CLASS 12 HISTORY CHAPTER 1
Introduction
Modern Way of living
OR
The Harappan civilization, also known as the Indus Valley civilization, lasted from around
3300 BCE to 1300 BCE
Early Harappan Mature Harappan (1900 BCE-1300
(6000 BCE-2600 (2600 BCE-1900 BCE) is termed as
BCE) BCE) Late Harappan.
Formative phase The decline of
Urban phase the civilisation
(Most prosperous phase)
Features of the civilization
Indus Valley Civilisation was a BRONZE AGE CIVILISATION
Spread Across
Afghanistan, Baluchistan, Sind and Punjab provinces of
Pakistan and the Indian States of Jammu and Kashmir,
Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat and
Maharashtra;
Artefacts found
The distinctive Harappan pottery, bricks (baked and unbaked) seals, weights, beads,
copper and bronze articles
Most distinctive artefact – Harappan SEAL
(Made of a stone called steatite)
Harappa was the first site to be excavated in 1921
And it witnessed the first urbanisation in India
Different Ages in history
Palaeolitic - Mesolithic – Charcolithic – Indus valley
Neolithic – Megalithic –
Old stone age / Middle stone Copper stone civilisation –
New stone age Iron stone age
Ice age age age Bronze age
The term culture
archaeologists use the term "culture" to describe a set
of artifacts that are found in multiple sites and can be
associated with a specific time period and region
Early settlements
More than 2000 Harappan archaeological sites have been discovered in the Indian sub-continent
Most of the sites are found located between The Indus and The Saraswati river basins
Nearly two-thirds of these settlements are in the Saraswati basin, suggesting its immense
importance for the Harappan Civilization
Among these, five major cities have been identified. These are Rakhigarhi,
Mohenjodaro, Harappa, Dholavira and Ganweriwala
Subsistence strategies
The Harappans ate a wide range of plant and animal products, including fish
Archaeologists have been able to reconstruct dietary practices
from finds of charred grains and seeds
Grains found : wheat, barley, lentil, chickpea and sesame
Millets are found from sites in Gujarat.
Finds of rice are relatively rare.
Studied by archaeo-botanists
Who are specialised in ancient plant remains
Animal bones found at Harappan sites include those of cattle, sheep,
goat, buffalo and pig
Studies indicate that these animals were domesticated
Bones of wild species such as boar, deer and gharial are also found
Bones of fish and fowl are also found.
Studied by archaeo-botanists
Who are specialised in ancient animal remains
Agricultural technologies
Oxen were used for ploughing (Representations on seals and terracotta (burnt clay) sculpture)
Moreover, terracotta models of the plough have been found at sites in
Cholistan and at Banawali (Haryana).
Archaeologists have also found evidence of a ploughed field at Kalibangan (Rajasthan).
The field had two sets of furrows at right angles to each other, suggesting that
two different crops were grown together.
IRRIGATION TECHNIQUES
Traces of canals have been found at the Harappan site of Shortughai in Afghanistan
water reservoirs found in Dholavira (Gujarat)
It was also likely that water from wells can be used for irrigation.
A terracotta Bull
CHOLISTAN – DESERTED
PART OF PAKISTAN
RESERVOIR AT DHOLAVIRA
MOHENJODARO – A planned urban centre
(Mound of dead)
The settlement is divided into 2 sections
CITADEL LOWER TOWN
Western part Eastern part
Smaller but higher Much larger but lower
The Citadel owes its height to the fact that The Lower Town was also walled.
buildings were constructed on mud Several buildings were built on platforms,
brick platforms which served as foundations.
It was walled, which meant that it was It provide examples of residential buildings
physically separated from the Lower Town.
citadel
We find evidence of structures that were
probably used for special public purposes
There were also variations as The Citadel
within Lothal was not walled off, but was
built at a height. Lower town
Harappa was the first site to be discovered.
