Unit III

Cell structure and Function

-Himanshu Gupta
 Organization of Cell

Introduction:
• Cell is regarded as the unit of structure and function of all living
organisms from simplest microorganisms to complex multi-
cellular organisms.
• “Cellula” in Latin means small compartments.
• Definition of cell – The simplest integrated organization in
living beings, capable of independent survival.
• Study of structure, function, organization, growth and
reproduction of cell is called as Cell Biology or cytology.

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Introduction (cont.):
• Many scientists contributed to the study of cell, which are as follows-
1. The word cell was introduced in 1665 by Robert Hooke.
2. Anton van Leeuwenhoek discovered other types of cells such as human sperms, bacteria,
RBCs etc. under microscope and called them as animacules.
3. Robert Brown discovered the existence of nucleus in the cell in 1831.
4. M.J. Schleiden and T.S. Schwann in 1839 proposed the cell theory.
ØIn 1838, Matthias Schleiden, a German botanist, examined a large number of plants and
observed that all plants are composed of different kinds of cells which form the tissues of
the plant
ØTheodore Schwann (1839), a British Zoologist, studied different types of animal cells and
reported that cells had a thin outer layer which is today known as the ‘plasma membrane’.
He also concluded, based on his studies on plant tissues, that the presence of cell wall is a
unique character of the plant cells
5. J.E Purkinje (1839) and Von Mohl (1846) named the protoplasm as formative substance
found in the cells of animal and plant embryo respectively.
6. Rudolf Virchow (1855) first explained that cells divided and new cells are formed from pre-
existing cells (Omnis cellula-e cellula
7. Waldeyer (1888) stated that the nucleus contains chromosomes on which the genes are
linearly arranged. 3
Cell theory:
• Contributions of all these scientists and the development of electron
microscopy lead to the modern version of cell theory which states that-
a. All living organisms are made up of cells.
b. Cell is the basic structural unit of life.
c. Cells contain genetic information which is passed on from cell to
cell during cell division.
d. All cells arise from pre existing cells.
e. Cells are self duplicating, self contained units that are sometimes
totipotent.

Totipotency (totus = entire, potential = power): The capacity of living

nucleated cell to differentiate into any other type of cell and thus can
form a complete new organism is called as Totipotency.
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Cell theory (cont.):
Exceptions for cell theory
1.Viruses do not follow the cell theory as they do not have cellular
organization.
2.Bacteria and blue – green algae are prokaryotes and they do not
possess true cellular structures.
3.Few species of fungi and algae are multinucleated.

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Characteristics of a living cell:
1.Presence of plasma membrane
2.Presence of protoplasm consisting of organic and inorganic substance
in water.
3.Presence of genetic material.
4.Performs protein synthesis.
5.Reproduce and pass the genetic information from one generation to
next.

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Different shapes of the cells

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 Different sizes of the cells
• Mycoplasmas are smallest cells and are
only 0.3 µm in length. (0.1 to 0.8 µm)
• A typical Bacterium is generally 1-2 µm in
diameter
• A typical Eukaryotic cell is 10-20 µm in
diameter
• The largest isolated single cell is the egg
of an ostrich (15 cm long, 13 cm wide, and
weigh 1.4 kilograms).
• Among multicellular organisms, human
red blood cells are about 7.0 µm in
diameter and Nerve cells are some of the
longest cells.
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Type of cells:
• All living organisms are
grouped into two main
categories:
A. Prokaryotes
B. Eukaryotes

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 A. Prokaryotic cells:
(Gr, pro = primitive, Karyon = nucleus)
1.These are the cells in which, the nuclear material is not separated from
cytoplasm by nuclear membrane. eg. Bacteria and blue – green algae.
2.The average diameter of these cells is 1 um.
3.There are 4 forms of bacteria –
a. Cocci (spherical)
b. Bacilli (rod - like)
c. Vibrio (comma shaped)
d. spirilla (long and twisted)
4.Cyanobacteria or blue – green algae are photosynthetic prokaryotes. These may
be filamentous or non – filamentous and many times nitrogen fixers.

