Mathematics-II (MATH F112)

Jitender Kumar
Department of Mathematics
Birla Institute of Technology and Science Pilani
Pilani-333031

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 1 / 32

 Module 06
Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 2 / 32

Definition: Let A be n × n matrix. A nonzero vector
x ∈ Rn is called eigenvector of A (or of the matrix
operator TA ) , if
Ax = λx
for some scalar λ. The scalar λ is an eigenvalue of A
(or of TA ), and is called eigenvector corresponding to
eigenvalue λ.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 3 / 32

Definition: Let A be n × n matrix. A nonzero vector
x ∈ Rn is called eigenvector of A (or of the matrix
operator TA ) , if
Ax = λx
for some scalar λ. The scalar λ is an eigenvalue of A
(or of TA ), and is called eigenvector corresponding to
eigenvalue λ.

Remark: If x is an eigenvector of A corresponding to

an eigenvalue λ i.e.
Ax = λx.
Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 3 / 32
Then for c ∈ R, we have

A(cx) = c(Ax) = c(λx) = λ(cx).

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 4 / 32

Then for c ∈ R, we have

A(cx) = c(Ax) = c(λx) = λ(cx).

Thus, if x is an eigenvector of A corresponding to an

eigenvalue λ then, for c ∈ R, cx is also an
eigenvector corresponding to λ.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 4 / 32

Then for c ∈ R, we have

A(cx) = c(Ax) = c(λx) = λ(cx).

Thus, if x is an eigenvector of A corresponding to an

eigenvalue λ then, for c ∈ R, cx is also an
eigenvector corresponding to λ. Hence, there are
infinitely many eigenvectors corresponding to an
eigenvalue.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 4 / 32

Example: For the matrix
 
−4 8 −12
A =  6 −6 12  .
6 −8 14

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 5 / 32

Example: For the matrix
 
−4 8 −12
A =  6 −6 12  .
6 −8 14
   
4 4
Note that A 3 = 2 3 implies
  
0 0

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 5 / 32

Example: For the matrix
 
−4 8 −12
A =  6 −6 12  .
6 −8 14
   
4 4
Note that A 3 = 2 3 implies λ = 2 is an
  
0 0
eigenvalue of A and
 
4
x = 3

0
is an eigenvector corresponding to 2.
Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 5 / 32
Question: How to find eigenvalues and eigenvector
of a given matrix?

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 6 / 32

Question: How to find eigenvalues and eigenvector
of a given matrix?

Since Ax = λx = λIn x implies

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 6 / 32

Question: How to find eigenvalues and eigenvector
of a given matrix?

Since Ax = λx = λIn x implies (λIn − A)x = 0.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 6 / 32

Question: How to find eigenvalues and eigenvector
of a given matrix?

Since Ax = λx = λIn x implies (λIn − A)x = 0. Thus,

eigenvector x corresponding to λ is a nontrivial
solution of the homogeneous system whose
coefficient matrix is λIn − A.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 6 / 32

Question: How to find eigenvalues and eigenvector
of a given matrix?

Since Ax = λx = λIn x implies (λIn − A)x = 0. Thus,

eigenvector x corresponding to λ is a nontrivial
solution of the homogeneous system whose
coefficient matrix is λIn − A. Therefore, |λIn − A| = 0.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 6 / 32

Theorem: Let A be n × n matrix. Then λ is an
eigenvalue of A if and only if
|λIn − A| = 0

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 7 / 32

Theorem: Let A be n × n matrix. Then λ is an
eigenvalue of A if and only if
|λIn − A| = 0 (characteristic equation of A).

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 7 / 32

Theorem: Let A be n × n matrix. Then λ is an
eigenvalue of A if and only if
|λIn − A| = 0 (characteristic equation of A).
Note that The eigenvectors are the nontrivial
solutions of the homogeneous system
(λIn − A)x = 0.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 7 / 32

Theorem: Let A be n × n matrix. Then λ is an
eigenvalue of A if and only if
|λIn − A| = 0 (characteristic equation of A).
Note that The eigenvectors are the nontrivial
solutions of the homogeneous system
(λIn − A)x = 0.

