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Amino Acid Metabolism
Amino Acid Metabolism
Third Edition

David A Bender

Emeritus Professor of Nutritional Biochemistry

University College, London

A John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., Publication

This edition published 2012, © 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd
Blackwell Publishing was acquired by John Wiley & Sons in February 2007. Blackwell’s publishing
program has been merged with Wiley’s global Scientific, Technical and Medical business to form
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Library of Congress Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
Bender, David A.
Amino acid metabolism / David A Bender. – 3rd ed.
p. ; cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-470-66151-2 (cloth)
I. Title.
[DNLM: 1. Amino Acids–metabolism. QU 60]
572'.65–dc23
2012009844
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print
may not be available in electronic books.
Set in 10.5/13 pt TimesTen by Toppan Best-set Premedia Limited

1 2012
Contents

Figures xiii
Tables xvii
Preface xix

1 Nitrogen Metabolism 1
1.1 Nitrogen fixation 3
1.1.1 Nitrogenase 5
1.1.1.1 The nitrogen fixation gene cluster 7
1.1.1.2 Regulation of nitrogenase by the availability of fixed
nitrogen and ATP 7
1.1.1.3 Protection of nitrogenase against oxygen 9
1.1.1.4 Respiratory protection in aerobic microorganisms 9
1.1.1.5 Conformational changes in nitrogenase 10
1.1.1.6 Heterocyst formation in filamentous cyanobacteria 10
1.1.1.7 Symbiotic Rhizobium spp. in root nodules 10
1.2 Nitrification and denitrification 11
1.2.1 The anammox (ANaerobic AMMonium OXidation) reaction 12
1.3 The incorporation of fixed nitrogen into organic compounds 12
1.3.1 Utilization of nitrite and nitrate in plants 12
1.3.2 Incorporation of ammonium into organic compounds 13
1.3.2.1 Reductive amination – the glutamate pathway of
ammonium incorporation 14
1.3.2.2 Glutamate dehydrogenase 16
1.3.2.3 Mammalian glutamate dehydrogenase 17
1.3.2.4 Glutamate synthase – the glutamine pathway of
ammonium incorporation 18
1.3.2.5 Synthesis of aspartate and asparagine 21
vi CONTENTS

1.4 The synthesis and catabolism of purine and pyrimidine nucleotides 23

1.4.1 Purine synthesis 26
1.4.1.1 Phosphoribosyl pyrophosphate (PRPP) synthetase 28
1.4.1.2 PRPP amidotransferase 30
1.4.2 Purine catabolism and salvage 31
1.4.2.1 Adenosine deaminase deficiency – severe combined
immune deficiency 34
1.4.2.2 Gout and hyperuricaemia 35
1.4.2.3 HGPRT deficiency – the Lesch-Nyhan syndrome 37
1.4.3 Pyrimidine synthesis 38
1.4.3.1 Orotic aciduria 42
1.4.4 Pyrimidine catabolism and salvage 43
1.5 Deamination of amino acids 45
1.5.1 Amino acid oxidases 45
1.5.2 Amine oxidases 47
1.5.3 Glutamate and alanine dehydrogenases 48
1.5.4 Non-oxidative deamination of amino acids 49
1.5.5 Glutaminase and asparaginase 50
1.6 Excretion of nitrogenous waste 51
1.6.1 Uricotelic and purinotelic species 51
1.6.2 Ureotelic species 52
1.6.2.1 Urea synthesis 52
1.6.2.2 Inborn errors of metabolism affecting the
urea synthesis cycle 57
1.6.2.3 Entero-hepatic circulation of urea 59
1.6.2.4 Canavanine 60
1.7 Other nitrogenous compounds in human urine 61
1.7.1 Aminoacidurias 62
Further reading 65

2 Nitrogen Balance and Protein Turnover – Protein and Amino

Acids in Human Nutrition 67
2.1 Nitrogen balance and protein requirements 67
2.1.1 Protein digestion and absorption 69
2.1.2 Protein digestibility and unavailable amino acids in dietary proteins 74
2.1.3 Obligatory nitrogen losses 75
2.1.4 Dynamic equilibrium and tissue protein turnover 76
2.1.5 Tissue protein catabolism 77
2.1.5.1 Lysosomal autophagy 78
2.1.5.2 Ubiquitin and the proteasome 79
2.1.5.3 Active site proteolysis of apo-enzymes 81
2.1.6 Whole body protein turnover 81
2.1.6.1 The constant infusion, labelled precursor method 82
2.1.6.2 The constant infusion, labelled end product method 82
 CONTENTS vii