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Prokaryotic cell shows following structures:
1. Cell envelope and its modifications: is made up of 3 layers:
a. Glycocalyx – Outer most layer composed of proteins and
polysaccharides which helps in adhesion. It may be in the form of
loose sheath called slime layer or thick tightly bound structure called
capsule.
b. Cell wall – Present below glycocalyx is a layer made – up of
peptidoglycan pseudopeptidoglycan called cell wall. It gives definite
shape and support to the cell.
c. Plasma membrane – Inner most layer composed of lipids and
proteins. It functions as a permeability barrier, helps in inter cellular
communication, is a site for respiration, photosynthesis and act as a
receptor for external environmental signals.
vDepending upon the composition of cell wall, bacteria are classified as
Gram positive or Gram negative.
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Prokaryotic cell shows following structures:
1. Cell envelope and its modifications: :
ØMesomosmes are invaginations of plasma membrane in the cell in the form of
vesicles, tubules and lamellae. They help in cell wall formation, DNA replication
and distribution to daughter cells, respiration, secretion processes, to increase the
surface area of the plasma membrane and enzymatic content.
ØChromatophors – These are usually found in photo synthetic bacteria and blue –
green algae as these contain pigments such as bacteriochlorophylls,
bacteriophaeophytin and carotenoids.

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Prokaryotic cell shows following structures:
1. Cell envelope and its modifications: :
• Bacterial cells may be motile or non-motile. If motile, they have thin filamentous
extensions from their cell wall called flagella. .
• Bacterial flagellum is composed of three parts – filament, hook and basal body.
• The filament is the longest portion and extends from the cell surface to the outside.
• Besides flagella, Pili and Fimbriae are also surface structures of the bacteria but do
not play a role in motility.
• The pili are elongated tubular structures made of a special protein.
• The fimbriae are small bristle like fibres sprouting out of the cell.
• In some bacteria, they are known to help attach the bacteria to rocks in streams
and also to the host tissues.

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Cell Wall of Gram-positive and Gram-
negative Bacteria:

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Gram-positive and Gram-negative Bacteria:
Gram-Positive Cell Wall Gram-Negative Cell Wall
Layers
Single layered Double layered
Composition
Consisting of several layers of peptidoglycan Consisting of a single layer of peptidoglycan
Periplasmic space
Small Large
Outer membrane
Absent Present
Teichoic Acid
Present Absent
Lipopolysaccharides
Absent Present
Gram staining Procedure
Retains the crystal violet dye and appears purple in It does not retain the crystal violet dye and appears
colour pink in colour 15
Prokaryotic cell shows following structures:
2. Cytoplasm:
ØSemi fluid ground substance or matrix present inner to the plasma
membrane.
ØIt has many organic and inorganic compounds useful for cell but lack
cellular organelles.
ØIt has inclusion bodies, ribosomes, nucleoid and plasmids in it.
ØInclusion bodies – These are kind of storage granules found in cytoplasm.
These are not bound by any membrane system and lie free in the cytoplasm.
These contained stored Organic Compounds or inorganic compounds (eg:
starch, glycogen, phosphates and sulphur granules, cyanophycean granules )

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Prokaryotic cell shows following structures:
3.Ribosomes – These are dense particles made from RNA and proteins that
participate in protein synthesis. Prokaryotic ribosomes are of 70s type having 50s
and 30s subunits. Several ribosomes may attach to a single mRNA and form a
chain called polyribosomes or polysome.
4.Genetic material (Nucleoid) – It is a large double – stranded circular DNA
molecule present in the cytoplasm bound to inner side of plasma membrane
through mesosome.
5.Plasmids – These are the additional, extra chromosomal, small, circular and self –
replicating DNA molecules present in many prokaryotes.
These plasmids carry certain genes for example antibiotic resistance, tumor
formation in plants etc.

