Electric Railway Systems

06-Motor Control
Dr. Yi Wang
Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering
The University of Hong Kong
[email protected]
http://www.eeyiwang.com/
Motors Control

• DC and AC Machines

• Equipment for motoring

• Equipment for braking

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AC & DC Machines

left : AC machine Right : DC machine

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DC Machines

• The main machine on electric and diesel electric trains

for many years

• With a field winding and an armature winding

• Current through the two windings produces a torque.

• A set of commutator and brush makes sure that the

torque rotates the armature continuously.

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DC Machines

• DC machines for traction applications are often series

wound type

• The armature and the field windings are connected in

series.

• A high current can be established easily at stand still.

This produces a high torque to start a train.

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DC Machines

• DC machine has simple equations

ea = Kifw

T = Kifia

Vaia = wT + Ia2Ra

These simple equations make DC machine easy to control.

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DC Machines

• Speed and torque characteristics of DC machines

Shunt

Compound

Series

Speed characteristics of shunt, series and compound motors

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DC Machines

A - shunt machine ,
B - series machine ,
C - compound machine

Torque characteristics of shunt, series and compound motors

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AC Machines

• AC machine produces a rotating magnetic field in the

stator which rotates a passive rotor. The rotor may have
no electrical contact with the outside world.
• The rotor often lags behind the rotating magnetic field.
The speed difference between the rotating field and the
rotor is called slip and is represented by a percentage of
the rotating field speed.

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Torque at starting & synchronous speed

3 V2 RR
Max. Torque Tmax =  when s=
2ws Rs + Rs + X
2 2
Rs 2 + X 2

Starting Torque:
3RR V2
Tstart = .
wMECH = 0, s = 1 ws ( Rs + RR )
2
+ X2

Torque @ synchronous speed,

3I R 2 RR
Ts =0 = =0
wMECH = wSYNCH, s = 0 ws
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Power, Torque relationships Summary

Gross Rotor
RR
P = m IR
Input (GRI) 2

PR = m  I R RR = sP = sGRI
Power Loss 2

Pmech = (1 − s )P
Mechanical Power

Pmech
Efficiency  = = 1− s
P

Pmech P
Torque T= = T=
3RR

V2
wR wS sws ( Rs + RR s )2 + X 2

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AC Machines

Torque-speed curve at constant voltage and frequency

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AC Machines

• The most usable region in traction application is that

around the speed of the rotating field, where slip s=0. In
the region the machine produces high torque and tends
to follow the speed of the rotating field.

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AC Machines

• In regenerative region, the rotation field speed lags

behind the rotor speed. A negative torque is generated
and provides braking.

• In the plugging region, the rotating field and the rotor

have opposite rotational direction. Energy is dissipated
within the machine.

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AC & DC Machines

• Nowadays AC machine in modern railway traction

application.
➢Smaller frame size compared with DC machine
➢Complexity in control has been solved by microprocessors and
power electronic equipment

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Motors Control

• DC and AC Machines

• Equipment for motoring

• Equipment for braking

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Equipment for motoring

• Resistor and mechanical relay

• Phase controlled rectifier for DC drives

• DC Chopper for DC drives

• DC Chopper using GTO

• PWM Inverter for AC drives

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Resistor and mechanical relay

• Early types of DC machines are controlled by resistor

tapping

• They are now replaced by more efficient power

electronic equipment.

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Resistor and mechanical relay

Schematic of DC traction motor power circuit relays

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Equipment for motoring

• Resistor and mechanical relay

• Phase controlled rectifier for DC drives

• DC Chopper for DC drives

• DC Chopper using GTO

• PWM Inverter for AC drives

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Phase controlled rectifier for DC drives

• Phase controlled rectifier for DC drives

Single-phase thyristor converter and a constant DC current

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Phase controlled rectifier for DC drives

Waveforms in converter

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Phase controlled rectifier for DC drives

• The average output voltage is controlled by the firing

angle α:

 +a


1 2 2
Vda = 2Vs sin wtd (wt ) = Vs cos a = 0.9Vs cos a
 
a

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Phase controlled rectifier for DC drives

• Here two transformer secondary windings provide two

AC voltage sources.

• These voltage sources are connected in series and can

be turned on independently. The average output DC
voltage can vary between 0 and correspond to twice the
voltage of a secondary winding.

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Phase controlled rectifier for DC drives

• When one bridge is fired, only one winding provides power to the
motors.
• When the second bridge is fired, both windings provide power to
the motors.