First Director-General of the Archaeological
ALEXANDER
Survey of India (ASI) , set up in 1861
CUNNINGHAM
Called the father of Indian archaeology,
The settlement was first planned and then implemented
accordingly.
Signs of planning include bricks, which, whether sun-dried or
baked, were of a standardised ratio , where the length and
breadth were four times and twice the height respectively
Such bricks were used at all Harappan settlements.
Drainage system
One of the most distinctive features of Harappan cities was the
carefully planned drainage system.
Roads and streets were laid out along an approximate
“grid” pattern, intersecting at right angles.
It seems that streets with drains were laid out first and then
houses built along them.
Domestic waste water had to flow into the street drains . So, every house needed
to have at least one wall along a street.
Ernest mackay’s description of drainage system
Every house was connected to the street drains.
The main channels were made of bricks set in mortar and were covered
with loose bricks that could be removed for cleaning.
In some cases, limestone was used for the covers.
House drains first emptied into a sump or cesspit into which solid matter
settled while waste water flowed out into the street drains.
Very long drainage channels were provided at intervals with sumps for cleaning.
Drainage systems were not unique to the larger cities, but were found in
smaller settlements as well.
At Lothal for example, while houses were built of mud bricks, drains were made
A drain in Mohenjodaro
of burnt bricks.
Special structures of citadel
Warehouse The Great Bath - MOHENJODARO
Also called “the great granary” The Great Bath was a large rectangular tank in a courtyard
Massive structure Surrounded by a corridor on all four sides.
Lower part made by brick remains There were two flights of steps on the north and south
Upper portion made of wood, decayed leading into the tank.
long ago. It was made watertight by setting bricks on edge and using
Used to preserve grains. a mortar of gypsum.
There were rooms on three sides, in one of which was a
large well Water from the tank flowed into a huge drain .
Across a lane to the north lay a smaller building with eight
bathrooms, four on each side of a corridor,
Drains from each bathroom connect to a drain that ran
along the corridor.
Scholars suggest that it was meant for some kind of a
special ritual bath .
DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE
Houses were centred around a courtyard, with rooms on all sides.
The courtyard was probably the centre of activities such as
cooking and weaving, particularly during hot and dry weather .
For privacy: there are no windows in the walls along the ground level.
Besides, the main entrance does not give a direct
view of the interior or the courtyard.
Every house had its own bathroom paved with bricks, with
drains connected through the wall to the street drains.
Some houses have remains of staircases to reach a second
storey or the roof.
Many houses had wells, often in a room that could be reached
from the outside and perhaps used by passers-by.
Scholars have estimated that the total number of wells in
mohenjodaro was about 700.
TRACING SOCIAL DIFFERENCES
BURIALS ARTEFACTS
Dead were generally laid in pits. Archaeologists broadly classify artefacts as
Sometimes, there were differences in the way utilitarian and luxuries
the burial pit was made. The first category-
In some instances, the hollowed-out spaces were It includes objects of daily use made fairly easily out
lined with bricks. of ordinary materials such as stone or clay.
Some graves contain pottery and ornaments, perhaps Ex.- querns, pottery, needles, flesh-rubbers (body
indicating a belief that these could be used in the scrubbers), etc.,
afterlife. are usually found distributed throughout settlements.
Jewellery has been found in burials of both men The second category-
and women. Ex.- An ornament consisting of three shell Luxuries are rare or made from costly, non-local materials
rings, a jasper (a kind of semi-precious stone) bead or with complicated technologies.
and hundreds of micro beads was found near the Ex.- Little pots of faience (a material made of ground sand
skull of a male in an excavation or silica mixed with colour and a gum and then fired)
In some instance the dead were buried with
copper mirrors.
But on the whole, it appears the Harappans
did not believe in burying precious
things with the dead
Hoards are
objects kept
carefully by people,
often inside
containers such as
pots. Such hoards can
be of jewellery or
A faience pot metal objects saved
Mohenjodaro – for reuse by metal
workers. If for some
125 Hectare
reason the original
Chanhudaro – owners do not
7 hectare retrieve them, they
Rakhigarhi – remain where they
550 hectare are left till some
(largest harappan site) archaeologists
finds them.