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Prokaryotic cell:

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 B. Eukaryotic cell:
(Gr, Eu = advanced, karyon = nucleus)

• Eukaryotes are the cells that contain a well

developed nucleus i.e. the DNA of these cells
is separated from cytoplasm as it is enclosed
inside a nucleus surrounded by nuclear
membrane.
1.Eukaryotic cells are usually 10 times larger
than prokaryotes.
2.These cells also contain several intracellular
organelles that carry various functions.
3.All the cells except bacteria and blue – green
algae are eukaryotic.

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Eukaryotic cell

Animal cell Plant cell

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Eukaryotic cell shows following structures:
1. Cell wall:
ØIt is a non-living rigid structure, forms an outer covering for the plasma
membrane of fungi and plants.
ØIt is the protective, semi – transparent, outermost covering and is a
characteristic of plant cell.
ØIts size varies depending upon the type of the cell and metabolic stage of
the cell.
ØChemically, it is composed of cellulose, pectin, lignin, hemicellulose, and
cutin and suberin depending upon type of the cell.
ØCell wall gives a definite shape to the plant cell and performs the
functions such as protection from injury, transport of material and
storage of metabolites etc.

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2. Plasma membrane:
ØIt is the outer most covering in animal cells and is present below cell wall
in plant cells.
ØIt is also called as cell membrane or plasma lemma.
ØThe plasma membrane of a cell is a wall organized, three dimentional
structure, which is described by Singer and Nicholson (1972). They named
the structure as Fluid Mosaic Model.

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 2. Plasma membrane:
• Ultra structure of plasma membrane (Fluid Mosaic Model) –
• According to the Fluid mosaic model, the plasma membrane is present
as a bilayer made up of phospholipids.
• Each phospholipid molecule has two parts – head and two tails.
• Heads are hydrophilic in nature and tails are hydrophobic.
• In a bilayer, the tails of the phospholipids face towards each other,
whereas, the heads form external and internal surfaces.
• Along with the phospholipids, several proteins are present which are
globular in nature.

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 Fluid Mosaic Model (contd.):

• Depending upon the location of these proteins, they are categorized into 3 groups.
1.Extrinsic proteins / peripheral proteins – are present on either surfaces of the phospholipid
bilayer and are loosely held.
2.Intrinsic proteins / Integral proteins – are present embedded inside the bilayer and are
tightly bound.
3.Tunnel proteins – These are the large proteins that run across the phospholipid bilayer and
thus are visible on both the surfaces.
• The entire thickness of the plasma membrane is approximately 75Ao (20Ao +35 Ao + 20Ao).
• The hydrophobic surfaces of the plasma membrane prevents the entry of hydrophilic
solutes into the cell.

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Functions of plasma membrane:
ØGives the shape to the cell and protects the cell from external
environment.
ØIt is selectively permeable and hence regulates the transport of
molecules.
ØParticipates in absorption, excretion and secretion.
ØIt is responsible for intercellular communication.
ØIt helps in maintaining the turgidity of the cell.
ØIt serves as a receptor for various chemical stimuli such as amino acids,
hormones, and sugars.
ØIn certain unicellular organisms like amoeba, plasma membrane
performs the function of ingestion of food (endocytosis) and
locomotion too.

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Transport across plasma membrane:
• One of the most important functions of the plasma membrane is the
transport of the molecules across it.
• The membrane is selectively permeable to some molecules present on either
side of it.
• Many molecules can move briefly across the membrane without any
requirement of energy and this is called the passive transport.
• Neutral solutes may move across the membrane by the process of simple
diffusion along the concentration gradient, i.e., from higher concentration to
the lower.
• Water may also move across this membrane from higher to lower
concentration. Movement of water by diffusion is called osmosis.
• As the polar molecules cannot pass through the nonpolar lipid bilayer, they
require a carrier protein of the membrane to facilitate their transport across
the membrane.
• A few ions or molecules are transported across the membrane against their
concentration gradient, i.e., from lower to the higher concentration. Such a
transport is an energy dependent process, in which ATP is utilised and is
called active transport, e.g., Na+/K+ Pump
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3. Cytoplasm/cytosol:
ØIt is a semi – solid, jelly like ground substance present inside the plasma
membrane.
ØThe cytosol is composed of mainly water along with many organic and
inorganic substances such as minerals, sugars, amino acids, t-RNA,
nucleotides, vitamins, proteins and enzymes.
ØIn this matrix various organelles such as mitochondria, chloroplast,
ribosomes, Endoplasmic reticulum etc. are suspended.
ØIn some plant cells such as spirogyra, the cytoplasm shows streaming
movement called cyclosis.
ØThe main function of cytoplasm is that it acts as the site for many vital
metabolic activities of the cell eg. protein synthesis.