For an n × n matrix A, the polynomial

p(λ) = |λIn − A|
of degree n is called the characteristic polynomial
of A.
Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 7 / 32
Exercise 16: Find det(A) given that A has the
charateristic polynomial p(λ).
p(λ) = λ3 + 2λ2 − 4λ − 5.
p(λ) = λ5 + 3λ2 − 2λ + 12.
p(λ) = λ5 + 3λ2 − 2λ.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 8 / 32

Example 2: Find the characteristic polynomial and
eigenvalues of

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 9 / 32

Example 2: Find the characteristic polynomial and
eigenvalues of
 
1 0 1
A = 0 2 −3
0 0 −5

Solution: The characteristic polynomial

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 9 / 32

Example 2: Find the characteristic polynomial and
eigenvalues of
 
1 0 1
A = 0 2 −3
0 0 −5

Solution: The characteristic polynomial

λ−1 0 −1
p(λ) = |λI3 − A| = 0 λ−2 3
0 0 λ+5

= (λ − 1)(λ − 2)(λ + 5).

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 9 / 32
Thus, p(λ) = 0 gives the eigenvalues of A. Hence,
eigenvalues are λ1 = 1, λ2 = 2 and λ3 = −5.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 10 / 32

Thus, p(λ) = 0 gives the eigenvalues of A. Hence,
eigenvalues are λ1 = 1, λ2 = 2 and λ3 = −5.

Exercise: Find all eigenvalues of the matrix A,

where  
4 0 −2
A = 6 2 −6
4 0 −2
Answer: λ1 = 0 and λ2 = 2

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 10 / 32

Theorem: If A is an n × n matrix, the following
statements are equivalent.
1
λ is an eigenvalue of A.
2
The homogeneous system (λI − A)x = 0 has
nontrivial solutions.
3
There is a nonzero vector x such that Ax = λx.
4
λ is a solution of the characteristic equation
|λI − A| = 0.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 11 / 32

Note that the eigenvectors of a matrix A
corresponding to an eigenvalue λ are the nonzero
vectors in the null space of the matrix λI − A.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 12 / 32

Note that the eigenvectors of a matrix A
corresponding to an eigenvalue λ are the nonzero
vectors in the null space of the matrix λI − A.

Definition: The eigenspace of A corresponding to

eigenvalue λ, denoted by Eλ , is the solution space of
the homogenous system (λI − A)x = 0

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 12 / 32

Note that the eigenvectors of a matrix A
corresponding to an eigenvalue λ are the nonzero
vectors in the null space of the matrix λI − A.

Definition: The eigenspace of A corresponding to

eigenvalue λ, denoted by Eλ , is the solution space of
the homogenous system (λI − A)x = 0 i.e.

Eλ = {x ∈ Rn : (λI − A)x = 0}

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 12 / 32

Note that the eigenvectors of a matrix A
corresponding to an eigenvalue λ are the nonzero
vectors in the null space of the matrix λI − A.

Definition: The eigenspace of A corresponding to

eigenvalue λ, denoted by Eλ , is the solution space of
the homogenous system (λI − A)x = 0 i.e.

Eλ = {x ∈ Rn : (λI − A)x = 0}
Verify that Eλ is a subspace of Rn .

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 12 / 32

Example: Find all the eigenvalues and
corresponding eigenspaces of the matrices

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 13 / 32

Example: Find all the eigenvalues and
corresponding eigenspaces of the matrices
 
1 3
A= and
0 1

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 13 / 32

Example: Find all the eigenvalues and
corresponding eigenspaces of the matrices
 
  4 0 −2
1 3
A= and B = 6 2 −6
0 1
4 0 −2

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 13 / 32

Example: Find all the eigenvalues and
corresponding eigenspaces of the matrices
 
  4 0 −2
1 3
A= and B = 6 2 −6
0 1
4 0 −2

Solution: The characteristic polynomial of A is

λ − 1 −3
p(λ) = |λI − A| = = (λ − 1)2 .
0 λ−1

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 13 / 32

Example: Find all the eigenvalues and
corresponding eigenspaces of the matrices
 
  4 0 −2
1 3
A= and B = 6 2 −6
0 1
4 0 −2

Solution: The characteristic polynomial of A is

λ − 1 −3
p(λ) = |λI − A| = = (λ − 1)2 .
0 λ−1

Since eigenvalues are roots of characteristic

equation p(λ) = 0. Hence, eigenvalues are λ = 1, 1.
Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 13 / 32
To compute eigenspace E1 for λ = 1, we need to
solve the homogeneous system

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 14 / 32

To compute eigenspace E1 for λ = 1, we need to
solve the homogeneous system (λI − A)x = 0, i.e.,
(I − A)x = 0. The augmented matrix is
 
