complete the

research within given constraints.

5. Personal Interest and Passion – Choose a topic that excites and motivates you to sustain

your research enthusiasm.

c) For research to be considered scientific, it must meet several key conditions that ensure

reliability, validity, and objectivity. The following are the main conditions used to justify that

research is scientific:

1. Systematic Approach

 Scientific research follows a structured and organized process, moving through defined

stages such as problem identification, hypothesis formulation, data collection, analysis,

and conclusion.

 It avoids haphazard or random methods, ensuring logical flow and consistency.

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2. Empirical Evidence

 Scientific research relies on real-world observations, experiments, and measurable data

rather than personal opinions or speculation.

 Findings must be based on verifiable and observable phenomena.

3. Objectivity and Neutrality

 The research process should be free from bias and personal influence, ensuring fair and

accurate conclusions.

 Results should be reproducible by other researchers under similar conditions.

4. Replicability and Verifiability

 Other researchers should be able to repeat the study under the same conditions and obtain

similar results.

 Replicability strengthens the credibility of findings and ensures consistency in knowledge

generation.

5. Logical Reasoning

 Research must follow clear logical reasoning, using either inductive (from specific

observations to general conclusions) or deductive (from general principles to specific

cases) approaches.

 Conclusions must be drawn from strong evidence rather than assumptions.

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6. Control and Manipulation of Variables

 In experimental research, variables must be controlled to determine cause-and-effect

relationships.

 Researchers must distinguish between independent (cause) and dependent (effect)

variables.

7. Falsifiability (Testability)

 Scientific research must allow for hypotheses to be tested and potentially proven false.

 If a hypothesis cannot be disproven through evidence, it is not scientific (as per Karl

Popper's principle of falsifiability).

8. Generalizability

 Findings should apply beyond the specific study sample to a broader population or

different contexts.

 The use of appropriate sampling techniques helps in making generalizations.

9. Ethical Considerations

 Research should adhere to ethical guidelines, including informed consent,

confidentiality, and protection from harm.

 Misleading or fabricating data is considered unethical and unscientific.

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Conclusion

Scientific research is distinguished by its systematic, objective, testable, and verifiable nature.

Meeting these conditions ensures that the study contributes to knowledge and is considered

credible in academic and professional fields.

d) Four Types of Probability Sampling in Research

Probability sampling is a sampling technique where every member of a population has a known

and equal chance of being selected. This method enhances the representativeness and

generalizability of research findings. The four main types of probability sampling are:

1. Simple Random Sampling (SRS)

 Each individual in the population has an equal chance of being selected.

 Researchers use random methods such as lottery systems or computer-generated

numbers.

 Example: If a university has 1,000 students, and a researcher randomly selects 100 using

a computer program, each student has an equal probability of being chosen.

 Advantage: Eliminates selection bias and ensures randomness.

 Disadvantage: May not be practical for large populations without a complete list of

members.

2. Stratified Random Sampling

 The population is divided into homogeneous subgroups (strata) based on shared

characteristics (e.g., gender, age, income level).

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  A random sample is taken from each stratum proportionally or equally.

 Example: In a school with 500 male and 500 female students, if a researcher needs a

100-student sample, they can randomly select 50 males and 50 females to ensure gender

representation.

 Advantage: Ensures representation of different subgroups, improving accuracy.

 Disadvantage: Requires prior knowledge of the population’s characteristics.

3. Systematic Sampling

 Every Nth individual in the population is selected after randomly picking a starting point.

 The interval (K) is determined by dividing the population size (N) by the desired sample

size (n).

 Example: If a population has 1,000 people and the researcher wants a sample of 100,

they select every 10th person (1,000/100 = 10) after choosing a random starting point.

 Advantage: Easier and quicker than simple random sampling.

 Disadvantage: If the population has a hidden pattern (e.g., every 10th unit has a common

trait), bias may occur.

4. Cluster Sampling

 The population is divided into clusters (groups) based on geographic or natural

divisions.

 A random selection of entire clusters is made, and all individuals within those clusters are

studied.

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  Example: A researcher studying healthcare in Kenya may divide the country into

counties, randomly select 5 counties, and survey all hospitals in those counties.

 Advantage: Cost-effective and useful when a complete population list is unavailable.

 Disadvantage: If clusters are not truly representative, results may be biased.

Conclusion

These four probability sampling methods ensure fair and unbiased selection, increasing the

reliability of research findings. Simple random and systematic sampling works well for

homogeneous populations, while stratified and cluster sampling is ideal for diverse or large

populations.

e) Five Ethical Principles in Research with Universally Enforced Penalties

Research ethics are guided by international codes such as the Belmont Report, the Nuremberg

Code, the Declaration of Helsinki, and the APA Ethics Code, which establish universally

accepted standards. Violations of these principles can lead to legal consequences, institutional

penalties, loss of credibility, and professional bans.