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4. Mitochondria:
ØThese are rod – like organelles that have a surrounding double
membrane and are present in the cytoplasm of all eukaryotic cells.
ØThe size of the mitochondria varies from 0.2 to 2.0 µ in diameter.
ØThese are present in huge numbers about 50 to 5000 per cell.

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Ultra structure of Mitochondria –
• Mitochondria is enclosed by two membrane
called as outer membrane and inner membrane.
• The outer membrane is smooth, thick (about
60Ao) and continuous.
• The inner membrane is of the same thickness
but is folded many times in the inward direction
and hence is a highly convulated structure.
• Each infolding of the inner membrane is called
as Cristae. Due to the infoldings, the surface
area of the inner membrane increases many
times.

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Ultra structure of Mitochondria –
• The outer membrane is permeable whereas, the
inner membrane is selectively permeable.
• The inner membrane carries all the enzymes
required for the cellular respiration enclosed in
the Oxysomes or F, particles that are arranged
linearly on the inner membrane.
• Each F, particle has 3 parts – head, stalk and
base.
• Inner to the inner mitochondrial membrane,
there is a dense fluid called matrix.
• The matrix is granular and contains proteins,
lipids, few ribosomes (70s type) and a small
DNA and RNA.

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Functions of Mitochondria
• The inner mitochondrial membrane carries all the enzymes
required for electron transport chain.
• The coenzymes of electron transport chain namely cytochromes,
dehydrogenases and flavoproteins present on inner mitochondria
membrane are responsible for cellular respiration.
• Due to the transfer of electrons, ATP molecules are generated and
stored in the matrix. Hence these are called as the power houses
of the cells.
• Mitochondria converts pyruvic acid into CO and water thus
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liberating energy.

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5. Endoplasmic Reticulum
• It is a membranous tube like structure
embedded in the cytoplasm.
• It is present in all cells except Ova and
RBCs.
• These are thought to be originating
from nuclear envelope.

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Morphology and Ultra structure:
• ER forms a kind of network in the cytoplasm extending between the plasma
membrane and the nuclear membrane,
• It is composed of 3 types of structure –
• Cisternae – flattened parallel sacs
• Tubules – irregular branching
• Vesicles – oval sacs
• All these structures forms a network of continuous system.
• The inner space within the ER is called as lumen which is 400 to 700 Ao in
diameter.
• This lumen is filled with a matrix which mainly consists of Glycogen and lipids.
• Many ER have ribosomes arranged linearly on its outer surface, which gives it a
rough texture. Such ER are called as Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER).
• Whereas, if the ER is devoid of ribosomes, it is called as Smooth Endoplasmic
Reticulum (SER)

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Functions of Endoplasmic Reticulum:
• It provides mechanical support to the intracellular matrix.
• The membranes of the ER provide increased surface area for the
metabolic activities.
• It is involved in many metabolic activities such as synthesis of lipids
and glycogen, detoxification of certain drugs and antimetabolites
(SER)
• It provides precursors for different secretary substances to golgi
apparatus.
• RER is involved in proteins synthesis.
• Processing and transport of many proteins takes place inside the
tubules of the ER.
• The cavities of ER act as temporary storage compartments of
metabolites which are later secreted out.

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6. Golgi apparatus:

• These bodies were first demonstrated in

the cells by Camillo Golgi and hence they
are called as Golgi bodies / apparatus.
• It is a unit membrane bound organelle
present near the nucleus.