2.1.6.3 Rates of whole-body protein turnover 83

2.1.6.4 The catabolic drive and amino acid oxidation 83
2.1.6.5 The energy cost of protein turnover 84
2.1.6.6 Diurnal variation in protein turnover 85
2.2 Requirements for individual amino acids 86
2.2.1 Nitrogen balance studies 89
2.2.2 Isotope tracer studies 90
2.2.3 Control of protein synthesis by the availability of amino acids 91
2.2.4 Protein quality (protein nutritional value) 92
2.2.4.1 Biological assays of protein quality 93
2.2.4.2 Chemical analysis and protein quality 94
2.3 The fate of amino acid carbon skeletons and the thermic effect of protein 94
2.4 Inter-organ metabolism of amino acids 99
2.5 Transport of amino acids across membranes 100
2.5.1 Families of amino acid transporters 101
2.5.1.1 Dipeptide transport 104
Further reading 104

3 The Role of Vitamin B6 in Amino Acid Metabolism 105

3.1 Pyridoxal phosphate-dependent reactions 106
3.1.1 Families of pyridoxal phosphate-dependent enzymes 111
3.2 Amino acid racemases 112
3.2.1 Bacterial alanine racemase 112
3.2.2 Eukaryotic serine racemase 113
3.2.3 D-Aspartate in eukaryotes 114
3.2.4 D-Amino acids in aquatic invertebrates 115
3.2.5 D-Amino acids in gene-encoded peptides and proteins 115
3.3 Transamination 117
3.3.1 Dual substrate recognition in transaminases 120
3.3.2 Aspartate transaminase and the
malate-aspartate shuttle 120
3.4 Decarboxylation and side-chain elimination and replacement reactions 122
3.4.1 Transamination of decarboxylases and enzymes catalyzing
side-chain elimination reactions 122
3.5 Pyruvate-containing enzymes 124
3.6 Vitamin B6 deficiency and dependency 125
Further reading 128

4 Glycine, Serine and the One-Carbon Pool 129

4.1 Sources of glycine 130
4.1.1 Choline as a source of glycine 130
4.1.2 Glycine transaminase 132
viii CONTENTS

4.2 The interconversion of glycine and serine 132

4.2.1 Serine hydroxymethyltransferase 133
4.2.2 The glycine cleavage system 135
4.2.3 Serine hydroxymethyltransferase and the glycine
cleavage system in photosynthetic tissue 136
4.2.4 Non-ketotic and ketotic hyperglycinaemia 137
4.3 Glycine oxidase and glyoxylate metabolism 138
4.3.1 Primary hyperoxaluria 140
4.4 One-carbon metabolism 141
4.5 Serine biosynthesis 141
4.6 Serine catabolism 144
4.6.1 Serine transamination 144
4.6.2 Serine deaminase 145
4.7 Peptidyl glycine hydroxylase (peptide α-amidase) 146
4.8 5-Aminolevulinic acid and porphyrin synthesis 147
4.8.1 Porphyrias – diseases of porphyrin synthesis 151
4.9 Selenocysteine 152
Further reading 154

5 Amino Acids Synthesized from Glutamate: Glutamine,

Proline, Ornithine, Citrulline and Arginine 157
5.1 Synthesis of 5-aminolevulinic acid from glutamate in plants 159
5.2 The catabolism of glutamate 160
5.3 Glutamine 161
5.3.1 Indirect formation of glutamine-tRNA 163
5.3.2 Glutaminases 164
5.3.2.1 Glutamine-dependent amidotransferases 164
5.3.3 Transglutaminases 165
5.4 Glutathione and the γ-glutamyl cycle 168
5.4.1 Glutathione peroxidases 170
5.4.2 Glutathione reductase 171
5.4.3 Glutathione S-transferases 171
5.4.4 Glutathione synthesis 174
5.4.4.1 Glutamate cysteine ligase 174
5.4.4.2 Glutathione synthetase 175
5.4.5 The γ-glutamyl cycle 176
5.5 Glutamate decarboxylase and the GABA shunt 178
5.5.1 Glutamate decarboxylase 180
5.5.2 Alternative pathways of GABA synthesis 181
5.5.3 GABA catabolism 183
5.6 Glutamate carboxylase and vitamin K-dependent post-synthetic
modification of proteins 184
5.6.1 Vitamin K-dependent proteins in blood clotting 187
5.6.2 Osteocalcin and matrix Gla protein 189
5.6.3 Vitamin K-dependent proteins in cell signalling – Gas-6 and protein S 190
 CONTENTS ix

