CS – II

CHAPTER – 1

ELECTRONICS COMPONENTS

SEMICONDUCTORS

- Semiconductors are used extensively in electronic circuits. As its name implies, a

semiconductor is a material that conducts current, but only partly.
- The conductivity of a semiconductor is somewhere between that of an insulator, which has
almost no conductivity, and a conductor, which has almost full conductivity.
- Most semiconductors are crystals made of certain materials, most commonly silicon.
- Semiconductors are materials which have a conductivity between conductors (generally
metals) and non-conductors or insulators (such as most ceramics).
- semiconductor have made electronic devices smaller, faster, and more reliable
- Semiconductor devices are extensively used in the field of electronics. Like radios, TV's,
computers, video games, and medical diagnostic equipment.
- The following illustration shows the classification of semiconductors.
- In semiconductors current flows due to motion of two types of charges i.e. Electrons and
Holes.
Intrinsic Semiconductors

- A Semiconductor in its extremely pure form is said to be an intrinsic semiconductor.

- It is made up of only a single type of element.
- Germanium (Ge) and Silicon (Si) are the most common type of intrinsic semiconductor
elements.
- In order to increase the conduction capability of intrinsic semiconductor, it is better to add
some impurities. This process of adding impurities is called as Doping.
- Now, this doped intrinsic semiconductor is called as an Extrinsic Semiconductor.

Doping
The process of adding impurities to the semiconductor materials is termed as doping.

Extrinsic Semiconductor

- An impure semiconductor, which is formed by doping a pure semiconductor is called as

an extrinsic semiconductor.
- There are two types of extrinsic semiconductors depending upon the type of impurity
added. They are N-type extrinsic semiconductor and P-Type extrinsic semiconductor.

N-Type Extrinsic Semiconductor

- A small amount of pentavalent impurity is added to a pure semiconductor to result in Ntype
extrinsic semiconductor. The added impurity has 5 valence electrons.
- In N-type extrinsic semiconductor, as the conduction takes place through electrons, the
electrons are majority carriers and the holes are minority carriers.
- As there is no addition of positive or negative charges, the electrons are electrically neutral.
- When an electric field is applied to an N-type semiconductor, to which a pentavalent
impurity is added, the free electrons travel towards positive electrode. This is called as
negative or N-type conductivity.

P-Type Extrinsic Semiconductor

- A small amount of trivalent impurity is added to a pure semiconductor to result in P-type
extrinsic semiconductor. The added impurity has 3 valence electrons.
- In P-type extrinsic semiconductor, as the conduction takes place through holes, the holes
are majority carriers while the electrons are minority carriers.
- The impurity added here provides holes which are called as acceptors, because they accept
electrons from the germanium atoms.
- As the number of mobile holes remains equal to the number of acceptors, the Ptype
semiconductor remains electrically neutral.
- When an electric field is applied to a P-type semiconductor, to which a trivalent impurity is
added, the holes travel towards negative electrode, but with a slow pace than electrons.
This is called as P-type conductivity.
- In this P-type conductivity, the valence electrons move from one covalent bond to another,
unlike N-type.

N-Type Semiconductor P-Type Semiconductor

1. Doped with pentavalent atoms. 1. Doped with trivalent atoms.

2. Electrons are majority charge carriers. 2. Holes are majority charge carriers.

3. Holes are minority carriers. 3. Electrons are minority carriers.

4. Pentavalent atoms give electrons therefore 4. Trivalent atoms create holes therefore called as
called as donor atoms. acceptor atoms.
5. Antimony, Phosphorus impurity is required. 5. Aluminium, Boron, Gallium impurity is required.

P-N JUNCTION DIODE

- A P-N junction diode is two-terminal or two-electrode semiconductor device.

- A P-N Junction Diode is one of the simplest semiconductor devices around, and which has
the characteristic of passing current in only one direction while blocks the electric current in
opposite or reverse direction.
- In n-type semiconductors, free electrons are the majority charge carriers whereas in p-type
semiconductors, holes are the majority charge carriers.
- When the p-type semiconductor is joined with the n-type semiconductor, a p-n junction is
formed.
- P- type material is acting as anode as it contains majority of holes and N-type material is
acting as cathode as it contain majority of electrons.
- The p-n junction diode is made from the semiconductor materials such as silicon,
germanium, and gallium arsenide.
- The p-n junction diodes made from silicon semiconductors works at higher temperature.