1. Informed Consent (Voluntary Participation)

 Principle: Participants must willingly consent to research after receiving clear and

complete information about the study’s purpose, risks, benefits, and their right to

withdraw at any time.

 Enforcement & Penalty:

o Legal consequences (e.g., lawsuits for coercion or deception).

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 o Institutional review boards (IRBs) can revoke study approval.

o Research funding may be withdrawn.

 Example: A pharmaceutical company failing to obtain proper consent in a clinical trial

may face legal action and suspension of the study.

2. Non-Maleficence (Do No Harm)

 Principle: Researchers must avoid causing physical, psychological, or emotional harm to

participants.

 Enforcement & Penalty:

o Criminal charges for negligence, abuse, or unethical treatment.

o Researchers can be banned from conducting future studies.

o Institutions can face fines and reputational damage.

 Example: The infamous Tuskegee Syphilis Study led to lawsuits and major reforms in

medical ethics.

3. Confidentiality and Data Protection

 Principle: Researchers must protect participants’ data, ensuring privacy and preventing

unauthorized access or exposure.

 Enforcement & Penalty:

o Violation of data protection laws (e.g., GDPR in Europe, HIPAA in the U.S.)

can lead to fines and lawsuits.

o Academic institutions and publishers can revoke research credibility and impose

sanctions.

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  Example: If a hospital leaks patient data from a medical study, it can face multi-million-

dollar lawsuits.

4. Integrity and Honesty (Avoiding Fabrication, Falsification, and Plagiarism)

 Principle: Research findings must be truthful, and data should not be manipulated,

fabricated, or plagiarized.

 Enforcement & Penalty:

o Retraction of published work.

o Career-ending consequences, including job loss and funding restrictions.

o Legal action for fraud or academic dishonesty.

 Example: The South Korean scientist Hwang Woo-suk was found guilty of fabricating

stem cell research and was banned from professional practice.

5. Justice and Fairness (Equitable Treatment of Participants)

 Principle: Researchers must ensure a fair selection of participants, avoiding

discrimination or exploitation.

 Enforcement & Penalty:

o Human rights violations can lead to legal prosecution.

o Funding agencies may stop supporting unethical research.

o Professional organizations may revoke memberships and credentials.

 Example: If a research study targets vulnerable populations (e.g., prisoners,

minorities) unfairly, institutions and researchers can face human rights investigations.

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Conclusion

These ethical principles ensure fairness, safety, and credibility in research. Violations can lead

to legal, financial, and professional penalties that are universally enforced to protect human

rights and maintain scientific integrity.

2 Five Types of Research

Research can be categorized based on purpose, methodology, and data collection techniques.

The five main types of research are:

1. Descriptive Research

 Definition: Focuses on describing a phenomenon, characteristics, or behavior without

manipulating variables.

 Purpose: To provide an accurate representation of a population, situation, or event.

 Methods Used: Surveys, observations, case studies, and content analysis.

 Example: A study analyzing the literacy rate in rural areas by collecting data through

interviews and questionnaires.

 Outcome: Provides detailed information but does not explain causes.

2. Exploratory Research

 Definition: Conducted when little is known about a topic, aiming to identify patterns,

ideas, or hypotheses.

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  Purpose: To gain insights and generate research questions for further studies.

 Methods Used: Literature reviews, focus groups, informal discussions, and open-ended

surveys.

 Example: A researcher investigating the effects of social media on youth activism

without a predefined hypothesis.

 Outcome: Helps formulate a research problem but does not provide definitive

conclusions.

3. Explanatory (Causal) Research

 Definition: Aims to establish cause-and-effect relationships between variables.

 Purpose: To determine why something happens by identifying influencing factors.

 Methods Used: Experiments, longitudinal studies, and regression analysis.

 Example: A study investigating whether increasing agricultural subsidies leads to higher

crop yields.

 Outcome: Provides causal explanations but requires strict control over variables.

4. Experimental Research

 Definition: Involves manipulating one variable (independent) to observe its effect on

another variable (dependent).

 Purpose: To test hypotheses under controlled conditions.

 Methods Used: Laboratory experiments, field experiments, and randomized controlled

trials (RCTs).

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  Example: Testing the effectiveness of a new malaria vaccine by giving one group the

vaccine and another a placebo.

 Outcome: Provides strong evidence of causal relationships but may not always be

generalizable.

