3.

ESTIMATES OF WATER FLOW

3.0 Introduction

There are a number of good ways to measure the amount of water in a stream or a canal.
What method of measurement you should use will depend on several factors:

 The accuracy of the result needed;

 The quantity of water present in the stream or canal you will measure;
 The equipment you have available to use.

Let us compare various methods. Table 3 will help you to compare various methods and to
select the one best suited to your needs. Each of these methods is fully explained and
illustrated in the following sections.

Note: to find the time it will take to fill or empty a pond using a straight pipe or a siphon,
see Sections 3.7 and 3.8.

TABLE 3
Water flow measurement methods for streams or canals

Method Water flow Accuracy Remarks Equipment

Section
Quick and An For a quick
3.1 * Small None
rough approximation estimate
Most Dam, pipe,
3.2** Bucket Very small Very high accurate of buckets,
all methods 1 -l bottle, watch
Float, stakes,
3.3** Float Medium line, measuring
stick, watch
Float, stakes,
Float and
Best for line, measuring
3.4** cross
Small to large streams with stick, record
section
Low to calm water sheet, watch
medium Dye, stakes, line,
Dye, stain
measuring stick,
3.5** and cross
record sheet,
section
watch
3.6*** Weir, Does not High For Wood, sheet
triangular vary greatly, recording metal or
114 l/s or flow over a corrugated roof
smaller, period of sheeting; tools
or does vary time for working with
greatly from wood or metal;
small to large shovel, pick, line,
 Does not vary
Weir, greatly and is level,
rectangular greater than 114 measuring stick
l/ s
NOTE: * very simple; ** more difficult; *** most difficult.

3.1 Quick rough estimate

This is a very simple method to measure

approximate water flow in very small
streams. You do not need any special
equipment for this estimate.

Drop a leaf in the water flow of the

stream you want to measure.
Walk in the direction the leaf is floating at
a normal pace for about 30 metres or 35
paces.

See how far the leaf floats during the

time you are walking and estimate the
water flow as shown in the examples.

Examples

The leaf floats half the distance (15 m); the

stream is 20 cm wide and 10 cm deep in the
centre; this stream can supply 2500 m3 of
water in one week.

The leaf floats half of the distance (15 m);

the stream is 30 cm wide and 15 cm deep in
the centre; this stream can supply 10000
m3 of water in about one week.

The leaf floats as fast as you walk (30 m);

the stream is 30 cm wide and 15 cm deep;
this stream will supply 20000 m3 of water in
about one week.
If you find that your water requirements are If you find that your water requirements are
no greater than those seen in the examples, greater than those seen in the examples,
you do not need to make any more water you should use one of the more accurate
flow measurements. methods to measure the water flow so you
will be sure that you have sufficient water
available.

3.2 Bucket method

This is a simple method for measuring a
very small flow of less than 5 l/s with very
high accuracy.

Begin to build a small dam of earth across

the stream to stop the flow. You can use
wood poles, bamboo or tree branches to
hold the earth in place while you build the
dam.

When the dam is about half built, put in a

pipe about 5-7 cm in diameter and about 1-
1.5 m long. This pipe can be made of
bamboo.

Finish building the dam across the stream

so that all the water flow passes through the
pipe.

Find at least two buckets or other, similar

containers which you can use to catch the
water flowing through the pipe. You will also
need a bottle or other, smaller 1-litre
container.
 Example
Using the 1-litre container, count the number
of litres needed to fill the buckets with water, You need 10 1-litre containers to fill a
in order to find how much each bucket will bucket, so it holds 10 litres.
hold.

Using one bucket after the other, catch

all the water flowing through the pipe for
1 minute (60 seconds). Count how many
buckets you can fill during that time.
Calculate the total water flow (in l/s).

Example

Each of your buckets holds 10 litres; you

collect 9 buckets in 1 minute; the total
water flow in 1 minute is 10 l x 9 = 90 l;
1 minute = 60 seconds; total water flow
in 1 second is 90 l � 60 s = 1.5 l/s.

3.3 Float method

This is a method for measuring small to

large water flow with medium accuracy. This
method is best used in streams with calm
water and during periods of good weather
for if there is too much wind and the surface
of the water is rough the float may not travel
at the normal speed.
Prepare a float

A good float may be a piece of wood or

a smooth tree branch about 30 cm long
and 5 cm wide or a small well- capped
bottle 10 cm tall, containing enough
matter (such as water, soil or pebbles)
so that, when it floats in the stream, the
top of the bottle is just above the
surface.

Where to measure

Find and mark a length AA to BB along

the stream, which is straight for a
distance of at least 10 metres. Try to
find a place where the water is calm and
free from water plants so the float will
flow easily and smoothly.