5.7 Proline 190

5.7.1 Proline synthesis and catabolism 192
5.7.1.1 Δ1-pyrroline-5-carboxylate reductase and proline oxidase 192
5.7.1.2 Hydroxyproline catabolism 194
5.7.2 Peptide prolyl hydroxylase 196
5.7.2.1 The hypoxia-inducible factor 198
5.8 The polyamines 198
5.8.1 Ornithine decarboxylase 199
5.8.2 S-Adenosylmethionine decarboxylase and
polyamine synthesis 201
5.8.3 Polyamine catabolism and the interconversion pathway 203
5.8.4 Hypusine 204
5.9 Arginine, citrulline and ornithine 205
5.9.1 Arginine biosynthesis 206
5.9.1.1 The role of citrulline in arginine biosynthesis in mammals 208
5.9.2 Arginine catabolism in microorganisms 209
5.9.3 Nitric oxide 210
5.9.3.1 Nitric oxide synthase 211
5.9.3.2 Arginase and the control of arginine availability
for nitric oxide synthesis or polyamine synthesis 214
5.9.4 Agmatine 216
5.9.5 Post-synthetic methylation of arginine in proteins 217
5.9.6 Post-synthetic formation of citrulline in proteins 218
5.9.7 Creatine 219
Further reading 222

6 Amino Acids Synthesized from Aspartate: Lysine, Methionine

(and Cysteine), Threonine and Isoleucine 225
6.1 Regulation of the pathway of amino acid synthesis from aspartate 227
6.1.1 Aspartate kinase 228
6.1.1.1 Aspartate kinase in post-synthetic modification
of proteins 230
6.1.1.2 Aspartic semialdehyde dehydrogenase 230
6.1.2 Homoserine dehydrogenase 230
6.1.3 Homoserine kinase 231
6.1.4 Threonine synthase 232
6.1.5 Threonine catabolism 232
6.1.5.1 Threonine deaminase 234
6.2 Lysine 235
6.2.1 Lysine biosynthesis in bacteria and plants – the
diaminopimelate pathway 236
6.2.1.1 Diaminopimelate and dipicolinate in sporulating bacteria 238
6.2.2 Lysine biosynthesis in yeasts and fungi – the α-amino adipic
acid pathway 239
x CONTENTS

6.2.3 Lysine catabolism 242

6.2.3.1 The saccharopine pathway of lysine catabolism 243
6.2.3.2 The pipecolic acid pathway of lysine catabolism 245
6.2.4 Post-synthetic modification of lysine in proteins 245
6.2.4.1 Hydroxylysine, lysine aldehyde (allysine) and
cross-links in collagen and elastin 247
6.2.4.2 Methyl lysine 249
6.2.4.3 Pyrrolysine 251
6.2.5 Carnitine 252
6.3 Methionine and cysteine 255
6.3.1 Methionine biosynthesis 256
6.3.1.1 Cystathionine γ-synthase and cystathionine β-lyase 258
6.3.1.2 Methionine synthase 259
6.3.1.3 S-Methylmethionine in plants 260
6.3.2 S-Adenosylmethionine and the methylation cycle 260
6.3.2.1 Glycine N-methyltransferase 263
6.3.2.2 Megaloblastic anaemia and the methyl folate trap 264
6.3.2.3 Methionine γ-lyase 264
6.3.3 Transsulphuration and cysteine synthesis in animals 265
6.3.3.1 Homocystinuria, hyperhomocysteinaemia and
cardiovascular disease 266
6.3.4 Ethylene synthesis in plants 268
6.3.5 Radical SAM enzymes 271
6.3.6 Hydrogen sulphide 272
6.3.7 Taurine and the catabolism of cysteine 273
Further reading 276

7 The Branched-Chain Amino Acids: Leucine,

Isoleucine and Valine 279
7.1 Synthesis of the branched-chain amino acids 280
7.1.1 Acetohydroxyacid synthase 282
7.1.2 Acetohydroxyacid reducto-isomerase, dihydroxyacid dehydratase
and transamination of the oxo-acids 283
7.1.3 Leucine synthesis 284
7.1.3.1 The pyruvate pathway of isoleucine synthesis 286
7.2 Mammalian catabolism of the branched-chain amino acids 287
7.2.1 Branched-chain amino acid transaminases 289
7.2.2 Branched-chain 2-oxo-acid dehydrogenase 290
7.2.2.1 Maple syrup urine disease 293
7.2.3 Branched-chain acyl CoA dehydrogenases 293
7.2.4 Leucine catabolism 295
7.2.5 Isoleucine catabolism 296
7.2.6 Valine catabolism 297
7.2.7 Biotin-dependent carboxylation reactions 299
7.2.7.1 Multiple carboxylase deficiency 300
Further reading 302
 CONTENTS xi

8 Histidine 305
8.1 Biosynthesis of histidine 306
8.2 Histidine catabolism 310
8.2.1 The urocanic acid pathway of histidine catabolism 311
8.2.1.1 The histidine load test (FIGLU test) for
folate nutritional status 314
8.2.2 The hydantoin propionate pathway 315
8.2.3 The transaminase pathway of histidine catabolism 316
8.3 Histamine 316
8.3.1 Bacterial histamine poisoning
(scombroid poisoning) 317
8.3.2 Histidine decarboxylase 318
8.3.3 Histamine catabolism 319
8.4 Methylhistidine 321
8.5 Carnosine and related histidine-containing peptides 321
Further reading 322