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Morphology and Ultrastructure
• Golgi apparatus is present inside the cytoplasm
as numerous aggregates of tubules and vesicles.
• There are about 3 to 30 flattened tubules or sacs
which look like SER.
• These sacs, also called as cisternae are curved or
cup shaped that lie in a parallel array.
• Several spherical vesicles of about 60-80 nm in
diameter are also seen associated with cisternae.
• The lumen of Golgi complex consists of an
amorphus matrix.
• The matrix is made up of several enzymes that
are actively involved in metabolic activities.

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Functions of Golgi apparatus
• The golgi complex is involved in the synthesis of lysosomes.
• These are actively involved in secretion of glycoproteins and
glycolipids.
• Golgi complex stores proteins, carbohydrates and lipids in it
• These take part in enzymatic processing of proteins

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7. Plastids:
• These are the semi autonomous, double membrane bound organelles that
enclose certain kinds of pigments in them.
• Plastids have their own DNA that is smaller than the genomic DNA.
• These are found only in algae, plant cells and certain protists.
• Depending upon the type of pigment enclosed, these are classified into 3
groups –
ØLeucoplasts – colourless, stores starch
ØChromoplasts - coloured (orange, red, brown, and yellow), contain
pigments other than chlorophyll.
ØChloroplasts – green coloured, stores chlorophyll in them.

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• The chloroplasts contain chlorophyll and carotenoid pigments which are
responsible for trapping light energy essential for photosynthesis.
• In the chromoplasts fat soluble carotenoid pigments like carotene,
xanthophylls and others are present.
• This gives the part of the plant a yellow, orange or red colour.
• The leucoplasts are the colourless plastids of varied shapes and sizes with
stored nutrients: Amyloplasts store carbohydrates (starch), e.g., potato;
elaioplasts store oils and fats whereas the aleuroplasts store proteins.

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Ultrastructure of chloroplasts:
ØChloroplasts are double membrane bound
organelles enclosing colourless matrix.
ØInside the matrix (stroma), there are many grana.
ØThe grana are made up of flattened sacs called
thylakoids.
ØThe thylakoids are packed together in such a way
that the grana look like a pile of coins.
ØThere may be 40 to 60 grana per chloroplasts and
each granum is made up of 2 to 100 or more
thylakoids.
ØThe chlorophyll is enclosed in these thylakoids.
Functions of chloroplasts:
• Due to the presence of photosynthetic pigment
chlorophyll, chloroplasts are the sites for
photosynthesis.
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9. Lysosomes:
• Lysosomes are simple tiny spherical sac-like
structures evenly distributed in the cytoplasm.
Each lysosome is a small vesicle surrounded by a
single membrane and contains powerful
enzymes. These enzymes are capable of
digesting or breaking down all organic
materials.
Structure of Lysosomes:
• Irregular, sac like structure bounded by single
membranes.
• Under Electron microscope they appear dense
and finely granular, with about 50 types of
hydrolytic enzymes.
• In animal cells they are usually spherical
• They are polymorphic in which suggests that
lysosomes are highly dynamic in nature and
lights up on what is the lysosome's function. 43
Significance of Lysosome:
• In WBC or leucocytes: Cells of leucocytes digest foreign proteins, bacteria and
virus
• In autophagy: During starvation, the lysosomes digest stored food contents such as
proteins, fats and glycogen of the cytoplasm and supply the necessary amount of
energy to the cell.
• In fertilization: The lysosomal enzymes present in the acrosome of the sperm cells
digest the limiting membrane of the ovum. Thus, the sperm is able to enter the
ovum and start fertilization.
• Lysosomes also remove the worn out and poorly working cellular organelles by
digesting them to make way for their new replacements. Since they remove cell
debris, they are also known as scavengers, cellular housekeepers or demolition
squads

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10. Microbodies:
• Microbodies are roughly spherical in shape, single membrane bound
organelles.
• These are of two types:
I. Peroxysomes
II. Glyoxysomes