Example
Find the average water velocity
You have measured the time it takes for the
Ask a friend to place the float in the middle float to travel from AA to BB as 15, 21 and
of the stream, a few metres upstream from 20 seconds; 15 seconds is much less than
line AA, and to release it gently into the the other measurements; take another
current. Stand at line BB and using a watch, measurement and use this number instead
measure exactly the time (in seconds) it of 15.
takes the float to travel the distance from AA
to BB.

Repeat this measurement three times. Place

the float in the water and note how long it
takes to travel the distance from AA to BB
three different times.

Note: if one of the three measurements is

greatly different from the other two, take a
fourth measurement and use this one.

Now you can calculate the average time it Example

has taken the float to travel from AA to BB.
Add the three measurements and divide the Your three time measurements are 19, 21
sum by 3. and 20 seconds; their sum is 19 + 21 + 20 =
60 sec; the average time to travel from AA to
BB is 60 � 3 = 20 seconds.
Find the surface water velocity (in m/s) by Example
dividing the distance from AA to BB (in this
example, 10 m) by the average time (in AA to BB = 10 metres;
seconds) and multiply this result by 0.85 (a Average time = 20 seconds;
correction factor) to estimate the average Surface water velocity = 10 m � 20 s
water velocity of the stream. or 10 � 20 m/s= 0.5 m/s
Average water velocity = 0.5 m/s x 0.85 =
0.425 m/s.

Find the average width

Measure the width (in m) of the stream in a

number of places. Take the measurement
that occurs most frequently as the average
width.

Example

Your width measurements were 1.1 m, 1 m,

1 m, 0.9 m, 1 m and 1.2 m; use 1 m for the
average width.

Find the average depth

Measure the water depth (in m) of the

stream at several points along its width.
Take half of the deepest measurement as
an approximation of the average depth.

Example

Your depth measurements were 0.2 m, 0.6

m. 0.9 m. 1.2 m, 0.8 m and 0.3 m: the
deepest one is 1.2 m, so the average depth
is 1.2 m � 2 = 0.6 m.
Calculate the water flow
Example
To calculate the water flow (in m3) multiply
the average water velocity (in m/s) by the Water flow = 0.425 m/s x 1 m x 0.6 m =
average width (in m) and by the average 0.255 m3/s.
depth (in m).

Note: remember that 1 m3 = 1 000 l so Example

multiply by this to convert water flow
measurements to litres per second (l/s). Water flow = 0.255 m3/s x 1 000 l = 255 l/s.

3.4 Float and cross-section method

This is a simple method for measuring small

to large water flow with an accuracy
somewhat greater than the float method
described in Section 3.3. Like the float
method, it is best used in calm water and
during periods of good weather when there
is little wind. You will need to prepare a float
as you were shown in the previous section.

Where to measure

Find a length along the stream that is

straight for a distance of at least 20 metres.
Try to find a place where the water is calm
and free from water plants so the float will
float easily and smoothly. Mark it with stakes
on both sides of the stream at points AA and
BB and stretch a line between the stakes.

Find the average cross-section

The cross-section of the stream will be

different at the beginning (AA) and the end
(BB). You will need to find the average
cross-section.
Measure the water depth (in m) five times at It will be easier to record the measurements
equal distances across the stream at point you take at points AA and BB if you prepare
AA. a small drawing as a record sheet to write
them on.

When you have taken all the measurements Example

at point AA, add the five depth figures and
divide by 5 to find the average water depth Your depth measurements at point AA were
at AA. 0.6 m, 1.1 m. 1.4 m, 1.1 m and 0.8 m; their
sum = 5.0 m; then the average depth at point
AA is 5.0 m � 5 = 1 m.

The cross-section (in m2 ) at point AA is the Example

average depth multiplied by the width of the
stream. The stream width at point AA is 2 m; the
cross section at that point is thus 1 m x 2 m
= 2 m2.

Now take measurements at point BB as you Example

did at point AA to find the average depth,
stream width and cross- section at BB. At point BB, the average depth is 0.8 m and
the stream width is 2 m; the cross section at
that point is thus 0.8 m x 2 m = 1.6 m2.

To calculate the average cross-section of the Example

stream at points AA and BB add the two
cross-section values you found and divide by Cross-section at point AA = 2.0 m2
2. Cross-section at point BB = 1.6 m2
Total (AA + BB) = 3.6 m2
Average cross-section = 3.6 m2 � 2 = 1.8
m2.
Find the average water velocity

Now you must find the average water

velocity using a float as described in
previous section 3.3. Have a friend put
the float in the middle of the stream, a
few metres upstream from line AA, and
release it gently into the current. Stand
at line BB and, using a watch, measure
exactly the time (in seconds) it takes the
float to travel the distance from AA to
BB.
Repeat the measurement at least three Example
times and calculate the average time by
adding all the measurements and Distance AA to BB = 20 m; your three time
dividing by the number of measurements are 59, 61 and 60 seconds; their
measurements you have taken. Now sum is 180 seconds: the average time to travel
divide the distance from AA to BB by the from AA to BB is 180 � 3 = 60 seconds; surface
average time to find the surface velocity water velocity is 20 m � 60 s = 0.33 m/s;
of the water, and multiply this by 0.85 (a average water velocity is 0.33m/s x 0.85 = 0.27
correction factor) to estimate the m/s.
average water velocity.

