HMYHSS MANJERI

ZLGY-MM: XII 8. HUMAN HEALTH & DISEASE

 Health is a state of complete physical, mental & social well-  Disease is the malfunctioning of body or parts characterised by
being. various symptoms.
Good health can be achieved by- Diseases may be-
 Having balanced diet  Infectious -transmitted from infected person to healthy person by
 Using clean drinking water, food etc. means of air, water, food, physical contact or vectors.
 Keeping the body clean These diseases are caused by organisms called pathogens. They
 Taking regular exercise or yoga enter the body by various means, multiply and interfere with
 Awareness about diseases and their effect on different bodily normal vital activities.
functions E.g.: AIDS.
 Taking vaccination timely  Non-infectious-which are not transmitted from one person to
 Having proper disposal of wastes another.
 Controlling disease vectors They occur due to genetic disorder, change in life style (food,
water, rest, exercise, habits etc).
E.g.: Cancer

COMMON INFECTIOUS DISEASES IN MAN

Disease Pathogen Mode of transmission Infecting part Symptoms
I-Bacterial Diseases
Sustained high fever (39°- 40°C),
a) Typhoid Enter the small intestine and weakness, stomach pain, constipation,
Through contaminated food &
Salmonella typhi migrate to other organs headache and loss of appetite.
water
Confirmation:- through blood. - Intestinal perforation and death may
Widal test occur in severe cases.
i. Inhaling the droplets/
Lung alveoli.
aerosols released by an Fever, chills, cough and headache.
Streptococcus pneumoniae -The alveoli get filled with
b) Pneumonia infected person. - In severe cases, the lips and finger
& Haemophilus influenzae fluid leading to severe
ii. Through contaminated nails may turn gray to bluish in colour.
respiratory problems.
objects.
Other bacterial diseases -Dysentery, plague, diphtheria
II-Viral diseases
Nasal congestion and discharge, sore
Nose and respiratory passage throat, hoarseness (rough sound),
c) Common cold Rhino viruses ”
(but not the lungs) cough, headache, tiredness, etc., which
usually last for 3-7 days
III-Protozoan Disease
The rupture of RBCs is associated
Plasmodium sp. (P. vivax, Initially multiply within the with release of a toxic substance,
Through the bite of infected
d) Malaria P. malaria & liver cells and then attack the haemozoin, which is responsible for
female Anopheles mosquito
P. falciparum- malignant) RBCs resulting in their rupture the chill and high fever recurring
every 3-4 days.
Houseflies transmit the Constipation, abdominal pain and
e) Amoebiasis Entamoeba histolytica parasite from faeces of infected In large intestine cramps, stools with excess mucous
(dysentery)
person to food & water. and blood clots.
IV-Helminthic disease
Through contaminated soil
water, vegetables, fruits, etc. Internal bleeding, muscular pain,
f) Ascariasis. Ascaris with the eggs of the parasite Intestine fever, anaemia and blockage of the
excreted along with the faeces intestinal passage.
of infected persons.
Filarial worms/
The lymphatic vessels of the Due to blockage of lymph vessels,
g) Filariasis Wuchereria sp. Through the bite of female
lower limbs and the genital inflammation occurs in the organs in
(Elephantiasis) (W. bancrofti & Culex mosquito.
organs which worms live.
W. malayi)
V-Fungal diseases
Microsporum,
From soil or contaminated In skin folds such as those in Dry, scaly lesions on skin, nails and
h) Ringworms Trichophyton &
articles of infected persons. the groin or between the toes. scalp with intense itching.
Epidermophyton

for www.hsslive.in , by: Minhad. M. Muhiyudeen, #- 9846 29 22 27

99
 Stages in the life cycle of Plasmodium

Prevention & Control of infectious diseases

a) For water-borne diseases like typhoid, amoebiasis, ascariasis etc.
 Proper disposal of waste and excreta


Periodic cleaning of water reservoirs, pools and tanks
Keep standard practices of hygiene in public catering. IMMUNE SYSTEM
 It is the system that gives immunity to the body by recognizing,
b) For air-borne diseases like pneumonia, common cold etc. responding and remembering foreign antigens.
 Avoid contact with the infected persons or their belongings.
 Includes lymphoid organs, tissues, cells and soluble molecules
c) For vector-borne disesases like malaria, filariasis, dengue, like antibodies.
chikungunya etc.
 Control or eliminate the vectors and their breeding places.
Lymphoid organs
 Avoiding stagnation of water in and around residential areas.  These are the organs where origin, maturation & proliferation of
 Use of mosquito nets. lymphocytes occur.
 Introduce Gambusia in ponds that feed on mosquito larvae.
 Spraying of insecticides in drainage areas and swamps, etc.
Lymphoid organs

Primary Secondary
Here, immature lymphocytes differentiate Organs to which matured lymphocytes migrate interact
into antigen-sensitive lymphocytes. with antigens and then proliferate to become effector cells.
These include These include
Bone marrow - Spleen-
Thymus- Lymph nodes-
Primary lymphoid organs Secondary lymphoid organs
MALT –e.g.: Tonsils, Peyer’s patches, Appendix

for www.hsslive.in , by: Minhad. M. Muhiyudeen, #- 9846 29 22 27 100

 IMMUNITY
 It is the ability of the immune system to fight the disease-causing organisms.
Immunity

Innate Acquired
 Inborn  Learned
 Non-specific  Pathogen specific
 Immediate, maximum  Lag time before max.
response secondary response
 No built-up memory  Immunological memory

i. Physical barriers
- Skin Active Passive
- Mucous coating
Immunity by antibodies that are Immunity gained by the body through
ii. Physiological barriers produced due to exposure to antigens direct transfer of readymade antibodies
- HCl in stomach
- Saliva
- Tears
Artificial Natural Artificial Natural
iii. Cellular barriers From Antiserum Maternal
By Vaccination By Infection
- PMNL/ neutrophil - Through Placenta
E.g.: Immunization
- Monocytes E.g. Hepatitis-B (using - From Colostrum
against tetanus,
- Natural Killer cells rDNA technology) (IgA)
snake venom etc.
- Macrophages
iv. Cytokine barriers
- Interferon

Immune Response: 2 types- Lymphocytes

1. Humoral or Antibody Mediated Immunity (AMI):
Immunity mediated by antibodies (or immunoglobulin- Ig) B-cells T-cells
produced by B-lymphocytes in the blood. 1st encounter
with antigen Proliferate & Encounter
IgA, IgM, IgE, IgG and IgD are the 5 classes of antibodies
differentiate into with antigen Proliferate &
Structure of Antibody differentiate into
o Each antibody has 4 polypeptide chains- 2 small light Memory Cells Effector cells
nd
chains and 2 larger heavy chains (H2L2). 2 encounter
with antigen THelper TCytotoxic TSuppressor
(help B-cells)
Kills Directly

Memory cells Effector cells Antibodies

(slow 10 response)

Antibodies
(rapid 20 response) Cell-Mediated
2. Cell-mediated immunity (CMI): Immunity
T-lymphocytes mediated immunity. It helps B-cells to Humoral Immunity
produce antibodies.
- T-lymphocyte recognizes & directly attack pathogen. 2. Autoimmunity:
This system is responsible for the graft (transplanted  It is an abnormal response by which body attacks self cells.
organ) rejection. Patient has to take Cause: Genetic and other unknown reason.
immunosuppressant to suppress this action. E.g. Rheumatoid arthritis.

IMMUNE SYSTEM DISORDERS 3. AIDS

 It is a disorder of cell-mediated immune system of the body.
1. Allergy There is a reduction in the number of helper T-cells which
 It is an over-reaction of the immune system to certain antigens stimulate antibody production by B-cells.
present in the environment.
 Allergens: Substances causing allergy. Acquired Infection is due to conscious behaviour.
E.g. mites in dust, pollens, animal dander etc. Immunodeficiency Body’s immune system is not
 IgE type antibodies produced against the allergens. working properly
Syndrome A group of symptoms
Cause: Release of chemicals like histamine and
serotonin from the mast cells.  Pathogen: HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus), a
Allergy Symptoms: Sneezing, watery eyes, running nose, retrovirus having RNA genome.
difficulty in breathing etc.  Transmission: HIV spreads only through body fluids. It does not
Treatment: Drugs like anti-histamine, adrenaline and spread by touch or physical contact.
steroids. - Sexual contact with infected person.
 Modern-day life style & protected environment results in lowering - Transfusion of contaminated blood & blood products.
of immunity and more sensitive to allergens by children in urban - Sharing of infected needles.
area. - From infected mother to her child through placenta.

for www.hsslive.in , by: Minhad. M. Muhiyudeen, #- 9846 29 22 27 101

 Life-Cycle of HIV:
(i) HIV gets into a body →  Cancer cells loss the property of contact inhibition (contacting
(ii) Its viral RNA is introduced into macrophages → with neighbouring cells inhibits their division).
(iii) RNA, in presence of Reverse transcriptase, is converted to  Cause- All cells have a gene called proto-oncogenes (c-onc)
viral DNA → which are involved in normal cell function. Mutation of proto-
(iv) Viral DNA incorporates into host DNA→ oncogenes leads to cancer causing oncogenes.
(v) Directs the infected cells to synthesis viral components →
(vi) Assembly of viral components to form virus → Carcinogens- Agents which cause cancer.
(vii) Budding of HIV from the host cell →  Physical agents: X-rays, gamma rays and UV.
 Chemical agents: Tobacco.
 Biological agents: Viruses.
Tumours are 2 types:
Benign: Confined to the place of its origin. Harmless.
Malignant: Spread and invade nearby tissues by blood. Harmful.
The spread of cancer cells from one part of the body to another is
referred as metastasis.
Cancer detection
o Biopsy: A thin piece of the suspected tissue is stained and
examined under microscope.
o Radiography (use of X-rays), CT (Computed tomography)
(viii) HIV enters into helper T-cells in blood → scan & MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging).
(ix) Replicates & produce progeny virus → o Use of Antibodies against cancer-specific antigens.
(x) They attack other helper T-cells, decrease in number → o PCR technique to detect genes related to cancer.
(xi) Immunity weakens →
(xii) Shows symptoms like fever, diarrhoea & weight loss → Treatment of cancer
There is a time-lag (from few months to 5-10 years) between o Radiation therapy: Tumour cells are irradiated lethally.
the infection and appearance of symptoms. o Chemotherapy: Kill cancerous cells using some drugs. Many
(xiii) Person may be infected with Mycobacterium, viruses, fungi and drugs have side effects like hair loss, anaemia etc.
parasites like Toxoplasma → o Immunotherapy: The patients are given α- interferon which
(xiv) Death activates immune system and helps in destroying the tumour.
o Surgery.
 Diagnosis: ELISA test (Enzyme-linked immune-sorbent Assay).
 Prevention of AIDS: DRUGS & ALCOHOL ABUSE
o Educate peoples about AIDS by NACO.
o Making blood (from blood banks) safe from HIV.
A. DRUGS:
Drug is a chemical which is usually taken for the treatment of
o Use of disposable needles and syringes & control drug abuse
some mental disorders like depression, insomnia etc. on the
o Advocating safe sex and free distribution of condoms.
advice of some physician, and is withdrawn as soon as the desired
effect is achieved.
CANCER When drugs are taken for purposes other than medicinal or taken
 Cancer is an uncontrolled division of cells resulting in the in amounts / frequencies that impair physical, physiological or
formation of tumour (masses of cells). psychological functions, it is called drug abuse.

Class Derivatives Effect

Opioids- 1. Morphine: Dried milky latex obtained
from the fruits. Strong sedative and pain  Taken by snorting (inhaled) or injection
Extracted from
killer. Useful during surgery.  Drugs which bind to opioid receptors in CNS
2. Heroin (Diacetyl morphine/smack): and gastrointestinal tract.
poppy plant
Bitter crystalline compound produced by  These are depressants (depress the brain
(Papaver acetylation of morphine. activity) and slows down body functions.
somniferum) 3. Brown sugar
Cannabinoids- 1. Marijuana –Mixture of leaves, seeds, stem
 Smoked or oral ingestion
and flower tops.
 Drugs that interact with cannabinoid
Obtained from 2. Charas/ Hashish- Sticky yellow exudation
receptors in brain.
Hemp plant from leaves and female inflorescence
 Affects cardiovascular system.
(Cannabis sativa). 3. Ganja- Dried female inflorescence
Coca alkaloids /  Inhaled .

Cocaine-  Interfere the transport of dopamine.

 Stimulate CNS producing euphoria (sense of
Obtained from 1. Coke/ Crack excitement).
coca plant  Excessive dosage causes hallucination
(Erythroxylum (illusion of seeing or hearing something which
coca) is not actually present).
1. Atropa belladonna
2. Datura Hallucinogens
3. Lysergic Acid
Others Diethyl amides (LSD)
4. Barbiturates Depressants
5. Benzodiazepines
6. Amphetamines Stimulant

for www.hsslive.in , by: Minhad. M. Muhiyudeen, #- 9846 29 22 27 101

 B. SMOKING Prevention & control
 Tobacco is smoked, chewed or used as a snuff. 1. Avoid undue peer pressure.
 Tobacco contains nicotine which stimulates adrenal gland to 2. Education and counselling.
release adrenaline and nor-adrenaline, causing high BP and 3. Seeking help from parents and peers.
heart rate. 4. Looking for danger signs.
5. Seeking professional and medical help.
Effects:- a. Psychologists and psychiatrists.
o Causes cancers of lung, urinary bladder and throat, bronchitis, b. De-addiction and rehabilitation programs.
emphysema, coronary heart disease, gastric ulcer etc.
o Tobacco chewing causes oral cancer.
o Smoking increases CO content in blood and reduces
oxyhaemoglobin. This causes O2 deficiency in the body.