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Peroxysomes:
• An intracellular organelle found in all eukaryotes which is the source of the
enzymes that catalyze the production and breakdown of hydrogen peroxide, and
are responsible for the oxidation of long-chain fatty acids
• The peroxisome is contained by a single membrane and is involved in oxidation.
• Peroxysomes contain at least 50 different enzymes, which are involved in a
variety of biochemical pathways in different types of cells.
• Peroxysomes have diverse functions ranging from cellular respiration to alcohol
detoxification and result in the production of hydrogen peroxide.
• Hydrogen peroxide production and the enzymes that break down this toxic
byproduct are sequestered to prevent cell damage.
• Peroxysomes incorporate proteins and lipids made in the cytosol and ER into the
peroxisome itself in order to grow.
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Glyoxysome:
• Glyoxysomes are the specialized organelles found in plants
(particularly in the fat-storage tissues of germinating seeds) and
also in filamentous fungi.
• They serve to break down fatty acids and provide enzymes to
produce intermediates for the synthesis of sugars by
gluconeogenesis.

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11.Ribosomes:
• Ribosomes are tiny spherical non membrane bound organelles that make
proteins by joining amino acids together.
• Many ribosomes are found free in the cytosol, while others are attached to the
rough endoplasmic reticulum.
• The purpose of the ribosome is to translate messenger RNA (mRNA) to
proteins with the aid of tRNA.
• In eukaryotes, ribosomes can commonly be found in the cytosol of a cell, the
endoplasmic reticulum or mRNA, as well as the matrix of the mitochondria.

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11.Ribosomes:
• Ribosomes are composed of two subunits, one large and
one small, that they only bind together during protein
synthesis.
• All prokaryotes have 70S (where S=Svedberg units)
ribosomes while eukaryotes contain larger 80S
ribosomes in their cytosol.
• The 70S ribosome is made up of 50S and 30S subunits
while the 80S ribosome is made up of 60S and 40S
subunits.
• The ribosomes play a very important role in protein
synthesis, which is the process by which proteins are
made from individual amino acids.

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 12.Centrioles:
• The Centrosome is an organelle that serves as
the main microtubule organizing center of the
animal cell as well as a regulator of cell-cycle
progression.
• In animal cells, centrosomes contain two
barrel-shaped structures called centrioles. The
walls of each centriole are usually composed of
nine triplets of microtubules.

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 12.Centrioles:
• Mature centrioles vary in diameter
from 1500A° - 2500 A° and in length
from 1600 A° - 1800 A°.
• An associated pair of centrioles,
arranged perpendicularly and
surrounded by an amorphous mass of
dense material, constitutes the
compound structure of the
Centrosome.
• Centrioles are involved in the
organization of the mitotic spindle and
in the completion of cytokinesis.

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13. Cytoskeleton
• The cytoskeleton is a cellular scaffolding or skeleton
protein structure and is contained within the
cytoplasm. The cytoskeleton is present in all
eukaryotic cells.
• The cytoskeleton is made up of three kinds of protein
filaments: actin filaments (also called microfilaments),
intermediate filaments and microtubules.

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 13. Cytoskeleton
• Microfilaments (actin filaments) are the thinnest filaments
of the cytoskeleton. They are composed of linear polymers
of actin subunits and generate force by elongation at one
end of the filament coupled with shrinkage at the other,
causing net movement. They also act as tracks for the
movements like gliding, contraction and cytokinensis.
• Intermediate filaments are more stable (strongly bound)
than actin filaments, and heterogeneous constituents of the
cytoskeleton. Like actin filaments, they function in the
maintenance of cell-shape by bearing tension. Intermediate
filaments organize the internal three-dimensional structure
of the cell and anchoring organelles.
• Microtubules are hollow cylinders, most commonly
comprising alpha and beta tubulin. They play key roles in:
intracellular transport, the axoneme of cilia and flagella, the
mitotic spindle and the synthesis of cell wall in plants. 53
14. Vacuoles:
• A vacuole is a membrane-enclosed compartment which
performs a variety of functions within the cell, including
storage and transport.
• Vacuoles arise in the Golgi apparatus and the
endoplasmic reticulum and are an important component
of the endomembrane system.
• The vacuole is bound by single unit membrane called
tonoplast.
• Vacuoles are vesicles with a selectively permeable
membrane and perform specific functions based on the
cell type they are found in.