5. Applied Research

 Definition: Focuses on solving practical problems rather than developing theories.

 Purpose: To apply research findings to real-world situations.

 Methods Used: Case studies, pilot projects, and action research.

 Example: Evaluating the impact of a new conflict resolution strategy in a war-affected

region.

 Outcome: Produces immediate solutions but may not contribute to broader theoretical

knowledge.

Conclusion

Each type of research serves a unique purpose, from describing and exploring to explaining,

experimenting, and applying findings to real-world challenges. The choice of research type

depends on the study’s objectives.

3 a) Types of Research Design

Research design refers to the overall strategy and structure used to conduct a study. The type of

research design chosen depends on the study’s objectives, methodology, and nature of data

collection. The main types of research design include:

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1. Descriptive Research Design

 Purpose: To systematically describe a phenomenon, situation, or characteristics of a

population.

 Methods Used: Surveys, case studies, observations, and content analysis.

 Example: A study analyzing the impact of urbanization on housing prices in Nairobi.

 Advantage: Provides detailed insights into a topic.

 Disadvantage: Does not establish cause-and-effect relationships.

2. Exploratory Research Design

 Purpose: To explore an issue where little prior knowledge exists and generate

hypotheses for further study.

 Methods Used: Literature reviews, focus groups, in-depth interviews, and pilot studies.

 Example: Investigating the emerging impact of artificial intelligence on employment

trends.

 Advantage: Helps in refining research questions.

 Disadvantage: Findings are not conclusive or generalizable.

3. Experimental Research Design

 Purpose: To test causal relationships between variables by manipulating one variable

and observing its effect on another.

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  Methods Used: Laboratory experiments, field experiments, and randomized controlled

trials (RCTs).

 Example: Studying the effect of fertilizer on crop yield by applying different amounts to

test plots.

 Advantage: Provides strong evidence of causation.

 Disadvantage: Can be expensive and difficult to conduct in real-world settings.

4. Correlational Research Design

 Purpose: To examine the relationship between two or more variables without

manipulating them.

 Methods Used: Statistical analysis, surveys, and observational studies.

 Example: Analyzing the correlation between social media usage and academic

performance among students.

 Advantage: Identifies relationships between variables.

 Disadvantage: Does not prove causation.

5. Longitudinal Research Design

 Purpose: To study the same group of individuals or subjects over a long period to

observe changes and trends.

 Methods Used: Surveys, interviews, and repeated observations.

 Example: Tracking the health effects of air pollution on individuals over 10 years.

 Advantage: Provides insights into long-term effects and trends.

 Disadvantage: Time-consuming and expensive.

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6. Cross-Sectional Research Design

 Purpose: To study a population or phenomenon at a single point in time.

 Methods Used: Surveys, questionnaires, and secondary data analysis.

 Example: A survey measuring public opinion on climate change policies in Kenya.

 Advantage: Quick and cost-effective.

 Disadvantage: Cannot track changes over time.

7. Case Study Research Design

 Purpose: To conduct an in-depth analysis of a specific individual, group, or situation.

 Methods Used: Interviews, document reviews, and participant observations.

 Example: Examining the impact of community-based conflict resolution programs in

northern Kenya.

 Advantage: Provides deep insights into complex issues.

 Disadvantage: Findings may not be generalizable to other cases.

8. Mixed-Methods Research Design

 Purpose: To combine both qualitative and quantitative research approaches for a

comprehensive understanding.

 Methods Used: Surveys, interviews, experiments, and statistical analysis.

 Example: Evaluating the effectiveness of a rural development program by using both

interviews (qualitative) and statistical impact assessment (quantitative).

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  Advantage: Provides a more complete picture of the research problem.

 Disadvantage: Requires more time and resources.

Conclusion

The choice of research design depends on the study objectives, the nature of the research

problem, and available resources. Descriptive and exploratory designs are useful for

understanding phenomena, while experimental and correlational designs help establish

relationships and causality. Longitudinal and cross-sectional studies focus on time-based

changes, whereas case studies and mixed-methods designs provide in-depth insights.

Five Factors to Consider When Selecting a Research Problem or Subject of Study

Choosing the right research problem is crucial for conducting a successful study. The following
factors should be considered when selecting a research topic:

1. Relevance and Significance

 The topic should be important and contribute to existing knowledge, policy-making, or

practical applications.
 It should address a real-world issue or knowledge gap in the chosen field.
 Example: Studying the impact of climate change on food security in Kenya is highly
relevant to policymakers and farmers.

2. Feasibility and Resources

 The study should be practical, considering time, funding, data availability, and access
to research participants.
 The researcher should have the necessary skills and methodologies to conduct the study.
 Example: A student with limited resources may find it difficult to conduct a global study
but can focus on a regional issue.