A copper mirror
CRAFT PRODUCTION
Chanhudaro was almost exclusively devoted to craft production
Craft production includes bead-making, shell-cutting, metal-working, seal-making and
weight-making.
Materials used to make beads-
Stones – carnelian (of a beautiful red color), jasper, crystal, quartz and steatite;
Metals – copper, bronze and gold ;
shell, faience and terracotta or burnt clay.
The shapes of the beads –
disc shaped, cylindrical, spherical, barrel-shaped, segmented.
Techniques for making beads –
Some beads were moulded out of a paste made with steatite powder
Red colour of carnelian was obtained by firing the yellowish raw material and beads at
various stages of production.
Nodules were chipped into rough shapes, and then finely flaked into the final form
Grinding, polishing and drilling completed the process.
Specialised drills have been found at Chanhudaro, Lothal and more recently at Dholavira.
NAGESHWAR and BALAKOT were specialised centres for making shell objects – including
bangles, ladles and inlay, as they were near the coast.
IDENTIFYING CENTRES OF MATERIALS AND LOCATIONS
PRODUCTION SHELL OBJECTS NAGESHWAR AND
BALAKOT
In order to identify centers of craft
production, archaeologists usually LAPIS LAZULI SHORTUGHAI,
look for the following: AFGHANISTAN
raw material such as stone CARNELIAN LOTHAL
nodules, whole shells, copper ore;
tools; STEATITE LOTHAL
unfinished objects;
rejects and waste material. METAL LOTHAL
waste is one of the best indicators
of craft work.
These traces suggest that craft COPPER KHETRI REGION OF
production was also undertaken RAJASTHAN
in large cities such as Mohenjodaro
and Harappa.
GOLD SOUTH INDIA
STRATEGIES FOR PROCURING MATERIALS
Contact with distant lands
Terracotta toy models of bullock carts suggest
that this was one important means of transport Harappans have trade relations with Mesopotamia,
oman and Bahrain .
Riverine routes along the Indus and its
Evidence includes Harappan seals, weights , dices and
tributaries, as well as coastal routes were also beads , and ship and boat on seals
probably used. Archaeological finds suggest that copper was also
probably brought from Oman, on the south eastern
Materials from the subcontinent tip of the Arabian peninsula.
Chemical analyses have shown that both the Omani
and beyond copper and Harappan artefacts have traces of nickel,
They established settlements such as Nageshwar
suggesting a common origin.
and Balakot in areas where shell was available; EX- a large Harappan jar coated with a thick layer of black
To send expeditions to areas such as the Khetri clay has been found at Omani sites.
region of Rajasthan (for copper) and south India
Harappan exchange the context of these vessel for copper.
(for gold).
Mesopotamian texts (of king Sargon) datable to the third
These expeditions established communication
millennium BCE refer to copper coming from a region called
with local communities.
Magan, perhaps a name for Oman.
Occasional finds of Harappan artefacts such as Mesopotamian texts mention contact with regions named
steatite and micro beads in these areas are Dilmun (probably the island of Bahrain), Magan and
indications of such contact.
Meluhha, (Land of seafarers) possibly the Harappan region.
Ganeshwar-Jodhpura culture – another name for
The round “Persian Gulf” seal found in Bahrain
khetri region.
sometimes carries Harappan motifs.
SEALS AND SEALINGS
Seals and sealings were used to facilitate long distance communication
THEIR USE TO FACILITATE LONG DISTANCE TRADE
When a bag of goods being sent from one place to another, . Its mouth was tied with
rope and on the knot was affixed some wet clay on which one or more seals were
pressed, leaving an impression
If the bag reached with its sealing intact, it meant that it had not been tampered with
The sealing also conveyed the identity of the sender.