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14. Vacuoles:
• Food vacuoles arise as a result of the engulfment of food by a cell or
phagocytosis.
• Contractile vacuoles are common in protists and are used to maintain
appropriate ion and molecule levels within the cell.
• In plants, vacuoles have diverse roles including, enzymatic hydrolysis, storage
of organic compounds, protection against herbivores through poison storage and
pigment storage to facilitate pollination.
• Smaller plant vacuoles merge to form a larger central vacuole in mature plants
that acts as a storage center of inorganic ions called cell sap.
• The central vacuole is critical in cell growth; as water is absorbed by the plant
cell, the central vacuole increases in size allowing the cell to expand without
using valuable cell resources to make more cytoplasm.

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15. Cilia and Flagella:
• Cilia and flagella are slender projections which are specialized to serve a variety of functions.
• Flagella are tail-like projections which protrude from the cell bodies of certain prokaryotic and
eukaryotic cells and function in locomotion.
• Eukaryotic flagella consist of bundles of nine fused pairs of microtubule doublets ("9+2”)
surrounding two central single microtubules.
• Flagella and cilia are important in many kinds of cellular motility including, propulsion of
unicellular eukaryotes through water, and the movement of the sperm of animals, some plants, and
algae.
• Flagella beat in an undulating pattern to generate force that is the same as its axis, similar to the tail
movement of a fish.
• Cilia generate force perpendicular to their axis and move more like the oar on a boat.
• Though cilia and flagella differ in functions, they are similar in composition, specifically the "9+2"
pattern (a ring of nine doublets of microtubules surrounding two single microtubules).
• Cilia that are non motile lack the central pair of microtubules and therefore have a "9+0" pattern.

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15. Cilia and Flagella:

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NUCLEAR ORGANIZATION
• The nucleus is the most prominent organelle as compared to other cell
organelles, which accounts for about 10 percent of the cell's volume.
• In general, an eukaryotic cell has only one nucleus. However, some eukaryotic
cells are enucleate cells (without nucleus), for example, red blood cells (RBCs);
whereas, some are multinucleate (consists of two or more nuclei), for example,
slime molds.
• Nucleus usually remains located in the centre but its position may change from
time to time according to the metabolic state of the cell.
• Shape of the nucleus may be spherical, ovoid, disc shaped, bilobed or multilobed
• The size of the nucleus depends on the volume of the cell, amount of the DNA and
proteins and metabolic phase of the cell

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Structure of Cell Nucleus:

• The cell nucleus consists of:

a) nuclear membrane
(nuclear envelope)
b) nucleoplasm
c) nucleolus
d) chromosomes

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Structure of Cell Nucleus:
a) Nuclear Membrane (Karyotheca):
ØThe nuclear membrane is a double-layered structure, each being 7-8
nm thick, which encloses the contents of the nucleus.
ØThe outer layer of the membrane is connected to the endoplasmic
reticulum.
ØA fluid-filled space or perinuclear space is present between the two
layers of a nuclear membrane and is usually 20nm thick
ØThe nucleus communicates with the remaining of the cell or the
cytoplasm through several openings called nuclear pores.
ØThese pores are enclosed by electron dense rings called annuli which
functions as a kind of diaphragm for selective permeability.
ØSuch nuclear pores are the sites for exchange of large molecules
(proteins and RNA) between the nucleus and cytoplasm.
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Structure of Cell Nucleus:
b) Nucleoplasm:
ØSimilar to the cytoplasm of a cell, the nucleus contains
'nucleoplasm' (nucleus sap) or karyoplasm.
ØThe nucleoplasm is one of the types of protoplasm, and it is
enveloped by the nuclear membrane or nuclear envelope.
ØThe nucleoplasm is a highly viscous liquid that surrounds the
chromosomes and nucleoli.
ØMany substances such as nucleotides (necessary for purposes
such as the replication of DNA) and enzymes (which direct
activities that take place in the nucleus) are dissolved in the
nucleoplasm

