Computer Science

2210 / 0478
 As can be seen it starts from 1 and then goes to 128 from
left to right
1. Data Representation Now values with 1 are to be added together, giving the
final answer, as for the example, it is 128 + 64 + 32 + 8 + 4
1.1. Number Systems + 2 = 238

Converting Denary to Binary

Binary System
Take the value and successively divide it by 2, creating a
Base 2 number system
table like follows:
It has two possible values only (0 and 1)
0 represents OFF, and 1 represents ON
2 142
A point to be noted is that the most left bit is called the
2 71 Remainder: 0
MSB (Most Significant Bit)
2 35 Remainder: 1
Denary System 2 17 Remainder: 1
2 8 Remainder: 1
Base 10 number system
2 4 Remainder: 0
Has values from 0 to 9
2 2 Remainder: 0
Hexadecimal (aka Hex) 2 1 Remainder: 0
0 Remainder: 1
Base 16 number system
Have values from 0 to 9 followed by A to F Note that when the value itself is not divisible by 2, it is
A represents 10, B represents 11 and so on until 15, which divided by the previous value of the current number and 1
is F is added to the remainder column for that specific
number
Binary Value Hexadecimal Value Denary Value
When you reach 0, the remainder has to be read from
0000 0 0 bottom to top giving us the binary value ( as in this case, it
0001 1 1 is 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 )
0010 2 2
0011 3 3 Converting Hexadecimal to Binary
0100 4 4 Separate each value from each other and convert them to
0101 5 5 denary
0110 6 6 Each separate denary value to be converted to binary
0111 7 7 All the binary values to be merged together
e.g.
1000 8 8
1001 9 9 Hexadecimal : 2 1 F D
1010 A 10 Denary : 2 1 15 13
1011 B 11 Binary : 0010 0001 1111 1101

1100 C 12
Final Answer: 0010000111111101
1101 D 13
1110 E 14 Converting Binary to Hexadecimal
1111 F 15
Divide the binary value into groups of 4 starting from the
right. If at the end, the last division is less than 4, add 0s
1.2. Number Conversions until it reaches 4
For each group, find the denary value as shown above,
Converting Binary to Denary and then convert each denary value to its corresponding
hexadecimal value (if less than 10, then itself, else, 10 is
Place the binary value in columns of 2 raised to the power A, 11 is B, 12 is C, 13 is D, 14 is E and 15 is F).
of the number of values from the right starting from 0.
After conversion, just put all the hexadecimal values in
e.g. For binary value 11101110, place it in a table like this: order to get the final answer

128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1 Given Value : 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1

1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 When grouped: 10 0001 1111 1101
 (overflows), we put the value in brackets, denoting it is
After 2 values added to left: 0010 0001 1111 1101 overflow.

After Conversion to Denary: 2 1 15 13 iii. The solution would now be (1) 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0

Denary to Hexadecimal: 21FD

Logical Shifts

The logical shift means moving a binary value to the left

Converting Hexadecimal to Denary
or the right
Convert the value to binary as shown above, and then When doing a logical shift, keep in mind that the bit being
convert the final answer to denary emptied is going to become 0

Converting Denary to Hexadecimal Explanation with Example

Convert the value to binary, and then convert it to Shifting 10101010 - 1 place left:
hexadecimal as explained above 1. The furthest bit in the direction to be logically
shifted is removed ( in this case, one at the LHS is
removed) - ==(if it were two places, 2 bits would
1.3. Binary Calculations have been removed)==
2. Every bit is moved in given places to the given
Binary values are not added the way denary values are
direction ( every bit is moved one place to the left
added, as when adding 1 and 1, we cannot write two
in this case, and the leftover bit in the right is
because it doesn’t exist in binary.
marked 0, so 10101010 would become 01010100)

Points to Note: Two’s Complement (Binary Numbers)

0+0=0
Two’s complement is a method used to represent
1+0/0+1=1
negative values in binary. Here, the MSB ( Most
1 + 1 = 0 (1 carry)
Significant Bit) is replaced from 128 to -128; thus, the
1 + 1 + 1 = 1 (1 carry)
range of values in a two’s complement byte is -128 to 127

Overflow Converting Binary Values to Two’s Complement

When adding two values, if the solution exceeds the limit
Firstly, write the binary value and locate the first one from
of given values, e.g., the solution has 9 bits, but the
the right; e.g., 1101100 would have the first one at the
question had 8 bits per value, the 9th bit (most left bit) is
third position from the right.
called overflow.
Now, switch every value to the left of the first one located
This indicates that the memory doesn’t have enough
above (not switching the one), e.g., the value in our
space to store the answer to the addition done in the
example becomes 0010100, which is the two’s
previous part.
complement of itself.

Steps to add Two Values (With Example) Converting negative values to two complement
The values we will add are 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 and 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0
Find the binary equivalent of the value ignoring the - sign
1. Convert both the bytes into 8 bits (add zero to the
Convert the binary value to two’s complement
left-hand side to match them).
Make the MSB 1, if not already
e.g., 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 would become 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0
2. Add the values as follows with the points given
Converting Two’s Complement Value to Denary:
above
We do it the same way as a normal value is converted
Carry 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
from binary to denary; we only replace 128 with -12,8 e.g.,
Byte 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 for 1011101,0 we do the:
Byte 2 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0
OVERFLOW -128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
Solution 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0

Note: We move from RHS to LHS, and when adding values, we -128 + 32 + 16 + 8 + 2 = -70
use the rules given above. If the bit crosses the limit
1.4. Use of the Hexadecimal System
Examples: The first 128 values are the same as ASCII.
Unicode supports up to four bytes per character, storing
Defining colours in Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) multiple languages and more data.
Media Access Control (MAC) addresses (a number that To represent text in binary, a computer uses a character
uniquely identifies a device on a network) set, a collection of characters and the corresponding
Assembly languages and machine code binary codes that represent them.
Memory Dumps
Debugging (method to find errors in a program) Sound
Display error codes (numbers refer to the memory
location of the error) Sound is analogue, and for it to be converted to digital
IP (Internet Protocol) addresses form, it is sampled
The sound waves are sampled at regular time intervals
Memory Dumps
where the amplitude is measured. However, it cannot be
Hexadecimal is used when developing new software or measured precisely, so approximate values are stored
when trying to trace errors.
Memory dump is when the memory contents are output How is Sound Recorded
to a printer or monitor.
The amplitude of the sound wave is first determined at set
Assembly code and machine code (low-level languages) time intervals
The value is converted to digital form
Computer memory is machine code/ assembly code Each sample of the sound wave is then encoded as a
Using hexadecimal makes writing code easier, faster, and series of binary digits
less error-prone than binary. A series of readings gives an approximate representation
Using machine code (binary) takes a long time to key in of the sound wave
values and is prone to errors.
Sampling Resolution:
1.5. Text, Sound and Images
The number of bits per sample is known as the sampling
resolution (aka bit depth)
ASCII
Increasing the sampling resolution increases the accuracy
The standard ASCII code character set consists of 7-bit of the sampled sound as more detail is stored about the
code that represents the letters, numbers and characters amplitude of the sound.
found on a standard keyboard, together with 32 control Increasing the sampling resolution also increases the
codes memory usage of the file as more bits are being used to
store the data.
Uppercase and lowercase characters have different ASCII
values
Every subsequent value in ASCII is the previous value + 1.
Sampling Rate
e.g. “a” is 97 in ASCII, “b” will be 98 (which is 97 + 1)
The sampling rate is the number of sound samples taken
Important ASCII values (in denary) to remember are as
per second, which is measured in Hertz (Hz)
follows:
A higher sampling rate would allow more accurate sound
as fewer estimations will be done between samples.
0 is at 48
A is at 65 Images
a is at 97
Bitmap Images
ASCII uses one byte to store the value
When the ASCII value of a character is converted to Bitmap images are made up of pixels
binary, it can be seen that the sixth-bit changes from 1 to A bitmap image is stored in a computer as a series of
0 when going from lowercase to uppercase of a binary numbers
character, and the rest remains the same. e.g.
Colour Depth