A sealing from
ROPAR
Signboard found at
Dholavira
An enigmatic script Weights
Undeciphered till date Exchanges were regulated by a precise system of
Harappan seals usually have a line of writing, weights, usually made of a stone called chert and
probably containing the name and title of the generally cubical
owner lower denominations of weights were binary (1, 2, 4,
The motif (generally an animal) conveyed a 8, 16, 32).
meaning to those who could not read. the higher denominations followed the decimal
Most inscriptions are short, the longest system (160, 200, 320, 640).
containing about 26 signs The smaller weights were probably used for weighing
Not alphabetical (where each sign stands for a jewellery and beads.
vowel or a consonant Metal scale-pans have also been found.
It has just too many signs somewhere between
375 and 400.
Script was written from right to left
The variety of objects on which writing has been
found: seals, copper tools, rims of jars, copper
and terracotta tablets, jewellery , bone rods,
even an ancient signboard
ANCIENT AUTHORITY
WHY THERE WAS AN AUTHORITY OR ADMINISTRATION ?
Indirect evidences of administration
Uniformity of Harappan artefacts
Labor was mobilized for making bricks and for the construction of massive walls and
platforms.
Evidence for planned settlements.
Standardised ratio of brick size
Establishment of settlements near sources of raw materials.
A large building found at Mohenjodaro was labelled as a palace by archaeologists
A stone statue was labelled and continues to be known as the “priest-king”.
A PRIEST
Opinions of scholars
KING
Some archaeologists are of the opinion that Harappan society had no rulers, and that
everybody enjoyed equal status
Others feel there was no single ruler but several, that Mohenjodaro had a separate ruler,
Harappa another
Others argue that there was a single state and single ruler , given the similarity in artefacts
END OF THE CIVILISATION
Evidence for the end of Harappan civilization Possible reasons
By c. 1800 BCE most of the Mature Harappan sites in regions Climatic change,
such as Cholistan had been abandoned. Deforestation,
Expansion of population into new settlements in Gujarat, Excessive floods
Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh. The shifting and/or drying up of
Few Harappan sites after 1900 BCE marked by the rivers
disappearance of the distinctive artefacts of the civilization – To overuse of the landscape
weights, seals, special beads. Earthquake
Writing, long-distance trade, and craft specialization also Epidemics
disappeared. Aryan invasion
House construction techniques deteriorated and large public
structures were no longer produced.
Overall, artefacts and settlements indicate a rural way of life in
what are called “Late Harappan” or “successor cultures”.
Discovering the Harappan Civilization
Cunningham’s confusion Archaeogenetics
Cunningham’s main interest was in the archaeology Archaeogenetics is
of the Early Historic (c. sixth century BCE-fourth the study of DNA of
century CE) ancient population.
He used the accounts left by Chinese Buddhist pilgrims It involves various
who had visited the subcontinent between the fourth methods of
and seventh centuries CE molecular genetics
Cunningham also collected, documented and
to understand
translated inscriptions found during his surveys.
When he excavated sites , he tended to recover population history
artefacts that he thought had cultural value.
They did not fit very neatly within his framework of
investigation
He did not realize how old were the Harappan
artefacts.
He unsuccessfully tried to place these within the time-
frame with which he was familiar
ALEXANDER He thought that Indian history began with the first
CUNNINGHAM cities in the Ganga valley
Sites, Mounts and Layers
Archaeological sites are formed through the production, use and discarding of materials and structures
When people continue to live in the same place, their constant use and reuse of the landscape results in the build up of
occupational debris, called a mound
Occupations are detected by traces of ancient materials found in layers, which differ from one another in color, texture
and the artefacts that are found in them.
Abandonment or desertions, what are called “sterile layers”, can be identified by the absence of such traces.
Generally, the lowest layers are the oldest and the highest are the most recent. The study of these layers is called
stratigraphy.
A new old civilization
SEALS DISCOVERED IN
HARAPPA BY
Daya Ram Sahni-1921
SEALS DISCOVERED IN Rakhal Das - 1922
MOHENJODARO BY Banerji
JOHN MARSHALL
John Marshall’s stint as Director-General of the ASI marked a major change in Indian
archaeology.