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Structure of Cell Nucleus:
c) Chromosomes:
• Chromosomes are present in the form of strings of DNA and histones (protein
molecules) called chromatin
• The chromatin is further classified into heterochromatin and euchromatin based on
the functions during interphase
• The former type is a highly condensed, transcriptionally inactive form, mostly
present adjacent to the nuclear membrane.
• On the other hand, euchromatin is a delicate, less condensed organization of
chromatin, which is found abundantly in a transcribing cell.

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Structure of Cell Nucleus:
c) Chromosomes (contd.):
ØThe interphase nucleus has a loose and indistinct network of
nucleoprotein fibres called chromatin.
ØBut during different stages of cell division, cells show structured
chromosomes in place of the nucleus.
ØChromatin contains DNA and some basic proteins called histones,
some non-histone proteins and also RNA.
ØA single human cell has approximately two metre long thread of DNA
distributed among its forty six (twenty three pairs) chromosomes.

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Structure of Cell Nucleus:
c) Chromosomes (contd.):
ØEvery chromosome (visible only in dividing cells) essentially
has a primary constriction or the centromere on the sides of
which disc shaped structures called kinetochores are present.
ØCentromere holds two chromatids of a chromosome.
ØBased on the position of the centromere, the chromosomes can
be classified into four types:
1. The metacentric chromosome has middle centromere
forming two equal arms of the chromosome.
2. The sub-metacentric chromosome has centromere
slightly away from the middle of the chromosome
resulting into one shorter arm and one longer arm.
3. In case of acrocentric chromosome the centromere is
situated close to its end forming one extremely short and
one very long arm,
4. whereas the telocentric chromosome has a terminal
centromere.
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Structure of Cell Nucleus:
c) Chromosomes (contd.):
• Sometimes a few chromosomes have non-staining secondary constrictions
at a constant location. This gives the appearance of a small fragment called
the satellite.
• In humans it is usually associated with the short arm of an acrocentric
chromosome, such as in the chromosomes 13, 14, 15, 21 and 22.
• The Y chromosome can also contain satellites, although these are thought
to be translocations from autosomes.
• The secondary constriction always keeps its position, so it can be used as
markers to identify specific chromosomes.

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Structure of Cell Nucleus:
d) Nucleolus:
• The nucleolus (plural nucleoli) is a dense, spherical-shaped structure
present inside the nucleus.
• Some of the eukaryotic organisms have nucleus that contains up to four
nucleoli. The nucleolus plays an indirect role in protein synthesis by
producing ribosomes.
• Ribosomes are the protein-producing organelles of a cell.
• Nucleolus disappears when a cell undergoes division and is reformed after
the completion of cell division.

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Functions of Cell Nucleus:
ØIt controls the hereditary characteristics of an organism.
ØThis organelle is also responsible for the protein synthesis, cell division,
growth and differentiation.
ØStorage of hereditary material, the genes in the form of long and thin
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) strands, referred to as chromatin.
ØStorage of proteins and RNA (ribonucleic acid) in the nucleolus.
ØNucleus is a site for transcription in which messenger RNA (mRNA) are
produced for protein synthesis.

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Functions of Cell Nucleus:
ØExchange of hereditary molecules (DNA and RNA) between the nucleus
and the rest of the cell
ØDuring the cell division, chromatins are arranged into chromosomes in the
nucleus.
ØProduction of ribosomes (protein factories) in the nucleolus.
ØSelective transportation of regulatory factors and energy molecules
through nuclear pores.
ØAs the nucleus regulates the integrity of genes and gene expression, it is
also referred to as the control center of a cell.
ØThe nucleus contains all the genetic material of an organism like
chromosomes, DNA, genes, etc

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Thank you!

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