C. ANABOLIC STEROIDS
 These are drugs misused by athletes to increase muscle strength
and to promote aggressiveness.
Side effects
In females:
 Masculanisation  Mood swings & depression
 Increased aggressiveness  Excessive hair growth
 Abnormal menstrual cycle  Deepening of voice
 Enlargement of clitoris
In males:
 Acne  Mood swings & depression.
 Increased aggressiveness  Reduced testicles
 Decreased sperm  Kidney & liver dysfunction
 Breast enlargement  Premature baldness
 Enlargement of prostate gland

Causes of drug/alcohol use in

Adolescence period:
- Experimental curiosity.
- Need for adventure, excitement & peer pressure.
- Unstable or unsupportive family structures.
- Stress from pressure to excel in academics or examination.
- TV, movies, news papers, internet etc.
Addiction & Dependence
Addiction: It is a psychological attachment with drugs and
alcohol.
Dependence: It is the tendency of the body to manifest a
withdrawal syndrome if regular dose of drugs/alcohol is
discontinued.
This results in anxiety, shakiness, nausea and sweating.

Effects of Drug/alcohol abuse

Immediate effects:-
 Reckless (disregarding danger) behaviour, vandalism (wilfully
destroy property) and violence.
Effects due to over dose:-
 Coma
 Death due to respiratory failure, heart failure or cerebral
haemorrhage.
Far reaching effects:-
 Drop in academic performance and absence from school.
 Withdrawal and isolation from family and friends.
 Depression & fatigue.
 Aggressive & rebellious behaviour
 Loss of interest in hobbies.
 Fluctuations in sleeping, eating habits, weight, appetite etc.
 Social problems like stealing and spread of infectious diseases
 Damage of nervous system and liver (cirrhosis).
 Use of drugs and alcohol by pregnant woman adversely affect
the foetus.

for www.hsslive.in , by: Minhad. M. Muhiyudeen, #- 9846 29 22 27 101

 Join Now: https://join.hsslive.in Downloaded from https://www.hsslive.in ®

ZLGY-MM: XII 13. BIODIVERSITY & CONSERVATION

Biodiversity:- E.g. Western Ghats have greater amphibian species than
 Biodiversity is the sum total of diversity that exist at all levels of Eastern Ghats.
biological organisation. 3. Ecological diversity: Diversity at ecosystem level.
E.g. In India, deserts, rain forests, mangroves, coral reefs, wet
Atoms  Micromolecules  Macromolecules Organelles
Amino acid, sugar Protein, polysaccharides, Mitochondria, ER lands, estuaries & alpine meadows are seen.
N. bases, Lipids Polynucleotide GB, lysosome...

 Cell  Tissue  Organ  Organ system  Organism 

200 kinds Epithelial, Stomach, Dig. System, 1.5m species
in humans connective… lungs… Repro. System..

Population  Community  Ecosystem  Biome

+ abiotic factors Forest, desert,
grassland…

W.G Rosen (1985) coined the term ‘biodiversity’.

Edward Wilson: Popularized the term.
A/c to IUCN (2004): Described more than 1.5 million species.
A/c to Robert May’s Global estimate: About 7 million species
are to be recorded.
Living organisms PATTERNS OF BIODIVERSITY
Species diversity on earth is not uniformly distributed.
Monera Protista Fungi Plantae Animalia i. Latitudinal gradients
Insects  Species diversity is highest in the tropics and decreases towards
Animals are more diverse (above 70%) than plants (22%). the poles.
Among animals, insects (70%) rank the top. 900N
No. of Fungi > No. of fishes + amphibians + reptiles + mammals Greenland (710N) - 56 birds
1 lakh 28,000 3000 6000 4000 66.50N
New York (410N) - 105 birds
Invertebrates
India (20.50N) - 1200 birds
23.50N
(43,000) Colombia (4.50N) - 1400 birds
(70,000)
Sun 00 Equator
(9 lakh) Tropical zone
23.50S

Temperate zone
Vertebrates
(5,000) 66.50S
(28,000) Polar zone
(10,000)
900S
The reasons for great species diversity in tropics are-
(7000)  Tropics remained undisturbed for millions of years 
evolution  species diversification
(4000)
Plants  Tropics are less seasonal  provide a constant environment.
(15,000) (13,000)  Tropics receive more solar energy  greater productivity 
greater diversity.

(1.2 lakh) (2.5 lakh) ii. Species- Area relationship

 A/c to Alexander von Humboldt (German naturalist- in S.
American jungles), species richness increases with increasing
(44,000) (10,000) explored area, but only up to a limit. Relation b/w species
Biologists are not sure about total number of prokaryotic species richness and area for a wide variety of taxa gives a rectangular
because - hyperbola.
 Conventional taxonomic methods are not suitable for
identifying microbial species
 Many species are not culturable under laboratory conditions.
Amazon rain forest (produce 20% of O2 in the atmosphere- ‘the
lungs of the planet’) is the greatest biodiversity on earth.
India, a mega diversity country, has 8.1% of the species diversity
(only 2.4% of land area).
LEVELS OF BIODIVERSITY
1. Genetic diversity: The variation of genes within the species.
E.g. India has more than 50,000 different strains of rice and 1000
varieties of mango.
2. Species diversity: The occurrence of different variety of species
with in a region.
for HSS LiVE.IN, prepared by: Minhad. M. Muhiyudeen, #- 9846 29 22 27
170
 Join Now: https://join.hsslive.in Downloaded from https://www.hsslive.in ®

On a logarithmic scale, the relationship is a straight line described Causes of Biodiversity losses (‘The Evil Quartet’)
by the equation- 1. Habitat loss and fragmentation:
Log S = log C + Z log A - It is due to cutting down of trees, ploughing of grass lands, filling
where S = Species richness of wetlands, building of roads etc.
A = Area - Due to fragmentation, animals requiring large territories and
Z = slope of the line (regression coefficient) migratory animals are badly affected.
C = Y-intercept 2. Over-exploitation: Many species like Stellar’s sea cow,
For a small area, Z= 0.1 to 0.2 Passenger pigeon etc extinct due to over exploitation.
For a continent, Z= 0.6 to 1.2
Importance of Species Diversity to the Ecosystem 3. Alien species invasions: Alien species (new species entering a
 A/c to David Tilman, ecosystem with more species will be more geographical area) cause decline or extinction of native species.
stable. E.g.
- The Nile Perch introduced in Lake Victoria (East Africa)
Features of a stable biological community: caused extinction of more than 200 species of cichlid fish.
i. Do not show much variation in productivity from year to year
ii. It must be resistant or resilient to occasional disturbances
(natural or man-made)
iii. It must be resistant to invasions by alien species.

Rivet-popper hypothesis (by Paul Ehrlich- Stanford ecologist)

Nile Perch and cichlid fish
(i) Consider an airplane= Ecosystem - Carrot grass (Parthenium), Lantana and water hyacinth
(ii) Rivet (bolt for joining plane (Eicchornia) caused damage to our native species.
Species (links of ecosystem)
parts)=
(iii) Passenger travelling in plane causing a species to become
starts popping (remove) a rivet to extinct due to greediness of
take parts home = some
(iv) Initially it may not affect flight proper functioning of the
safety = ecosystem
Parthenium Lantana Eicchornia
(v) As more rivets are removed, the ecosystem becomes critically
plane becomes dangerously weak = weak - The introduction of the African Catfish (Clarias gariepinus)
for aquaculture is posing a threat to the indigenous catfishes.
(vi) Loss of a few rivets on the seats or loss of less imp. species will not
windows inside the plane= much considered
loss of key species (species that
(vii) Loss of rivets on the wings
drive major ecosystem functions)
(serious threat to flight safety) =
cause serious threat.

LOSS OF BIODIVERSITY Clarias gariepinus

 The biodiversity of our earth has been declining due to human 4. Co-extinction: When a species becomes extinct, the associated
activities. species with it also extinct.
Some examples of recent extinctions:- E.g.
- Extinction of host  parasites extinct.
- Extinction of plant ↔ extinction of pollinator.

BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION
The 3 reasons for conservation-
a. Narrowly utilitarian – Arguments for conserving biodiversity for
Dodo Quagga Thylacine
direct economic benefits
- Human derive benefits from nature such as food, firewood,
fibre, construction material, industrial products and medicines.
b. Broadly utilitarian – Arguments for conserving biodiversity for
indirect benefits such as-
 Produces O2 in the earth’s atmosphere.
Stellar’s sea cow Tiger  Pollination through bees, bumblebees, birds and bats.
 Aesthetic pleasures.
Threat of extinction-
Amphibians (32%) > Gymnosperm (31%) > Mammals (23%) > Birds (12%) c. Ethical arguments -Conserving as a moral duty
- Every species has an intrinsic value. We want to care and pass
Impacts of Loss of biodiversity it on in good order to next generation.
 Decline in plant production
 Lowered resistance to environmental perturbations such as
drought.
 Increased variability in ecosystem processes such as plant
productivity, water use and pest and disease cycles.

for HSS LiVE.IN, prepared by: Minhad. M. Muhiyudeen, #- 9846 29 22 27

171
 Join Now: https://join.hsslive.in Downloaded from https://www.hsslive.in ®

Types of conservation
Endangered species are conserved in 2 types-
Conservation
Conventions on biodiversity conservation
In situ (on site) Ex situ (off site)
Conservation in their Conservation, in special settings, Year Name of
Held in Remark
convention
natural habitat. outside their habitats.
. Objectives:
E.g. Biosphere reserves, E.g. Zoological parks, a. Conservation & sustainable
National Parks, Botanical gardens The Earth
1992 Rio de Janeiro use of biodiversity
Sanctuaries, Safari parks, Summit
b. Sharing of benefits in the
Biodiversity hotspots Cryopreservation of gametes utilization of genetic resources.
sacred grooves etc. Seed banks etc. The World Johannesburg,
190 countries pledged to reduce
2002 in the current rate of
Hotspots: Summit South Africa
biodiversity loss.
These are regions with very high levels of species richness and
high degree of endemism (i.e., species confined to that region
and not found anywhere else).
- There are 34 hotspots in the world.
- Hotspots in India - Western Ghats and Sri Lanka, Indo-Burma
and Himalaya.

for HSS LiVE.IN, prepared by: Minhad. M. Muhiyudeen, #- 9846 29 22 27

172
 ZLGY-MM: XII 8. MICROBES IN HUMAN WELFARE
We use microbes and microbially derived products every day.
 Enzymes
1. IN HOUSEHOLD PRODUCTS Microbial
1. Production of curd from milk
No. Enzymes Microbe Uses
type
Add inoculum / starter (small In detergent
1 Lipases -- --
amount of old curd) (remove oily stains)
Pectinases, Clear bottled fruit
Milk Curd 2 -- --
(Warm) LAB (eg: Lactobacillus) present in proteases juices
inoculum produces acids that coagulate Dissolution of
& partially digest milk proteins. 3 Streptokinase Streptococcus bacterium blood clots from
vessels of patients
Benefits of using Curd-
Rich in Vit. B12.  Bioactive molecule- From living organisms and useful in other
LAB in curd check disease causing microbes in stomach. living organisms.
Microbial
2. Fermentation No. Molecule Microbe
type
Uses
Fermentation Microbe Uses Immunosuppressive
Trichoderma
Of rice flour and For dosa and 1 Cyclosporin-A fungus agent in organ-
-- polysporum
black gram idli transplant patients
Saccharomyces cerevisiae For making Monascus fungus
Of dough 2 Statins ↓ blood-cholesterol
(baker’s yeast) bread purpureus (yeast)
Of palm sap -- As toddy
Of fish, soyabean 3. IN SEWAGE TREATMENT
-- As foods  Sewage is the waste water generated in cities and towns. It contain
and bamboo shoots
large amount of organic matters and pathogens.
3. Production of Cheese  If untreated sewage is disposed into water bodies, the dissolved
Cheese gets flavour because of the microbe working on them. O2 in water, get utilised (by microbes) and BOD ↑.
No. Cheese Microbe M. type Feature Before discharging into a river or stream, sewage is treated in
Having large holes Sewage Treatment Plants (STPs) to make it less polluting.
Swiss Propionibacterium
1 bacterium (due to the production
cheese sharmanii
of large amount of CO2). Two stages:
Roquefort Stage 1. Primary treatment / (Physical): Involve removal of
2 -- fungi --
cheese particles through filtration and sedimentation.
i. Sequential filtration-floating debris is removed.
2. IN INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTS
ii. Sedimentation –the soil and small pebbles are removed.
1. Fermented beverages All solids that settle form the primary sludge (viscous mud), and
Saccharomyces cerevisiae (brewer’s yeast) ferment malted cereals the supernatant forms the effluent (liquid waste).
and fruit juices to produce ethanol. The effluent from the primary settling tank is taken for
Wine- raw material: grape juice % of alcohol: 15-24
secondary treatment.
Undistilled Beer- Barley (malt) 4-5
Whisky- Barley, rye, maize, potato 40-50
Stage 2. Secondary treatment / (Biological): Cause the digestion of
Distilled Brandy- Apple, peach, cherry 40-50
organic matters by microbes.
Rum- Molasses 45-55
i. Agitation and aeration- The primary effluent is passed into large
2. Antibiotics aeration tank  agitated and aerated  vigorous growth of
 Antibiotics are chemicals which are produced by some microbes to useful aerobic microbes into flocs (masses of bacteria associated
kill or retard the growth of other (disease-causing) microbes. with fungal filaments to form mesh like structures).
 First antibiotic  Penicillin: ii. Oxidation by aerobic bacteria- organic matter in the effluent is
oxidised by flocs so that BOD (Biochemical Oxygen Demand)
reduces.