He was the first professional archaeologist to work in India
He brought his experience of working in Greece and Crete to the field
In 1924, John Marshall announced the discovery of a new civilization in the Indus
valley to the world
As S.N. Roy noted in The Story of Indian Archaeology, “Marshall left India three
thousand years older than he had found her.”
Marshall tended to excavate along regular horizontal units, measured uniformly
throughout the mound, ignoring the stratigraphy of the site.
As a result, valuable information irretrievably lost.
R.E.M WHEELER
R.E. Mortimer Wheeler, took over as Director General of the ASI in 1944
He was an ex-army brigadier, so he brought with him a military precision to the
practice of archaeology.
Wheeler recognized that it was necessary to follow the stratigraphy of the mound
rather than dig mechanically along uniform horizontal lines
Book - MY ARCHEOLOGICAL MISSION IN INDIA AND PAKISTAN
New techniques in Harappan Archaeology
With the partition of the subcontinent and creation of Pakistan, the major known sites became part of
Pakistan.
This has spurred Indian archaeologists to try and locate sites in India.
An extensive survey in Kutch has revealed a number of Harappan settlements and explorations in Punjab
and Haryana have added to the list of Harappan sites.
Kalibangan, Lothal, Rakhigarhi and most recently Dholavira have been discovered, explored and excavated
as part of these efforts, fresh explorations continue.
Since the 1980s, there has also been growing international interest in Harappan archaeology.
They are using modern scientific techniques including surface exploration to recover traces of clay, stone,
metal and plant and animal remains as well as to minutely analyze every scrap of available evidence.
Problems of piercing together the past
Classifying finds
Archaeologists classify finds in four ways –
1. One simple principle of classification is in terms of material, such as stone, clay,
metal, bone, ivory etc.
2. The second, and more complicated, is in terms of function: archaeologists have to
decide whether, for instance, an artefact is a tool or an ornament, or both, or
something meant for ritual use.
3. Third : Understanding its resemblance with present-day things – beads, querns, stone,
blades and pots are obvious examples.
Archaeologists also try to identify the function of an artefact by investigating the
context in which it was found: was it found in a house, in a drain, in a grave, in a kiln.
4. Fourth : Sometimes, archaeologists have to take recourse to indirect evidence
Example – depiction in sculptures
SHAMANS - Shamans are men and women who claim magical and healing
powers, as well as an ability to communicate with the other world.
Evidences of religious beliefs (problems of interpretation)
Objects which seemed to have had a religious significance include terracotta
figurines of women, heavily jewelled , some with elaborate head-dresses.
These were regarded as mother goddesses
Rare stone statuary of men in an almost standardized posture, seated with one
hand on the knee – such as the “priest-king” – was also similarly classified
Structures that have been assigned ritual significance include the Great Bath at
Mohenjodaro ; and fire altars found at Kalibangan and Lothal.
seals, depicting ritual scenes
Plant motifs, which are thought to indicate nature worship
Some animals – such as the one-horned animal, often called the “unicorn” –
depicted on seals seem to be mythical, composite creatures.
In some seals, a figure shown seated cross-legged in a “yogic” posture, sometimes
surrounded by animals, has been regarded as a depiction of “proto-Shiva”, that is,
an early form of one of the major deities of Hinduism.
Conical stone objects have been classified as lingas.
LINGA - A linga is a polished stone that is worshipped
A proto-shiva
as a symbol of Shiva.
seal
Important Multiple Choice questions(MCQs)
The newest Harappan site discovery is Morodharo, a fortified settlement found
near Dholavira in Gujarat, India
MAP WORK
Mature Harappan sites
Harappa,
Banawali,
Kalibangan,
Balakot,
Rakhigarhi,
Dholavira,
Nageshwar,
Lothal,
Mohenjodaro,
Chanhudaro,
KotDiji.