The number of bits representing each colour is called the

colour depth.
Unicode An 8-bit colour depth means that each pixel can be one of
256 colours (because 2 to the power of 8 = 256)
ASCII does not contain all of the international languages A 1-bit colour depth means each pixel can store one
thus, Unicode is used to solve this problem colour (because 2 to the power of 1 is 2) - ( This is done as
 the bit can either be 0 or 1, with 0 being white and 1 being The size of a mono sound file is calculated as: sample rate
black) (in Hz) × sample resolution (in bits) × length of sample (in
Increasing colour depth increases the size of the file when seconds). (For a stereo sound file, you would then
storing an image. multiply the result by two.)

Image Resolution 1.7. File Types

Image resolution refers to the number of pixels that make
Musical Instrument Digital Format (MIDI)
up an image; for example, an image could contain 4096 ×
3072 pixels. Storage of music files
Photographs with a lower resolution have less detail than A communications protocol that allows electronic musical
those with a higher resolution. instruments to interact with each other
When a bitmap image is ‘ blurry ‘ or ‘ fizzy ’ due to having a Stored as a series of demands but no actual music notes
low amount of pixels in it or when zoomed, it is known as Uses 8-bit serial transmission (asynchronous)
being pixelated. Each MIDI command has a sequence of bytes:
High-resolution images use high amounts of memory as The first byte is the status byte – which informs the
compared to low-resolution ones. MIDI device what function to perform
Encoded in the status byte is the MIDI channel
1.6. Measurement of the Size of (operates on 16 different channels)
Examples of MIDI commands:
Computer Memories Note on/off: indicates that a key has been pressed
Key pressure: indicates how hard it has been pressed
A binary digit is referred to as a BIT
(loudness of music)
8 bits is a byte
Needs a lot of memory storage
4 bits is a nibble
Byte is used to measure memory size MP3

IECB System (Most Common) Uses technology known as Audio Compression to convert
music and other sounds into an MP3 file format
Name of memory No. of This compression reduces the normal file size by 90%
Equivalent Denary Value Done using file compression algorithms which use
size Bytes
Perceptual Music Shaping
1 kibibyte (1KB) 210 1 024 bytes
Removes sounds that the human ear cannot hear
1 mibibyte (1MB) 220 1 048 576 bytes properly
Certain sounds are removed without affecting the
1 gibibyte (1GB) 230 1 073 741 824 bytes
quality too much
1 tibibyte (1TB) 240 1 099 511 627 776 bytes CD files are converted using File Compression Software
1 125 899 906 842 624 Use lossy format as the original file is lost following the
1 pibibyte (1PB) 250 compression algorithm
bytes

MP4
Conventional System
This format allows the storage of multimedia files rather
Name of memory No. of than just sound
Equivalent Denary Value
size Bytes Music, videos, photos and animations can be stored
1 kilobyte (1KB) 103 1 000 bytes Videos could be streamed without losing any real
discernible quality
1 megabyte (1MB) 106 1 000 000 bytes
Joint Photographic Experts Group (JPEG)
1 gigabyte (1GB) 109 1 000 000 000 bytes
1 terabyte (1TB) 1012 1 000 000 000 000 bytes JPEG is a file format used to reduce photographic file sizes
1 000 000 000 000 000 Reducing picture resolution is changing the number of
1 petabyte (1PB) 1015 bytes pixels per centimetre
When a photographic file undergoes compression, file
size is reduced
Calculation of File Size
JPEG will reduce the raw bitmap image by a factor
between 5 and 15
The file size of an image is calculated as: image resolution
(in pixels) × colour depth (in bits)
 Size of the packet
1.8. Lossless and Lossy File
Payload
Compression Contains the actual data
Trailer
Lossless File Compression Includes a method of identifying the end of the
packet
All the data bits from the original file are reconstructed Error-Checking methods
when the file again is uncompressed. Packet Switching - Method of data transmission where the
Important for files where the loss of data would be data is broken into multiple packets. Packets are then sent
disastrous (spreadsheet) independently from start to end and reassembled at the
An algorithm is used to compress data receiver’s computer.
No data is lost
Repeated patterns/text are grouped together in indexes Advantages Disadvantages
There is no need to create a
Run-Length Encoding Packets may be lost
single line of communication
Possible to overcome failed or More prone to errors in real-
It reduces the size of a string of adjacent, identical data
busy nodes time streaming
(e.g. repeated colours in an image)
A repeating string is encoded into two values: the first Delay at the receiver while
value represents the number of identical data items (e.g. High data transmission speed the packets are being re-
characters), and the second value represents the code of ordered
the data item (such as ASCII code if it is a keyboard Easy to expand package
character), e.g. ‘aaaaabbbbccddddd’ becomes “05 97 04 usage
98 02 99 05 100.”
RLE is only effective where there is a long run of repeated Data Transmission
units/bits
One difficulty is that RLE compression isn't perfect for Simplex data transmission is in one direction only (e.g.
strings like "cdcdcdcdcd". We use a flag to solve this; e.g. computer to printer)
255 can be made the flag. Now 255 will be put before Half-duplex data transmission is in both directions but not
every repeating value, e.g. our previous example at the same time (e.g., in a phone conversation where
becomes 255 05 97 255 04 98 255 02 99 255 05 100 only one person speaks)
where 255 now indicates that the next character/set of Full-duplex data transmission is in both directions
characters is approaching simultaneously (e.g. broadband connection on the phone
line)
Lossy File Compression Serial data transmission is when data is sent one bit at a
time over a single wire
The file compression algorithm eliminates unnecessary Parallel data transmission is when data of several bits (1
data bits like MP3 and JPEG formats. byte) are sent down several wires at the same time.
It is impossible to get the original file back once it is
compressed Comparison of Serial and Parallel Data Transmission
Reduces file quality
In this, the image's resolution and colour depth are Serial Parallel
reduced.
Better for longer distances Better for short distances
(Telephone Lines) (Internal circuits)
2. Data Transmission Cheaper Option
Expensive (More hardware
required)
Used when the size of data Used when speed is
2.1. Types and Methods of Data transmitted is small necessary
Transmission Slower Option Faster than Serial

Data Packets
2.2. Universal Serial Bus (USB)
Packet Structure -
USB is an asynchronous serial data transmission method
Header
USB consists of:
Contains the IP address of the sender and the
Four-wire shielded cable
receiver
Two wires are used for power and earth
The sequence number of the packet
Two wires are used in data transmission
 Advantages Disadvantages request is made to re-send the data.
Transmission rate is less than
Automatically detected Echo Check
120 MB/sec
Only fit one way, prevents Maximum cable length is Once the data has been sent, The receiver will send the
incorrect connections about 5 metres data back to the sender for verification.
Different data transmission The sender would compare the received and original data
rates for errors.
Backwards compatible The only downside is that we wouldn’t know if the error
Industry-standard occurred when sending the data or sending the data back
for verification.