Barrier Potential
- When junction is formed some of the electrons from N-region near the junction cross the
junction and fill some of the holes of P- region.
- Since the atoms of N-region loose electrons they become positively charged ions and since
the atoms of P-region accept electrons they become negatively charged ions.
- Thus opposite type of ions are produced (positive ions on N-side and negative ions on P-side)
near the junction.
 - These ions oppose further flow of electrons from N to P region and flow of holes from P to N
region .
- This opposing force of ions is called as barrier potential and this region is called as
depletion region.
- This barrier potential is a 0.7V in case of silicon diode and 0.3V in case of Germanium diode.

Biasing conditions for the p-n Junction Diode

- The process of applying the external voltage to a p-n junction semiconductor diode is called
bias.
- External voltage to the p-n junction diode is applied in any of the two methods:
Forward bias
Reverse bias

Forward Bias
- In this, the p-type semiconductor (anode) is connected to the positive terminal of battery
whereas; the n-type semiconductor (cathode) is connected to the negative terminal of
battery.
- In forward bias there is maximum current flow trough the diode.
- In this resistance of diode becomes very low. Diode is acting as closed switch.

- Let us see how current flows through P-N junction.

- Negative terminal will repel electrons at N-region those move towards the junction and they
overcome potential barrier because battery voltage is more than 0.7V or 0.3V for silicon and
Germanium respectively.
- Then electrons move through the P-region to the right of the junction and then collected by
positive terminal at the same time holes are attached by the negative terminal.
- It allows the electric current flow.

Reverse Bias
- In this, the p-type semiconductor (anode) is connected to the negative terminal of battery
whereas; the n-type semiconductor (cathode) is connected to the positive terminal of
battery.
- In this reverse battery voltage is applied across the junction the width of potential barrier
increases. This barrier will not allow the movement of majority carries from N to P region.
- The current through diode is not possible which indicates a very high resistance or diode is
acting as an open switch.

- Practically, very small current flows through diode, which is called as reverse leakage current
because of minority carries.
- P- region has few minority electrons those are repelled by negative terminal and they flow
through the junction towards right side through N-region and then towards positive terminal
of the battery.
- The above explanation concludes that is current flow through diode is possible only in one
direction , in forward bias and not in reverse bias .

Applications of Diode
- As we known that PN junction diode conducts only in one direction, when it is in forward
bias.
- Main application of such a diode is to convert bi-directional AC supply into unidirectional DC
supply, this process is known as rectification. Let us see use of diodes in rectifiers.

Half Wave Rectifier

- AC voltage consists of two half cycles as shown in the below fig.
- Upper half cycle is known as positive half cycle and lower half cycle is known as negative half
cycle.

- A rectifier is nothing but a simple diode or group of diodes which converts the Alternating
Current (AC) into Direct Current (DC).
- A half wave rectifier is defined as a type of rectifier that only allows one half AC voltage
waveform to pass, blocking the other half-cycle.
- Half wave rectifier is a simple and low cost rectifier circuit it is used where high quality DC is
not required for example to operate night lamp , radio circuit etc.

WORKING
 - The working of the half wave rectifier is based on the fact that diodes only allow current to
flow in one direction.

- A complete half-wave rectifier circuit consists of 3 main parts:

1. A transformer
2. A resistor
3. A diode
- In the above fig. high AC voltage is applied to the primary side of the step-down transformer
and we will get a low voltage at the secondary winding which will be applied to the diode.
- A diode is connected in series with load RL and output DC voltage is taken across RL.
- In first half cycle (positive half cycle) of AC voltage, suppose transformer secondary terminal
‘A’ is positive with respect to terminal ‘B’. Means diode is becomes forward bias and it is
acting as closed switch.
- The current flow through the circuit from terminal ‘A’ through RL to terminal ‘B’.
- Thus same output voltage is developed across RL similar to half cycle of AC input.
- In the next cycle (negative half cycle) transformer’s terminal ‘B’ is positive with respect to
terminal ‘A’.
- The diode becomes reverse biased and diode will act as open switch hence current through
circuit is not possible it is blocked by diode. The out put voltage is zero
- Thus diode will conduct only at positive half cycle and it rectifies negative half cycle hence it
is known as half wave rectifier.