9 The Aromatic Amino Acids: Phenylalanine,

Tyrosine and Tryptophan 323
9.1 Biosynthesis of phenylalanine, tyrosine and tryptophan 324
9.1.1 The shikimate pathway 325
9.1.2 Synthesis of phenylalanine and tyrosine 328
9.1.3 Synthesis of tryptophan 331
9.1.3.1 The trp operon 333
9.2 Metabolism of phenylalanine and tyrosine 335
9.2.1 Phenylalanine ammonia lyase and lignin biosynthesis in plants 335
9.2.2 Polyphenol biosynthesis in plants 338
9.2.3 Phenylalanine hydroxylase and phenylketonuria 339
9.2.4 The catecholamines: dopamine, noradrenaline and adrenaline 342
9.2.4.1 Parkinson’s disease and inhibitors of dopa decarboxylase 346
9.2.4.2 Catabolism of the catecholamines 346
9.2.5 Tyrosinase and melanin synthesis 349
9.2.6 The thyroid hormones, thyroxine and tri-iodothyronine 352
9.3 Catabolism of phenylalanine and tyrosine 355
9.4 Metabolism of tryptophan 357
9.4.1 Auxin (indoleacetic acid) 357
9.4.2 Indole formation 358
9.4.3 Serotonin and melatonin 359
9.4.3.1 Melatonin synthesis and catabolism 362
9.4.4 The kynurenine pathway of tryptophan metabolism 363
9.4.4.1 Regulation of tryptophan dioxygenase 365
9.4.4.2 Kynurenine metabolism 367
9.4.4.3 Kynureninase and the tryptophan load test for vitamin B6
nutritional status 368
9.4.4.4 De novo synthesis of NAD 369
xii CONTENTS

9.4.5 Pellagra 370

9.4.5.1 The pellagragenic effect of excess dietary leucine 372
9.4.5.2 Inborn errors of tryptophan metabolism 372
9.4.5.3 Carcinoid syndrome 373
9.4.5.4 Drug-induced pellagra 373
9.5 Quinone cofactors in amine oxidases 374
Further reading 375

Bibliography 377
Index 431
Figures

1.1 The nitrogen cycle 2

1.2 Incorporation of ammonia into glutamate and glutamine 14
1.3 The catabolism of glutamate 14
1.4 The synthesis of glutamine and asparagine 19
1.5 The role of cyanide in nitrogen incorporation 23
1.6 Purine synthesis 24
1.7 Synthesis of AMP and GMP from IMP 25
1.8 Purine catabolism 33
1.9 AMP deaminase as a source of ammonia 35
1.10 Purine salvage 37
1.11 Pyrimidine synthesis 39
1.12 Pyrimidine catabolism 44
1.13 Deamination of amino acids 46
1.14 Transdeamination – transamination linked to glycine oxidase 48
1.15 Transdeamination – transamination linked to glutamate
dehydrogenase 49
1.16 The urea synthesis cycle 53
1.17 The metabolism of canavanine 61
2.1 Nitrogen balance – protein flux through the
gastro-intestinal tract 73
2.2 The entry of amino acid carbon skeletons into the
citric acid cycle 96
2.3 The inter-organ glucose-alanine cycle 100
3.1 Interconversion of the vitamin B6 vitamers 106
3.2 Pyridoxal phosphate-catalyzed reactions of amino acids 107
3.3 The transaldimination reaction in pyridoxal
phosphate-catalyzed reactions 108
3.4 Non-enzymic reactions leading to the formation of
iso-aspartyl and d-aspartyl residues in proteins 117
xiv FIGURES

3.5 The reaction of transamination 118

3.6 The mitochondrial malate-aspartate shuttle 121
3.7 Reactions of bacterial aspartate β-decarboxylase 123
4.1 Metabolic sources of glycine 131
4.2 The interconversion of glycine and serine 133
4.3 The glycine cleavage system 135
4.4 Metabolic fates of glyoxylate 139
4.5 One-carbon substituted folate derivatives 142
4.6 Overview of one-carbon metabolism 142
4.7 Serine synthesis 143
4.8 Metabolic fates of serine 145
4.9 Synthesis of peptide C-terminal amides 147
4.10 Synthesis of porphyrins 148
4.11 Synthesis of selenocysteine 153
5.1 Amino acids synthesized from glutamate 158
5.2 Synthesis of 5-aminolevulinic acid from glutamate in plants 159
5.3 Catabolism of glutamate 161
5.4 Formation of isopeptide bonds by transglutaminase 165
5.5 Glutathione 169
5.6 The γ-glutamyl cycle 173
5.7 The GABA shunt as an alternative to the citric acid cycle 179
5.8 Synthesis of GABA from arginine 182
5.9 The reaction of glutamate carboxylase 186
5.10 The intrinsic and extrinsic blood clotting cascades 188
5.11 Synthesis of proline from glutamate and ornithine 191
5.12 Catabolism of hydroxyproline 195
5.13 The reaction of peptide prolyl hydroxylase 197
5.14 Synthesis of putrescine 200
5.15 Synthesis and catabolism of the polyamines 202
5.16 Synthesis of hypusine 204
5.17 Arginine synthesis from glutamate 207
5.18 Arginine catabolism through arginine deiminase 209
5.19 Synthesis of nitric oxide 212
5.20 Methylarginine 217
5.21 The role of creatine as a phosphagen 220
5.22 Synthesis and catabolism of creatine 221
6.1 Amino acids synthesized from aspartate 228
6.2 Pathways of threonine catabolism 233
6.3 Lysine biosynthesis in bacteria and plants – the
diaminopimelate pathway 237
6.4 Lysine biosynthesis in yeasts and fungi – the α-aminoadipate
pathway 240
6.5 Pathways of lysine catabolism 244
 FIGURES xv