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Equipment for motoring

• Resistor and mechanical relay

• Phase controlled rectifier for DC drives

• DC Chopper for DC drives

• DC Chopper using GTO

• PWM Inverter for AC drives

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DC Chopper for DC drives

• Impulse commutated Chopper

➢As a thyristor cannot be turned off at the gate, the DC chopper
using thyristors makes use of forced commutation circuits to
turn off the main thyristor.

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DC Chopper for DC drives

• An example of an Impulse-Commutated Chopper

• Main thyristor T1 connects the load to the source Vs.

➢ It turns on and off and provides Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) to control the
average voltage seen by the load. The duty cycle of T1 determines the output voltage
like a buck converter.

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DC Chopper for DC drives

• A commutation circuit is used to turn off the main thyristor T1.

➢ It consists of thyristor T2, diode D1, Lm and C.

➢ When T1 is required to turn off, T2 is fired.

➢ This initiates a resonant pulse current through T1 and brings its current to zero.

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Operating Mode 1

▪ At time t=0, T1 is fired. The motor current passes through T1. This
current is largely constant as the motor load can be regarded as a
constant current source. At the same time, a resonant current pulse is
initiated through the circuit with Lm and C in mode 1.

▪ The capacitor C has its voltage reversed because of the resonance.

Thyristor T2 now sustains the voltage difference between Vs plus Vc
and the load voltage Vload. This is sustained throughout the duty
cycle kT.

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Operating Mode 2

▪ In mode 2, thyristor T2 is fired and this ends the duty cycle.

▪ The main thyristor T1 is turned off immediately because the

capacitor voltage reverses bias and turns it off.

▪ The load now sees a voltage equal to Vs plus Vc. A peak voltage
appears across the load. Now the constant load current passes
through capacitor C and discharges it in a linear manner.

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Operating Mode 3

• In mode 3 the capacitor C is fully discharged and its

polarity is reversed and charged to line voltage Vs.

• It no longer conducts the load current and diode

Dm turns on to catch the load current.

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Operating Mode 4&5

• In mode 4, an excessive voltage in capacitor C is

discharged back to the source. Finally, the capacitor
voltage settles down to Vs.

• In mode 5 the commutation process is completed.

Thyristor T1 is turned off and it is ready for the next
cycle.
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Waveforms for mode 1 ~ 5

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Equipment for motoring

• Resistor and mechanical relay

• Phase controlled rectifier for DC drives

• DC Chopper for DC drives

• DC Chopper using GTO

• PWM Inverter for AC drives

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DC Chopper using GTO

• A GTO chopper is simpler in the sense that it does not

have a commutation circuit. The GTO can be turned off
by drawing a negative current from the gate.

• A snubber circuit protects the GTO from excessive

voltage peak and dv/dt.

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DC Chopper using GTO

• LB: Line Breaker

• LF: Filter Choke
• CF: Filter Capacitor
• D1: Freewheel Diode
• L1: Usually inductance plus
di/dt choke inductance if in
use
• L2: Stary inductance in the
snubber circuit

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Example : Buck converter

• It is called a “step-down chopper” or “buck converter”

• The switching valve T, in the beginning, it was the thyristors with
forced-commutation circuits, later was GTO thyristors, today is
IGBTs

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Example: Buck converter

(a) (b)

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Example : Boost converter

• A boost converter (step-up converter) is a DC-to-DC power converter that steps up the
voltage
• It is a class of switched-mode power supply (SMPS) containing at least two
semiconductors (a diode and a transistor) and at least one energy storage element: a
capacitor, inductor, or the two in combination.
• To reduce voltage ripple, filters made of capacitors (sometimes in combination with
inductors) are normally added to such a converter's output (load-side filter) and input
(supply-side filter).

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boost_converter
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Example : Boost converter

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Equipment for motoring

• Resistor and mechanical relay

• Phase controlled rectifier for DC drives

• DC Chopper for DC drives

• DC Chopper using GTO

• PWM Inverter for AC drives

42
PWM Inverter for AC drives

• In order to provide variable speed to an AC machine, it

is best to apply a variable frequency and let the machine
operate at a speed near the speed of the rotating
magnetic field. In other words, slip s should be kept low.

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 What is PWM ?
⚫ PWM(Pulse-Width Modulation): a modulation technique used to

encode a message into a pulsing signal. (Wikipedia)

⚫ Application
 Encode information for transmission.
 Control power supply to electrical devices, especially to inertia
loads, e.g., motors.

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 Duty cycle
⚫ Definition: a measure of the time the modulated signal in its
“high” state. On Time
Duty Cycle = 100%
Period
On Off
⚫ Average value of a signal:
VH
1 T
y =  f (t )dt
Duty Cycle T 0
VL
(D)
Vavg = D VH + (1 − D ) VL

Period (T) In general, VL is taken as zero for simplicity.

