Engineering Instrumentations_ ME471

Dr. Mohammad A. Omari

Office: N1 L2
Email: [email protected]

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 Syllabus
 Text Book: "Instrumentation for Engineering Measurements",
James W. Dally, Second Edition.

 Evaluation
Midterm Exam 20%
Quizzes 15%
Hws 10%
Project Presentation 05%
Final Exam 50%

**Expect a quiz every Sunday!

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 Topics to be covered
 Chapter 1: Applications of electronic instrumentation systems
 Chapter 2: Analysis of circuits…….Self study!
 Chapter 3: Analog Recording instruments
 Chapter 5: Sensors for transducers
 Chapter 6: Signal Conditioning circuits
 Chapter 7: Resistance-Type strain gages
 Chapter 8: Force, torque and pressure measurements
 Chapter 9: Displacement, Velocity, and acceleration measurements
 Chapter 11: Temperature measurements
 Chapter 12: Fluid flow measurements
 Chapter 13: Statistical methods
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 Chapter 1
Chapter1: Applications of Electronic
Instrument Systems

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 introduction
 Objective: To introduce electronic instrumentation systems to make accurate and
meaningful measurements of Mechanical and Thermal quantities.
 Measurement provides quantitative information on the actual state of the physical
variables and processes that otherwise could only be estimated.
 Measurements can be performed using one of the following:
1. Mechanical systems: rarely used, simple, less accurate. e.g dial gauge.
2. Electrical systems: widely used, more accurate, and provide electrical output
signal. e.g. strain gauge, thermocouple.

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  Electronic instrument systems: are used in three different areas of
application:
–Engineering Analysis of new machine components: Structures
and vehicles to ensure efficient & reliable performance.
e.g analyze the efficiency of a new fuel like biodesil for car engine.
– Monitoring Process: To provide on-line operating data. e.g car
temperature gauge, speedometer, oxygen sensor.
– Automatic Process Control: To provide on-line operating data that
are used as feedback signals in closed loop control systems.
e.g. speedometer when the output data are used to cruise system in the car.
Room temperature to control the AC.

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 Basic Terminology of Measurement
 Measurement: A set of operations having the object of
determining the value of a quantity. In other words, a
measurement is the evaluation of a quantity made after comparing
it to a quantity of the same type which we use as a "unit".
 Metrology: The field of knowledge concerned with measurement.
Standardized measurement units mean that scientific and
economic figures can be understood, reproduced, and converted
with a high degree of certitude.
 Instrumentation: Refers to a group of permanent systems which
help us measure objects and maintain retroactive control of a
process. In this sense, instruments and systems of measurement
constitute the "tools" of measurement and metrology.

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  Transducer is a device that can convert energy from one
form to another ( Transduction).
Examples: thermometer, strain gauge, loudspeaker…
 Sensor is a device that can detect a physical quantity and
responds to it usually by convert the quantity to an electrical
signal ( It Senses).
Examples: microphone, piezoelectric, thermistors, …

- Sensors are almost always transducers but transducers are not necessarily sensors.
- Sensors are included in transducers

Example: A microphone; It has a membrane which vibrates with air vibration. The
membrane is connected to an electrical circuit so that oscillations of the membrane
cause the electrical current and voltage in the circuit to vary. In this way, the original
sound energy gets converted into electrical energy.

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 The cantilever beam is a sensor,

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 Components of a General Measurement System

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 Example 1
 Detector-transducer or sensor stage
 Intermediate or signal conditioning
stage
 Terminating or readout stage
 Feedback control stage (optional)

 These stages form the bridge between

the input to the measurement system
and the system output, a quantity that is
used to infer the value of the physical
variable measured. The relationship
between the input information and the
system output is established by a
calibration.
 For discussion: car temperature
gauge.

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  For example, the temperature of a liquid can be measured using a
thermometer or thermocouple which continuously responds to
temperature changes as the liquid is heated up or cooled down.
 Analogue sensors tend to produce output signals that are changing
smoothly and continuously which are very small in value so some form
of amplification is required. Then circuits which measure analogue
signals usually have a slow response and/or low accuracy. Also analogue
signals can be easily converted into digital type signals for use in
microcontroller systems by the use of analogue-to-digital converters, or
ADC's.

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 Example 2: Fuel Gauge Sensing

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 Components Definition
1. Transducer: is an analog device that converts energy from
one form to another. Examples: thermometer, strain gauge, loudspeaker
2. Power Supply: provides the energy to drive the transducer.
3. Signal Conditioning: are the electronic circuits that
convert, compensate or manipulate the output from the
transducer into a more usable electrical quantity. e.g. wheatstone bridge,
filters…

4. Amplifiers: are required in the system when the voltage

output from the transducer signal conditioner combination is
small.

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 5. Recorders: (voltage measuring devices): used to display the
measurement in a form that can be read and understood.
6. Data Processors: Are used with instrument systems that
incorporate A/D converters and provide the output signal
representing the measurement in a digital code. They are usually
microcomputers that accept the digital input & then perform
computations in accordance with programmed instructions.
7. The Command Generator : Is a device that provides a
control voltage that represents the variation (w.r.to time) of an
important parameter in a given process. e.g time –temp. profile for an oven.
8. Process Controller: Are used to monitor and adjust any
quantity that must be maintained at specified value to produce a
material or product in a controlled process.