6.6 The Maillard reaction 246

6.7 Isopeptide links in proteins 246
6.8 Lysine-derived cross-links in collagen 248
6.9 Three-way lysine-derived cross-links 249
6.10 Formation of desmosine and isodesmosine in elastin 250
6.11 Pyrrolysine synthesis 251
6.12 The role of carnitine and carnitine palmitoyltransferases
in the mitochondrial uptake of fatty acids 253
6.13 Carnitine biosynthesis 254
6.14 Cysteine and methionine biosynthesis 257
6.15 Methionine metabolism in mammals – the methionine cycle
and the transsulphuration pathway for cysteine biosynthesis 261
6.16 Ethylene biosynthesis and the methylthioadenosine cycle 269
6.17 Pathways for hydrogen sulphide formation in mammals 273
6.18 Taurine biosynthesis 275
7.1 The common pathway of branched-chain amino
acid synthesis 281
7.2 Leucine biosynthesis 285
7.3 Alternative pathways for 2-oxobutyrate synthesis 287
7.4 The common pathway of branched-chain amino
acid catabolism 288
7.5 The reaction of branched-chain oxo-acid dehydrogenase 291
7.6 Leucine catabolism 295
7.7 Isoleucine catabolism 296
7.8 Valine catabolism 298
7.9 The role of biotin in carboxylation reactions 299
8.1 Histidine biosynthesis 308
8.2 Histidine catabolism 311
8.3 Formation of the methylidene-imidazole cofactor
of histidase 312
8.4 Non-enzymic products formed from imidazolone propionate 314
8.5 The hydantoin propionate pathway of histidine catabolism 315
8.6 The transamination pathway of histidine catabolism 316
8.7 Histamine metabolism 320
9.1 The shikimate (common) pathway of aromatic amino acid
biosynthesis 325
9.2 Biosynthesis of phenylalanine and tyrosine from chorismate 329
9.3 Biosynthesis of tryptophan from chorismate 331
9.4 The phenylpropanoid pathway for lignin biosynthesis 337
9.5 Polyphenols synthesized from coumaroyl CoA 339
9.6 The reaction of phenylalanine hydroxylase 341
9.7 Catecholamine synthesis from tyrosine 343
9.8 Catabolism of the catecholamines 347
xvi FIGURES

9.9 The reaction of monoamine oxidase and

aldehyde dehydrogenase 348
9.10 Tyrosinase and the synthesis of melanin 350
9.11 Biosynthesis of the thyroid hormones 354
9.12 Tyrosine catabolism 356
9.13 Auxin biosynthesis from tryptophan 358
9.14 Indole formation from tryptophan 359
9.15 The biosynthesis of serotonin and melatonin 361
9.16 The kynurenine pathway of tryptophan catabolism 364
9.17 Biosynthesis of NAD 371
9.18 Quinone cofactors formed by post-synthetic
modification of proteins 375
 Another Random Document on
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White Spires United Presbyterian Church
Mrs. Wayne Dawson

Helen Horton
In the late 1840’s, missionaries of two branches of the Presbyterian
faith—the Associate and the Associate Reformed—arrived in the
Willamette Valley. In July, 1850, Dr. T. S. Kendall organized the
Associate Presbyterian Church in the Oakville neighborhood, and this
is still a strong rural church. In 1851, Wilson Blain arrived in the
valley. He had lived in Oregon City and had been editor of the
“Oregon Spectator.” He organized a church at Union Point, near
Brownsville, Oregon. Other missionaries followed.

The difficulties of travel and the great distances from church centers
soon caused the question of union to come up, resulting in a compact
being drawn up uniting these bodies into the United Presbyterian
Church of Oregon. Taking part in the Union were Dr. Kendall, Dr.
Irvine, and Rev. J. P. Millar of the associate group. In the Associate
Reformed group were Rev. Blain, Rev. James Worth, and Rev.
Jeremiah Dick. This union took place at the home of Rev. Blain,
October 20, 1852. These two bodies united in Pittsburgh into the
United Presbyterian Church of North America in 1858.