0 −3 0
[I − A|0] =
0 0 0

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 14 / 32

To compute eigenspace E1 for λ = 1, we need to
solve the homogeneous system (λI − A)x = 0, i.e.,
(I − A)x = 0. The augmented matrix is
 
0 −3 0
[I − A|0] =
0 0 0
which reduces to
 
0 1 0
.
0 0 0
So the associated system is

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 14 / 32

To compute eigenspace E1 for λ = 1, we need to
solve the homogeneous system (λI − A)x = 0, i.e.,
(I − A)x = 0. The augmented matrix is
 
0 −3 0
[I − A|0] =
0 0 0
which reduces to
 
0 1 0
.
0 0 0
So the associated system is x2 = 0. Since column 1
is not a pivot column, x1 is a free variable.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 14 / 32

To compute eigenspace E1 for λ = 1, we need to
solve the homogeneous system (λI − A)x = 0, i.e.,
(I − A)x = 0. The augmented matrix is
 
0 −3 0
[I − A|0] =
0 0 0
which reduces to
 
0 1 0
.
0 0 0
So the associated system is x2 = 0. Since column 1
is not a pivot column, x1 is a free variable. Let
x1 = a ∈ R.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 14 / 32

To compute eigenspace E1 for λ = 1, we need to
solve the homogeneous system (λI − A)x = 0, i.e.,
(I − A)x = 0. The augmented matrix is
 
0 −3 0
[I − A|0] =
0 0 0
which reduces to
 
0 1 0
.
0 0 0
So the associated system is x2 = 0. Since column 1
is not a pivot column, x1 is a free variable. Let
x1 = a ∈ R. Then
E1 = {(a, 0) | a ∈ R} = {a(1, 0) | a ∈ R}.
Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 14 / 32
For the matrix B, the characteristic polynomial

λ−4 0 2
p(λ) = |λI − B| = −6 λ − 2 6 = λ(λ − 2)2 .
−4 0 λ+2

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 15 / 32

For the matrix B, the characteristic polynomial

λ−4 0 2
p(λ) = |λI − B| = −6 λ − 2 6 = λ(λ − 2)2 .
−4 0 λ+2

Hence, eigenvalues are λ1 = 0 and λ2 = 2.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 15 / 32

For the matrix B, the characteristic polynomial

λ−4 0 2
p(λ) = |λI − B| = −6 λ − 2 6 = λ(λ − 2)2 .
−4 0 λ+2

Hence, eigenvalues are λ1 = 0 and λ2 = 2.

To compute eigenspace E0 for λ = 0, we need to
solve the homogeneous system

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 15 / 32

For the matrix B, the characteristic polynomial

λ−4 0 2
p(λ) = |λI − B| = −6 λ − 2 6 = λ(λ − 2)2 .
−4 0 λ+2

Hence, eigenvalues are λ1 = 0 and λ2 = 2.

To compute eigenspace E0 for λ = 0, we need to
solve the homogeneous system

(λI − B)x = 0 implies − Bx = 0.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 15 / 32

The augmented matrix is
 
−4 0 2 0
[−B|0] =  −6 −2 6 0 
−4 0 2 0
which reduces to

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 16 / 32

The augmented matrix is
 
−4 0 2 0
[−B|0] =  −6 −2 6 0 
−4 0 2 0
which reduces to
 
1 0 −1/2 0
 0 1 −3/2 0  .
0 0 0 0
The associated system is

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 16 / 32

The augmented matrix is
 
−4 0 2 0
[−B|0] =  −6 −2 6 0 
−4 0 2 0
which reduces to
 
1 0 −1/2 0
 0 1 −3/2 0  .
0 0 0 0
The associated system is
1 3
x1 − x3 = 0 and x2 − x3 = 0
2 2
Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 16 / 32
Since column 3 is not a pivot column, x3 is a free
variable.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 17 / 32

Since column 3 is not a pivot column, x3 is a free
variable. Let x3 = 2c so that x1 = c, x2 = 3c.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 17 / 32

Since column 3 is not a pivot column, x3 is a free
variable. Let x3 = 2c so that x1 = c, x2 = 3c. Then

E0 = {(c, 3c, 2c) | c ∈ R} = {c(1, 3, 2) | c ∈ R}.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 17 / 32

Since column 3 is not a pivot column, x3 is a free
variable. Let x3 = 2c so that x1 = c, x2 = 3c. Then

E0 = {(c, 3c, 2c) | c ∈ R} = {c(1, 3, 2) | c ∈ R}.