 BOD - the amount of the O2 that would be consumed if all the

- from Penicillium notatum organic matter in 1l of water were oxidised by bacteria.
- discovered by Alexander Fleming - kills Staphylococci BOD α pollution of water
 Full potential established by- Ernest Chain and Howard Florey. • BOD of Clean water: < 5ppm
• BOD of Polluted water: > 17ppm.
3. Chemicals, Enzymes and other Bioactive Molecules
 Chemicals- Organic acid / Alcohol
iii. Sedimentation-the effluent is passed into a settling tank and the
No. Chemicals Microbe M. type Uses bacterial ‘flocs’ are allowed to sediment (activated sludge).
Aspergillus Confectionary, dyeing, A small part of the activated sludge is pumped back into the
1 Citric acid fungus medicine etc.
niger aeration tank to serve as the inoculum.
Acetobacter for pickles, insecticides
2 Acetic acid bacterium and plastics iv. Treatment with anaerobic bacteria-The remaining major part of
aceti
Butyric Clostridium In chocolates, perfume,
the sludge is pumped into large tanks called anaerobic sludge
3 bacterium anti-abortion drug digesters.
acid butylicum
4 Lactic acid Lactobacillus bacterium leather industries  During this digestion, bacteria produce biogas.
Saccharomyces fungus v. Effluent is released into rivers or streams.
5 Ethanol Fuel, solvent
cerevisiae (yeast)
BIOLOGY Instant Notes-for www.hsslive.in , by: Minhad. M. Muhiyudeen, #- 9846 29 22 27 119
 Ministry of Environment & Forests has initiated Ganga Action Plan and
Yamuna Action Plan to build more STPs for saving rivers from pollution.

4. IN PRODUCTION OF BIOGAS 5. AS BIOCONTROL AGENTS

 Biogas-A mixture of gases (CH4 (50-70%) + CO2 (25-35%) +  Biocontrol - Controlling plant pests using their natural predators.
H2S (1-5%)) produced by the microbial activity.
Advantages of biocontrol agents:-
 Methanogens- Certain bacteria, which grow anaerobically on
- Reduce the dependence on toxic chemicals and pesticides which
cellulosic material, produce biogas.
cause pollution.
Eg: Methanobacterium (present in the rumen – a part of
- Agents are species-specific. ⸫ leave non-targets unharmed and
stomach - of cattle).
maintain biodiversity.
Cattle dung, which is rich in Methanobacterium, is used for
produce biogas. Examples:-
Agent Control-
Ladybird Aphids
Dragonflies Mosquitoes
Bacillus thuringiensis Butterfly caterpillars
Trichoderma Kills root born plant
(fungi) pathogens
Nucleopolyhedrovirus Insects
Significance:- (a type of Baculoviruses)
- Used as fuel for cooking and lighting.
6. AS BIOFERTILISERS
Biogas plant  Biofertilisers- Organisms that enrich the nutrient quality of the
soil.
Examples:-
Biofertilizer Fix-
Rhizobium
(Bacterial symbiont in the
nodules on the roots of
leguminous plants)
Nitrogen
Azospirillum &
Azotobacter (free-living)
Cyanobacterias Other benefits :-
Ex.: Anabaena, Nostoc, Add organic matter to the soil and
Oscillatoria ↑ its fertility
The biogas plant consists of -
a) Inlet pipe- Receives the dung and water mixture (1:1 ratio). Phosphorus
b) Digester (Concrete tank of 10-15 feet deep): Bio-wastes are Mycorrhiza
collected and slurry of dung is fed. (Fungal symbiont of the Other benefits
c) Floating cover –Cover placed over the slurry, which keeps on genus Glomus with roots of - Resistance to root-borne pathogens
plant) - Tolerance to salinity and drought
rising as the gas is produced in the tank. - ↑ in plant growth and development
d) Outlet 1-connected to a pipe to supply biogas.
e) Outlet 2-the slurry is removed (used as fertiliser).
 Developed by Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI)
and Khadi and Village Industries Commission (KVIC).

BIOLOGY Instant Notes-for www.hsslive.in , by: Minhad. M. Muhiyudeen, #- 9846 29 22 27 120

 IUHSS
PARAPPUR, Malappuram

ZLGY-MM: XII 7. EVOLUTION

Evolution is an orderly change from one
condition to functionally efficient
condition.
Evolutionary biology is the study of
history life forms on earth.
Origin of universe
 Universe is around 20 billion years old and
comprises of huge clusters of galaxies.
 The origin of universe is explained by Big
Bang theory:-20 bya explosion of
‘Nebula’, hot substanceuniverse
expanded temperature came down
H and He formedgases condensed
under gravitation formation of galaxies

Origin of Earth
In the solar system of milky-way galaxy, the earth was formed
about 4.5 bya.
There was no atmosphere on early earth. Water vapour, CH4,
CO2 & NH3 released from molten mass covered the surface.
H2O → H2 + O2
NH3 + O2 → water
CH4 + O2 → CO2
Then the ozone layer was formed. As it cooled (from 5000-
60000C), the water vapour fell as rain to form oceans.
Origin of life
Non-cellular form of life originated on earth about 3 bya, and cellular form-2 bya
Theories:-
(a)Theory of Panspermia-Life has originated from spores transferred in meteorites or in spaceship to diff. planets including earth.
(b)Theory of Spontaneous generation/Abiogenesis- Life came out of lifeless matters like straw, mud, etc. in a spontaneous manner.
(c) Theory of Biogenesis-Life formed from pre-existing life (rejected since it did not answer how the first life forms).
 Proved by Louis Pasteur
Experimental procedure-
Case 1. In pre-sterilised swan-necked flasks, yeast gets boiled (killed). No
microbial growth (life) seen in it after.
NB: This step disprove abiogenesis.
Case 2. In another pre-sterilised flasks, yeast gets boiled. Then
broken the stem of flask (i.e., microbes may entered from air into it).
After a few days, microbial growth seen in it.
(d)Theory of Chemical evolution (By Oparin & Haldane) -Inorganic chemicals accidentally reacted in water to form life.
Urey-Miller’s exp.- To prove Chemical evolution, simulated the primitive earth’s
atmosphere in a specially created sealed chamber.

Oparin- Haldane hypothesis Urey- Miller experiment

1. Life formed from 1000m of years evolution 18 day experiment
2. Atmosphere containing CH4, NH2 etc. get Took CH4, H2, NH2 in a 5l flask
accidentally collided.
3. Water vapour formed by volcanic storm Formed by boiling water @ 8000C
4. Source of energy is lightning By electric discharge (75,000v)
5. Reducing atmosphere because no O2 Air has removed using vacuum pump
6. Water vapour condensed (fell as rain) as Used condenser for liquefying the
atm. cooled due to ozone layer formation gases in the flask
7. Formation of RNA, protein etc. in ocean Formed amino acids in the trap

for HSS LiVE.IN, prepared by: Minhad. M. Muhiyudeen, #- 9846 29 22 27

77
 (e) Theory of Special creation- Life was created by some super natural power either once or at successive intervals.
- Earth is about 4000 years old.
3 connotations - All living organisms were created as such.
(Additions to the theory) - Diversity was always the same (since creation and in future)
This is illogical & irrational. Not supported by empirical evidences.
EVIDENCES FOR BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION
1. Paleontological Evidences
 Paleontology: The study of fossils. Fossils are remnants of life-forms found in rocks.
 Significance of fossils:
 To study phylogeny (evolutionary history or race history).
 To study about extinct animals. E.g. Dinosaurs
 To study about geological period by analyzing fossils in different sedimentary rock layers. The study showed that life
forms varied over time and certain life forms are restricted to certain geological time spans.

2. Embryological evidences
 Ernst Heckel proposed biogenetic law, which states that ontogeny (development of the
embryo) is recapitulation of phylogeny (development of race). This means an organism
repeats its ancestral history during the development.
E.g. The embryos of all vertebrates including human develop a row of vestigial gill slit
just behind the head but it is a functional organ only in fish and not found in any other
adult vertebrates.
 However, this proposal was disapproved by Karl Ernst von Baer. He noted that
embryos never pass through the adult stages of other animals.

3. Anatomical & morphological evidences

 Comparative anatomy and morphology shows that different forms of animals or plants have some common structural
features. This include:-
a. Homologous organs
Homologous organs are the organs with similar in structure of different
animals based on common ancestry, but perform diff. functions.
E.g.: i. Human hand, Whale’s flippers, Bat’s wing, and Cheetah’s
foot. All these perform different functions, but are
constructed on the same plan.
ii. Vertebrate hearts or brains.
ii. Thorns of Bougainvillea and tendrils of Cucurbita.
 The origin of homologous organs is due to Divergent evolution (It is
the process by which related species become less similar in order to
survive and adapt in different environmental needs).
for HSS LiVE.IN, prepared by: Minhad. M. Muhiyudeen, #- 9846 29 22 27
78
 b. Analogous organs and Analogy
Analogous organs are organs with diff. in structure but perform similar functions.
Eg: i) Wings of butterfly (formed of thin flap of chitin) and birds (modified forelimbs)
ii) The eye of the octopus (retina from skin) and of mammals (retina from embryonic brain)
iii) The flippers of Penguins and Dolphins.
iv) Sweet potato (root modification) & potato (stem modification).

 Origin of analogous organs is due to Convergent evolution (It is the process by which unrelated species become more
similar in order to survive and adapt in similar environmental condition).

4. Biochemical evidences
 Similarities in biomolecules and metabolism among diverse organisms show they are evolved from a common ancestor.

5. Evidences from breeding

 Nowadays, by artificial selection & breeding, human created different breeds belonging to same group which may later evolve as
new type. (This is the same thing nature doing by millions of years).
Eg: Dogs

6. Evidences from Anthropogenic actions

 i) Industrial Melanism (In England)
Before industrialisation (1850s): There were more white winged moths than dark winged or
melanised moths .
Reason: There was white coloured lichen covered the trees. In that background, the white
winged moths survived but the dark coloured moths were picked out by predators.
After industrialization (1920): More dark winged moths and less white winged moths.
Reason: The tree trunks became dark due to industrial smoke and soot. No growth of lichens.
Under this condition the white winged moth did not survive because the predators identified them
easily. Dark winged moth survived because of suitable dark background.
ii) Selection of resistant varieties
- Excess use of herbicides, pesticides or antibiotics etc resulted in selection of resistant varieties.
for HSS LiVE.IN, prepared by: Minhad. M. Muhiyudeen, #- 9846 29 22 27
79
 7. Biogeographical evidence
 Adaptive radiation is the evolution of closely related species starting from a common point in a given geographical area
radiating to other areas of geography (habitats)
E.g.: i) Darwin’s finches (Seen in Galapagos Island)
ii) Australian marsupials
iii) Placental mammals in Australia
 When more than one adaptive radiation is appeared in an isolated geographical area, this leads to convergent evolution.
E.g.: Australian Marsupials and Placental mammals.

THEORIES OF BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION

1. Theory of Inheritance of Acquired Character-By Lamarck (French naturalist)-1809
Book- Philosophic Zoologique
It states that evolution of life forms occurred by use and disuse of organs.
Concept map Environmental changes

New needs

New structure /modification

Disuse Continous use

Ex: Limbs of snake Elongation of giraffes’ neck

Degenerates Develops better

(Acquired character)
Inheritance of
acquired character
Origin of new species

2. Theory of natural selection-By Darwin (British Naturalist) and Alfred Wallace (Dutch Naturalist)
 Darwin’s Book- The Origin of Species by Natural Selection
 Influenced by the work of Thomas Malthus (British Economist- An essay on the Principle of Population). It suggests that
‘though the multiplication rate of a population is very high, the population size will be almost stable due to the limited supply
of natural resources’.
Key Concepts-
Branching descent - Present complex plants and animals have evolved from earlier simpler forms of life by gradual change.
Nature selects for fitness (who are better fit in an environment, leave more progeny than others).
The rate of appearance of new forms is linked to the life cycle or the life span.
Concept map Over production
Limited natural resources (climate, food, physical factors, etc.)
Struggle for existence
Variation

Unfavourable Favourable

Perish Survival of
the fittest (reproductive)
Natural selection
Origin of species

3. Theory of Mutation-By Hugo De Vries (Dutch Botanist)-1901

Book- Species & varieties, Their Origin by Mutation
 Mutation causes large difference arising suddenly in a large population leading to speciation-Saltation.

Variation V/s Saltation

In Natural Selection In Mutation
By Darwin By Hugo de vries
*Studied on finches *On prime rose (Oenothera lamarckiana)
*Variations- Small *Mutations-Large
-Gradual process -Sudden(single step)
-Directional -Directionless
*Ignored ‘factors’ *A/c to ‘factors’

for HSS LiVE.IN, prepared by: Minhad. M. Muhiyudeen, #- 9846 29 22 27

80
 HARDY-WEINBERG PRINCIPLE
 G.H. Hardy (British Mathematician) and W. Weinberg (German physician) states that ‘the gene pool (total genes and their
alleles in a population) remains constant from generation to generation-Genetic equilibrium- in an infinitely large
interbreeding population in which mating is random and no selection, migration or mutation occurs’.
In other words, sum total of all the allelic frequencies is 1.
 To explain this mathematically-
Consider A (dominant) and a (recessive) are two alleles of a particular trait in a population, with frequency p and q
respectively.
Possible allelic combination: AA-Aa-aA- aa
Their frequencies- p2 pq qp q2
Hence p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1 [binomial expansion of (p+q) 2]
 Disturbance in this equilibrium, i.e., change of frequency of alleles in a population results in evolution.