In October, 1853, the Albany Church was organized, the first to 55

be organized as the United Presbyterian Church. The Rev. J. P.
Millar was pastor until his death in April, 1854. He was killed by an
explosion of the Steamship “Gazelle” near Oregon City.

Dr. Irvine, who was pastor at Oakville (Willamette), followed the Rev.
Millar, by giving part time to the Albany Congregation until 1873. He
severed his connection with the Willamette Church, moving to Albany,
where he was pastor until his death in 1895. He was Moderator of
the General Assembly in 1878.

The Albany congregation met in the Courthouse, an octagonal

building which burned in the 1860’s. A church was built in 1863 at
Fifth and Washington, on ground obtained from Thomas Montieth.
This building served many years, but on June 20, 1891, the
cornerstone of the present church was laid and the church formally
dedicated, August 7, 1892.
The General Assembly met in Albany in 1894, and Dr. Irvine was able
to attend one meeting in a wheelchair. The next pastor to remain
many years was Dr. W. P. White. He came in the fall of 1901, and was
pastor until 1920. In 1906, the Dr. S. G. Irvine Memorial pipe organ
was installed at a cost of over $2,800. It is still in use.

Again the General Assembly met in Albany in 1952, with

commissioners from all over the United States and the mission fields.
In 1953, the church observed the “100th Anniversary” of the
organizing of the church. The contractor for building the church was
J. B. Cougill; it cost about $16,500. The architect, who drew the
plans for the present church, was Walter Pugh, of the firm of
McCauley and Wickersham of Salem. The name “White Spires” was
made official on January 8, 1958.

The spires are outstanding and are the highest points in Albany. The
supports are made of laminated wood. Though swaying badly during
the typhoon of October 12, 1962, it stood, although traffic was
blocked off for hours. The stained-glass windows were not broken.
They are very unusual both in design and coloring. The White Spires
Church still stands and the present pastor is the Rev. Ralph R.
Hawthorne.

56
 Boston Mills
(Thompson Mills)
Lottie E. Morgan

Helen Horton

“Boston Mills” was a familiar name to early Oregon pioneers. It was

one of the early gristmills. Men would take their wheat by horseback
or in wagons from miles around to this mill and take home the flour
for their families. Boston, like many other settlements, hoped to be a
city and perhaps the county seat.

Eliza Finley Brandon (Mrs. Thomas Brandon), 1850-1948, says: “My

father, Richard Chism Finley, built the original mill at the old town of
Boston in 1856-1858. He owned a half interest. Alexander Brandon
and P. V. Crawford each owned one-fourth interest. It was destroyed
by fire. With the flour-mill there was a carding factory. There a fire
was kept burning all the time to warm the wool as it was worked.
The fire probably started from this. Soon after the fire, the mill was
rebuilt. All the massive timbers for both mills were cut out and hewed
by hand in the woods near Crawfordsville, and hauled to Boston—an
immense task.”

There used to be fairs at Boston in the early days—not really in

Boston but in the country to the east across the Calapooya, at the
foot of a small hill between Saddle Butte and the Calapooya River.
This hill was called Bunker Hill because it was near Boston, and one
time two settlers had a fight there over a land claim, “The Battle of
Bunker Hill.”

Pioneers relate that Boston once had a post office, established 57

September 22, 1868, two stores, and a blacksmith shop, in
addition to the mills. When the railroad passed one and a half miles
to the west, Boston failed to develop as a town, and Shedd became
the railroad station.

Mr. E. D. Farwell, pioneer, says the ownership of the mill ran like this:
Finley, Crawford and Brandon; Finley & William (Billy) Simmons;
Simmons Brothers; Simmons and Knoll; Simmons & Thompson, then
Thompson, the present owner.

We are told that the old timbers, mentioned earlier, remain in the
present reconstructed structure, and that the old millstones lie under
the water of the millrace. The white walls of the present mill are
reflected in the clear waters of the millrace, the busy wheels continue
to hum, and flour is ground for descendants of the pioneers of early
days. The well-kept home of Mr. Otto Thompson, the present owner,
stands nearby, only a short distance from the home of “Billy”
Simmons, the miller of earlier days.

58
 The Chase Orchard
Fannie Chase

Oregon pioneers must have had a diverting time clearing the land,
planting orchards, tilling fields, and erecting homes. Doing all the
planning called for constructive creation and real achievement.
However, I wonder whether the one who moves into a ready-made
house doesn’t have even more thrills and flights of imagination. I
consider myself a fortunate mortal to dwell in a place with an
interesting historical background. I was fascinated by the Oregon
farm that my father and mother bought, near Albany.