DIODE

- A diode is semiconductor device that essentially acts as a one way switch for current.
- It allows current to flow easily in one direction, but severely restricts current from flowing in
the opposite direction.
- Diodes have polarity, determine by an anode (positive lead) and cathode (negative lead)
most diodes allows current to flow only when positive voltage is applied to the anode.
- Following are the types of diode,
1) Zener diode
2) Light emitting diode (LED)
3) Photo diode
4) Varactor diode
5) Schottkey diode
6) Tunnel diode
1) Zener Diode
- Zener diode is basically like an ordinary PN junction diode but normally operated in
reverse biased condition.
- Zener diode is designed to get stable voltage.
- By adjusting the doping level, zener diodes of different voltages from 2 to 200V and
with different wattage are manufractured.
-

- As shown in the above fig a reverse bias voltage is applied across zener diode.
- When connected in reverse biased mode, a small leakage current flows through the diode.
- As the reverse voltage increases to the predetermined breakdown voltage (Vz), current
starts flowing through the diode. ( A normal diode, when operated in reverse bias, gets
damaged if the reverse current above a certain value is passed through it. This “certain
value” is called as the Breakdown voltage.)
- The breakdown voltage of a Zener diode is very low. But this diode allows the reverse
current to pass through it, once this breakdown voltage is exceeded. That breakdown
voltage is called as Zener Voltage.
- The current increases to a maximum, which is determined by the series resistor, after which
it stabilizes and remains constant over a wide range of applied voltage.
- Zener diodes are used in DC power supplies as a voltage regulator or in special circuit to
stabilize the voltage.

2) Light Emitting diode (LED)

- This one is the most popular diodes used in our daily life.
- This is also a normal PN junction diode except that instead of silicon and germanium, the
materials like gallium arsenide, gallium arsenide phosphide are used in its construction.

- Like a normal PN junction diode, this is connected in forward bias condition so that the diode
conducts. The conduction takes place in a LED when the free electrons in the conduction
band combine with the holes in the valence band.
 - This process of recombination emits light.
- A series resistor is always require with LED to limit the current because if excess current
flows through it, LED may get damaged.
- The color of the light emitted depends upon the materials used. LED’s are available in three
colours Red, Green, Yellow.
- This diodes plays an important role in indicators and displays.
- They are used in 7 segment displays as panel indicators, in watches, calculators, digital
meters and as a switch on power supply panels.

3) Photo Diode

- The function of this diode is opposite to LED, When light is incident on it conducts.
- This diode is generally operated in reverse bias condition.
- It is manufactured with cadmium selenide, cadmium sulphide, in addition to germanium and
silicon.
- The current through photodiode depends upon light intensity .
- When it is exposed to light due to energy of light, electron-hole pairs are generated
therefore current flows through it.
- It is used in computer punch card, light detectors, sound reproduction of film projector and
light operated switches.

LED Photo Diode

1.It emits light when it conducts 1.It conducts when light is incident on it
2.It is operated in forward bias 2.It is operated in reverse bias.

3.
4.Light intensity depends on current through 4.Current through it depends on light
it intensity.
5.Used as indicators or displays 5.Used as light sensor or transducer
6.Material used gallium, Arsenic phosphorus 6.Cadmium selenide, cadmium sulphide.

Transistors
 - A transistor is a type of a semiconductor device that can be used to both conduct and insulate
electric current or voltage.

- A transistor basically acts as a switch and an amplifier. In simple words, we can say that a
transistor is a miniature device that is used to control or regulate the flow of electronic signals.

- Basically, this name transistor is made up of two terms “transfer of resistor” because its
resistance transfers from one value to other value depending upon its bias.

- In other words the current through transistor is controlled by bias.

- Bipolar means holes and electrons take part in carrying the current through transistor
therefore they are called as bipolar transistors.