Factors affecting Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium

(i) Gene migration or gene flow- It occurs when addition/ removal of alleles while individuals join/ leave a population. Here
allelic frequencies change in both gene pool.
(ii) Genetic drift –It is the random change in the frequency of alleles occurring by chance.
Sewall Wright effect/ Founder effect- It is an instance where small group of individuals (founders) drifted or isolated from
their parental population to find a new settlement. Since founders represent only a fraction of the parental population, they
evolve into a new species with a different allelic frequency.
(iii) Mutation- Mutations result in formation of new phenotypes. Over few generations, this leads to speciation.
(iv) Recombination- During gametogenesis, genetic variation due to recombination results in new phenotype.
(v) Natural selection: The process of selection of organisms with favourable character. 3 types-
A. Stabilizing selection: Here, nature prefers more individuals with mean character value and there by variation is reduced.
B. Directional selection: Here, individuals of one extreme are more favoured.
C. Disruptive selection: Here, more individuals acquire peripheral character value at both ends of the distribution curve.

for HSS LiVE.IN, prepared by: Minhad. M. Muhiyudeen, #- 9846 29 22 27

81
 A BRIEF ACCOUNT OF EVOLUTION
Geological Time Scale
(To be read from below upwards)

Era Periods Epochs Age Animal Features Plant Features

(in million years)

Modern man, mammals, birds,

Holocene
0.01 reptiles, fishes, and insects Angiosperms dominates
Quarternary (Recent)
dominate.
Pleistocene 2 Extinction of great mammals.
Pliocene 5 Emergence of man
Coenozoic Miocene 23 First man-like apes formed
(Age of mammals Oligocene 38 Rise of first monkey
and angiosperms) Adaptive radiation of mammals.
Eocene 54 Adaptive radiation of angiosperms
Tertiary Rise of small-sized reptiles
Dinosaurs disappeared-
(climatic changes killed
Paleocene 65
/evolved into Pteranodon-
‘flying dinosaur’)
Adaptive radiation of gymnosperms
Rise of modern birds and
Cretaceous 135 (Ginkgos and Gnetales).
placental mammals (shrew)
Rise of dicot angiosperms
Dinosaurs become large
Mesozoic
(Tyrannosaurus-20 ft).
(Age of reptiles and
Extinction of mammal-like Gymnosperms dominates (cycads and
gymnosperm) Jurassic 170
reptiles (Therapsids) and toothed conifers)
birds (Archaeopteryx); snakes
evolved
Triassic 225 Dinosaurs appear.
Adaptive radiation of reptiles.
Fraction of them evolved to fish Origin of conifers, abundant tree ferns
Permian 280 like Ichthyosaurs and modern- (Pteridophytes) fell to form coal
day descendents like turtle, deposits
lizard, tautaras, crocodiles etc.
First land plant-Seed ferns (common
Origin of reptiles (lay shelled
Carboniferous 350 ancestor of gymnosperms &
egg).
Paleozoic angiosperms)
(Age of amphibians Rise of sea weeds and specialized
Devonian 400 Origin of amphibians
and bryophytes) lineage of pteriodophyte (horse tails)
Origin of Psilophyton- Vascular plant
Silurian 450 Diversity of jawless fishes
with sporangia at the tip.
Advanced Rhynia and branching of
Ordovician 500 lycopsida ( sporangia at the base of
their leaves)
Multi-cellular life forms; Origin Tracheophyte and branching of
Cambrian 570
of marine invertebrates earliest bryophyte
Proterozoic 2300 Aquatic chlorophytes (release O2)
(Era of early life) Precambrian 3800 Origin of biomolecules (like RNA, polysaccharides, protein etc.)
Archeozoic 4600 Formation of the Earth’s crust

ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF MAN

15 mya - Dryopithecus and Ramapithecus (hairy and walked like gorillas and chimpanzees)
3-4 mya - Man-like primates (height upto 4ft, walked up right)
2 mya - Australopithecines (hunted with stone weapons, ate fruit)
Homo habilis (650-800cc)
1.5 mya - Homo erectus (900cc, ate meat)
1-0.4 mya - Homo neaderthalensis / Neanderthal man (1400cc, protect their body and buried dead)
0.75-0.1 mya - Homo sapiens (1700cc)

for HSS LiVE.IN, prepared by: Minhad. M. Muhiyudeen, #- 9846 29 22 27

82
 ZLGY-MM: XII 6. MOLECULAR BASIS OF INHERITANCE
Genetic material is the substance that carries the biological This experiment was to determine whether it is the phage DNA or
information and serves as the agent of inheritance. protein that is injected to the bacterium during infection.
DNA is the genetic material in most of the organisms. Experimental steps:-
i. Prepared two cultures of bacteriophage–
Properties of Genetic Material In one, protein coat were radioactively labelled with 35S
A genetic material must- In the second, DNA is radioactively labelled with 32P.
(i) Be able to generate its replica. ii. Radioactive phages were used separately to infect E. coli.
(ii) Chemically and structurally be stable. iii. After infection, the E. coli was blended and centrifuged.
(iii) Potentiality to generate variations (through mutations or
recombination) that are required for evolution.
(iv) Be able to express characters specified by it.
THE SEARCH FOR GENETIC MATERIAL
1. Griffith’s Experiment (Transforming principle)
 Frederick Griffith (1928) performed experiments with
Streptococcus pneumoniae (bacterium that cause pneumonia).
This bacterium has 2 strains-
S (smooth) strain R (Rough) strain
 Has a polysaccharide coat and  No coat (hence they
hence they produce smooth produce rough colonies)
colonies on culture plate
 Virulent (causes pneumonia  Non virulent
bcz the coat protects the bacteria
from host’s immune system)
Experiment:
S-strain → Inject into mice → Mice died (due to pneumonia)
R-strain → Inject into mice → Mice survived (no ill-effect) As bacterial cells were heavier, they settled at the bottom. The
Heat killed → Inject into mice → Mice survived supernatant contain lighter viral particle.
S-strain Observation:-
Hk S-strain → Inject into mice → Mice died (live S-strain is  Bacteria which was infected with viruses that had radioactive DNA
+ R-strain isolated) were radioactive
Conclusion:-  Bacteria that were infected with viruses that had radioactive
Some chemical substances present in the killed S-strain proteins were not radioactive.
transform R-strain to synthesis polysaccharide coat & become Inference:-
virulent S-strain. This must be due to the transfer of genetic material. When a virus infects a bacterium, only viral DNA gets into
2. Biochemical explanation for Griffith’s observation bacterium and the viral protein remains outside. So it is the viral
Avery, MacLeod and McCarty (1944) diagnosed the biochemical DNA contains genetic information to make new viral material.
substance responsible for transformation in Griffith’s experiment.
Experiment: The DNA
Biochemicals (proteins, Friedrich Meischer (1869): Identified DNA and named it as
R-cells + RNA, DNA etc.) from → S cells ‘Nuclein’.
the heat-killed S cells  James Watson & Francis Crick (1953): Proposed double helix
R-cells + ” + Proteases → S cells model of DNA. It was based on-
I. Erwin Chargaff’s (1950) observation that the ratio of A to T
R-cells + ” + RNases → S cells
and that of G to C is always equal to one.
R-cells + ” + DNases → R cells i.e., A G
= =1
Conclusion: - Because only DNase inhibits transformation, the T C
transforming substance is DNA and it is the genetic material. II. The X-ray diffraction data produced by Maurice Wilkins &
Rosalind Franklin (1953).
3. Experiment to confirm DNA as the genetic material
Blender’s experiments of Hershey and Chase (1952) with
bacteriophages again confirmed that DNA is the genetic material.
Protein coat Fact:- Phages are viruses that infect bacteria. A
phage has 2 parts- protein coat (contain S, but
no P) and DNA (contain P, but no S). When
phages are mixed with bacteria, they first attach
to the bacteria and then its genetic material
enters the bacterial cell. The bacterial cell treats
the viral genetic material as if it was its own and
subsequently manufactures more virus particles.

BIOLOGY Instant Notes-for Hsslive.in , by: Minhad. M. Muhiyudeen, #- 9846 29 22 27

63
 STRUCTURE OF DNA & RNA
DNA & RNA are polynucleotides. A nucleotide has 3 components:
1. A nitrogenous base, 2 types -
Purines: It includes Adenine and Guanine.
Pyrimidines: It includes Cytosine, Thymine & Uracil.
Thymine present only in DNA and Uracil only in RNA.
2. A pentose sugar (ribose in RNA & deoxyribose in DNA)
3. A phosphate group
(iv) Length of DNA = number of base pairs X
distance b/w two adjacent base pairs (0.34nm).

OH H
Nitrogen bases Ribose Deoxyribose
 A nitrogenous base is linked to the pentose sugar through a
glycosidic bond to form nucleoside. Packaging of DNA Helix
 When a phosphate group is linked to nucleoside through In prokaryotes
phosphoester bond, a corresponding nucleotide is formed. The prokaryotes lack defined nucleus.
Glycosidic bond Ester bond  DNA (negatively charged) is held with some positively charged
proteins and form ‘nucleoid’. The DNA in nucleoid is organised in
about 50 large loops held by proteins.

Nucleoside Nucleotide

N. base + Ribose Nucleoside + P Nucleotide

+ Deoxyribose Deoxynucleoside +P Deoxynucleotide

Adenine + Ribose Adenosine + P Adenylic acid

+ Deoxyribose Deoxyadenosine+ P Deoxyadenylic acid In eukaryotes
Guanine+ Ribose Guanosine + P Guanylic acid In eukaryotes, DNA is found in the nucleus.
+ Deoxyribose Deoxyguanosine+ P Deoxyguanylic acid Negative
DNA Phosphate group
Cytosine+ Ribose Cytidine + P Cytidylic acid Acidic
+ Deoxyribose Deoxycytidine + P Deoxycytidylic acid Positive
Histone Rich in lysine and arginine
Thymine+ Deoxyribose Deoxythymidine+ P Deoxythymidylic acid Basic

Uracil + Ribose Uridine + P Uridylic acid  DNA is wrapped around a unit of 8 molecules of positively charged
histone proteins (histone octamer) to form a structure called
 Many nucleotides are linked through phosphodiester bond to nucleosome. It contains 200 bp of DNA helix.
form a polynucleotide chain.  Nucleosomes constitute the repeating unit called chromatin.
5’ end- free P
 Chromatins include -
Euchromatin Heterochromatin
1. Loosely-packed region of 1. Densely-packed region
Phosphodiester bond chromatin
2. Lightly-stained regions 2. Darkly-stained regions
3. Transcriptionally active 3. Transcriptionally inactive
3’ end- free OH 

Polynucleotide chain
Each polynucleotide chain has 2 free ends- 3’ end and 5’ end.
Salient features of double helix model of DNA:

H- bond
DNA
(i) DNA is made of 2 polynucleotide chains coiled in a right handed
fashion like a spiral staircase.
Its rail is formed of sugar & phosphates and the H-bonded base pairs
as the steps.
(ii) The 2 chains have anti-parallel polarity, i.e. one chain has the
polarity 5’→3’ and the other has 3’→5’.  Chromatin is packaged to form chromatin fibers.
(iii) The bases in 2 chains are paired through H-bonds forming base  Chromatin fibers that are further coiled and condensed at metaphase
pairs (bp). stage of cell division to form chromosomes.
A=T (2 H bonds) C≡G (3 H bonds). As a result, purine comes  

opposite to a pyrimidine, this generates uniform distance b/w  Higher level packaging of chromatin requires non-histone
the 2 strands. chromosomal (NHC) proteins.
BIOLOGY Instant Notes-for Hsslive.in , by: Minhad. M. Muhiyudeen, #- 9846 29 22 27
64
 DNA V/s RNA
DNA RNA Observation:-
- Acts as the genetic material in  The DNA that was extracted from the culture 1st generation after (20
some viruses (eg: TMV, QB min) the transfer from 15N to 14N medium had an intermediate
Acts as the genetic material in most
bacteriophage) density.
of the organisms
- Mostly functions as messenger.
 DNA extracted from the culture after 2nd generation [i.e., after
- Act as enzyme (ribozyme).
40min.] was composed of equal amounts of this hybrid DNA and of
DNA was derived from RNA RNA is the first to evolve ‘light’ DNA.
DNA is a better genetic material RNA is better for the transmission Inference:-
∵ Chemically less reactive and of genetic information The newly synthesised DNA obtains one of its strands from the parent.
structurally more stable due to ∵ easily degradable due to i.e., replication is semi-conservative.
 Being double stranded  Being single stranded 2. Taylor and colleagues (1958) on Vicia faba (eukaryote).
 Presence of thymine (5-methyl  Presence of uracil (less stable Using radioactive thymidine to detect distribution of newly
Uracil). compared to thymine). synthesized DNA in the chromosomes.
 Absence of 2'-OH in deoxyribose  Presence of 2'-OH in ribose sugar
Only one chromatid
sugar (a reactive group) labelled
Resist mutation by repair Both sister chromatids
Mutate at a faster rate are labelled using
mechanism
radioactive thymidine
DNA is dependent on RNA for
Can directly code for the synthesis
synthesis of proteins
of proteins
DNA → RNA → Protein
Faba bean
CENTRAL DOGMA OF
MOLECULAR BIOLOGY Unlabelled
M-I
It is proposed by Francis Crick (1953). It states that the genetic chromosome
information flows from- of Vicia faba

A-I M-II

reverse MECHANISM OF DNA

transcription
* In retroviruses, the flow of information is in reverse direction. REPLICATION
i.e., RNA→DNA eg: HIV. 1. The replication of DNA takes place at S-phase of the cell-cycle.
2. DNA replicates in 5' 3'
DNA Replication 3. DNA replication starts at a point called origin of replication (ori).
It is the copying of DNA from parental DNA. 4. The replication occurs within a small opening of the DNA helix,
Watson & Crick (1953) proposed Semi-conservative model of referred to as replication fork.
replication.
i.e., After the completion of replication, each DNA molecule
would have one parental and one new strand.
Experimental proofs for semi conservative DNA replication
1. Messelson & Stahl (1958) experiment on E. coli (prokaryote)

5. The 2 parental DNA strands separate (each act as template)

6. Synthesis new complementary strands for both template strand.
DNA polymerase uses DNA template to catalyse the
polymerisation of deoxynucleotides.
Deoxyribonucleoside triphosphates (dATP, dGTP, dCTP & dTTP)
serve dual purposes-
20 min.  They act as substrates for DNA synthesis.
 They provide energy for polymerisation reaction.

40 min.

Steps:-
(i) Grew E. coli in a medium containing heavy 15N for many
generations. Thus, 15N will be incorporated into DNA and become
heavier.
(ii) The cells were transferred into a medium with normal 14N
(iii) Took samples at various definite time intervals to extract DNA.
(iv) Then it is undergone for centrifugation in CsCl and measured to
get their densities (to distinguish heavy DNA molecule from The rate of polymerisation: 2000 bp / second
the normal DNA).
BIOLOGY Instant Notes-for Hsslive.in , by: Minhad. M. Muhiyudeen, #- 9846 29 22 27
65
 7. 2 new strands are synthesised along the replication fork-
On one strand (the template with polarity 3' 5’), the replication
is continuous (Leading strand), while on the other (the template
with polarity 5' 3’), it is discontinuous.
The discontinuously synthesised Okazaki fragments of 100-200
nucleotides are later joined by the enzyme DNA ligase.