2.3. Methods of Error Detection Check Digits

Parity Checks Check digits are calculated from all the other digits in the
data (ex-codes). The check digit would be the last digit of
It uses the number of 1-bits in a byte the code.
Type Types - These are used to identify mistyping errors such as -
Even - Even number of 1-bits 6372 typed as 6379
Odd - Odd numbers of 1-bits 8432 typed as 842
Example (Even Parity) -
Automatic Repeat Requests (ARQs)
0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0
Uses acknowledgements and timeouts to make sure the
The LMB (Left-Most Bit) is the parity bit. As the number of user received the data
1s is even, the parity bit would be set to even. The receiver would check the data for any errors; if none
Limitations with Parity Checks are found, a positive acknowledgement is sent to the
Two bits may change during transmission; therefore error sender. However, if errors are found, a negative
is not found acknowledgement will be sent, and the data will be sent
Even though the parity checks would reveal the errors, the again.
bit(s) changed wouldn’t be identified The sender uses timeouts to wait for a pre-determined
amount for the acknowledgement.
Parity Blocks If no acknowledgements are received after the timeout,
the data will be sent again to the receiver.
To overcome the limitations of parity bits, Parity blocks
would be used.
2.4. Encryption
Encryption is a process of turning the data into an
unreadable form so it doesn’t make sense to hackers and
other attackers.

Plaintext and Ciphertext

Plaintext is the original data that is being sent

Ciphertext is the text produced after encryption

Any changes in bits would be identified through the rows Symmetric and Asymmetric Encryption
and columns
Symmetric Encryption:
Checksum It uses an encryption key for the encryption process;
the same key is used for encrypting and decrypting
Whenever a block of data needs to be sent, the sender
the data.
would calculate the checksum value using a specific
Asymmetric Encryption:
algorithm.
Uses a public key and a private key. The public key is
Once the data has been sent, The receiver would available to everyone, whereas the private key is only
calculate the checksum again with the same set of data
available to the user.
and the same algorithm used before.
The receiver would have the private key, and they
The receiver would then compare the value received and
would send the public key to the sender. The sender
the newly calculated value. If they aren’t matched, A
 can encrypt the message with the public key, and the
data can be decrypted using the private key.

3. Hardware
3.1. Computer Architecture & Von
Neumann Architecture
The central processing unit (CPU) (also known as a
Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer
microprocessor or processor) is central to all modern
Science - Second Edition (Hodder Education)
computer systems

The CPU consists of the following architecture: The Fetch-Execute Cycle

Processor: The processor contains the Arithmetic and 1. PC contains the address of the next instruction to be
Logic Unit (ALU) fetched
Control Unit: The control unit controls the operation of the 2. This address is copied to the MAR via the address bus
memory, processor and input/output devices 3. The instruction of the address is copied into the MDR
Arithmetic Logic Unit: Carries out the logic system like temporarily
calculations 4. The instruction in the MDR is then placed in the CIR
System Clock: The system clock is used to produce timing 5. The value in the PC is incremented by 1, pointing to
signals on the control bus the next instruction to be fetched
6. The instruction is finally decoded and then executed
Busses: Carry data through components. The following are its
types.
Stored Program Concept
Address bus – unidirectional
Instructions are stored in the main memory
Data Bus – bi-directional
Control Bus – bi-directional Instructions are fetched, decoded and executed by
the processor
Immediate Access Store: Stores the instructions that are to Programs can be moved to and from the main memory
be processed, which are fetched by the CPU
Memory Concept
The following registers also exist in the architecture:
A computer’s memory is divided into partitions: Each
REGISTER ABBREVIATION DEFINITION partition consists of an address and its contents, e.g.
Stores the instruction the
Current instruction
CIR CPU is currently decoding MEMORY LOCATION CONTENT
register
or executing 10101010 01010110
Stores the Address of the
Memory address
MAR instruction, copy it, and Instruction Set:
register
sends it to MDR An instruction set is a list of all the commands that a CPU can
Stores the Data from the process, and the commands are machine code
address received from the
MDR Memory data register
MAR and sends data to 3.2. Cores, Cache and Internal Clock
CIR
Stores the address of the System’s Clock
PC Program counter next instruction to be
fetched from memory The clock defines the clock cycle that synchronises all
computer operations. By increasing the clock speed, the
During calculations, data
ACC Accumulator computer's processing speed also increases. This doesn’t
is temporarily held in it
mean that the computer's performance is increased,
however.

Overclocking

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
Using a clock speed higher than the computer was designed 3D scanners can scan solid objects and produce a three-
for. dimensional image
It leads to multiple issues. Scanners take images at several points, x, y and z (lasers,
magnetic, white light)
Operations become unsynchronised - (the computer The scanned images can be used in Computer Aided
would frequently crash and become unstable) Design (CAD) or to a 3D printer to produce a working
can lead to serious overheating of the CPU model

Length of Data Buses Application of 2D Scanners at an Airport:

The wider the data buses, the better the performance of the Make use of (OCR) to produce digital images which
computer represent the passport pages
Text can be stored in ASCII format
Cache The 2D photograph in the passport is also scanned and
stored as jpeg image
Cache memory is located within the CPU itself The passenger’s face is also photographed using a digital
-- allows faster access to the CPU camera and compared using face recognition software
-- stores frequently used instructions and data that need to be Key parts of the face are compared (distance between
accessed faster, which improves CPU performance eyes, width of nose)
The larger the cache memory size, the better the CPU
performance Barcode readers/scanners

A barcode is a series of dark and light parallel lines of

Cores
varying thicknesses
The numbers 0 -9 are each represented by a unique
The more cores in the CPU, the better and faster the
series of lines
performance
The left and right hand sides of the barcode are separate
But if any number of cores are used, it could possibly slow using guard bars
down the system performance as the communication Allows barcode to be scanned in any direction
between each core increases, and so do the data cables Barcode is read by a red laser or red LED
between each. Which in turn reduces the potential system Light is reflected back off the barcode; dark areas
performance. reflect little light which allows the bars to be read
You might have heard about quad and dual cores, not Reflected light is read by sensors (photoelectric cells)
septa or octa cores. The pattern is generated, which is converted to digital