- The transistor also is a P-N junction device but with two P-N junctions and three terminals,

Emitter
- The left hand side of the above shown structure can be understood as Emitter.

- This has a moderate size and is heavily doped as its main function is to supply a number
of majority carriers, i.e. either electrons or holes.
- As this emits electrons, it is called as an Emitter.
- This is simply indicated with the letter E.
- It is the negative lead of the transistor.

Base
- The middle material in the above figure is the Base.
- This is thin and lightly doped.
- Its main function is to pass the majority carriers from the emitter to the collector.
- It controls electron flow
 - This is used to activate the transistor.
- This is indicated by the letter B.

Collector
- The right side material in the above figure can be understood as a Collector.
- Its name implies its function of collecting the carriers.
- It collects the electrons.
- This is a bit larger in size than emitter and base. It is moderately doped.
- It is the positive lead of the transistor.
- This is indicated by the letter C.

- Thus transistor has two PN junctions, As one junction is between the emitter and base, that
is called as Emitter-Base junction (EB) and likewise, the other is Collector-Base junction
(BC).

- As soon as the transistor is formed, two potential barriers are produced, one is between
emitter and base and other between base and collector.

- To get easy current flow through transistor it must be biased by connecting external DC
supply.

- Hence there must be two batteries to apply bias across EB junction and BC junction.

- We can bias these two junctions in three different ways.

I) FF bias
- In FF method both junctions are forward biased so large current flows through transistor,
transistor behaves as a low resistance, it does not give control action, and therefore this
method is not useful.
- This FF condition we get in saturation state.

Ii) RR bias
- In RR method both junctions are reverse biased, current through transistor is almost zero
transistor behaves as an insulator that is transistor is in cut off which is also not useful state
in amplifiers.
- Iii) FR bias
- FR method is the correct method in which Emitter-base junction is forward biased and base
–collector junction is reverse biased.
- In this method transistor works as controlled device and transistor is an active region.
 NPN Transistor

- In above fig. Base-Emitter is biased with low voltage battery (VEE) and base collector with
high voltage battery (VCC).
- Now observe the battery connections, negative terminal of the battery (VEE) it will repel
electrons towards base, they enter in the base region.
- Base is P-type material and it is lighly doped thus few electrons recombine with holes and
those number of electrons recombine with holes and those number of electrons will pass
into the Base from positive terminal . Rests of the electrons are attracted by positive
terminal of the battery (Vcc) through collector.
- The current through NPN transistor is through electrons.
- Collector collects most of the electrons; therefore Emitter current is very close to the
collector current.
- IE= IC
- But as shown in above fig we can say,
- Emitter current = Base current + Collector current
IE = IB + IC
- Similarly fig. shows the direction of conventional current from collector to emitter.

Alpha and Beta of Transistor

- The relation between Emitter current (IE) and collector current (IC) is given by alpha (α) and
the relation between Base current (IB) and Collector current by (β) of the transistor.
- β of the transistor tells us that small Base current controls a large collector current.
-
Collector current
- Alpha ( α )=
Emitter current
IC
- Therefore α =
IE
Collector current
- Similarly Beta (β) =
Base current
IC
- β=
IB
- The relation between α and β is given by equation as,
α
- Therefore β =
1−α

- Suppose IC=98mA, IE=100MA and IB=2mA then ,

 IC 98
- α= = =0.98
IE 100

- That means α is always less than 1

IC 98
- β= = =49
IE 2

- Where β is greater than 1 and it tells us how much is the smaller Base current than collector
current.

- β of transistor is important, it is specified by manufacturer it varies from 20 to 400

1) If the β of transistor is 49 find the value of α

Answer
β
α=
1+ β

49
=0.98
50
Which is true because α is always less than 1

PNP Transistor

- The transistor in which one n-type material is doped with two p-type materials such type
of transistor is known as PNP transistor.
- In the above fig Emitter (P-type) is connected to positive terminal while Base (N-type) to
negative and controller (P-type) to negative terminal of high voltage battery VCC or collector
Supply.
- The current through PNP transistor is through holes.
 - The PNP transistor turns on when a small current flows through the base. The direction of
current in PNP transistor is from the emitter to collector.
- The emitter-base junction is connected in forward biased, and the collector-base junction is
connected in reverse biased.
- The emitter which is connected in the forward biased attracts the electrons towards the
battery and hence constitutes the current to flow from emitter to collector.
- Here also we get the same relation among Base, Emitter and colleter.