In eukaryotes, there are 2 additional complexities:

Transcription (RNA Synthesis) Complexity-1: There are 3 RNA polymerases:
 It is the process of copying genetic information from one strand of RNA polymerase I: Transcribes rRNAs (28S, 18S & 5.8S).
the DNA into RNA. RNA polymerase II: Transcribes primary transcripts /
 Both strands are not copied during transcription, because - heterogeneous nuclear RNA (hnRNA). It is the precursor of
∵ The code for proteins is different in both strands. This mRNA.
complicates the translation. RNA polymerase III: Transcribes tRNA, 5S rRNA and
∵ If 2 RNA molecules are produced simultaneously this would be snRNAs (small nuclear RNAs- helps in processing of rRNA
complimentary to each other, hence form a dsRNA. This prevents
and mRNA in the nucleus).
translation.
- The DNA- dependent RNA polymerase catalyzes the
polymerization only in 5’→3’ direction.
- 3’→5’ acts as template strand. i.e., RNA is transcribed on this strand.
- 5’→3’ acts as coding strand (it actually does not code for anything
but act as frame of reference).

Transcription Unit
- It is the segment of DNA which takes part in transcription. It consists
of 3 regions:
◦ A promoter: Binding site for RNA polymerase. Located at 5’ end
(upstream) of coding strand.
◦ Structural gene: The region of template strand where transcription
takes place. It is in between promoter and terminator region.
◦ A terminator: The site where transcription stops. Located at 3’ end
(downstream) of coding strand.

Steps of transcription
In prokaryotes
Initiation: The promoter site of DNA is recognised by initiation
factor (σ) of the RNA polymerase. This causes the local unwinding
of the DNA helix. Complexity-2: RNA processing: The primary transcripts (hnRNA)
Elongation: The RNA polymerase after initiation of transcription contain both coding / expressing sequences (exons) and non-coding /
loses the σ factor. intervening sequences (introns) and hence are non-functional.
RNA polymerase synthesize RNA chain in the 5’→3’ direction Introns have to be removed. For this, it undergoes the following
by polymerising ribonucleoside triphosphates. processes:
Termination: Once the RNA polymerase reaches at the terminator  Capping: Here, a nucleotide methyl guanosine triphosphate (cap)
region of DNA, a termination factor (ρ) binds to it and terminates is added to the 5’ end of hnRNA.
the transcription.  Splicing: From hnRNA introns are removed (spliced) and exons are
joined together.
 Tailing: 200-300 adenylate residues are added at 3’-end.
It is the fully processed hnRNA, now called mRNA which
moves to the ribosome to be translated.

 In prokaryotes, transcription and translation can be coupled because-

∵ mRNA requires no processing to become active.
∵ Transcription and translation take place in the cytoplasm itself.
BIOLOGY Instant Notes-for Hsslive.in , by: Minhad. M. Muhiyudeen, #- 9846 29 22 27
66
 TYPES OF RNA  Nearly universal: The same code applies to all organisms with
 mRNA (messenger RNA): Provide template for translation (protein exceptions (in mitochondria and protozoan codes).
synthesis).  Comma less: The codon is read in mRNA in a contiguous fashion
 rRNA (ribosomal RNA): Play structural & catalytic role during (no punctuations).
translation.  Degeneracy: Some amino acids are coded by more than one codon.
 tRNA (transfer RNA / soluble RNA): Carries specific amino acids  Unambiguous: Genetic code is specific. i.e., one codon specifies
for protein synthesis and reads the genetic code. only one amino acid.
tRNA- The adapter molecule
tRNA has-
Translation (Protein Synthesis)
 It is the process of formation of proteins from mRNA. It takes place
An Anticodon loop that has bases complementary to the code. on ribosomes in cytoplasm.
An amino acid acceptor end to which amino acid binds.  A translational unit in mRNA is the sequence of RNA that codes
 There are no tRNAs for stop codons. for a polypeptide, flanked by the start codon (AUG) and the stop
 Secondary (2-D) structure of tRNA looks like a clover-leaf. codon.
3-D structure looks like inverted ‘L’.
2D 3D Translation includes 4 steps –
1. Charging of tRNA / Aminoacylation of tRNA
ATP attached amino acids linked to their specific tRNA.

Genetic Code
 It is the nucleotide sequence in mRNA that specifies the amino acid
sequence of protein.
2. Initiation
Scientists involved in revealing Genetic Code
The ribosome binds at start codon (AUG) of mRNA at 5’-end.
Year Scientist Contribution The charged tRNA with anticodon UAC (initiator tRNA) pair with
Suggested that for coding 20 amino acids, the AUG of mRNA.
George
1954 code should be made up of 3 nucleotides
Gamow
(triplet codon).
Har Gobind Synthesized RNA molecules with defined
Khorana combinations of bases.
Marshall Developed cell-free system for protein
1961
Nirenberg synthesis.
Polynucleotide phosphorylase is used to
Severo 3. Elongation
polymerize RNA with defined sequences in a
Ochoa A second tRNA with an appropriate amino acid enters to the
template independent manner.
Frederick Developed method for determination of ribosome. Its anticodon binds to the 2nd codon on the mRNA
Sanger amino acid sequences in proteins A peptide bond is formed between 1st and 2nd amino acids.
The ribosome moves from codon to codon along the mRNA.
The amino acids and its codons -
Likewise amino acids are added one by one, translated into protein.
Essential Non- Essential
mRNA codons mRNA codons
Amino acids Amino acids
AGA, AGG, CGU, GCU, GCC, GCA,
Arginine Alanine
CGC, CGA, CGG GCG
Histidine CAU, CAC Asparagine AAU, AAC
Isoleucine AUU, AUC, AUA Aspartic acid GAU, GAC
CUU, CUC, CUA,
Leucine Cystenine UGU, UGC
CUG, UUA, UUG
Glutamic acid GAA, GAG
Lysine AAA, AAG
Glutamine CAA, CAG
4. Termination
GGU, GGC, GGA, At the end, a release factor binds to the stop codon like UAA, UAG
Methionine AUG (Start codon) Glycine & UGA, terminate translation and releasing the protein from the
GGG
CCU, CCC, CCA, ribosome.
Phenylalanine UUU, UUC Proline
CCG
ACU, ACC, ACA, UCU, UCC, UCA,
Threonine Serine
ACG UCG, AGU, AGC
Tryptophan UGG Tyrosine UAU, UAC
GUU, GUC, GUA,
Valine Stop codons UGA, UAA, UAG
GUG

Salient features of Genetic Code  An mRNA has additional sequences that are not translated
 Triplet codon: A codon is a set of 3 nucleotides (A, U, G and C) and
(untranslated regions or UTR) at both 5’-end (before start codon)
hence 64 (43) codons are there.
and 3’-end (after stop codon). They are required for efficient
61 codons code for amino acids. 3 codons (UAA, UAG & UGA) translation process.
- AUG acts as initiator codon. do not code for any amino acids.
It also codes for Methionine. They function as stop codons.

BIOLOGY Instant Notes-for Hsslive.in , by: Minhad. M. Muhiyudeen, #- 9846 29 22 27

67
 Regulation of Gene Expression Step 3. Prevents the transcription of structural gene (remains switched
 Gene express through the formation of polypeptides / proteins.
off).
 Since, transcription and translation are energetically very
RNA polymerase
expensive processes, these have to be tightly regulated.
Expression of gene should be at right time, at correct amount.
In eukaryotes:-
The regulation includes the following levels:-
1. Transcriptional level (formation of hnRNA)
2. Processing level (hnRNA  mRNA, during splicing)
3. Transport of mRNA from nucleus to the cytoplasm
4. Translational level (mRNA  protein).

When lactose (inducer) is present:

Step 1. Lactose binds to the repressor making it inactive.
Step 2. Repressor fails to binds to the operator region
Step 3. The RNA polymerase binds with promoter (lac operon
“switched on”) and transcribes structural genes.

In prokaryotes:-
 A set of polycistronic genes regulating a metabolic pathway is
called an Operon.
E.g. lac (lactose) operon, trp (tryptophan) operon, ara (arabinose)
operon, his (histidine) operon, val (valine) operon
Lac operon in E. coli:
Lactose
HUMAN GENOME PROJECT
Permease
 Genome is the entire DNA in the haploid set of chromosome of an
organism. In Human genome, DNA is packed in 23 chromosomes.
Transacetylase
Human Genome Project (1990-2003) is the first effort in
- gal identifying the sequence of nucleotides and mapping of all the
E.coli
genes in human genome.
Lac Glu Gal Coordinated by the U.S. Department of Energy and the NIH
(National Institute of Health).
The operon controlling lactose metabolism. It was first elucidated
by Francois Jacob and Jacque Monod (1961). Goals of HGP
It consists of – (i) Identify all the 20,000-25,000 genes in human DNA.
a) 3 structural genes: The part of DNA which transcribe mRNA for (ii) Determine the sequences of the 3 billion base pairs that make up
polypeptide synthesis. human DNA
 z gene: Codes for - galactosidase (lactose - gal gal + glu). (iii) Store this information in databases and its retrieval, and analysis
 y gene: Codes for permease (↑ permeability of the cell (Bioinformatics).
membrane for lactose to enter). (iv) Improve tools for data analysis.
(v) Transfer related technologies to other sectors, such as industries
Note: a minimum expression of permease is always needed to (vi) Address the ethical, legal, and social issues (ELSI) that may
let lactose enter the cell. arise from the project.
 a gene: Codes for a transacetylase (unknown function).
Methodologies:
b) Promoter gene (P): It is the site of attachment of RNA polymerase HGP followed 2 methods for sequencing human genome:
and initiates transcription. i.e., common promoter for z, y and a. 1. Expressed Sequence Tags (ESTs):- Only the DNA part that can
Note: first P is the promoter of inhibitor gene. be expressed as RNA (exons) are sequenced here.

c) Operator gene (O): It is the DNA segment which controls the Gene (2%)
structural gene when the repressor binds. It lies in between DNA
promoter and the structural gene. mRNA Identifying the gene
d) A regulatory or inhibitor (i) gene: Codes for the repressor
protein which usually binds with Operator. Analyse the nucleotide
e) Inducer (here, lactose): it regulates switching on and off of the sequence
operon.
2. Sequence Annotation:- Sequencing the whole set of genome
Functioning of Lac operon:- containing all the coding & non-coding sequence, and later
When lactose (inducer) is absent (usual state): assigning different regions in the sequence with functions.
Step 1. The i-gene synthesizes mRNA produces repressor protein Procedure: -
Step 2. Repressor binds to the operator region and blocks RNA i. Isolate the total DNA from a cell.
polymerase movement. ii. DNA is cut into fragments of smaller sizes by endonuclease.

BIOLOGY Instant Notes-for Hsslive.in , by: Minhad. M. Muhiyudeen, #- 9846 29 22 27

68
 iii. Fragments of DNA are cloned into Bacterial Artificial DNA Fingerprinting
Chromosome (BAC- vector) in bacteria (host) or in Yeast DNA fingerprinting is the technique to identify the variation in
Artificial Chromosome in yeast for amplification. individuals at genetic level.
iv. Fragments are sequenced in automated DNA sequencers (using Developed by Alec Jeffreys (British geneticist - 1985)
Frederick Sanger method).
v. These sequences were then arranged based on some overlapping Applications
regions using computer programs. ∵ It is forensic tool to solve paternity disputes, rape case, murder etc.
vi. These sequences were annotated and were assigned to each ∵ To study genetic diversities and evolutionary biology
chromosome.
Basis of DNA fingerprinting
Chromosome Polymorphism in DNA (due to inheritable mutations) is the
Human cell basis of DNA fingerprinting. This is higher in non-coding
sequences of DNA.
Isolate
DNA  Repetitive DNA: DNA carries some non-coding repeated
sequences.
Fragmentation
Number of repeats is specific from person to person (except in the
case of monozygotic twins).
Cloning
These repetitive DNA are separated from bulk DNA by density
gradient centrifugation and referred to as satellite DNA.
BAC or YAC  Bulk genomic DNA  major peak
 Satellite DNA  small peak
Bacteria
Yeast Amplified

Genomic

XXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
Sequencing Automated DNA sequencer
CGATTTATGCGTA
GCTAAATACGCAT  Satellite DNA: These are highly-repeated short sequences in the
Aligning by computer repetitive DNA.
Satellite DNA can be classified on the basis of following:-
Assigning a. Base composition (A:T rich or G:C rich)
b. Length of segment
c. Number of repetitive units.
DNA Chromosome Types of Satellite DNA (based on number of repetitive units)
A. Micro-satellites- 5-8 bp long
Salient Features of Human Genome B. Mini-satellites- 11-60 bp long e.g.: VNTR (Variable Number
i. Human genome contains 3164.7 million nucleotide bases. of Tandem Repeats). They are inherited from the parents and
ii. The total number of genes = 30,000 are used as genetic markers.
Chromosome 1 has most genes (2968), and the Y has the fewest
(231). Functional DNA
Total (2%) Micro-Satellite
iii. Average gene consists of 3000 bases. (5-8 bp repeat)
Genomic Satellite DNA
The largest human gene is dystrophin contains 2.4 million bp.
DNA ((Repetitive DNA
The smallest is TDF (Testis Determining Factor)- 14 bp long. Junk DNA Repetitive with density Mini-Satellites
iv. 99.9 % nucleotide bases are exactly the same in all people. (98%) DNA different from (11-60 bp repeat)
0.1% makes each of us unique. bulk DNA) called VNTR
v. Functions of over 50 % of the discovered genes are unknown.
vi. Less than 2% of the genome codes for proteins.
vii. Repeated sequences make up very large portion of the human High degree of Heritable Present in
genome. Polymorphism every cell
viii. About 1.4 million locations where single-base DNA differences
(SNPs – single nucleotide polymorphism) occur in humans. Basis of DNA fingerprinting