Quick Response (QR) Codes

3.3. Input Devices
Another type of barcode is the QR codes
Two-dimensional Scanners: Made up of a matrix of filled-in dark squares on a light
background
Used to input hard-copy documents
Can hold more storage (7000 digits)
The image is converted into an electronic form which can
Advantages of QR codes:
be stored in the computer
No need for the user to write down the website
Document is placed on a glass panel address
A bright light illuminates the document
QR codes can store website addresses
A scan head moves across the document until the
whole page is scanned. And image of the document is Digital Cameras
produced and sent to a lens using a series of mirrors
The lens focuses the document image It is controlled by a microprocessor that adjusts the
The focused image now falls onto a charge couple shutter speed, focuses the image, etc.
device (CCD) which consists of a numbers of Photo is captured when light passes through the lens onto
integrated circuits a light sensitive cell
Software produces a digital image from the electronic The cell is made up of pixels
form The number of pixels determines the size of the file
Optical Character Recognition (OCR) is a software which
Keyboards
converts scanned documents into a text file format
If the original document was a photo/image, then the Connected to a computer with a USB connection or by
scanned image forms an image file such as JPEG wireless connection
Each character has an ASCII value and is converted into a
Three-dimensional Scanners
digital signal
 Slow method Infra-red (active) - This IR sensor uses an invisible
Prone to errors infrared beam. When the beam is broken/disturbed, it
changes the amount of infrared light reaching the
Pointing devices detector.
Infra-red (passive) - These sensors detect the heat
Mouse/trackball
emitted by any type of object.
Traditional; mechanical ball, connected by USB port
Level - This sensor detects the solids, liquids, or gas
Modern type; red LEDs to detect movement
level.
Microphones Light - These devices use light-sensitive cells that
generate electric current based on light brightness.
Used to input sound to a computer Magnetic field - This sensor detects the change in
When a microphone picks up sound, a diaphragm magnetic field.
vibrates, producing an electric signal Moisture - This type of sensor detects the water
The signal goes to a sound card and is converted into content wherever this sensor has been installed.
digital values and stored in a computer pH - This measures the acidity or alkalinity.
Voice recognition, voice is detected and converted into Pressure - This sensor measures the pressure applied
digital Proximity - This sensor detects the nearby objects
around the sensor
Touchscreens
Temperature - These sensors measure the
Capacitive (medium cost tech) temperature of the environment.
Made up of many layers of glass (Note: You do not need to know the working principle of
Creating electric fields between glass plates in layers the sensor. But have an idea of their purposes.)
When the top layer of glass is touched, electric current
Control of Street Lighting­­
changes
Co-ordinates where the screen was touched are The light sensor sends data to the ADC
determined by an on-board microprocessor Digitised data and sends it to the microprocessor
Infra-red heat (expensive) Microprocessor samples data every minute
Use glass as the screen material If data from sensor < value stored in memory:
Needs a warm object to carry an input operation Signal sent from microprocessor to street lamp
Infra-red optical (expensive) Lamp switched on
Uses glass as screen material
Uses an array of sensors (grid form)
3.4. Output Devices
Point of contact is based on which grid co-ordinate is
touched
Inkjet Printers
Resistive (inexpensive)
The upper layer of polyester, the bottom layer of glass Used to print one-off pictures and documents
When the top polyester is touched, the top layer and
bottom layer complete a circuit 1. Data from the document sent to the printer driver
Signals are then sent out, which are interpreted by a 2. The printer driver ensures data is in the correct
microprocessor, determine where the screen was format
touched 3. Check made by printer driver that the chosen printer
is available
Sensors 4. Data is sent to printer, and stored in a temporary
memory (printer buffer)
Devices that read or measure physical properties
5. A sheet of paper is fed; the sensor detects if the paper
Data needs to be converted to digital
is available in the paper tray
Analogue-to-digital converter (ADC) converts physical
6. The print head moves across paper printing
values into digital
text/image, four ink colours sprayed in the exact
Sensors and their purposes:
amount
Acoustic - These sensors act like a microphone that
7. Paper is advanced, so next line is printed
converts sound to electric pulses.
8. Repeated until the buffer is empty
Accelerometer - These sensors measure an object's
9. Once it is done, the printer sends an interrupt to the
acceleration or deceleration and motion.
processor (request for more data to be sent)
Flow - This sensor measures the flow of liquid or gas.
Gas - These sensors measure the amount/level of any Laser Printers
gas in the environment.
Humidity - This sensor measures the water vapour in Used to print flyers, high quality
the air or any sample.
 Use dry powder ink (toner) and static electricity to CCFL uses two fluorescent tubes behind the LCD screen,
produce text and images which supplies the light source
Prints the whole page in one go
Light Projectors:
1. (steps 1-4 same as inkjet)
2. Printing drum is given a positive charge; as the drum Two common types of light projectors:
rotates, a the laser beam is scanned across it, Digital Light Projector (DLP)
removing the positive charge leaves negatively LCD Projector
charged areas which match the text/image Projectors are used to project computer output onto
3. The drum is then coated with positively charged toner; larger screens/interactive whiteboards
it only sticks to negatively charged parts of the drum
Digital Light Projectors (DLP)
4. A negatively charged sheet is rolled over the drum
5. The toner on the drum now sticks to the paper to Uses millions of micromirrors
produce a copy of the page the number of micromirrors and the way they are
6. Paper finally goes through a fuser (set of heated arranged on the DLP chip determines the resolution of the
rollers); heat melts the ink so it is permanent image
7. The discharge lamp removes all electric charge from When the micromirrors tilt towards the light source they
the drum, ready to print next page are on
When the micromirrors tilt away from the light source,
3D Printers
they are off
Used for models of cars This creates a light or dark pixel on the projection screen
Produce solid objects that work A bright white light source passes through a colour filter
Built up layer by layer, using powdered resin, ceramic on its way to the DLP chip
powder White light splits into primary colours
A design is made using Computer-aided Design (CAD)
LCD Projectors
2D and 3D Cutters
Older technology than DLP
3D cutters can recognise objects in x, y, z direction A powerful beam of white light is generated from a bulb
3D laser cutters can cut; glass, crystal, metal, wood This beam of light is then sent to a group of chromatic-
coated mirrors; these reflect the light back at different
Actuators wavelengths
When the white light hits the mirrors, the reflected light
The actuators convert electrical signals to mechanical has wavelengths corresponding to red, green, and blue
processes. These three different lights pass through three LCD
Used in many control applications involving sensors and screens; these screens show the image to be projected as
devices (ADC and DAC) millions of pixels in grayscale
When the coloured light passes through the LCD screens,
Loudspeakers/Headphones
a red, green and blue version of the grey image emerges
Sound is produced by passing the digital data through a Finally, the image passes through the projector lens onto
DAC then through an amplifier and then emerges from the screen
the loudspeaker
Produced by voltage differences vibrating a cone in the
speaker at different frequencies

LCD and LED Monitors

The front layer of the monitor is made up of Liquid Crystal

Display (LCD), these tiny diodes are grouped together in
threes as pixels (LCD doesn’t emit any light)
LCD monitors are backlit using Light Emitting Diode (LED)
because: Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer
LEDs reach their maximum brightness immediately Science - Second Edition (Hodder Education)
LEDs sharpens image (higher resolution), and CCFL
has a yellow tint
LEDs improve the colour image
3.5. Memory, Storage Devices & Media
Monitors using LED are much thinner than CCFL
Primary vs. Secondary Storage
LEDs consume very little power
Before LEDs, LCD monitors were backlit using CCFL The CPU directly accesses primary storage
 The CPU does not directly access secondary storage Avoids the need to install/upgrade RAM, as it could be
RAM, ROM, and cache memory are some examples expensive
HDD, SSD, DVD, memory stick, and Blu-ray disc are some The system wastes no storage on unwanted/unused
examples data.