Note that

E0 = span{(1, 3, 2)} = span(B),

where B = {(1, 3, 2)}.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 17 / 32

Since column 3 is not a pivot column, x3 is a free
variable. Let x3 = 2c so that x1 = c, x2 = 3c. Then

E0 = {(c, 3c, 2c) | c ∈ R} = {c(1, 3, 2) | c ∈ R}.

Note that

E0 = span{(1, 3, 2)} = span(B),

where B = {(1, 3, 2)}. Since, B is LI, it is a basis for

E0 .

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 17 / 32

To compute eigenspace E2 for λ = 2, we need to
solve the homogeneous system

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 18 / 32

To compute eigenspace E2 for λ = 2, we need to
solve the homogeneous system (λI − B)x = 0, i.e.,
(2I − B)x = 0.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 18 / 32

To compute eigenspace E2 for λ = 2, we need to
solve the homogeneous system (λI − B)x = 0, i.e.,
(2I − B)x = 0. The augmented matrix is
 
−2 0 2 0
[2I − B|0] =  −6 0 6 0 
−4 0 4 0

which reduces to

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 18 / 32

To compute eigenspace E2 for λ = 2, we need to
solve the homogeneous system (λI − B)x = 0, i.e.,
(2I − B)x = 0. The augmented matrix is
 
−2 0 2 0
[2I − B|0] =  −6 0 6 0 
−4 0 4 0

which reduces to
 
1 0 −1 0
 0 0 0 0 .
0 0 0 0

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 18 / 32

The associated system is x1 − x3 = 0

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 19 / 32

The associated system is x1 − x3 = 0
Since columns 2 and 3 are not pivot columns, x2 and
x3 are free variables.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 19 / 32

The associated system is x1 − x3 = 0
Since columns 2 and 3 are not pivot columns, x2 and
x3 are free variables. Let x2 = b and x3 = c so that
x1 = c. Then

E2 = {(c, b, c) | b, c ∈ R}
= {b(0, 1, 0) + c(1, 0, 1) | b, c ∈ R}
= span(B), where B = {(0, 1, 0), (1, 0, 1)}.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 19 / 32

The associated system is x1 − x3 = 0
Since columns 2 and 3 are not pivot columns, x2 and
x3 are free variables. Let x2 = b and x3 = c so that
x1 = c. Then

E2 = {(c, b, c) | b, c ∈ R}
= {b(0, 1, 0) + c(1, 0, 1) | b, c ∈ R}
= span(B), where B = {(0, 1, 0), (1, 0, 1)}.

Since, B is LI ((verify it)), it is a basis for E2 .

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 19 / 32

Result: Let λ1 , λ2 , . . . , λn be n eigenvalues
(repetitions included) of a n × n matrix A. Then

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 20 / 32

Result: Let λ1 , λ2 , . . . , λn be n eigenvalues
(repetitions included) of a n × n matrix A. Then

det A = λ1 λ2 · · · λn and
Trace(A) = λ1 + λ2 + · · · + λn .

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 20 / 32

Theorem 5.1.4: Let A be a square matrix with
eigenvalue λ and corresponding eigenvector x.
If λ is an eigenvalue of a matrix A, then for any
positive integer n, λn is an eigenvalue of An with
corresponding eigenvector x.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 21 / 32

Theorem 5.1.4: Let A be a square matrix with
eigenvalue λ and corresponding eigenvector x.
If λ is an eigenvalue of a matrix A, then for any
positive integer n, λn is an eigenvalue of An with
corresponding eigenvector x.
If A is nonsingular, then 1/λ is an eigenvalue of
A−1 with corresponding eigenvector x.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 21 / 32

Theorem 5.1.4: Let A be a square matrix with
eigenvalue λ and corresponding eigenvector x.
If λ is an eigenvalue of a matrix A, then for any
positive integer n, λn is an eigenvalue of An with
corresponding eigenvector x.
If A is nonsingular, then 1/λ is an eigenvalue of
A−1 with corresponding eigenvector x.
If A is nonsingular, then for any integer n, λn is
an eigenvalue of An with corresponding
eigenvector x.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 21 / 32

   Let A be a 2× 2 matrix with eigenvectors
Example:
1 1
v1 = and v2 = corresponding to
−1 2
eigenvalues λ1 = −1, λ2 = 2.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 22 / 32