Calculate the water flow

Example
3
To calculate the water flow (in m /s) multiply
the average water velocity by the average Average water velocity 0.27 m/s;
cross-section. Average cross section 1.8 m2 ;
Water flow = 0.27 m/s x 1.8 m = 0.486 m3/s
2

To express this water flow in litres per Example

second (l/s), multiply the result (in m 3/s) by
1000. 0.486 m3/s x 1 000 = 486 l/s.

Note: you can increase the accuracy of

this method if you increase the
distance from A to B to 30 m, 50 m or
even 100 m. A greater distance
between A and B is especially
recommended if the stream is fast
flowing. The faster the water flow, the
greater the distance should be.

Note: you can also increase the

accuracy of this method if you increase
the number of time measurements to
5, 7 or even 10.

But remember... Example

 The longer the time measurement, Distance from AA to BB = 20 m.

the less the number of
measurements required; You have released the float five times and have
 The longer the time measurement, measured the time it takes to travel from AA to BB
the greater the difference between
as 50, 47, 51, 48 and 54 seconds.
each figure will be.

The average floating time is 50 + 47 + 51 + 48 +

54 =(250 � 5) = 50 s.

Surface water velocity = 20 m � 50 s or 0.4 m/s.

Average water velocity = 0.4 m/s x 0.85 (correction

factor) = 0.34 m/s.
Remember to adapt your calculations accordingly.

3.5 Dye stain and cross-section

method

This is a method for measuring small and

large water flow with medium accuracy.
In this method, water-staining dye is used
instead of a float to measure the water
flow.

Measure the time (t1, in seconds) it takes

for the front of the dye stain to reach line
BB.
Drop a small amount of dye in the middle
of the stream a little above line AA. This
will form a dye stain in the water.

Note: potassium permanganate and

fluorescein are suitable dye solutions that
may be available from chemical
suppliers.

Measure the time (t2, in seconds) it takes

for the end of the dye stain to reach line
BB.

Calculate the average time it takes the Example

front and back of the dye stain to reach
line BB by adding t1 and t2 and dividing Time for front of dye stain (t 1) to reach line BB =
the result by 2. 95 seconds
Time for end of dye stain (t2) to reach line BB
=105 seconds
Total time: 95 + 105 = 200 seconds.
Average time: 200 � 2 =100 seconds.

Calculate the water velocity (in m/s) by Example

dividing the distance from AA to BB (in m)
by the average time (in s). Length of AA to BB = 20 m.
Average time = 100 s.
Note: when you use a dye stain you do Water velocity = 20 m � 100 s = 0.2 m/s
not have to multiply the water velocity by
a correction factor as you do when using
a float.

Calculate the average cross-section of Example

the stream as described in section 3.4.
Average cross-section = 1.8 m2.

The water flow equals the water velocity Example

multiplied by the average cross-section.
Water velocity = 0.2 m/s
 Average cross-section = 1.8 m2
2 3
Water flow = 0.2 m/s x 1.8 m = 0.36 m /s or
0.36 m3/s x 1 000 = 360 l/s
Note: you can increase the accuracy of this method if you increase the distance from AA to
BB or increase the number of time measurements as described in the previons section.

Remember to adapt your calculations accordingly.

3.6 Weir methods

Weirs are commonly used to measure small

and large water flow with high accuracy.
They are especially useful for recording
water flow over a period of time.

What is a weir?

A weir is an obstruction placed across a In both the triangular and the rectangular
stream that forces all the water to flow weir the notch used has sharp edges so the
through a notch in the weir. There are weirs water flowing over the weir will touch only a
of many types and designs. In this section fine line and the notch width is smaller than
we will discuss two types, the triangular the stream width (contracted weir).
weir and the rectangular weir.
When a weir is in place across the stream
it raises the upstream water level. To be
efficient, a weir should create a sufficient
vertical drop between the notch bottom
and the downstream water surface. In such
a case, the water will fall free, and air can
circulate beneath the water as it overflows.

The crest of a weir is the bottom edge of

the weir notch. In a rectangular weir the
crest length is the width of the notch. In a
triangular (or V-notch) weir the crest length
is zero.

The head of the weir is the vertical

distance from the weir crest to the
undisturbed upstream water surface.

Advantages and disadvantages of

weirs

Advantages:

 They allow for easy and accurate flow

measurement;
 They are easy to build and require only
little maintenance; small, floating debris
will easily pass through the notch;
 They are durable.

Disadvantages:

 They require considerable head-loss for

proper operation;
 Large pieces of floating debris can
become caught in the notch and change
the water flow;
 Changes in flow can occur, for example,
if debris becomes caught in the weir, silt
builds up behind the weir, etc.
Where to install a weir

A weir should be installed in a channel

that, upstream from the weir, is straight
for a minimum distance at least 10
times greater than the length of the
weir crest.