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 Theoretical basis for PWM
⚫ For different shapes but the equal impulse of a narrow pulse
forced on an inertia link, the system will get a close response.

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 PWM generation
⚫ PWM uses a rectangular pulse wave whose pulse width is modulated resulting in

the variation of the average value of the waveform

triangle or sawtooth

Intersective method

Switch on/off by carrier /

modulation signal comparison

Rectangle height determination:

D VH = S for retangular pulse  S for modulation signal
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 PWM frequency choosing
⚫ Many actuators can be modeled as a first or second-order filter (e.g. motors),
PWM frequency should be higher than the cut-off frequency (usually at least 10
times higher)

A PWM frequency is
A frequency in rejected by the system
this region can
excite the Electric stove: several times a minute
system!
Lamp dimmer: 120 Hz

Motor drive: few to tens of kHz

Computer power supply: tens or

hundreds of kHz
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PWM Inverter for AC drives

Torque speed curve at constant volts/hertz

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PWM Inverter for AC drives

• A 3-phase inverter with a DC link is used. The inverter

consists of six switches and produces a 3-phase PWM
waveform for the machine.

• The switches can be GTO for high-power inverters or

IGBT for medium-power inverters.

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PWM Inverters for AC drives

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PWM Inverter for AC drives

• High-frequency sinusoidal pulse width modulation

provides low harmonic waveforms.

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Motors Control

• DC and AC Machines

• Equipment for motoring

• Equipment for braking

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Equipment for braking

• Regenerative Braking of DC machines

• Rheostatic Braking of DC machines

• Combined Regenerative & Rheostatic Braking of DC

machines

• Regenerative Braking of AC drives

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Regenerative Braking of DC machines

Regenerative braking of dc separately excited motor

A regenerative braking chopper circuit transfers energy from the

DC machine to the supply line and creates a braking torque.

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Regenerative Braking of DC machines

• The machine is regarded as a voltage source with a series inductor.

A switch short circuit the machine and lets current build-up. It is
then switched off and energy is released to the line Vs. It works
like a boost converter.
• There is a maximum speed beyond regenerative braking will be
dangerous.
• When the speed is high and generates an Eg higher than the line
voltage Vs plus the associated resistive voltage drops, unlimited
current will flow into Vs. In such a case an alternative braking
method like rheostatic braking must be used.

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Regenerative Braking of DC machines

• There is a minimum speed beyond which regenerative braking

will be infective. When the speed of the machine is low and
generates a very low Eg, the machine current will be very low and
there will not be enough braking torque.
• It is readily understood that no electrical braking can be effective
at standstill. Mechanical braking must be applied.
• Regenerative braking brings many advantages. Energy saving. A
study in an underground system reported 30% energy saving.
• Reduce wear and tear of mechanical brake shoes. Energy saving
in the railway system. Tunnel temperature rise can be reduced
and energy can be saved in air conditioning.

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Equipment for braking

• Regenerative Braking of DC machines

• Rheostatic Braking of DC machines

• Combined Regenerative & Rheostatic Braking of DC

machines

• Regenerative Braking of AC drives

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Rheostatic Braking

Rheostatic braking of dc separately excited motors

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Rheostatic Braking

• A resistor can be used to dissipate the braking energy.

• The resistor value is modulated by the duty cycle k

• Braking current can be controlled by the chopper circuit.

Req = (1 − k ) Rb

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Equipment for braking

• Regenerative Braking of DC machines

• Rheostatic Braking

• Combined Regenerative & Rheostatic Braking

• Regenerative Braking of AC drives

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Combined Regenerative & Rheostatic Braking

Combination of regenerative & rheostatic braking

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Combined Regenerative & Rheostatic Braking

• A resistor controlled by a thyristor TR is connected in

parallel to a regenerative chopper circuit. When
rheostatic braking is required TR is fired to put the
braking resistor in circuit. TR is self commutated when
Q1 is turned on in the next cycle.
• Rheostatic braking should be used when the line is not
receptive.

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Equipment for braking

• Regenerative Braking of DC machines

• Rheostatic Braking of DC machines

• Combined Regenerative & Rheostatic Braking of DC

machines

• Regenerative Braking of AC drives

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Regenerative Braking of AC Machines

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Regenerative Braking of AC Machines

• Regenerative braking of AC drives fed by a PWM inverter is

conveniently carried out without additional equipment.

• For an AC machine, when the rotating field speed is less than the
rotor speed, i.e., s>1, regenerative braking takes place

• To apply regenerative braking the PWM inverter is operated to

prove a synchronous speed less than the rotor speed and a
negative torque will be generated.

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