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 Process Control

 Open-Loop (monitoring) Control :

Certain applications of measuring instruments may be characterized as having
essentially a monitoring function, e.g., thermometers, barometers, and water, gas,
and electric meters.

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  Closed-Loop (Automatic) Control

An instrument can serve as a component of a control system. To control any variable in a

feedback control system, it is first necessary to measure it. A single control system may
require information from many measuring instruments, e.g., industrial machine and process
controllers, aircraft control systems. the signal from the electronic instrumentation system
are compared with the command signals that represent voltage-time relationships for the
important quantities associated with the process.

e.g., fluid flow is controlled by a valve

that is opened or closed manually by an
operator in open-loop control or
automatically with a servomotor in
closed-loop control.

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 1- Sensors static characteristics
The properties of the system after all transient effects have settled to
their final or steady state:
 Sensitivity: The change of an instrument’s output per unit change in
the measured quantity; the smallest absolute amount of change that
can be detected by a measurement; Typically, an instrument with
higher sensitivity will have also finer resolution, better precision, and
higher accuracy.
 Range: The region between the limits within which an instrument is
designed to operate for measuring or indicating a physical quantities (
expressed by stating lower-upper values).
 Span: Algebraic difference between the upper and lower range values.
 Hysteresis: Is a difference in reading on whether the value of the
measured quantity is approached from above or below.
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  Accuracy: Refers to the closeness of a measured value to a standard or known value.
Accuracy of a system can be estimated during calibration. If the input value of calibration is
known exactly, then it can called the true value. The accuracy of a measurement system refers to its
ability to indicate a true value exactly. Accuracy is related to absolute error, ε = true value –
indicated value
 Precision OR Repeatability: Refers to the closeness of two or more measurements to each
other. Precision of a measuring system refers to the ability of the system to indicate a
particular value upon repeated but independent applications of a specific value input.
 Resolution or Discrimination: The smallest increment of change in the measured value that
can be determined from the instrument’s readout scale. (least significant digit) of the
output readout indicator. (It is the minimum change in input quantity measured by
instrument).
 Threshold: Is the amount of measurement change required before the instrument reacts and
produces a specified result. (It is the minimum input measured by an instrument).
 Example : A meter whose panel readings are: 0.5,0.75,1.00,1.25,1.50,1.75,etc
Threshold is 0.5 whereas resolution is 0.25.

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 Shooting darts

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 Experimental Error
 Error is the difference between the true value and the measured value of
a quantity.
 Errors result from the following causes:
– Accumulation of accepted error in each element of the system
– Improper functioning of any element in the system
– Effect of the transducer on the process
– Dual sensitivity of the transducer
– Other less obvious sources: Lead wire effects, Electronic noise, Human
operator

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 Accumulation of accepted error
Accumulated error
Recorder error

Signal conditioner error Amplifier error

Transducer error

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 Effect of the transducer on the process

The transducer must be selected and placed in the process in such

a manner that it does not affect or change the process.
– Small size and weight
– Small force and energy

Dual Sensitivity
Some transducers exhibit some sensitivity to one or more other quantity.

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 The following errors can also occur:
a) Calibration error b) Zero-offset error c) Range error

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 Minimizing Experimental Error
 Carefully select the transducer
 Check the accuracy of each element & find the accumulation error
 Calibrate each instrument in the system
 Examine the process & the environment in which the system must operate
 Connect the system with property shielded & terminated lead wires
 Check the system for electronic noise
 Perform a system calibration
 Estimate the total error in the system from all known sources.

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 Question: How can we calibrate instrument in general?
 A calibration applies a known input value to a measurement system for the purpose of
observing the system output value. It establishes the relationship between the input and output
values. The known value used for the calibration is called the standard.

Example: Calibration of a flow-meter

 Comparison with a standard flow-measurement facility.

 Comparison with a flow-meter of known accuracy, which is higher than the instrument to
be calibrated.
 Using indirect measurements e.g. weighing certain amount of water in a tank and recording
the time elapsed for this quantity to flow.

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 Example:
The transducer specified in below table is chosen to measure a pressure of 500 cm.H2O.
The ambient temperature is expected to vary between 18C and 25C during tests.
Estimate the magnitude of each elemental error affecting the measured pressure.

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  Solution:
Based on the specifications: input = 0-1000 cm H2O and output = 0-5 V
S = 5 V/ 1000 cm H2O = 5 mV/cm H2O. This gives a nominal output at 500 cm
H2O input of 2.5 V.
This assumes that the input/output relation is linear over range but we are told that it is
linear within some linearity error.

 linearity error = eL = (±0.005) (1000 cm H2O) = ± 5 cm H2O = ± 0.025 V

 hysteresis error = eh = (±0.0015)(1000 cm H2O) = ±1.5 cm H2O = ±0.0075 V
 sensitivity error = eK = (±0.0025)(500 cm H2O) = ± 0.75 cm H2O = ± 0.00375 V
 thermal sensitivity error = (±0.0002)(7oC)(500 cm H2O) = ±0.7 cm H2O = ± 0.0035 V
 thermal drift error = (0.0002)(7oC)(1000 cm H2O) = 1.4 cm H2O = 0.007 V

Overall instrument error = (52+1.52+0.752+0.72+1.42)1/2 = 5.501 cm H2O

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 Chapter End
Expect a quiz every Sunday!

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