Applications of HGP
Steps of DNA fingerprinting
Provide clues to understand human biology. (i) Isolation of DNA (from blood, hair-follicle, skin, bone, saliva,
sperm etc.)
To study the effects of DNA variations among individuals helps
(ii) Digestion of DNA by restriction endonucleases
to diagnose, treat and prevent the disorders in human beings.
(iii) Separation of DNA fragments by electrophoresis
Can learn natural capabilities of non-human organisms and can
(iv) Transferring (southern blotting) of separated DNA fragments to
be applied in health care, agriculture, energy production,
synthetic membranes, such as nitrocellulose or nylon
environmental remediation.
(v) Hybridisation using radiolabelled VNTR probe
Help in tracing human history.
(vi) Detection of hybridised DNA fragments by autoradiography.
 DNA of many non-human model organisms also been sequenced. The autoradiogram gives many bands of differing sizes. These
e.g: bacteria, yeast, Caenorhabditis elegans (a free living non- bands give a characteristic pattern for an individual DNA, i.e.,
pathogenic nematode), Drosophila (fruit fly), plants (rice and DNA fingerprint.
Arabidopsis), etc.
BIOLOGY Instant Notes-for Hsslive.in , by: Minhad. M. Muhiyudeen, #- 9846 29 22 27
69
 Criminal Suspect-A B
The Gene and Cistron
 Gene: It is the DNA sequence coding for RNA molecule. It is the
functional unit of inheritance.
 Cistron: A segment of DNA coding for a polypeptide.
Isolate 2 types:-
DNA Monocistronic genes Polycistronic genes
R. endonuclease  Cistron codes for a mRNA  Cistron codes for a long
that specifies a single mRNA that specifies more
polypeptide. than one polypeptide
 Here, the exons are interrupted
Gel electrophoresis  Here, there are no split genes.
by introns (split genes)
 Seen in Eukaryotes  Seen in prokaryotes

Alkali treatment

Southern Nitrocellulose / nylon paper

blotting

Gel

Hybridisation

Radioactive VNTR probe

Enzymes
hybridise
replication
1. DNA DNA

Wash-off excess probe DNA dependant DNA polymerase

transcription
2. DNA RNA
Autoradiography X-ray film
DNA dependant RNA polymerase

reverse
transcription
3. RNA DNA
RNA dependant DNA polymerase (reverse transcriptase)
Suspect A B

Ф 174 bacteriophage - 5386 nucleotides (single stranded)

Autoradiogram λ bacteriophage - 48502 bp
(DNA fingerprint) E. coli - 4.6 × 106 bp
Human (haploid) - 3.3 × 109 bp

H1 is not considered as the core nucleosome as it is not inherited

Transcribed RNA will have the same sequence (except T) as in

coding strand since template strand is complimentary to it.

Capping and tailing protects the RNA from being broken down
by enzymes in cytoplasm and also helps the RNA to attach to the
ribosome during translation.

BIOLOGY Instant Notes-for Hsslive.in , by: Minhad. M. Muhiyudeen, #- 9846 29 22 27

70
 ZLGY-MM: XII 4. PRINCIPLES OF INHERITANCE & VARIATION
 Inheritance: Transmission of characters from parents to Monohybrid Cross
offspring. Monohybrid cross: A cross involving 2 plants differing in one
 Heredity: Resemblance b/w parents and their offspring. character pair.
 Variation: Difference b/w parents and offspring. E.g. Mendel crossed tall and dwarf pea plants to study the
 Genetics: Study of heredity and variation. inheritance of one gene.

MENDEL’S LAWS OF INHERITANCE

 Gregor Mendel set-up a basic framework of rules governing
inheritance, therefore known as Father of genetics.
 He conducted hybridisation experiments on garden peas.
Mendel selected 7 pairs of true breeding pea varieties:-
Characters Dominant Recessive
1. Stem height Tall Dwarf
2. Flower colour Violet White
3. Flower position Axial Terminal
4. Pod shape Inflated Constricted
5. Pod colour Green Yellow Result:-
6. Seed shape Round Wrinkled Phenotypic ratio= 3 Tall: 1 Dwarf
7. Seed colour Yellow Green Genotypic ratio= 1 TT: 2 Tt: 1tt

TERMS USED IN MENDELIAN GENETICS Tt x Tt

 Character: It is a feature of the individual. Eg: Stem height. The F1 (Tt) when self pollinated, produces gametes T and t in
 Trait: Each variant of a character. Eg: Tall or dwarf equal proportion. During random fertilization, pollen grains of T
 Factor (Gene): The units of inheritance (segment of DNA) that is have 50% chance to pollinate eggs of T & t. Also, pollen grains
required to express a particular trait in an organism. of t have 50% chance to pollinate eggs of T and t.
1/4th of the fertilization leads to TT (¼ TT).
2/4th (1/2) of the fertilization leads to Tt (½ Tt)
Genes of Mendel’s 1/4th of the fertilization leads to tt (¼ tt).
7 characters on
7 chromosomes of This ratio is mathematically condensable to form the binomial
garden pea expression (ax + by)2
Hence ¼ TT + ½ Tt + ¼ tt = (½ T + ½ t) (½ T + ½ t)
= (½ T + ½ t)2
 Alleles: The different forms of a gene which code for a pair of
contrasting traits. Eg: ‘T’ for Tall, ‘t’ for dwarf Mendel’s Principles/ Laws of Inheritance:-
 Homozygous: The condition in which chromosome carries similar 1st -Law of Dominance
alleles for a character. Eg: TT, tt “When a pair of contrasting characters combines, only one is
 Heterozygous: The condition in which chromosome carries expressed (dominant character) and the other remains hidden
dissimilar alleles for a character. Eg: Tt (recessive character)”.
 Dominant character: The character which is expressed in Concept of Dominance-
heterozygous condition. Eg: Tall in ‘Tt’ GENE
 Recessive character: The character which is suppressed in
heterozygous condition. Eg: Dwarf in ‘Tt’ Normal Allele (A) Modified Allele (a)
 Phenotype: Physical (visible) expression of an individual. Transcription
Eg: Tall, dwarf etc. RNA
 Genotype: Genetic make-up of an individual. Eg: TT, tt etc. Translation i. Non-functional enzyme
 Punnett square: A grid that enables to calculate the probability Protein ii. No enzyme
of all possible genotypes of offspring in a genetic cross. It was Modify
developed by Reginald C. Punnett (British geneticist). Enzyme Substrate
 Cross: Deliberate mating of 2 parental types.
 Testcross: Crossing of an F2 hybrid with its recessive parent. It
Substrate Product
is used to find out the unknown genotype. (Dominant trait) (Recessive trait)
2nd -Law of Segregation
“During gamete formation, the factors (alleles) of a character
pair present in parents do not mix each other, but segregate or
separate from each other such that a gamete receives only one of
the 2 factors”.

100% tall (dominant) 50% tall

50% dwarf (Recessive)
Biology Instant Notes, for www.hsslive.in , by: M. M. Muhiyudeen, #- 9846 29 22 27
48
 Dihybrid cross
Dihybrid cross: A cross between two parents differing in 2 traits. When IA and IB are present together they both express their own
E.g. Cross b/w pea plant with round shaped & yellow coloured types of sugars. This is due to co-dominance.
seeds (RRYY) and wrinkled shaped & green coloured seeds IA = IB > i
(rryy).
Blood group A B AB O
Sugar on
RBC /
Phenotype
Genotype IA IA, IAi IB IB, IBi IA IB ii
Co-dominance

3. Multiple allelism
- It is the inheritance in which more than 2 alleles govern the
same character.
E.g. ABO blood grouping (3 alleles: IA, IB & i).
4. Pleiotropy
- It is the inheritance in which a single gene governs multiple
phenotypes. Such a gene is called pleiotropic gene.
E.g.
a. Starch synthesis in pea seeds- It is controlled by B-gene. It has
Result:-
two alleles (B and b). It effects both size and shape.
Phenotypic ratio = 9:3:3:1
Allele ‘B’ produces enzyme with high efficiency of starch synthesis.
Dihybrid genotypic ratio = 1:2:1:2:4:2:1:2:1
Allele ‘b’ produces enzyme with lesser efficiency
3rd - Law of Independent Assortment: Genotype Phenotype of seed
“When two pairs of traits are combined in a hybrid, segregation
BB Large sized, Round shaped
of one pair of characters is independent of the other pair of
characters”. Incomplete dominance
Bb Intermediate, Round
NON-MENDELIAN INHERITANCE
bb Small, Wrinkled
 These are inheritance which do not obey Mendelian laws
A/c to Mendel: b. Phenylketonuria
- Character is monogenic Mental retardation
- Genes are biallelic Phenylalanine Phenylpyruvic hair ↓
Phenylalanine Phenylketonuria acid Skin pigmentation ↓
- There is a complete dominance to any one of allele of gene block
Hydroxylase Excreted through urine
1. Incomplete Dominance Tyrosine
- It is an inheritance in which heterozygous offspring shows
intermediate character b/w two parental characteristics. Melanine Protein Dopamine
It is because dominant allele is not completely dominant over
controls
recessive allele. A/c to Mendel 1 gene 1 character / phenotype
E.g. Flower colour in dog flower (snapdragon / Antirrhinum sp.)
-
Character 1
Pleiotropy 1 gene Character 2
Character x
Gene A
Polygenic Gene B 1 character
Inheritance Gene X

5. Polygenic Inheritance
- It is the inheritance in which traits are controlled by 3 or more
genes. This type of inheritance is also influenced by environment.
E.g. Human height
Human skin colour- suppose 3 genes A, B, C control skin colour-
Result:- Genotype Phenotype
Phenotypic ratio= 1 Red: 2 Pink: 1 White AABBCC  Darkest skin colour
Genotypic ratio= 1 (RR):2 (Rr):1(rr) aabbcc  Lightest skin colour
2. Co-dominance AaBbCc  Intermediate skin colour
- It is the inheritance in which both alleles of a gene are expressed
in a hybrid.
E.g. ABO blood grouping in human.
ABO blood groups are controlled by the gene I and it has 3
alleles- IA, IB and i.
IA- Determine the formation of sugar ‘A’ on RBC
IB- Determine the formation of sugar ‘B’
i – Does not form any sugar

Biology Instant Notes, for www.hsslive.in , by: M. M. Muhiyudeen, #- 9846 29 22 27

49
 CHROMOSOMAL THEORY OF Morgan’s conclusion
INHERITANCE  As distance between gene , linkage , possibility to cross over ,
1856-63 - Mendel conducted hybridisation experiments on pea. parental trait (i.e., tightly linked gene show low recombination)
1865 - Mendel published his work.
But it was unrecognised because-  As distance between gene , linkage , possibility to cross over ,
a. Work did not get publicity due to lack of communication. non-parental trait
b. His concept of genes (factors) as stable units was not (i.e., loosely linked genes show high recombination)
accepted since continuous variation are seen in other traits.
c. His mathematical approach was new and unacceptable.  Linkage: Physical association of 2 or more genes on a
d. He failed to provide physical proof for the existence of chromosome. They do not show independent assortment.
factors.  Recombination: It is the generation of non-parental gene
1900 - de Vries, Correns & von Tschermak rediscovered combinations.
Mendel’s results.  Genetic map: Linear graphic representation of the sequence and
1902 - Sutton & Boveri proposed Chromosomal Theory of relative distances of the genes present in the chromosome.
Inheritance. - Alfred Sturtevant constructed the first genetic map.
This theory unifies Mendel’s law which identifies
chromosomes as the carrier of genetic material. SEX DETERMINATION
A/c to Mendel law A/c to Chromosomal theory Chromosome is the main factor determining the sex of an
i. Two alleles of a gene pair are organism.
i. Factors (=gene) are in
located on homologous There are 2 types of chromosomes-
pair (alleles)
chromosomes 1. Sex chromosomes are the chromosomes which involve in sex
ii. Chromosome of the
ii. Factors separate at the determination.
homologous pair separate
time of gamete formation NB: Henking (German biologist-1891) discovered X-chromosome during
during gamete formation
his studies on spermatogenesis in a male insect.
iii. Alleles on factors assort iii. Chromosome assort
independently themselves independently.
⸫ Behaviour of gene ≈ behaviour of chromosome
1910 - T.H Morgan proved chromosomal theory of inheritance
using fruit flies (Drosophila). It is a suitable material bcz- 2. Autosomes are chromosomes determining the somatic
a. Short life-cycle (2 weeks) characters of an individual. These are same in both sexes.
b. Produce large number of progenies per mating. Mechanism of sex determination
c. They can grow on simple synthetic medium. Mechanism Male Female Example
d. Male and female flies are easily distinguishable. Human,
e. It has many types of hereditary variations that can be seen XY type XY XX Male
Drosophila
with low power microscopes. heterogamety
XO type X0 XX Grasshopper
Morgan carried out some dihybrid crosses in Drosophila- ZW type ZZ ZW Birds Female heterogamety
Haplo-diploid Haploid Diploid Honey bee
Cross-A
Yellow-bodied, white-eyed female x Brown-bodied, red-eyed male In honey bee:-

possibility of
Tightly linked eye w cross over w+ Egg Sperm
genes body y y+

MUTATION
w w+ w w+  It is a phenomenon which results in alteration of DNA sequences
y y+ y+ y
resulting in changes in the genotype and the phenotype of an
Yellow-bodied, white-eyed + Yellow-bodied, red-eyed + organism.
Brown-bodied, red-eyed Brown-bodied, white-eyed The factors which induce mutation are referred to as Mutagens.
Parental trait ↑ (98.7%) Recombinant trait ↓ (1.3%) e.g.: UV radiations
Cross-B Mutations are of 2 types-
White-eyed, miniature-winged female x Red-eyed, large-winged male o Point mutation: Mutation due to change in a single base-
pair of DNA. E.g. Sickle cell anemia.
wing m possibility of m+ o Frame-shift mutation: Deletions and insertions of base
Loosely linked cross over pairs of DNA
genes M M
eye w w+ A A A A A A M M A A N N
B B B B B B N N B B O O
Mutagen C C C C Mutagen C C O O C C P P
D D X X D D P P D D Q Q
m m+ m m+ E E E E E E Q Q H H R R
F F F F F F R R
Deletion S S
G G G G G G S S G G
H H H H H H T T
Insertion
w w+ w+ w F F
E E
Point Mutation Frame-shift Mutation T T
White-eyed, miniature-winged + White-eyed, large-winged +
Red-eyed, large-winged Red-eyed, miniature-winged
Parental trait ↓ (62.8%) Recombinant trait ↑ (37.2 %)
Biology Instant Notes, for www.hsslive.in , by: M. M. Muhiyudeen, #- 9846 29 22 27
50
PEDIGREE ANALYSIS 2. Autosomal recessive (e.g: Sickle cell anemia):
 A pedigree is a diagram of family relationships that use
symbols to represent people and line to represent genetic
relationships.
It is analysis of inheritance of a particular trait through several
generations in a family (pedigree).
Symbols used in the pedigree analysis:-
 Equally seen in male and female
 Skip generation (since appears only when homozygous)
 Mother and father both are unaffected but still child could be
affected.
3. Sex-linked recessive
 Male are affected more than female
 Heterozygous mother (carrier) transmits the disease to sons.
 The possibility of a daughter becoming an affected is very
rare because mother has to be at least carrier and father
should be affected.
Count of affected male & female
 Pedigrees are often used to determine the mode of
inheritance (dominant, recessive etc.) of genetic diseases. Autosomal X-linked
Male ≈ female Male >>> Female
RULES
1. Autosomal dominant (e.g: Myotonic dystrophy): Genetic Disorders
2 types: Mendelian disorders and Chromosomal disorders.
Human Genetic disorders