To increase accuracy, place the weir at

the lower end of a long pool sufficiently
wide and deep for the water flow to
approach the weir slowly, regularly and
without any eddies.

The water velocity immediately

upstream from the weir should not
exceed 0.14 m/s.

Place the weir where the upstream

water level (behind the weir) will not
cause abnormal water losses by
flooding the banks next to the stream,
or water infiltration loss into the upper
soil of the stream banks, which were
not under water before. You must be
particularly careful in flat countryside or
where there are channels or ditches
next to the stream that will be below
the new water level behind the weir.

How to choose a suitable weir

First estimate the stream flow by using the

float and cross-section method described
in Section 34.

Use a triangular weir if the stream flow to be

measured:

 Does not vary greatly from season to

season and is generally smaller than
114 l/s;
 Does vary greatly from small to large
flow or large to small flow.

Use a rectangular weir if the stream flow to

be measured:

 Does not vary greatly, and is generally

greater than 114 l/s.

How to design a triangular weir

A triangular weir or V-notch weir has a notch

that is a right or 90� angle. Both edges of
the notch must be sharp and no more than 3
mm thick.

To obtain accurate water flow

measurements with a triangular weir, be
sure that:

 The water head is greater than 5 cm;

 The crest height, above the stream
bottom upstream from the weir, is
greater than two to three times the
head;
 The water drop behind the weir is high
enough to create a sufficient vertical
drop so the water will fall free.

Note: before you begin to build the weir,

plan carefully in order to meet the above
requirements of head, crest height and
water drop. Be particularly careful about the
stream width (if possible more than seven
times the maximum water head) and the
depth of the stream where you plan to install
the weir. After the weir is built it will be
difficult to change it.
When you estimate water flow using a
triangular weir, the error will tend to
increase as the head decreases. Under
field conditions, if you have fulfilled the
requirements listed, the error will
generally be limited to 10 percent. In a
triangular weir, if you want to decrease
the error further you can increase the
notch depth, within the limits
stated above, which will increase the
head.

The following notch depths (in cm) are

required for the sizes of water flow (in
l/s) shown:

 20 cm, flow less than 15 l/s;

 30 cm, flow 15 to 45 l/s;
 40 cm, flow 45 to 65 l/s;
 50 cm, flow 65 to 110 l/s.

Water flow
Correspondin Required notch
If the water flow is more than the largest to measure
g head (cm) depth (cm)
water flow figure shown above (110 I/s) you (l/s)
will have to approximate the required notch 180 44.5+10 55
depth. Using Table 4, find the head (in cm) 260 51.5+10 62
corresponding to the maximum water flow 390 60.5+10 71
(in I/s) to be measured and add about 10 cm
to the head value to obtain the corrected
notch depth.

How to design a rectangular weir

The type of rectangular weir discussed in

this section has a rectangular notch with a
crest length that is less than the width of
the stream. All three edges of the notch
must be sharp and no more than 3 mm
thick.
To obtain accurate water flow
measurements with a rectangular weir, be
sure that:

 The water head is greater than 5 cm;

 The crest length is at least 15 cm and
should, preferably, be greater than
three times the maximum water head
to be measured;
 The crest height above the stream
bottom upstream from the weir is
greater than two to three times the
head;
 The distance from the sides of the
notch to the sides of the stream
channel should be greater than two
times the maximum water head to be
measured;
 The water drop behind the weir is high
enough so the water will fall free.

Note: before you begin to build the weir,

plan carefully in order to meet the above
requirements of head, crest height and
water drop. Be particularly careful about
the stream width (if possible more than
seven times the maximum water head) and
the depth of the stream where you plan to
install the weir. After the weir is built it will
be difficult to change it.

When you estimate water flow using a

rectangular weir, the error will tend to
increase as the head decreases. Under
field conditions, if you have fulfilled the
requirements listed, the error will
generally be limited to 10 percent. In a
rectangular weir, if you want to further
decrease the error you can reduce the
crest length, within the limits
stated above which will increase the
head. Table 5 may help you to do this.

The following notch depths and crest

lengths (in cm) are required for the
water flow range values shown:

 30 x 60 cm, flow 80 to 120 l/s;

 40 x 90 cm, flow 120 to 300 l/s;
 55 x 120 cm, flow 300 to 600 l/s;
  75 x 180 cm, flow 600 to 1500 l/s.

To define notch dimensions for a Example

rectangular weir other than those shown
above, you can use the white upper part The maximum water flow to be measured is 250
of Table 5. Locate the maximum water l/s.
flow (in l/s) to be measured, keeping Using Table 5 you find that 253.97 l/s is the
the crest length (in cm) as small as closest to 250 l/s in the most accurate, or upper,
possible. Read horizontally the part of the table, and with the smallest crest
corresponding head (in cm) and add 10 length = 90 cm.
to 15 cm to find the notch depth you This water flow value corresponds to a head
should use. value of 30 cm.
Then the notch depth should be 30 cm + 10 cm =
40 cm.
The notch size you should use is 40 cm (depth) x
90 cm (width).