My early childhood was spent in the sandhills of Nebraska, a land

characterized by tumbleweeds, prairie fires, and hot winds. Until I
arrived in the Willamette Valley, I had never seen a lilac or a rose in
full bloom. I shall always remember my first glimpse of the new
Oregon home. On that Spring morning, no sky had ever been so
blue, no fields so green, no fruit trees so pink and white.

The house with its high ceiling, grained woodwork, and flower
conservatory aroused my greatest curiosity. How excited I was after
several weeks’ sojourn to discover a tiny cellar that had escaped
unnoticed! It had been the special location of a barometer and other
instruments for official weather records.

The farm was a part of the Cline donation land claim of the 59
1860’s. In 1887, Mr. and Mrs. John Briggs bought ten acres of
this tract, cleared the land, erected buildings, planted trees, and
established a rose and shrub nursery. In 1902, fifteen years later,
when Mr. Briggs began to fail in health, the farm was sold to J. L.
Howard; and, in 1906, it was sold to Nels Savage.

My father purchased the farm in 1908. For fifty-four years it has been
called The Chase Orchards, but older residents still refer to it as the
Old Briggs Place. Old Mr. Briggs was a dyed-in-the-wool Britisher.
Everything he planted was English to the extreme: English box,
English laurel, English holly, English hedges—all fashioned in precise
rows, circles, and squares.

If Mr. Briggs could see his old home now, he would find many
changes. The little pines, firs, and cedars are giant in size, real
patriarchs of the forest. English ivy covers the farm buildings, and the
box hedges are broad and rambling. The nursery stock forms a rose-
garden lawn with panels of the same old-fashioned roses that were
planted seventy-five years ago. Filbert, walnut, and holly orchards
have replaced some of the original trees.

In those early days, there were two entrances: a large gate for the
carriage, and a small picket gate leading to a narrow walk between
the hedge and the driveway. At another corner, near the farm
buildings, was a secondary entrance designed for farm vehicles and
delivery wagons. Woe to the misguided laborer who, inadvertently
blundered through the wrong gateway!

Much of our knowledge of the early activities was gained from Mr.
Briggs’ widow, who lived only a short distance from us. From her we
acquired a floral language of technical titles for trees, shrubs, bulbs,
and flowers. We ourselves made a special contribution to the time-
honored Pacific Coast flora by adding a cutting from the rosebush
that our Great-grandfather Chase had brought to New York State, a
century and a half ago. We are not pioneers. We are not Webfoots.
We are not Oregon mossbacks. We cannot claim relationship to a
native son or a native daughter. We simply adopted a friendly Oregon
community, which is still animated by the courage and industry of
former beauty-loving Oregonians.

60
 History of Early Albany Schools
Mary Myrtle Worley

The account of perhaps the first instruction given in Albany, dates

back to the 1840’s. Since there were not enough children in the
community for organization of a school, it cannot be classed as one.
Mrs. Abraham Hackleman gathered a few small children into her
home, a log house which stood in Hackleman’s Grove, and taught
them reading, writing and numbers.
The following incident illustrates the very busy life of these pioneers:
When it came time for the geese to be picked, Mrs. Hackleman did
not want to neglect the children, so the geese were brought in, and
the picking went on with as little interference with spelling and
writing as possible.

The first school was situated in the west part of town, not far from
the cemetery, and was taught (1851) by Dr. Reuben Cohman Hill. Dr.
Hill was a practicing physician and a Baptist minister. In 1850, he
crossed the plains to California on the back of a mule and soon after
came to Albany, where he taught the first school before returning
east for his family. Soon after this, Andrew J. Babb conducted a 61
subscription school in one small room near the location of
Takenah Park. During the Civil War, feeling ran so high that the school
was divided. One subscription school, the Republican, stood where
the Methodist Church was on Third and Ellsworth streets; and the
other, known as the Dixie School, Democratic, was located on the
southwest corner of Second and Montgomery streets.

A daughter of Oregon pioneers, Miss Lottie E. Morgan has said: “In

Albany, Takenah Park has been officially marked as a part of the
Pioneer Oregon Trail, and it eventually became the site of Albany’s
first Central School. One who attended the first Central School, in
1866, tells that it was a one-room building, some thirty by fifty feet in
size, standing in the block known as Takenah Park. Soon after this
date, two ells were added, forming a T-shaped building, where more
teachers, perhaps three, and more pupils were accommodated.”

Mrs. Zella M. Burkhart contributed the following, copied from a

manuscript by J. J. Davis, who came to Linn County with his parents
in 1847, and attended the first school taught in Linn County in 1848:
“Mr. Anderson Cox, having several children, built a school house on
his place that summer and hired a teacher, Robert Huston, for a term
of three months. He was the first teacher in Linn County.”