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3. Researchability (Availability of Data and Literature)

 The problem should be measurable and researchable using available methods such as
surveys, experiments, or observations.
 There should be sufficient existing literature to support and guide the research.
 Example: A study on "Artificial Intelligence in Education" is viable if data and prior
studies exist, but a topic with no prior research may be too challenging.

4. Ethical Considerations

 The topic should align with ethical standards, ensuring confidentiality, informed
consent, and avoidance of harm to participants.
 It should not involve highly sensitive or controversial topics that may violate ethical
guidelines.
 Example: A study on child labor must ensure that the rights and safety of participants are
protected.

5. Interest and Passion of the Researcher

 The researcher should choose a topic they are genuinely interested in to stay motivated
throughout the research process.
 Personal interest often leads to better engagement, critical thinking, and quality
results.
 Example: A student passionate about rural development may focus on community-driven
poverty reduction strategies.

Conclusion

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A good research topic should be relevant, feasible, researchable, ethical, and interesting to
the researcher. Balancing these factors ensures a smooth research process and valuable
contributions to knowledge.

4 a) Two Types of Hypothesis in Research Methods

1. Null Hypothesis (H₀)

o States that there is no relationship between two variables or no effect of an

independent variable on a dependent variable.

o It is tested to be either accepted or rejected based on statistical evidence.

o Example: "There is no significant relationship between social media usage and

academic performance among university students."

2. Alternative Hypothesis (H₁ or Ha)

o States that there is a relationship between variables or that an independent

variable has an effect on a dependent variable.

o It is what the researcher aims to prove.

o Example: "Increased social media usage negatively affects academic

performance among university students."

b) Three Basic Components of a Literature Review

1. Introduction

o Provides an overview of the research topic.

o Defines the scope of the literature review.

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 o Explains the importance of reviewing existing studies related to the research

problem.

2. Main Body (Review of Related Literature)

o Organizes literature into themes, trends, or debates relevant to the study.

o Summarizes, compares and critiques previous research.

o Identifies gaps in knowledge that justify the need for the current research.

3. Conclusion and Synthesis

o Summarizes key findings from the literature.

o Highlights existing gaps and areas for further research.

o Connects the literature review to the research problem and objectives of the

study

1. Theoretical Review

 Definition: A theoretical review involves examining and analyzing existing theories

related to a particular research topic. It seeks to explain, interpret, or predict phenomena

based on established theoretical frameworks.

 Purpose: To provide a conceptual foundation for the study and demonstrate how the

research will build upon or challenge existing theories.

2. Research Hypothesis

 Definition: A research hypothesis is a testable statement or prediction about the

relationship between two or more variables. It forms the basis of a research study and is

tested through data collection and analysis.

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  Purpose: To provide a clear direction for the research and guide the investigation of the

research question.

 Example: "Higher levels of education lead to greater income levels."

3. Research Ethics

 Definition: Research ethics refers to a set of moral principles that guide researchers in

conducting studies responsibly, ensuring respect for participants' rights, welfare, and

dignity.

 Key Principles: Includes informed consent, confidentiality, non-maleficence, and

integrity.

 Purpose: To ensure that research is conducted in a way that is fair, respectful, and

responsible, avoiding harm to participants and the community.

4. Unit of Analysis

 Definition: The unit of analysis refers to the main entity or object that is being studied

or analyzed in a research project. It is the level at which data is collected and conclusions

are drawn.

 Examples: Individuals, groups, organizations, countries, or social events.

 Purpose: Helps researchers focus on the specific element they want to investigate and

draw meaningful conclusions from.

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5. Unit of Observation

 Definition: The unit of observation is the entity from which data is collected or

observed. It may not always be the same as the unit of analysis.

 Example: In a study examining employee productivity (unit of analysis), the unit of

observation could be individual worker's performance data.

 Purpose: Provides the concrete data points used to conclude the broader research topic.

6. Sample and Sampling

 Sample:

o Definition: A sample is a subset of the population selected for a study. It

represents the group from which data will be collected and analyzed.

o Purpose: To make inferences about a population without studying the entire

group, making research more manageable and cost-effective.

o Example: A sample of 200 students selected from a university to study their

learning habits.

 Sampling:

o Definition: Sampling is the process of selecting individuals, items, or units from

a larger population to form the sample.

o Types of Sampling: Includes probability sampling (random sampling) and non-

probability sampling (convenience sampling).

o Purpose: To ensure that the sample is representative of the population, allowing

for generalizable conclusions.

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These concepts form the foundation of a structured and ethical research process.

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