How to build and install a weir

How you build and install a weir will depend

on the speed of the water flow and the size
of the stream.

In a flowing stream

If there is a slow water flow or the stream is

small, you may choose to build the weir on
the bank, where it is dry and easier to work,
and install the weir in the flowing stream
after it is finished.

With a very small stream, a weir that has

been built on the bank can be installed by
pounding it into place or digging it into the
sides and bottom of the stream while the
water is flowing.

Note: if there is a fast water flow or the

stream is large, you may choose to build the
weir in place in the stream. The larger the
stream, the larger the weir will have to be; it
may turn out to be too large and heavy to
build it on the bank and place it in the
stream after it is finished.
By diverting the water

When the stream is large and you must

build the weir in place, you will have to
divert the water from the stream channel
around the place where you will put the
weir while you are building it.

To divert the water, dig a ditch from a

point in the stream bank upstream from
the place you will put the weir to a point
in the stream bank below the weir.

Build a barrage just below the

upstream end of the diversion ditch.
When the water backs up behind the
barrage it will flow through the ditch,
around the site and back to the
stream.

To prevent the water diverted

downstream from flowing back into
the site you may have to build another
barrage below the weir.

When the water has been diverted

and the site is dry, you can begin to
build the weir in place. After the weir
is finished, remove the barrages and
let the water back in the stream
channel. It will soon reach its constant
level and begin to flow through the
notch.

Position of the weir in a stream

A weir must be placed or built in the

stream in a vertical position and on a line
across the stream perpendicular to the
water flow. Mark the position you have
chosen for the weir by stretching a line
across the stream from bank to bank at
a right (90�) angle to the water flow.

Drive a row of strong wood stakes into

the stream bed along the line. Use a
level to make sure the stakes are
vertical. This row of stakes will help you
to position the weir properly, whether it
has been built on the bank before
installation or built in place in the stream.

When you are installing a weir that has

either been built on the bank, or is being
built in place in the stream where the
water has not been diverted, position the
weir on the upstream side of the vertical
stakes so that the flow of the water holds
the weir in the correct position against
the stakes.

After the weir has been well installed in

the banks and bottom of the stream, you
can remove the vertical stakes if the weir
needs no additional bracing. If the water
flow is strong and additional bracing is
needed, remove only the stakes behind
the notch.
Building a weir of wood

You can build a weir of close-fitting

wood boards or planks held together
by upright pieces of wood on both
sides.

The thickness of the wood you should

use will depend on the width of the
stream and the force of the water flow.
For a very small stream you can use
light wood, but for a large and fast
stream you will need to use heavy
wood or timber.

Measure the width of the stream and

the distance from the tops of the bank
to the stream bed to find out what size
of weir you must build. A weir must be
built high enough and wide enough so
that it can be driven well into the
stream banks and bottom to give the
necessary support and to prevent
water leakage around the sides and
under the weir.

Build the weir in such a way that there

is enough space in the centre
between the uprights for the size of
notch you will need.

Cover the joints between the wood

boards or planks with strips of wood to
prevent water leakage.

After the weir has been built, you are

ready to cut the notch in the upper
edge.

Triangular weir

How to construct a 90� triangular

notch in wood:
 Find the centre point on the top
edge of the weir;
 On each side of the centre point,
measure and mark a distance
equal to the depth of the notch
(say 30 cm) you will use;
 At the centre point, draw a right
angle line downwards, equal in
length to the depth of the notch;
 Connect the end of this line with
the two marks on the top edge of
the weir. You have constructed a
right angle (90�) triangular
notch;

 Using a wood saw, carefully cut

out the notch;
 Check the notch you have cut
with a square to see that it has a
90� opening and that all other
measurements are exact;
 If necessary, strengthen the
boards or planks you have cut.
Do this with wood bracing on
the downstream side of the
weir;
 File both sides of the notch to an
angle with a sharp edge of no
more than 3 mm on
the upstream side of the weir.
Rectangular weir

How to construct a rectangular notch

in wood:

 Find the centre point on the top

edge of the weir;
 On each side of the centre point,
measure and mark a distance
equal to half of the crest length,
say 30 cm (crest length 60 cm),
you will use;
 At each of these two marks,
draw a right angle line
downwards equal in length to the
depth of the notch;
 Connect the ends of these two
lines. You have constructed a
rectangular notch;

 Using a wood saw, carefully cut

out the notch;
 Check the notch you have cut
with a square and a mason's
level to see that the crest edge is
at a 90� angle to the sides and
that all the other measurements
are exact;
 If necessary, strengthen the
boards or planks you have cut.
Do this with wood bracing on
the downstream side of the
weir;
 File all sides of the notch to an
angle with a sharp edge of no
more than 3 mm on
the upstream side of the weir.