By the 1880’s, Albany had three schools. The Central School at

Takenah Park has four rooms and four teachers and took care of
pupils beginning with the advanced section of the third grade. Dr.
Oliver K. Beers was one of the teachers at Madson, which was then a
one-room building. There were sixty pupils in five classes of the first,
second, and lower level of the third grades. The Maple School did the
same grade of work. The schools at this time were free, being
supported by taxation. Albany Collegiate Institute at this time had a
preparatory department for those in the upper grades. Because some
people had not yet outgrown the idea that free schools were for
paupers only, there arose again two rival groups among the young
people, known as College “Bummers” and the District “Scrubs.”

62
 Linn County Courthouse
Florette Nutting and Helen J. Horton

Linn County, Oregon, is a mountain and river-valley region, extending

from east to west from the summit of the Cascade Mountains to the
Willamette River. The Santiam River and the Calapooya River,
tributaries of the Willamette River, which have their sources in the
Cascades, traverse the valley at approximately the county’s northern
and southern boundaries.

In mounds south of Albany have been found human skeletons, and

utensils and weapons of possibly Indian manufacture, pointing to the
custom of burying with the dead, the weapons and implements used
in life. This indicates that Linn County was a happy hunting ground
for a large tribe of Indians known as the Calapooya tribe, which gave
this name to the river flowing into the Willamette River at Albany.

Earliest settlements were made in Linn County at Albany, Brownsville,

and Lebanon, in the Spring of 1846, by pioneers who had crossed the
plains the year before and had wintered near Oregon City. The first
cabin was erected in 1845 by William Packwood, where the old
Indian trail, between Scio and Lebanon, crossed Crabtree Creek. It
was sold to John Crabtree in the Summer of 1846. The Earl family
were the first permanent settlers. They built a cabin about two miles
east of Knox Butte in the Spring of 1846, and in the same year
settlers located at Brownsville and Lebanon.

Brownsville was the county seat then. The schoolhouse on the

Spalding donation land claim in South Brownsville was the first 63
courthouse. Organization of county government occurred
December 11, 1849. Albany was designated as the county seat of
Linn County by legislature in January, 1851; and, in 1852, a
courthouse was erected.

Linn county’s second courthouse, erected in 1852, was identical in

plan with the famed Octagon House. The Octagon courthouse cost
nearly $5,000. This wood-frame building, located on West Fourth
Avenue, Albany, burned to the ground September 1, 1861. The fire
did not destroy the county records in use at the time, as they were
protected by a fireproof vault. However, many records and historical
documents from the early days of Albany and Linn County were
completely destroyed.
The Courthouse, pictured here, was completed between 1862 and
1865, at a cost of $35,000. The architecture was similar to Southern
Colonial. It had a brick portico and four large Corinthian columns, two
stories high. In 1899, the third story and the clock tower were added
to the original building.

At the turn of the century, the town that didn’t possess a large town
clock, with chimes, was not a town worthy of mention. Accordingly,
the courthouse addition was designed around the clock tower. The
clock itself had four ten-foot faces and was kept in motion by 1,000-
pound weights. The bells, which rang Albany people to work in the
morning and sounded curfew at night, could be heard in Sodaville
when the wind was right. The clock was made by the Seth Thomas
Company and kept nearly perfect time throughout its lifetime.

Not only was this courthouse interesting from a material standpoint

but also for its outstanding usefulness to the whole community. In
addition to housing the courtroom and county offices, it often served
as a town hall, meetings of various kinds being held in the courtroom
or in the attic above the second floor. In these same rooms, many
eminent lecturers, evangelists, and other visiting speakers drew
appreciative audiences of town and country folks. Some of the
county’s able lawyers made their first speeches there. Directly to the
north of the courthouse lay a vacant block which, in those early days,
was called the “Courthouse Square.” Also, closely associated with the
courthouse was the square, two-storied brick jail which stood on the
southeast corner of the block. It was erected in 1871 at a cost of
$9,550. When the second courthouse was enlarged and remodeled,
the addition of a third story, two towers, a town clock, a statue of
justice, and other adornments changed the style and appearance of
the building completely, and the old courthouse became only a
memory to those who had loved it.

64
STATE of OREGON
Portland
West Union Baptist Church
Joe Meek Donation Land Claim
Old College Hall, Pacific University
George Gay House
George Fox College
Belleque House
Champoeg Farmland
Amity Church of Christ
Wheatland Ferry
Salem
Monmouth Normal School
Stump House
Fort Hoskins
Bishop Simpson Chapel
Albany
Octagonal House
Lynn County Court House
St. Charles Hotel
Montieth House
White Spire Presbyterian Church
Eugene
Villard Hall
Wilkins House
Christian House
Condon House
Walton House
Cartwright House (Lorane)
Applegate House (Yoncalla)
 Transcriber’s Notes
Silently corrected a few typos.
Retained publication information from the printed edition: this
eBook is public-domain in the country of publication.
In the text versions only, text in italics is delimited by
_underscores_.
*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK OREGON HISTORIC
LANDMARKS: WILLAMETTE VALLEY ***

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