Primary Memory: Read Only Memory (ROM)

Random Access Memory (RAM)
Features of ROM
RAM is used by a system when it needs to store and Non-volatile/permanent memories (contents remain
access data that is actively being used or processed by even when ROM is turned off)
the user immediately. Used to store start-up instructions (basic input/output
Features of RAM systems)
Volatile/temporary memory (contents lost if RAM is Data/contents of a ROM chip can only be read and
turned off) cannot be changed
Used to store; data, files
It can be written to or read from, and the contents of Secondary Storage:
the memory can be changed Hard Disk Drives (HDD)
The larger the size of the RAM, the faster the computer
Data is stored in a digital format on the magnetic surface
will operate
of the disks (platter)
RAM never runs out of memory and continues to run slow
A number of read/write heads can access all of the
As RAM becomes full, the processor has to access the
surfaces of the disk
continually hard drive to overwrite old data on RAM with
Each platter will have two surfaces which can be used to
new data
store the data
RAM is of two types:
Data is stored on the surfaces in sectors and tracks
DRAM (Dynamic RAM) and SRAM (Static RAM) HDD has very slow data access compared to RAM

Solid-State Drive (SSD)

There are no moving parts, and all data is received at the

same time (not like HDD)
Store data by controlling the movement of electrons
within NAND chips, as 1s and 0s
Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer Non-volatile rewritable memory
Science - Second Edition (Hodder Education) Benefits of using SSD rather than HDD:
Virtual memory More reliable (no moving parts)
Considerably lighter (suitable for laptops)
When RAM runs out of memory, there is a problem with Lower power consumption
memory management; thus, the system has a high Run much cooler than HDDs
chance of crashing. This is why virtual memory comes into Very thin
the picture. Data access is faster than HDD
The virtual memory can be either HDD or SSD (these Drawback – questionable longevity (20GB per day)
storages are discussed below)
Off-Line Storage:
CD/DVD Disks

Laser (red) light is used to read and write data on the

surface of the disk.
A thin layer of metal alloy is used to store data.
Both systems use a single spiral track that runs from the
centre of the disk to the edge
DVD uses Dual-Layering, which increases the storage
capacity (two individual recording layers)

Blu-ray Disks

You may be expected to draw a diagram like the above. Uses a blue laser to carry out read-and-write operations
The main advantages of virtual memory are The wavelength of laser light is less than CD and DVD
They can be larger than the physical memory provided (stores up to five times more data than DVD)
in the RAM. Automatically come with secure encryption (prevent
piracy and copyright infringement)
 Used as backup systems Updating automatically via a satellite, cellular or Wi-Fi
link
USB Flash Memories
Advantages and Disadvantages of using embedded systems
Very small, lightweight, and suitable for transferring files
Advantages Disadvantages
Small back-up devices for photo, music
Small in size, therefore can
Solid state, so needs to be treated with care Can be difficult to upgrade
easily fit into devices
Cloud Storage: The interface can be
Low cost to make
confusing sometimes
Cloud storage is a method of data storage where data is
Troubleshooting is a
stored on remote servers Requires very little power
specialist’s job
The same data is stored on more than one server in case
of maintenance or repair, allowing clients to access data Often thrown away as difficult
Very fast reaction to changing
at any time. This is known as data redundancy. to upgrade and faults are
input
harder to find
The following are its types: Increased garbage as they
Dedicated to one task only
are thrown away
Public cloud – this is a storage environment where the
customer/client and cloud storage provider are different Any computerised system is
Can be controlled remotely
companies prone to attacks
Private cloud – this is storage provided by a dedicated
environment behind a company firewall; customer/client Applications of Embedded devices
and cloud storage provider are integrated and operate as GPS systems
a single entity Security Systems
Hybrid cloud – this is a combination of the two above Vending Machines
environments; some data resides in the private cloud, and Washing Machines
less sensitive/less commercial data can be accessed from Oven
a public cloud storage provider Microwave

3.7. Network Hardware

Network Interface Card (NIC)

A network interface card (NIC) is needed to allow a device to

connect to a network (such as the Internet).

Media Access Control (MAC)

3.6. Embedded System
A MAC address comprises 48 bits which are shown as six
A combination of hardware and software is designed to groups of hexadecimal digits. The first six display the
carry out a specific set of tasks. manufacturer’s code, and the second half shows the device
Embedded systems may contain - serial number.
Microcontrollers - CPU, RAM, ROM and other
peripherals on one single chip These do not change and are primarily constant for every
Microprocessor - Integrated circuit with CPU only device
System on Chips (SoC) - microprocessor with I/O ports, there are two types of MAC addresses: the Universally
storage and memory Administered MAC Address (UAA) and the Locally
Process of Embedded Devices - Administered MAC Address (LAA)
Input from the user is sent to the microprocessor
(ADC needed if the data is analogue) The only difference between the two types is that UAA is
Data from the user interface is also sent to the made Universally and cannot be changed, but it is the
microprocessor opposite for LAA.
The microprocessor then sends signals to actuators
which are the output
IP Addresses
Non-programmable devices need to be replaced if they
IP address allocation:
need a software update.
The network allocates IP addresses.
Programmable devices have two methods of updating
Two types of IP addresses: static and dynamic.
Connecting the device to a computer and downloading
Static IP addresses:
the update
 Assigned manually to a device. It also receives incoming data packets from the
Does not change over time. internet and routes them to the appropriate devices
Dynamic IP addresses: on the local network.
Assigned automatically by a DHCP (Dynamic Host
Configuration Protocol) server.
Changes periodically or when the device connects to a 4. # Operating Systems
different network.
IPv4 (Internet Protocol version 4): Operating Systems are designed to establish
Widely used protocol. communication between the user and the computer
Consists of four groups of decimal numbers separated Functions of a typical operating system -
by dots (e.g., 192.168.0.1). -managing files
Provides approximately 4.3 billion unique addresses. – handling interrupts
IPv6 (Internet Protocol version 6): – providing an interface
Developed to address the limitations of IPv4. – managing peripherals and drivers
Uses eight groups of hexadecimal numbers separated – managing memory
by colons (e.g., – managing multitasking
2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334). – providing a platform for running applications
Provides an extremely large number of unique – providing system security
addresses (approximately 340 undecillion). – managing user accounts
Differences between IPv4 and IPv6: WIMP - Windows, Icons, Menu, and Pointing Devices
Address format: IPv4 uses a 32-bit address, while IPv6
Advantages and Disadvantages of CLI and GUI
uses a 128-bit address.
Address space: IPv4 provides approximately 4.3 billion
addresses, whereas IPv6 offers around 340
undecillion addresses.
Address allocation: IPv4 addresses are allocated
manually using DHCP, while IPv6 addresses are
primarily assigned using stateless autoconfiguration.