   Let A be a 2× 2 matrix with eigenvectors
Example:
1 1
v1 = and v2 = corresponding to
−1 2  
5
eigenvalues λ1 = −1, λ2 = 2. Let x = .
1

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 22 / 32

   Let A be a 2× 2 matrix with eigenvectors
Example:
1 1
v1 = and v2 = corresponding to
−1 2  
5
eigenvalues λ1 = −1, λ2 = 2. Let x = . Find A10 x
1
without computing the matrix A.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 22 / 32

   Let A be a 2× 2 matrix with eigenvectors
Example:
1 1
v1 = and v2 = corresponding to
−1 2  
5
eigenvalues λ1 = −1, λ2 = 2. Let x = . Find A10 x
1
without computing the matrix A.

Answer:  
2051
A10 x =
4093 2×1

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 22 / 32

Exercise 14: Find all the eigenvalues and bases of
eigenspaces of A25 , where
 
−1 −2 −2
A= 1 2 1 
−1 −1 0

Answer: Obtain eigenvalues by solving

p(λ) = |λI − A| = 0.

Note that eigenvalues are λ1 = λ2 = 1 and λ3 = −1.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 23 / 32

 For the eigenvalue 1, the basis for E1 is
   
 −1 −1 
 0 , 1 
1 0
 

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 24 / 32

 For the eigenvalue 1, the basis for E1 is
   
 −1 −1 
 0 , 1 
1 0
 

For the eigenvalue −1, the basis for E−1 is

 
 2 
−1
1
 

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 24 / 32

 For the eigenvalue 1, the basis for E1 is
   
 −1 −1 
 0 , 1 
1 0
 

For the eigenvalue −1, the basis for E−1 is

 
 2 
−1
1
 

Therefore by Theorem 5.1.4, eigenvalues of A25 are

125 = 1 and (−1)25 = −1.
Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 24 / 32
 For the eigenvalue 1, the basis for E1 is
   
 −1 −1 
 0 , 1 
1 0
 

For the eigenvalue −1, the basis for E−1 is

 
 2 
−1
1
 

Therefore by Theorem 5.1.4, eigenvalues of A25 are

125 = 1 and (−1)25 = −1. Note that A25 = A, thus
Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 24 / 32
the bases for eigenspaces corresponding to these
eigenvalues are
     
 −1 −1   2 
 0  ,  1  and −1 , respectively .
1 0 1
   

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 25 / 32

Exercise: Find all the eigenvalues and bases of
eigenspaces of A and A2 , where
 
1 0
A=
0 −1

Also, compare the eigenspaces of A and A2 .

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 26 / 32

Theorem 5.1.5: A square matrix A is invertible if and
only if λ = 0 is not an eigenvalue of A.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 27 / 32

Theorem 5.1.6: Let A be an n × n matrix. The
following statements are equivalent:
A is invertible.
Ax = b has a unique solution for every b ∈ Rn .
The homogenous system Ax = 0 has only the
trivial solution.
The reduced row echelon form of A is In .
A is expressible as a product of elementary
matrices.
det(A) ̸= 0.
The column vectors of A are linearly
independent.
The column vectors of A span Rn .
Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 28 / 32
Theorem 5.1.6: (contd.)
The column vectors of A form a basis of Rn .
The row vectors of A are linearly independent.
The row vectors of A span Rn .
The row vectors of A form a basis of Rn .
A has rank n.
A has nullity 0.
The range of TA is Rn .
TA is one-to-one.
λ = 0 is not an eigenvalue of A.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 29 / 32

Exercise 23: If A is a square matrix, then A and AT
have the same characteristic polynomial.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 30 / 32

Exercise 23: If A is a square matrix, then A and AT
have the same characteristic polynomial.

Question: Do A and AT have the same

eigenvectors in general?

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 30 / 32

Exercise 23: If A is a square matrix, then A and AT
have the same characteristic polynomial.

Question: Do A and AT have the same

eigenvectors in general?

Question: If x is an eigenvector of A corresponding

to an eigenvalue λ, then for a scalar c show that x is
an eigenvector of A − cI with corresponding
eigenvalue λ − c.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 30 / 32

Question: Find the eigenvalue and eigenspaces of
 
3 2
A= .
5 0

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 31 / 32

Question: Find the eigenvalue and eigenspaces of
 
3 2
A= .
5 0

Hence, find the eigenvalues and eigenspaces of

A−1 , A − 2I, and A + 2I.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 31 / 32

 Thank You

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