Mendelian / Chromosomal disorders

Single gene disorders

Autosomal Sex-linked
(X-linked) (i) Down’s syndrome
 Equally seen in male and female. Dominant Dominant (ii) Klinefelter’s syndrome
 Never skip generation, every generation any one child should (i) Myotonic dystrophy (iii) Turner’s syndrome
be affected
 Affected child must have one of parent affected Recessive Recessive
 Mother and father both are affected, but still child could be (i) Sickle-cell anaemia (i) Haemophilia
(ii) Cystic fibrosis (ii) Colour blindness
unaffected. (iii) Phenylketonuria
(iv) Thalassemia

1. Mendelian Disorders
 Caused by alteration or mutation in the single gene.
Mendelian
Symptoms Cause
Disorder
A simple cut results in
Haemophilia  A protein (Clotting factor VIII or IX) involved in the blood clotting is affected.
non-stop bleeding.

Colour Failure to discriminate

 Defect in certain genes present in the X chromosome.
blindness b/w red and green colour.
 The disease is controlled by a pair of allele on Chromosome-11, HbA and HbS.
HbA produce normal Hb while HbS produce defective haemoglobin.
Under low O2, shape of
HbAHbA: normal
Sickle-cell the biconcave RBC
HbAHbS: carrier
anaemia change into sickle
HbSHbS: affected
structure.
- The substitution of Glutamic acid (Glu) by Valine (Val) at the 6th position of the - globin
chain of the Hb. NB: Hb is made up of 2 - chain (141 amino acid) and 2- chain (146 aa).

Phenyl-  Single gene mutation on 12th chromosome.

- Mental retardation
ketonuria - Phenylalanine excreted  Lack of the enzyme phenylalanine hydroxylase that converts the amino acid phenylalanine
(Error of into tyrosine. As a result, phenylalanine accumulates and converts into phenyl pyruvic acid
metabolism)
through urine.
which accumulates in brain.
 Formation of abnormal Hb.
2 types-
o Thalassemia- Due to deletion of genes HBA1 and HBA2 on chromosome 16 of parents.
Thalassemia Anaemia
- Results in fewer chains.
o Thalassemia- Due to mutation of gene HBB on chromosome 11.
- Results in fewer chains.

Biology Instant Notes, for www.hsslive.in , by: M. M. Muhiyudeen, #- 9846 29 22 27

51
2. Chromosomal disorders
 Caused due to absence or excess or abnormal arrangement of
one or more chromosomes.
2 types:
a. Aneuploidy: The gain or loss of chromosome(s) due to failure
of segregation of chromatids during cell division.
It includes,
 Monosomy (2n-1): One chromosome is lost from diploid set.
 Trisomy (2n+1): One chromosome is added to diploid set.
Examples -
Chromosomal
Genotype / Karyotype Phenotype / Symptoms
disorder
 Retarded physical, psychomotor and mental development
Down’s syndrome  Short statured with small round head & broad flat face
45 A + XX / 45 A + XY
 Big & wrinkled tongue and partially open mouth
(trisomy of
(Described by Langdon
chromosome 21)  Broad palm with characteristic palm crease. Many loops on
Down in 1866) finger tips.
 Inborn heart disease
Klinefelter’s 44 A + XXY
 Sterile male (immature testes & sex glands)
syndrome (presence of an additional
 Tall stature with masculine development
(Described by Dr. Harry copy of X-chromosome in
Klinefelter in 1942)
 Gynaecomastia (development of breast)
male)

Turner’s syndrome 44 A + XO
 Sterile female (poorly developed ovaries & sex glands)
(Described by Henri (missing of one X
Turner in 1938)
 Short statured
chromosome in female)

b. Polyploidy: It is an increase in a whole set of chromosomes

in an organism due to failure of cytokinesis after telophase
stage of cell division.

Biology Instant Notes, for www.hsslive.in , by: M. M. Muhiyudeen, #- 9846 29 22 27

37
ZLGY-MM: XII 3. REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH
 Reproductive health: A total well-being in physical, emotional, Population Control
behavioural and social aspects of reproduction (WHO). - Motivate smaller families by using contraceptive methods.
- Aware peoples about the slogan Hum Do Hamare Do (we
REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH – two, our two)
- Promote ‘one child norm’.
PROBLEMS & STRATEGIES - Statutory rising of marriageable age of the female (18 years)
India initiated ‘family planning’ programmes (1951) to attain
and males (21 years).
reproductively healthy society. Currently named as
- Giving incentives to couples with small families.
‘Reproductive & Child Health Care (RCH) programmes’.
Social Problems BIRTH CONTROL / Contraceptives
regarding reproductive RCH Strategies:-  It is the use of drugs, devices or surgery to prevent pregnancy.
health:- An ideal contraceptive should be-
A. Create awareness among the people o User-friendly, easily available, effective and reversible.
1. Myths and with the help of audio-visual and the o No or least side-effects.
misconceptions. print-media. o It should not interfere with sexual drive, desire & sexual act.
B. Introduction of sex education in schools. a. Natural methods
A. Educate about post-natal care, Principle  Avoid chances of meeting of ovum and sperms.
2. Unhealthy
importance of breast-feeding.
children Natural method Basis of action
B. Provide immunisation.
 Avoid or abstain coitus from day 10 - 17 of the
3. Infertility A. Provide medical assistance menstrual cycle (fertile period).
4. Spreading of STIs A. Provide medical help
5. Uncontrolled A. Educate about available birth control
population growth options.  Periodic
A. Ban amniocentesis (It is a foetal sex abstinence
6. Illegal female determination test based on the (avoid)
foeticide. chromosomal pattern in the amniotic
fluid surrounding the developing embryo).

 Male partner withdraws penis from the vagina

just before ejaculation.

 Coitus
interruptus
(Withdrawal)

 This is due to absence of ovulation during the

period of lactation.
 Lactational
amenorrhea
(absence of
POPULATION STABILISATION menstruation)
 Population growth rate is shooting out in recent years.
World population Indian population
8b 7.2b 1.2 billion 1.2b
1b  Advantage of Natural method- No side-effects as any medicines
6b 6b 900 m
or devices is used.
4b 600 m
2b 350m Disadvantage- Chance of failure is high.
2 billion 300 million

1900 2000 ’11 1950 2000 ‘11

Reasons for population growth

- Increased health facilities and better living conditions.
- Decline in death rate, maternal mortality rate (MMR) and
infant mortality rate (IMR).
- Increase in number of people in reproducible age.
- Early detection and cure of STIs
- Assistance to infertile couples etc.
Consequences of over population
- Scarcity of basic requirements such as food, shelter, clothing etc.
BIOLOGY Instant Notes-for www.hsslive.in , by: M. M. Muhiyudeen, #- 9846 29 22 27 39
b. Barrier methods
Pill Basis of action / Note on use
Principle  Prevent meeting of ovum and sperms with the help
 Taken daily for 21 days starting within the first 5 days of
of barriers.
menstrual cycle.
Barrier method Basis of action / Note on use
 Barriers made of thin rubber/ latex sheath
that are used to cover the penis in the male or  Mala-D
vagina and cervix in the female.

 Condoms  It is a non steroidal ‘once a week’ pill for female with few
(Eg: Nirodh) side effects and high contraceptive value.

 Condoms are popular because:-  Saheli

* It protects the user from contracting STIs.
* Disposable
* Can be self-inserted (privacy to the user).
 Barriers made of rubbers that are inserted It was developed at Central Drug Research Institute (CDRI).
into the female reproductive tract to cover the
e. Injectables & implants
cervix during coitus.
Principle Their mode of action is similar to that of pills and
their effective periods are upto 5 yrs.
 Progestogens - estrogen can be used as injections or implants
 Diaphragms
(consisting 6 cylinders) under the female skin of upper arm by a
 Cervical caps
simple surgery.
 Vaults

 Spermicidal creams, jellies and foams along

with barriers increase contraceptive efficiency.

c. Intra Uterine Devices (IUDs)

Principle Devices that increase phagocytosis of sperms
Emergency contraceptives
within the uterus.
 Inserted by experts in the uterus through vagina. To avoid pregnancy due to rape or casual intercourse,
 Ideal contraceptives for the females who want to delay Progestogens or progestogen-estrogen combinations or IUDs
pregnancy or space children. are used within 72 hours of coitus.

IUDs Basis of action f. Surgical methods / Sterilisation

 Attract macrophages within the uterine Principle Surgically blocking gamete transport and thereby
cavity phagocytose (ingest) sperm prevent conception.
 Non  It is very effective but their reversibility is very poor.
medicated Sterilisation Basis of action / Note on use
IUDs In this a small part of the vas deferens is removed
or tied up through a small incision.
e.g. Lippes loop
 Released Cu 2+ suppresses motility and the
fertilising capacity of sperms.
 Vasectomy
 Copper (In males)
releasing
IUDs

e.g. CuT Cu7 Multiload 375

 Make the uterus unsuitable for implantation
In this a small part of the fallopian tube is
or the cervix hostile (unfavourable) to sperms.
removed or tied up through a small incision in the
 Hormone
abdomen or through vagina.
releasing
Levonorgestrel (synthetic
IUDs progestin) 20 micrograms
daily dosage
 Tubectomy
e.g. Progestasert LNG-20 (In females)

d. Oral Contraceptives / Pills

Principle Oral administration of progestogen–estrogen
combination in the form of tablets. synthetic progesterone that
They prevent conception by- mimics it's effects
1. Inhibiting ovulation. Ill-effects of contraceptives:
2. Making uterus unsuitable for implantation. Nausea, abdominal pain, breakthrough bleeding, irregular
3. Thickening of cervical mucus to prevent entry of sperms. menstrual bleeding, breast cancer etc.
BIOLOGY Instant Notes-for www.hsslive.in , by: M. M. Muhiyudeen, #- 9846 29 22 27 40
 MEDICAL TERMINATION OF Assisted Reproductive Technologies (ART)
PREGNANCY (MTP)  ART: Certain techniques to assist infertile couples have children.
 MTP or induced abortion: Intentional or voluntary termination
of pregnancy before full term. 1. In Vitro fertilisation (IVF/ Test Tube Baby Programme):
 Government of India legalised MTP in 1971. Ova from the wife / donor Sperms from the husband / donor
 MTP helps to decrease the population.
Fertilised to form zygote in lab (in-vitro)

Embryo transfer (ET)

Zygote or early embryos Embryos with more than

8 blastomeres
Transfer into fallopian tube
Grounds for MTP Transfer into uterus
 To avoid unwanted pregnancy due to rapes, casual relationship or Zygote Intra Fallopian
failure of the contraceptive etc. Transfer (ZIFT) Intra Uterine Transfer (IUT)
 Essential in cases where the continuous pregnancy could be
harmful or even fatal to either the mother, or the foetus or both.
 If there is a substantial risk that of the child were born, it would
suffer from such physical or mental abnormalities.
According to MTP (Amendment) Act, 2017
If MTP is done within the first 12 weeks (1st trimester) of pregnancy
 Opinion of 1 registered medical practitioner should be asked.
 MTP is safe.
If MTP is done within 12 - 24 weeks (2nd trimester) 2. Gamete Intra Fallopian Transfer (GIFT):
 Opinion of 2 registered medical practitioners must be asked.
Donor Female’s fallopian tube
 MTP is riskier.
Problems related with MTPs Ovum Fertilisation
 Majority of the MTPs are performed illegally.
 MTP is often misused to abort female foetus. Development
 This technique is done for females who cannot produce ovum.
SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED
INFECTIONS (STIs)
 Diseases or infections transmitted through sexual intercourse is
called STI / Venereal Disease(VD) / Reproductive Tract
Infection (RTI)
STD

Curable Non curable 3. Intra Cytoplasmic Sperm Injection (ICSI):

Gonorrhoea Genital herpes Inject into Implant
Syphilis Hepatitis-B Sperm Ovum  Zygote Woman’s uterus
Chlamydiasis AIDS
Genital warts
Trichomoniasis
 Early Symptoms - Itching, fluid discharge, slight pain, swellings,
etc., in the genital region.
 Later Complications- Pelvic inflammatory diseases (PID),
abortions, still births, ectopic pregnancies, infertility, cancer of the
reproductive tract.
4. Artificial insemination (AI):
Husband / donor Female’s vagina or uterus
Precautions to avoid STIs
o Avoid sex with unknown / multiple partners Semen inseminated artificially
o Always use of condoms during coitus (IUI– Intra-Uterine Insemination)
o In case of doubt, one should go to a qualified doctor for early  This technique is done for the male partner having inability to
detection and get complete treatment. inseminate female or low sperm counts etc.
Hepatitis-B & HIV are also transmitted-
* By sharing of injection needles, surgical instruments etc.
* By transfusion of blood.
* From infected mother to foetus.