Routers

Router functionality:
A router is a networking device that directs data
packets between different networks.
It determines the most efficient path for data
transmission.
Sending data to a specific destination on a network: Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer Science -
A router examines the destination IP address of Second Edition (Hodder Education)
incoming data packets.
It uses routing tables to determine the next hop or the Memory Management - Manages the RAM and the
next router on the path to the destination. HDD/SSD during the execution of programs
The router forwards the data packet to the Security Management - Providing security features such
appropriate next hop. as Anti-Virus, System updates and so on
Router's role in IP address assignment: Hardware Peripheral Management - Managing the device
A router can act as a DHCP server (Dynamic Host drives, Inputs, Outputs, Queues and buffers
Configuration Protocol) and assign IP addresses to File Management - Opening, Creating, Deleting,
devices on a local network. Renaming, and many more functions
It dynamically allocates IP addresses from a Multitasking - OS would share the hardware resources
predefined range to connected devices. with each of the processes
DHCP allows for automatic IP address configuration Management of User Accounts - OS would allow multiple
and simplifies network management. users to customise their accounts individually.
Connecting a local network to the Internet:
A router serves as the gateway between a local
4.1. Running of Applications
network and the internet.
The computer starts its OS (booting up the computer)
It connects the local network to an internet service
through the bootstrap loader.
provider (ISP) network.
The BIOS (Basic Input/Output System) tells the computer
The router receives data packets from devices on the
the location of the OS in the storage.
local network and forwards them to the internet.
 BIOS is often referred to as the firmware Assembly language must be translated into machine
code using an assembler to run.

Translators
Compiler

Translates a program written in a high-level language into

machine code
Used without compiler
Executable file of machine code produced
Interrupts One high-level language translated into several machine
code instructions
Signal that causes the operating system to stop what it’s
Used for general use
doing and service a task
Ensures important tasks are dealt with on a priority basis Interpreter
It can be a software or a hardware interrupt
Peripherals like a keyboard & mouse can generate it Executes a high-language program a statement at a time
Different interrupts have different levels of priority No executable file of machine code produced
After interruption is dealt with, the previous process One high-level language program statement may require
continues several machine code instructions to be executed.
Interpreted programs cannot be used without an
4.2. Programming Languages, interpreter
Used when the program is being developed
Translators and IDEs
Assembler
Computers can only understand machine code; therefore,
Translates a low-level language program into machine
translators are needed
code
High-Level Languages Executable file of machine code produced
One low-level language translated into one machine code
It is easier to read and understand as the language is instructions
closer to human language. It can be used without an assembler
Easier to write in a shorter time Used for general use
Easier to debug at the development stage
Easier to maintain once in use Compiler Interpreter Assembler
Executes a high-
Low-Level Languages Translates a high- Translates a low-
level language
level language level assembly
Refer to machine code program one
program into language program
Binary instructions that the computer understands statement at a
machine code. into machine code.
time.
An executable file No executable file An executable file
of machine code is of machine code is of machine code is
produced. produced. produced.
One high-level
One high-level One low-level
language program
language language
statement may
statement can be statement is usually
require several
translated into translated into one
machine code
several machine machine code
instructions to be
Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer code instructions. instruction.
executed.
Science - Second Edition (Hodder Education)
Interpreted Assembled
Assembly Language Compiled programs
programs cannot programs are used
are run without the
Few programmers use assembly language to - be run without the without the
compiler.
Make use of special hardware interpreter. assembler.
Write code that doesn’t take up much space
Write code that runs very quickly
 Compiler Interpreter Assembler Device driver: Software that enables hardware devices to
communicate with a computer's operating system,
A compiled An interpreter is An assembled
without which a device like a printer would be unable to
program is usually often used when a program is usually
work.
distributed for program is being distributed for
Operating system: Software that manages basic
general use. developed. general use.
computer functions such as input/output operations,
program loading and running, and security management,
Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer
making computers more user-friendly.
Science - Second Edition (Hodder Education)
Utility programs: Software that manages, maintains, and
controls computer resources by carrying out specific
Integrated Development Environments (IDEs)
tasks, such as virus checking, disk repair and analysis, file
An IDE would usually have these features - management, and security.
Code Editor
Translator
Application Software:
Debugger
Word Processor: Software used for manipulating text
Error Reports
documents, including creating, editing, and formatting
Auto-Completion and Auto-Correction
text with tools for copying, deleting, spell-checking, and
Auto-Documenter
importing images.
Pretty Printing
Spreadsheet: Organizes and manipulates numerical data
using a grid of lettered columns and numbered rows, with
4.3. Types of Software and Interrupts each cell identified using a unique combination of
columns and rows. It can calculate using formulas,
Types of Software produce graphs, and do modelling and "what if"
calculations.
1. System Software e.g. Operating System, Utility Database: Software used to organize, analyze, and
programs and device drivers manipulate data consisting of one or more tables that
2. Application Software e.g. spreadsheet, word hold records and fields. It provides the ability to query and
processor, etc. report on data and add, delete, and modify records in a
table.
System Software: Control and Measuring Software: A program designed to
interface with sensors and allow a computer or
these are a set of programs which control and manage
microprocessor to measure physical quantities and
the operations of hardware
control applications by comparing sensor data with stored
gives a platform for other software to run data and altering process parameters accordingly.
it is required to allow hardware and software to run
Apps: Software designed to run on mobile phones or
without problems
tablets, downloaded from an "App Store" and ranging
provides a human-computer interface (HCI) to the user
from games to sophisticated software such as phone
controls the allocation and usage of hardware resources
banking. Common examples include video and music
streaming, GPS, and camera facilities.
Application Software: Photo and Video Editing Software: Software that allows
users to manipulate digital photographs or videos,
allows a user to perform specific tasks using the
including changing colour, brightness, and contrast,
computer’s resources
applying filters and other enhancements, and creating
maybe a single program (for example, NotePad) or a suite
transitions between clips.
of programs (for example, Microsoft Office)
Graphics Manipulation Software: Software that allows the
user can execute the software as and when they require
manipulation of bitmap and vector images, with bitmap
and it is mostly not automatic
graphics editors changing pixels to produce a different
Examples image, while vector graphics editors manipulate lines,
curves, and text to alter the stored image as required.
System Software:
Interrupts
Compiler: Translates high-level language into machine
An interrupt is a signal sent to the microprocessor, either
code, allowing for direct use by a computer to perform
from a device or software, prompting the microprocessor to
tasks without re-compilation.
pause its ongoing tasks and handle the interrupt temporarily.
Linker: Combines object files produced by a compiler into
Various factors can trigger interrupts, including:
a single program, allowing the use of separately written
code modules in the final program.
CAIE IGCSE COMPUTER SCIENCE