When the weir is in position in the

stream and has been well built into
the banks and stream bottom, make
sure it is watertight. Pack the joints
between the boards with moss, clay
or greasy cotton waste. Fill all the
holes along the bottom and sides of
the weir by packing them with clay,
sod or turf.
Building a weir with other materials

You can also build a weir with sheet metal

or corrugated roof sheeting.

Sheet metal

The thickness and strength of the

sheet metal you will have to use will
depend on the speed of the water flow
and the size of the stream.

When you cut a notch in sheet metal

be careful that the edges are straight
and sharp. You might ask the local
blacksmith to help.

Note: if a weir made of sheet metal

needs additional bracing, leave the
vertical stakes you have put in the
stream to mark the position of the weir,
but be sure to remove those stakes in
front of the notch.

Corrugated roof sheeting

Corrugated sheeting is usually easy to find

in large sheets and much less expensive
than sheet metal.

Corrugated sheets have the disadvantage of

bending along the corrugations. If the
corrugations are placed across the stream
and the weir is well built into the banks and
stream bottom, the sheet will be quite
strong.

A notch cut in a corrugated sheet will be

irregular and will give a less accurate result.
To avoid this, fit a section of wood into the
centre of the sheet and cut the notch in this
as described earlier for a regular wood weir.

Note: if a weir made of corrugated

sheeting needs additional bracing, leave
the vertical stakes you have put in the
stream to mark the position of the weir,
but be sure to remove those stakes in
front of the notch.

For accurate measurement it is essential

that your weir:

 Be built at a right angle (90�) to the

direction of the water flow;
 Be placed exactly vertical at a 90�
angle to the surface of the water.

While you are installing a weir or building

a weir in place, check this regularly.

Using a weir to determine water flow

A weir is used to determine water flow

by measuring the head, or the difference
between the level of the crest of the weir
and the water level upstream from the weir.

The level of the water actually passing over

the crest of the weir will not be as high as
the water level upstream because, as water
flows closer to the weir, the level begins to
drop before it flows over the crest.
To measure the head, or the constant
upstream water level equivalent at the weir,
you will have to transfer a point equal to the
crest height at the weir to another point
upstream where the water level will be
constant.

Find the upstream point by measuring a

distance above the weir that is a least 10
times the depth of the weir notch.

Preparing an upstream point to measure the head when you have diverted the
water flow
If you have diverted the water from the
channel to build the weir it will be easier to
prepare this upstream point.

Drive a stake into the stream bottom near

the bank at the upstream point you have
selected. Use a mason's level and straight
board and transfer the height of the weir
crest to the stake. Continue to drive the
stake down until the top is at the same
height as the weir crest.

Now let the water flow back into the

channel. Be sure to close the diversion
ditch so that when the level rises
behind the weir no water will be lost in
channels or ditches or by infiltrating or
flooding (see p. 63). When the constant
upstream level has been reached, the
top of the stake will be under water.

Check to see that the weir is built

properly and all requirements have
been met.

 either for the triangular weir;

 or for the rectangular weir.

Find the head by placing a measuring

stick, with the zero mark at the bottom,
on top of the stake and reading the
depth figure at the surface of the water.

Preparing an upstream point to measure the head when you have not diverted
the water flow
If you have not diverted the water from
the channel to build the weir, you will
have to prepare this upstream point while
the water is in the channel.

Drive a stake into the stream bottom near

the bank at the upstream point you have
selected.

The stake should be tall enough to

remain above the surface when the level
of the water reaches its maximum height.

Hold a measuring stick, with the zero

mark at the bottom, in the weir notch. The
length of the measuring stick should be a
bit longer than the notch is deep. Using a
mason's level and straight board, transfer
the height of the top of the measuring
stick to the stake and mark it.
Remove the measuring stick from the
notch, place it beside the stake and tie the
top of it to the stake, even with this mark.

Check to see that the weir is built properly

and all requirements have been met,
either for the triangular weir or for the
rectangular weir.

Find the head by reading the depth figure

on the measuring stick at the surface of
the water.

We have seen previously that triangular

weirs are generally used for measuring
small water flows while rectangular weirs
are used for measuring large water flows.
For this reason, measure the head in a
triangular weir with a measuring stick
graduated in half -centimetres and the
head in a rectangular weir with a
measuring stick graduated in centimetres.

Note: when you are measuring the head at

the upstream point, be careful not to
disturb the water surface (by standing in
the water, for example), which may make
the head reading inaccurate.

Maintaining a weir

To insure accurate water flow estimates

using a weir you must maintain it
regularly:

 Clean the weir and remove floating

debris caught in the notch;
 Remove any silt that builds up on
the upstream side of the weir;
 Control the erosion of the stream
bottom on the downstream side of
the weir;
 Check the alignment of the weir,
both vertical (from the surface of
the water) and perpendicular to the
flow of the water;
 Check that the weir is watertight;
  Check that the zero mark on the
upstream measuring stick is equal
to the weir crest.