Comparison

P-N Diode Transistor

1.It has only one P-N junction 1.It has two P-N junction

2.It has two terminals anode and cathode 2. It has three terminals Emitter, Base, Collector.

3.It conducts only in forward bias 3.It conducts only in FR bias

4.It is used in rectifier circuit 4.It can be used as an amplifier or a switch.

5.Type Zener diode, LED, Photo diode 5.Types NPN, PNP, FET, MOSFET

Transistor Amplifier

Single stage Amplifier

- When in an amplifier circuit only one transistor is used for amplifying a weak signal, the
circuit is known as single stage amplifier.
- When transistor is used in amplifier it is operated in active region and avoids cut-off and
saturation.

- The various circuit elements and their functions are described as follows :
- (i) Biasing Circuit

- The resistances R1, R2 and RE provide biasing and stabilisation.

 - (ii) Input Capacitor (Cin)
- An electrolytic capacitor of value is used to couple the signal to the base of the transistor.
- Otherwise, the signal source resistance will come across R2 and thus can change the bias.
- This capacitor allows only the AC signal to flow but isolates the signal source from R2.

- (iii) Emitter Bypass Capacitor (CE)

- An emitter bypass capacitor of value is used in parallel with RE to provide a low reactance
path to the amplified a.c. signal.
- If this capacitor is not connected in the output circuit then the amplified a.c. signal will flow
through RE and cause a voltage drop across it, thereby reducing the output voltage.
-
- (iv) Coupling Capacitor (CC)
- The coupling capacitor of value 10 μF is used to couple one stage of amplification to the next
stage.
- Therefore, the coupling capacitor is used to isolates the d.c. of one stage from the next stage
and allows the a.c. signal only.

Transistor as a Switch

- When transistor is used as a switch it is operated either in cut-off or in saturation. It avoids

active region.
- In digital circuits like gates in computer circuits transistor is used as an electronic switch.
- It is operated by applying input voltage (either High or Low) at base terminal.
- CASE1  When VB=0 the base emitter junction is in reverse bias. The transistor goes into
cut-off. It is equivalent to open switch as shown in fig. a.
- CASE2  When VB =+5V the base-emitter junction is in forward bias. The transistor is ON it
goes to saturation. It is equivalent to closed switch as shown.

SWITCH MODE POWER SUPPLY

- SMPS stands for Switch Mode Power Supply. Mainly used in computer and television
circuits.
- It is used to convert input AC voltage to various DC voltages and supplies the necessary
power to motherboard, disk drives and all other expansion cards.
- It consists of transformer, diode rectifier, with capacitor filter but this gives an unregulated
DC output
- A transistor regulator in which the transistor is operated as a switch hence Switch Mode
Power Supply (SMPS).
- In SMPS transistor is operated in switching mode that acts as a rapidly opening and closing
switch.
- Practically when transistor is operated as switch it dissipate very small power.
WORKING
- As shown in the above fig. an unregulated DC voltage is applied to the switching transistor,
which is chopping the voltage in the form of pulses.
- The switching transistor is operated by pulse generator. When the pulses are connected to
switching transistor its base voltage is rapidly changed between high and low.
- For instance, When the base voltage is low the transistor is in cut OFF making its emitter low.
When the base voltage is high it couples to its emitter voltage because it acts as closed
switch.
- A diode is connected in the circuit to avoid the inductive kickback because back emf is
produced by the inductor it may damage the transistor.
- An inductor with capacitance from a filter circuit to filter chopped DC output into final
smooth DC output with a very small ripple.

Advantages of SMPS
- Small in size and low cost power supply.
- Low power dissipation results in less heating.
- Better regulation and efficiency.

Disadvantage of SMPS
- Since it uses switching technique it generates electromagnetic interference (EMF) noise,
which may affect audio circuit of main circuit.
- The control part of the circuit is expensive, complicated and less reliable.