Timing signals: Scheduled signals prompt the Defragmentation software rearranges the data blocks on
microprocessor to pause and handle tasks at specific a hard disk drive (HDD) to store files in contiguous
intervals. sectors, reducing head movements and improving data
Input/Output processes: Events such as a disk drive or access time.
printer requiring additional data cause an interruption in As an HDD becomes full, blocks used for files become
the microprocessor's activities. scattered all over the disk surface, making it slower to
Hardware faults: Issues like a paper jam in a printer, retrieve data as the HDD read-write head needs several
signalling the microprocessor to halt its operations and movements to find the data.
address the hardware problem. When a file is deleted or extended, new data does not fill
User interaction: Instances like a user pressing specific the vacant sectors immediately, causing the files to
keys on a keyboard (e.g., ), leading to an interrupt in the become more scattered throughout the disk surfaces.
system's operation. A disk defragmenter rearranges the data blocks to store
Software errors: Problems such as missing .exe files files in contiguous sectors wherever possible, allowing for
needed to initiate a program, conflicts like two processes faster data access and retrieval.
accessing the exact memory location, or attempts to The defragmentation process can free up previously
divide by zero. These errors trigger interrupts, prompting occupied sectors and empty some tracks.
the microprocessor to handle the issues.
Backup Software

Backup software is a utility software that helps create and

manage backup copies of data files and programs.
Manual backups using memory sticks or portable hard
drives are good practices, but operating system backup
utilities are also recommended.
Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer Backup utilities allow scheduling backups and only backup
Science - Second Edition (Hodder Education) files if changes have been made to them.
There could be three file versions for total security: the
4.4. Utility Software current version stored on the internal HDD/SSD, a locally
backed-up copy on a portable SSD, and a remote backup
Computer users have access to utility programs as part of on cloud storage.
system software
Utility programs can be initiated by the user or run in the Security Software
background without user input
Common utility programs include virus checkers, Security software is a utility software that manages
defragmentation software, disk analysis and repair tools, access control, user accounts, and links to other utilities
file compression and management software, backup such as virus and spyware checkers.
software, security tools, and screensavers. It also protects network interfaces using firewalls to
prevent unauthorized access.
Virus Checkers & Anti-Virus Software Security software uses encryption and decryption to
ensure intercepted data is unreadable without a
Virus checkers or anti-virus software are important for decryption key.
protecting computers from malware. It oversees software updates to verify legitimate sources
They should be kept up to date and run in the background and prevent malicious software from being installed.
to maintain their effectiveness. Access control and user accounts use IDs and passwords
Anti-virus software checks files before they are run or to secure user data and prevent unauthorized access.
loaded and compares possible viruses against a database
of known viruses. Screensavers
Heuristic checking is used to identify possible viruses that
are not yet on the database. Screensavers display moving and still images on the
Infected files are put into quarantine for automatic monitor screen after computer inactivity.
deletion or for the user to decide. They were originally developed to protect CRT monitors
Anti-virus software must be updated as new viruses are from 'phosphor burn'.
constantly discovered. Screensavers are now mostly used for customizing a
Full system scans should be carried out regularly to detect device and as a part of computer security systems.
dormant viruses. They automatically log out of the user after a certain
period of inactivity.
Disk Defragmentation Software Some screensavers activate useful background tasks like
virus scans and distributed computing applications.
Device Drivers They are safety protocols maintained while transmitting
data.
Device drivers translate data into a format that can be
understood by the hardware device they are associated Web Browsers
with.
Without the appropriate device driver, a hardware device It is software used to connect to the internet
cannot work with a computer and may not be recognised It translates the HTML code
by the operating system. ensures SSL & TLS security can be established
USB device drivers contain descriptors, which include a Offers additional features like search history & ad
vendor ID (VID), product ID (PID) and unique serial blockers
number that allow the operating system to identify the
Retrieval and Location of web pages
device.
Serial numbers must be unique to avoid confusion if two The browser sends the URL to the domain name server
devices with the same serial number are plugged into a (DNS)
computer simultaneously. DNS stores the index and matches it with the IP
IP is sent to the browser if it exists

5. The Internet and Its Uses The browser sends a request to the IP of the webserver
Browser interprets the HTML

5.1. The Internet and the World Wide Cookies

Web Cookies are small files stored on the user’s computer
They are used to track data about the users and autofill
Internet World Wide Web (WWW) forms or give suggestions accordingly
Uses transmission protocols Types of Cookies -
Collection of webpages and
such as TCP and IP (Internet
other information on websites Session Cookie Persistent Cookie
Protocols)
Allows the user to Remembers the user’s login
Uses HTTP(S) protocols that Temporary cookies are stored
communicate with other details so the user doesn’t
are written using Hypertext in the RAM till the browser is
users via chat, email, calling have to log in every time they
Mark-up Language (HTML) closed.
and more visit a website
Worldwide Collection of URLs (Uniform Resource Stored on the hard disk on the
Doesn’t collect any
Interconnected Networks and Locator) are used for the computer until their expiry
information on the user
Devices location of the web pages date or the user deletes them
Web browsers can access A good example is the virtual
web pages. shopping basket on e-
commerce websites.
Uniform Resource Locator (URLs)
5.2. Digital Currency
URLs are used to locate and access web pages. The
typical format of URLs is - Form of payment to pay for goods and services
A few examples are Debit/Credit Cards, Apps (Paypal,
protocol://website address/path/file name
Apple Pay, Bank Transfers and many more)
The protocol would usually be HTTP or HTTPS Cryptography was later introduced due to the problem in
The website address would contain - centralised banking systems.
domain host (www) Cryptocurrency uses cryptography to maintain track of
domain name (website name) transactions.
domain type (.com, .org, .net, .gov) or sometimes Cryptocurrency is also more secure because it uses
country codes (.uk, .in, .cy) Blockchain Network
The path would usually become the le directory roots. for
example, https://www.notes.com/computer-science Blockchain Network
The /computer-science is the file name
Blockchain Network involves several interconnected
computers where the transaction data is stored
HTTP and HTTPS
Hacking isn’t possible here as transaction details would be
HTTP stands for Hypertext Transfer Protocol, and HTTPS sent to all the computers, and the data can’t be changed
stands for Hypertext Transfer Protocol secure without the consent of all the network members
 How do blockchains work Accessing their emails
Every time a transaction takes place, A block is created. The Accessing websites
block would contain - Accessing online services

Data - Name of the sender and the receiver, amount of Hacking

money and more
Hash Value - Unique value generated by an algorithm The act of gaining illegal access to a computer system
Previous Hash Value - Hash Value of the previous block in Effect:
the chain This leads to identity theft, gaining personal
information
Data can be deleted, changed or corrupted
To remove risk:
Firewalls
Strong passwords/ user IDs
Use of anti-hacking software
Difference between hacking and cracking
Hacking breaks into computer systems to steal data
Cracking is when someone edits a program code,
malicious