How to calculate water flows using a

weir

Triangular weir

When you use a triangular weir, measure the Examples

head value (to the nearest half -centimetre)
on the upstream measuring point. When you The constant water level at the upstream
have found the head value, use Table 4 and measuring point is closest to 23.5 cm; this is
find the water flow (in l/s). the head value on the weir. Using Table 4,
you find that, for a head value of 23.5 cm,
the water flow = 36.68 l/s.

The constant water level at the upstream

measuring point is closest to 34 cm; this is
the head value on the weir. Using Table 4,
you find that, for a head value of 34 cm, the
water flow = 92.35 l/s.

Note: remember that triangular weirs are best suited to measuring water flows of 114 l/s or
smaller. When using Table 4, all values higher than F = 114.08 l/s and H =37 cm will become
less and less accurate as H and F increase above these values.

TABLE 4
Water flow estimates using a triangular or V-notch weir
(H = Head in centimetres; F = Water flow in litres per second)
NOTE: The grey section is less accurate.

Rectangular weir

When you use a rectangular weir, measure Example

the head value (to the nearest centimetre)
on the upstream measuring point. When you The crest length of your weir is 30 cm and
have found the head value, use Table 5 and, you have found that the head value is 10 cm;
in the column corresponding to the weir crest find this last value on the left scale of the
length, find the water flow (in l/s). table and follow the line across until you
reach the crest length column for 30 cm
(note that this is still in the upper section of
the table where water flow values are most
accurate); you find that the water flow value
is 16.29 l/s.

If you find in-between or odd-number head Example

values, you will have to approximate to find
the correct water flow value. Only even- Your crest length is 60 cm and you have
number head values are shown in Table 5. measured a head value (H) that is closest to
15 cm. To approximate the water flow for a
15-cm head you must average the difference
between the water flow values (F found in
Table 5 for H = 14 cm and H = 16 cm); for H
= 16 cm, F = 66.89 l/s and for H = 14 cm, F
= 55.13 l/s.

Adding these two F-values and dividing the

result by two: 66.89 + 55.13 = 122.02 � 2 =
61.01 l/s or say 61 l/s which is the corrected
 water flow value for a 15-cm head.

If the crest length of your weir is greater than Example

30 cm and is not listed in Table 5 (e.g., 40,
50, 70 and 80 cm), you can calculate the Your actual crest length is 110 cm and you
water flow value by using the 10-cm column, have measured a head value that is closest
at the right of the table, and by following the to 34 cm.
steps as in the next example below. The column where the crest length is smaller
than 110 cm is 90 cm, with a water flow
 Find the head value in the right-hand value of 303.50 l/s.
column of the table. Following the same line, the water flow value
 Find both the water flow value shown in in the 10-cm column is 34.40 l/s.
the column where the crest length is The difference between the actual crest
smaller than the actual crest length of the
length and the crest length in the table is 110
weir you are using and the water flow
value in the 10-cm column. cm - 90 cm = 20 cm.
 Calculate the number of additional 10-cm The number of additional 10-cm lengths is
lengths the actual weir crest has, 20 � 10 = 2.
compared with the smaller crest length Then the additional flow due to this is 34.40
you have found in the table. x 2 = 68.80 l/s.
 Now multiply the water flow value found The correct water flow value for the actual
in the 10-cm column by this number and crest length of 110 cm is 303.50 l/s + 68.80
add the result to the water flow value l/s = 372.30 l/s.
corresponding to the smaller crest length.
 The result is the corrected water flow
value for the actual crest lengt.

If you are measuring a water flow that is 130 Example

l/s or less,you can use Table 6. Do this by
finding the head (in cm) on the left scale of The crest length of your weir is 50 cm and
the table and follow this value horizontally you have found that the head value is 15 cm;
across until you reach the curve that find the head on the left scale of the table
represents the correct crest length. Bring this and follow the horizontal line across until you
point vertically down to the bottom scale and reach the curve for a crest length of 50 cm;
read there the water flow (in l/s). from this point follow vertically down to the
bottom scale of the table. You will find that
the water flow is about 51 l/s.

TABLE 5
Water flow estimates (in l/s) using a rectangular weir1
NOTE: The accuracy of the water flow values decreases when head values are greater than
one third of the crest length. Water values in this table are divided into three sections: white,
darker and lighter grey. The values in the white section are the most accurate. In the other
two sections, the accuracy decreases as the head increases toward a value equal to the
crest length.

1
With full end contractions and sharp edges.
2
Approximate water flow for each additional 10 cm of weir crest (for crest lengths of 30 cm
or longer and for values in the unshaded upper part of the table only).