Integrated circuit (ICs)

 - An IC is a small chip, usually made of semiconductor material like silicon, that can hold
anywhere from hundreds to millions of transistors, resistors, and capacitors.
- An integrated circuit, or IC, is small chip that can function as an amplifier, oscillator,
timer, microprocessor, or even computer memory.

- The first semiconductor integrated circuit (IC) was developed in 1958 by J.K. Kilby.
- Then many different standard semiconductor IC’s are developed.
- These digital ICs can be classified according to the semiconductor device, which is basically
used as basic block in manufacturing process of microprocessor and other ICs. These ICs are
classified into 2 groups as follows,
Semiconductor Logic Families (ICs)

Bipolar Technology Unipolar Technology

NMOS PMOS CMOS

Saturated Non-Saturated

RTL DTL TTL ECL Schottky TTL

RTL – Resistor Transistor Logic Family ECL – Emitter Coupled Logic Family

DTL – Diode Transistor Logic family NMOS – N-channel MOSFET Family

TTL – Transistor Transistor Logic Family PMOS – P- Channel MOSFET Family

CMOS – Complementary MOSFET family (MOSFET–Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effective Trans
 - In bipolar technology, bipolar transistors like NPN transistors are used to construct the logic
circuits.
- In saturated bipolar family the transistors are driven into saturation which in non-saturated
family the transistors are operated slightly below saturation to reduce the propagation
delay.
- In unipolar technology unipolar transistors MOSFETs are used to construct the
semiconductor ICs.

Characteristics of IC’s

- The performance and the quality of an integrated chip or IC depend on their characteristics.
- The manufacturer specifies these characteristics in the manual so that user select the chip
for a particular application.
- The characteristics of IC are compared usually by analysing the circuit of basic gate used in
that IC logic family.
- Following are some important characteristics of IC’s,

1. Propagation Delay (Speed)

- The propagation delay is defined as, the time required to change the output from one logic
state to other logic state after input is applied.
- Manufacturer specifies the speed of digital family in terms of propagation delay.
- It is nothing but the total time required to execute one instruction. It is denoted by tp .
- For example, TTL logic family has tp = 10 nsec. Specifying that it takes 10 nano sec time to
change the output from one state to other state.
- It is always advantageous to have smaller propagation delay so the speed of operation or
speed of IC is much more.

2. Power Dissipation
- It is power consumption or power dissipation in an IC in the form of heat.
- Excessive temp. could damage the IC. Hence low power dissipation is desirable because it
generates less heat and therefore it avoids cooling, power supply, cost problem.
- Hence power dissipation should be less.
- Manufacturer specifies power dissipation PD in mill watts (mW)

3. Figure of Merit
- The figure of merit of a digital IC is defined as the product of speed and power. The speed is
specified in terms of propagation delay time expressed in nano seconds.
- Figure of merit is measured in terms of PJ (Picojoules)
- PJ = tp x PD
= 10-9 nsec x 10-3 mW
PJ = 10-12
 - For example, in case of (standard) TTL the propagation delay is 10 nsec and the power
dissipation is 10mW, what is its figure of merit.
- PJ = tp x PD
- PJ = 10 x 10
- PJ = 100

4. Fan In – Fan Out

-The maximum no of output of other gates which can be connected to a single input of one gate is
called as Fan-in

- The maximum no of I/P's of other gate which can be connected to output of one gate is
called as Fan out. Higher Fan out is advantageous because it reduces the need for additional
drivers to drive more gates Fan out may be High state Fanout or Low state Fan out

Comparison

CMOS Family TTL Family

1.It is an unipolar family. 1. it is bipolar family
2. Propagation delay is more. It is 50 nsec. 2. Propagation delay is very less. It is 10 nsec.
3.Power dissipation is very low, only 10nW. 3.Power dissipation is very high, it is 10 mW.
4.Figure of merit is 0.002. 4.Figure of merit is 100
5.Supply voltage range is 3V to 18V. 5.Supply voltage range is 4075V to 5.25V
6.Fan-in Fan-out is > 50 6.Fan-in Fan-out is 10
7.Numbering system is 74CXX 7.Numbering system is 74XX.