Malware
The first block is called the genesis block as it doesn’t point to
any previous block (Previous Hash Value - 0000) Stands for Malicious Software. A few examples are -
Virus - A program that can replicate itself with the
5.3. Cyber Security intention of deleting or corrupting files, causing a
computer malfunction
Brute Force Attack: Ransomware - Attackers encrypt the user’s data until a
certain amount of money is paid
Hackers try to guess your password by trying all the Adware - Displays unwanted ads on the user’s screen
different combinations of letters, numbers and symbols. Trojan Horse - Programs that are disguised as
Effect: legitimate software
Hacker gets access to user’s personal data (credit
Spyware - Sends data about all the activities of the
cards, passwords and more) user to the attacker
To remove risk: Worms - Programs that can replicate themselves with
Use stronger passwords with more characters and the intention of corrupting the entire network instead
symbols of the computer alone
Data Interception:
Phishing
This involves stealing data by tapping into a wired or a Attackers send legitimate-looking emails to bait the user
wireless transmission line into giving out their information.
Wardriving - The act of locating and using wireless To remove risk:
internet connections illegally
Don’t open links from unknown receivers
Packet Sniffing - Uses Packet sniffers to examine Use anti-phishing tools
packets sent over a line; all the data collected is sent Block pop-up ads
back to the attacker Have an up-to-date browser
Effect:
It can cause a computer to crash Pharming
Can delete or corrupt files/data
To remove risk: The attacker installs a malicious code on the computer,
Install anti-virus software which redirects the user to fake websites
Don’t use software from unknown sources Effect:
Be careful when opening emails from unknown The user gives out login details and other personal
details
Distributed Denial of Service Attacks (DDoS) To remove risk:
Using anti-virus software
An attempt at preventing users from accessing part of a Checking the spelling and the weblink carefully
network Make sure that the green padlock is present in the
Usually temporary but may be damaging URL bar
An attacker may be able to prevent the user from:
Social Engineering Attacks like DDoS and Hacking attack the proxy
server, keeping the web server safe.
Attackers create a social situation which leads to victims Acts as a firewall as well.
giving out their details (For example - Spam calls Privacy Settings - Used to limit who can access and see a
informing them that their account has been hacked) user’s profile
SSL (Secure Socket Layer) - Set of rules used while
Keeping data safe from threats communicating with other users on the internet.

Access Levels - Having Different levels of access for

different people (for example - Only doctors can have 6. Automated and Emerging
access to patient’s data)
Antivirus - Protects user’s computer from malware attacks Technologies
Authentication - User proving who they are. The most
common methods are passwords, PINs, Mobiles (OTPs),
biometrics and more) 6.1. Automated Systems
Benefits and Drawbacks of Biometric Method Automated Systems are a combination of software and
Biometric hardware designed to function without human
Benefits Drawbacks
Methods intervention.
Most development Process of Automated Systems
Intrusive as used to Sensors take inputs, and they are sent to the
methods are very easy
identify criminals, microprocessor. The data is usually analogue, so it
Fingerprint to use and require
Can’t be used if the has to go through Analogue-to-Digital Converter
Scans very low storage
finger gets dirty or (ADC)
space to store the
damaged (e.g. cuts) The microprocessor processes the data and makes
biometric data.
the necessary decisions based on its program
With very high It is very intrusive,
The actions are then executed by the actuators
accuracy, it Impossible Takes longer to verify,
Retina Scan (Motors, wheels and so on)
to replicate a person’s Expensive to install
retina and set up Advantages and Disadvantages of Automated Systems
Can’t identify if there Advantages Disadvantages
Face Non-intrusive method, are any changes in the Expensive to set up and
Recognition Relatively cheaper lighting, change in age Faster and Safer
maintain
or person’s age.
Any changes can be identified Any computerised systems
Voices can be quickly are prone to attacks
recorded and used for
Over-reliance on automated
verification, but low
Non-Intrusive method, Less Expensive in the long run systems may cause humans
accuracy and illnesses
Voice verification is done to lose skills
such as colds or
Recognition quickly and relatively Higher Productivity and
coughs can affect a
cheaper Efficiency
person’s voice, making
identification
You should be able to describe the advantages and
impossible.
disadvantages of an automated system used for a given
scenario.
Two-Step Verification - Requires two methods of
Including scenarios from:
authentication to prove who the user is
Automatic Software Updates - Latest updates contain industry
patches which improve device security transport
Spelling and Tone - Fake emails tend to have wrong
agriculture
spelling and grammar (amazonn instead of amazon), and
weather
the tone would also seem urgent
gaming
Firewalls - Hardware or Software which monitors the lighting
traffic between a network and the user’s computer science
Proxy Servers - Acts as an intermediate between the
user’s computer and the web server. They are used for -
Filtering Internet traffic
6.2. Robotics
Keeping the user’s IP Address Confidential
Robotics is the branch of computer science that combines
Blocking access to certain websites
robot design, construction and operation.
 Isaac Asimov’s Laws of Robotics - Narrow AI - A machine has superior performance to a
A robot may not injure a human through action or human when doing one specific task
inaction General AI - A machine is similar to a human when
A robot must obey orders given by humans unless it doing one specific task
comes into conflict with Law 1 Strong AI - Machine has superior performance to a
a robot must protect itself unless this conflicts with law human in many tasks
1. Characteristics of AI -
Characteristics of a robot - Collection of Data and Rules
Ability to sense their surroundings Ability to Reason
Have a degree of movement Ability to learn and adapt
Programmable
Types of AI
NOTE - ROBOTS DO NOT POSSESS AI; THEY TEND TO DO
REPETITIVE TASKS RATHER THAN REQUIRING HUMAN Expert System - AI that is developed to mimic human
CHARACTERISTICS knowledge and experiences. They are usually used for
answering questions using knowledge and inference.
Types of Robots -
They have many applications, including chatbots,
Independent - Have no human intervention; they can
diagnosis in the medical industry, financial calculations
completely replace humans
and so on
Dependent - Needs human intervention through an
interface, can supplement but can’t completely Advantages and Disadvantages of Expert Systems
replace humans Advantages Disadvantages

Advantages and Disadvantages of Robots Setup and Maintenance costs

High level of Expertise
are very high
Advantages Disadvantages
Can only rely on the
Robots can find it difficult to High Accuracy and Consistent
Robots can work 24/7 information in the system
do non-standard tasks
Tend to give cold responses
Robots can work in hazardous Robots can lead to higher High response times
sometimes
conditions unemployment
They are less expensive in the Risk of deskilling as robots
Machine Learning is a subset of AI in which machines are
long run replace humans in some task
trained to learn from past experiences.
They have high productivity Expensive to install and
and are more consistent maintain in the short run Difference Between AI and Machine Learning
Robots have the risk of getting AI Machine Learning
hacked. Machines are trained to make
Representation of human
decisions without being
intelligence in machines
programmed to
6.3. Artificial Intelligence
The aim is to make machines
The aim is to build machines
AI is the branch of computer science that simulates learn through data
that think like humans
intelligent human behaviour. acquisitions
Types of AI -