TABLE 6
Water flow estimates (in l/s) using a rectangular weir1
1
With full end contractions and sharp edges

3.7 Water
flow through
a straight
pipe
This is a
method to
estimate water
flow through a
relatively short,
straight pipe,
from a higher
level to a lower
level, and can
be used, for
example, when
you fill or
empty a pond.
To use this
method you
will have to
find the head
(in cm).

If water flowing
from a higher
level to a lower
level flows out
of the pipe
above the
water line of
the lower level,
you can find
the head by
measuring the
vertical
distance (C.L)
between the
surface of the
water above
and the centre
line of the pipe
below.

If water flowing
from a higher
level to a lower
level flows out
of the pipe
below the
water line of
the lower level,
you can find
the head by
measuring the
vertical
distance
between the
surface of the
water above
and the
surface of the
water below.
To find
the head, first
prepare a
constant point
to measure
from. You can
do this by
using a
mason's
level and a
straight board,
or a line level
and a string
tied between
two stakes.

Place a
straight board
on the top of
the bank.
Make sure it is
horizontal by
using a
mason's level.
If the board is
not horizontal,
prop it up with
stones until it
is. Find the
head by
measuring
downwards on
both sides of
the bank and
taking the
difference
between the
two
measurements
.
Example

For a pipe above water line, measure

the distance from the horizontal to the
surface of the water (AB) on the upper
level; measure the distance from the
horizontal to the centre line of the pipe
(CD) on the lower level; the head is
CD-AB.

Another way to find the head is to

drive a stake into the bank on each
side. Put the stakes in the water a little
out from the edge of the bank. Using a
line level, tie a string between the two
stakes in a horizontal position. Find
the head by measuring downwards on
both sides of the bank and taking the
difference between the two
measurements.

Example Examples

For a pipe below water line, measure Your pipe has an inside diameter of approximately
the distance from the horizontal to the 7.6 cm; you have found that the head value is 18
surface of the water (AB) on the upper cm; find this value on the left scale of Table 7
level; measure the distance from the (diameter smaller than 9 cm) and follow across
horizontal to the surface of the water until you reach the curve for a 7.6-cm pipe; follow
(CD) on the lower level; the head is vertically down to the bottom scale, where you find
CD-AB. that the water flow is 6.5 l/s.

When you have found the head value, Your pipe inside diameter is about 25.4 cm and the
find the water flow using Table 7 for head value is 19.5 cm; find this value on the left
pipes with an inside diameter smaller scale of Table 8 (diameter greater than 9 cm) and
than 9 cm, or Table 8 for pipes with follow across until you reach the curve for a 25.4-
an inside diameter larger than 9 cm pipe; follow vertically down to the bottom scale,
cm. Do this by finding the head value where you find that the water flow is about 76 l/s.
(in cm) on the vertical scale of the
table and follow horizontally across
until you reach the curve that marks
the size of pipe you are using. Now
look down to the bottom scale where
you can read off the water flow (in l/s).

TABLE 7
Water flow estimates through straight pipes with an inside diameter smaller than 9 cm
 TABLE 8
Water flow estimates through straight pipes with an inside diameter larger than 9 cm
3.8 Water flow through a siphon

This is a method to estimate water flow

through a relatively short, curved tube called
a siphon, from an upper level to a lower
level, and can be used, for example, when
you fill or empty a pond. As with the pipe
method just described, to use this method
you will need to calculate the head (in cm).

How to make a siphon

A siphon can be made from a length of

rubber or plastic tube that is long enough
and pliable enough to reach over the bank
from the upper water level to the lower water
level.

How a siphon functions

A siphon will function only when there
is a difference in the two water levels
and the end of the tube at the lower
level is below the end of the tube
immersed in the water at the upper
level.

Measure the head, the difference

between the surface of the water on
the upper level and the surface of the
water on the lower level, by using a
mason's level and a straight board, or
a line level and a string tied between
two stakes, as shown in the previous
section.

Example

Measure the distance from the

horizontal to the surface of the water
(AB) on the upper level; measure the
distance from the horizontal to the
surface of the water (CD) on the lower
level; the head is the difference Example
between the two, or CD-AB.
Your siphon has an inside diameter of
When you have found the head value, approximately 5.1 cm; you have found that the
find the water flow using Table 9 for head value is 21 cm; find this point on the left of
siphons with an inside diameter the table and follow horizontally across until you
smaller than 9 cm, or Table 10 for reach the curve for a 5.1-cm siphon; follow
siphons with an inside diameter larger vertically down to the bottom scale where you find
than 9 cm. Do this by finding the head that the water flow is about 2.5 l/s.
value (in cm) on the vertical scale of
the table and follow horizontally across
until you reach the curve that marks
the correct size of siphon. Now look
down to the bottom scale where you
can read off the water flow (in l/s).

TABLE 9
Water flow estimates through siphons with an inside diameter smaller than 9 cm
 TABLE 10
Water flow estimates through siphons with an inside diameter larger than 9 cm