INFERTILITY
 Infertility: It is the inability of male or female to produce
children even after 2 years of unprotected sexual co-habitation.
 The reasons for infertility may be physical, congenital diseases,
drugs, immunological or psychological.
BIOLOGY Instant Notes-for www.hsslive.in , by: M. M. Muhiyudeen, #- 9846 29 22 27 41
 ZLGY-MM: XII 2. HUMAN REPRODUCTION
 Humans are sexually reproducing and viviparous.
Reproductive Events In Human

In Male In Female
Testes Ovary
(Gametogenesis) Testicular lobules
Sperm Ovum
Seminiferous tubules
(Insemination)
(Fertilisation)
Zygote
Blastocyst (Implantation)
Accessory Glands
(Embryogenesis) Accessory glands
Embryo
(Gestation) Seminal vesicles Prostate Bulbourethral glands
Foetus (paired) (single) (paired)
(Parturition- Delivery of baby) Secrete fructose Secrete Ca2+ & Secretion lubricates penis
enzymes
THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Secretions = Seminal plasma
 It consists of paired testes, accessory ducts, glands and the
external genitalia. Sperm (10%) + seminal plasma = Semen

External genitalia (Penis)

 It is the copulatory organ made up of 3 erectile tissues to
facilitate insemination.

Testes (10 sex organ- where production of gametes takes place &
hormone production occurs)  The enlarged end of penis called the glans penis is covered by a
 Situated in scrotum (helps in maintaining low temperature) loose fold of skin called foreskin.
 Oval in shape, length: 4-5 cm, width: 2-3 cm.
 Each testis is subdivided into 250 testicular lobules
THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
 It consists a pair of Ovaries, Accessory ducts (constitute oviducts,
Each lobule contains 1-3 highly coiled seminiferous tubules.
uterus & vagina) and the external genitalia.
Each seminiferous tubule is lined by-
Meiosis
 Spermatogonia (male germ cells) Sperm
 Sertoli cells - Provide nutrition to the germ cells.
 The regions outside the seminiferous tubules (interstitial
spaces), contain -
o Small blood vessels
o Interstitial cells or Leydig cells (secrete androgens)
o Lymphoid cells (immunologically competent cells)- defend
infection and progression of malignant cells

Seminiferous Ovaries (10 sex organs)

tubules  Location: Each side of the lower abdomen.
Connected to the pelvic wall and uterus by ligaments.

Sperm

Accessory ducts
Pathway of transport of sperms is as follows:-
Seminiferous tubules →Rete testis →Vasa efferentia
→Epididymis→Vas deferens →Ejaculatory duct →Urethra  Almond shaped; Length: 2- 4 cm. Covered by epithelium.

Biology Instant Notes, for HSSLIVE.IN by: M. M. Muhiyudeen, #- 9846 29 22 27

 Outer cortex
 Inside the epithelium is called stroma Developing follicles Structure-
 Each glandular tissue is divided into 15-20 mammary lobes
Inner Medulla containing clusters of cells called alveoli. The cells of alveoli
Blood vessels
secrete milk, which is stored in the cavities (lumens).
Oviducts (fallopian tubes)
 Muscular tubes of 10-12 cm long which carry the ovum from Path of milk ejection:
ovary to the uterus. Alveoli  mammary tubules → mammary duct → mammary
 It is divided into 3:- ampulla → lactiferous duct → nipple (milk suck out).
(i) Infundibulum- Funnel-shaped opening. Their edge possesses
finger-like fimbriae. Fun: Collecting the ovum after ovulation. GAMETOGENESIS
(ii) Ampulla- a wider part. The primary sex organs – the testis produce male gamete, sperms
(iii) Isthmus - has a narrow lumen and joins the uterus. and the ovaries produce females gametes, ovum.
Spermatogenesis
Uterus (womb)  It is the production of sperm from spermatogonia.
 It is a large, inverted pear-shaped, supported by ligaments
attached to the pelvic wall. At puberty
 The wall of the uterus has 3 layers - 1. Spermatogonia (2n)
Mitosis
Numerous Spermatogonia
1. External Perimetrium (thin membrane)
2. Middle Myometrium (thick layer of smooth muscle-exhibits Differentiatn
2. Some spermatogonia 10 Spermatocytes (2n)
contraction during delivery of the baby).
3. Inner Endometrium (glandular layer- undergoes cyclical changes Meiosis-I
3. 10 Spermatocytes (2n) 2 x 20 Spermatocyte (n)
during menstrual cycle, zone of implantaion).
 Uterus opens into vagina through a narrow cervix. Meiosis-II
4. 2 x 20 Spermatocytes (n) 4 x Spermatid (n)
Vagina Differentiatn
 It is a large, elastic, muscular tube about 7.5cm long. 5. 4 x Spermatid (n) 4 x Spermatozoa / Sperm (n)
Spermiogenesis
Cervical canal + vagina = Birth canal (baby comes out) ↓
 Hymen- The membrane partially covers the opening of vagina. Spermiation: Sperm heads embed in the Sertoli cells, and are
released from the seminiferous tubules.
External genitalia (Vulva)
Consists of -
a) Mons pubis - Cushion of fatty tissue covered pubic hair.
b) Labia majora - Fleshy folds of tissue surrounding the vagina.
c) Labia minora - Paired inner folds of tissue inside to L.majora.
d) Clitoris - A sensitive structure above the urethral opening.

Hormonal control of spermetogenesis

MAMMARY GLAND (Breasts)

 The mammary glands of the female are paired structures that
contain glandular and fatty tissue.
Structure of a sperm
 A plasma membrane envelops the whole body of sperm.
Sperm consists of-
a. Head: Oval shaped. Containing
nucleus and capped by acrosome
contains lytic enzymes- helps in
penetrating ovum.
b. Middle piece: Contain 25-30
spirally arranged mitochondria
which produce energy for the
sperm motility.
c. Tail: It helps the sperm moves in fluid medium.

Biology Instant Notes, for Hsslive.in , by: M. M. Muhiyudeen, #- 9846 29 22 27

 MENSTRUAL CYCLE
 Male ejaculates about 200 - 300 million sperms during coitus.
 Menstrual cycle is the cyclic changes in the activity of ovaries
for normal fertility and accessory ducts as well as hormones during the
60% sperms must have normal shape and size reproductive phase in a female body, with bleeding
(menstruation), repeated at an interval of about 28/29 days
40% show vigorous motility
Menarche - First menstruation beginning at puberty.
Oogenesis Menopause – Stoppage of menstrual cycles at 50 years of age.
 It is the process of formation of ovum from oogonia (female germ
cell- formed within each fetal ovary)
During embryonic stage-
Mitosis
1. Oogonia (2n) 6 millions x Oogonia (2n)
Differentiation
2. Oogonia (2n) 10 Oocyte (2n)
Meiosis-I
3. 10 Oocyte (2n)
Prophase-I arrest
Each 10 oocyte gets surrounded by a single layer of granulosa
cells - 10 follicles.
Birth to puberty-
- A large number of 10 follicles degenerate (60,000-80,000 left).
At puberty, in each menstrual cycle- Phases of Menstrual cycle 1 2 3
- One 10 follicle of either ovary gets surrounded by more layers of
Days 1-5
granulosa cells and a new theca - 20 follicles.
Pituitary: FSH↑
- 20 follicle soon form an antrum (fluid filled cavity)- 30 follicle.
The theca layer is organised into an inner theca interna and an Hormones Ovarian: Progesterone ↓
outer theca externa. Menstrual
phase Ovary: Corpus luteum degenerate,
Meiosis-I
0
4. 1 oocyte (2n)
Release arrest
0 st
2 Oocyte (n) + 1 Polar body (n) 10 follicles  20 follicles
(large) (small) Events
Uterus: Menstrual flow (due to
- The 30 follicle changes into the mature follicle or Graafian follicle. breakdown of endometrium)
The 20 oocyte secrete glycoprotein to forms a new membrane called Days 6-13
zona pellucida surrounding it. Pituitary: FSH↑ , LH↑
Follicular
- The Graafian follicle ruptures to release the 20 oocyte from the Hormones Ovarian: Estrogen↑
Phase
ovary by the process called ovulation.
(Proliferative
After fertilisation (fusion of 20 oocyte & sperm)- phase) Ovary: 20 follicle  Graafian follicle
Events
5. 20 Oocyte Meiosis-II
Ovum / Ootid (n) + 2nd polar body Uterus: Regeneration of endometrium
(large) (small) Day 14
Hormones Pituitary: LH↑↑ (LH surge), FSH↑↑
Ovulatory
Phase
Event Ovary: Ovulation (Graafian follicle
releasing ovum)
Days 15-28
Pituitary: LH
Luteal
Hormones Ovarian: Estrogen↑, Progesterone↑
Phase
(Secretory
Ovary: Gr. follicle  Corpus luteum
phase)
Events Uterus: Endometrium is maintained
& ready for implantation

Differences between spermatogenesis and oogenesis

Spermatogenesis Oogenesis
i. It occurs in the testis i. In ovary
ii. Gamete is called sperm ii. Ovum
iii. Continuous process iii. Discontinuous
It begins at puberty and It begins at embryonic stage and
extends up to senility suspended at the time of birth. The
remaining part takes place only after
puberty.
0
iv. Each 1 spermatocyte iv. Each 10 oocyte gives only 1 ovum
gives 4 sperms and 3 polar bodies
Biology Instant Notes, for Hsslive.in , by: M. M. Muhiyudeen, #- 9846 29 22 27
 o Placenta is connected to the embryo by an umbilical cord.

- Lack of menstruation may be indicative of pregnancy. It may Functions of placenta:

also be caused due to stress, poor health etc.  Supply O2 and nutrients to the embryo
- If fertilization does not occur, corpus luteum degenerates. This  Remove CO2 and waste materials produced by the embryo.
causes disintegration of the endometrium leading to  Acts as endocrine gland - secretes hCG, hPL, oestrogens,
menstruation, marking a new cycle. progesterone.
FERTILISATION & IMPLANTATION  In the later phase of pregnancy, a hormone called relaxin (to
relax pubic symphysis for easy delivery) is also secreted by the
Steps of fertilisation (Sperm + Ovum  Zygote) ovary.
Insemination – Release of semen by penis into vagina during coitus.  During pregnancy the levels of other hormones like estrogens,
↓ progestogens, cortisol, prolactin, thyroxine, etc., are increased
Sperms & Ovum reach at ampulla of fallopian tube. in the maternal blood. They support:-
↓ o The fetal growth
A sperm contact with zona pellucida layer of the ovum o Metabolic changes in the mother
↓ o Maintenance of pregnancy.
Membrane gets changed that block the entry of additional sperms  After implantation, the inner cell mass (embryo) differentiates
↓ into ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm. These 3 layers give
Acrosome secretion helps sperm to penetrate into cytoplasm of ovum rise to all organs in adults.
↓
Fusion of nucleus of sperm (n) and ovum (n) to form zygote (2n) Fate of Endoderm Mesoderm Ectoderm
Digestive system Circulatory system Hair, Nails
Liver Lungs (epithelial layers) Skin
Pancreas Skeletal system Nervous system
Lungs (inner layers) Muscular system Sense organs
Notochord
Excretory system
Reproductive system

 The human pregnancy lasts 9 months (gestation period).

Month Embryonic development
1st month Heart is formed.
2nd month Limbs and digits develop.
3rd month Limbs and external genital organs well develops
Shows movements
5th month
Appear hair on the head
Body is covered with fine hair
6th month Eye-lids separate
Eyelashes are formed.
9th month Foetus is ready for delivery

Steps of Implantation PARTURITION & LACTATION

Zygote moves through the isthmus towards the uterus  Vigorous contraction of the uterus at the end of pregnancy
Meanwhile zygote cleave (rapid mitotic divisions) to form causes delivery of the foetus (parturition).
daughter cells – blastomeres
↓ Neuro-endocrine mechanism of parturition
Morula - Embryo with 8 to 16 blastomeres Step 1. The signals from the fully developed foetus and the placenta
↓ which induce mild uterine contractions (foetal ejection reflex).
Blastocyst - Blastomeres are arranged into- Step 2. This induces release of oxytocin from the maternal pituitary.
Step 3. Oxytocin acts on the uterine muscle and causes stronger
Peculiarity Fate uterine contractions
Trophoblast Outer layer Attach to endometrium Step 4. Stimulates further secretion of oxytocin.
Inner cell mass Inner group of cells Differentiate into embryo Step 5. Contraction get stronger,
Step 6. Expulsion of the baby through the birth canal.
↓
After attachment, the uterine cells cover the blastocyst Soon after the infant is delivered, the placenta is also expelled out
↓ of the uterus.
Blastocyst embed in the endometrium (implantation)

Trophoblast Inner Cell Mass

↓ ↓
Chorionic villi Germ layers of embryo

PREGNANCY &
EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT
Chorionic villi: Finger-like projections of trophoblast which is Mammary glands differentiate during pregnancy and secrete
surrounded by the uterine tissue and maternal blood. milk after child-birth.
↓ o Colostrum: Yellow milk produced during the initial few
Chorionic villi + uterine tissue = Placenta days of lactation which is rich in IgA antibody (develop
resistance).
Biology Instant Notes, for Hsslive.in , by: M. M. Muhiyudeen, #- 9846 29 22 27
Biology Instant Notes, for Hsslive.in , by: M. M. Muhiyudeen, #- 9846 29 22 27