TERM ONE

THE COPPERBELT UNIVERSITY

(CBU)

INTRODUCTORY PHYSICS

PH 110

Lecturer: Mr. Given Kalonga

 UNIT 1

INTRODUCTION TO

PHYSICAL QUANTITIES, UNITS

AND MEASUREMENTS
Intro to Quantities, Dimensions and Vectors
Objectives
At the end of this Unit, learners should be able to understand
and demonstrate the concepts:
• Define a physical quantity
• Identify the 7 base quantities and their SI units.
• Identify some derived quantities and their SI units.
• Identify non-SI units and convert between units
• Name and use the frequently used prefixes for SI units.
• Scientific notations
• Conversion between units using the chain-rule.
• Decimal points, significant figures
• Estimates and order of magnitude
• DA & homogeneity of units in an equation
• Derive equations using dimensional analysis
Physical Quantities
A physical quantity is a property of nature that can be
measured (quantified).
Give Examples of physical quantities: Time, Mass, Volume, etc.

Physical quantities are divided into two categories: base

(primary) quantities and derived (secondary) quantities

Base (Primary) quantities are quantities that are not derived

from other quantities. There are 7 base quantities as will be
shown in the table.

Derived Quantities are quantities that are a combination of

two or more base quantities. They are derived from base
quantities E.g volume, area, density, energy, power, pressure, etc
Base Quantities
Physical Quantity Physical SI Unit SI Unit
Symbol
Quantity
Symbol
Length l Meter m
Mass m Kilogram Kg
Time t Second s
Temperature T Kelvin K
Charge q Coulomb C
Amount of substance n Mole mol.
Luminous Intensity Iv Candela cd
Derived Quantities
Some Fundamental Definitions: the Meter
• In the past one meter was defined by the length of a metal
bar that had an almost constant length over a long period of
time. The bar was called an artifact and was kept in France.

• The modern way of defining the meter is by using the speed

of light.

• The meter is the length traveled by light in vacuum over a

1
time duration of 𝑡 = 8 s
3 x 10
𝑙
• Recall, c = 𝑡
𝑚 1
• 𝑙 = 𝑐𝑡 = 3 x 108 𝑠
∗ 3 x 108 𝑠 = 1 𝑚 --- meter defined.
• where c is speed of light in vacuum c = 3 x 108 m/s
This can be measured in any modern laboratory.
Some Fundamental Definitions: the Mass
• Just like the meter, in the past one kg was defined by the
weight of a cylindrical piece of alloy of platinum and iridium
metals that had an almost constant weight over a long
period of time. The mass piece was called an artifact.

• The modern way of defining mass is by using the weight of

the carbon 12 isotope atoms.

• The carbon-12 atom, by international agreement, has been

assigned a mass of 12 atomic mass units (amu).
• The relation between amu and kg is:
1 amu = 1.660 538 86 x 10-27 kg,
1 kg contains about 50 x 1024 atoms of carbon 12.
The International System (SI) of Unit
• The SI system: International System (SI) of units. These
were agreed upon by all countries to be used as the
international units for base and derived quantities
• The tables in the previous slide shows base and derived
quantities with their SI units. e.g The SI unit of mass is the
kilogram (kg), for length is the meter (m)
• The SI system is also called the metric system (as based
on the meter)
• All calculations is this course must be carried out and
reported in SI units, unless otherwise indicated. Mixing
SI and non-SI units in same calculation leads to wrong
results.
Other Non-SI Unit Systems
• The cgs (centimeters, grams, seconds) a sub-system of the
SI units used in measurements involving centimeters, grams
and seconds. It is ideal for measurements of small amount of
the quantities.
• E.g. small forces (kg*m/s2) can be expressed as g.cm/s2 a
unit called the Dyne
• 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝑵 = 10−3𝐾𝑔. 𝑚/𝑠 2 = 1000 ∗ 10−3 𝑔 ∗ 100𝑐𝑚 /𝑠 2
= > 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝑵 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝒄𝒈𝒔 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝐃𝐲𝐧𝐞
• A dyne is a unit of force

• The other common non-SI system are the imperial

system or British Measurement system (BMS)
Examples: inche (’), pound (Lb), gallon (G), pint, etc.
Other Non-SI Units
Light years (used in astronomy)
One light year is the distance travelled by light in one year (365
days) in a vacuum.
Distance travelled = velocity of light x 1 year
One light year = 3 x 108 m/s x 1 year (in seconds)
= 3 x 108 m/s x 365.25 x 24 x 60 x 60
= 9.467 x 1015 m
=> one light year = 9.5 x 1015 m

Astronomical Unit (AU)

• Astronomical unit is the average distance from the center of
the sun to the center of the earth.
• 1 AU = 1.5 x 1011 m
Conversion Between Units – Using Chain Rule
Conversion of units can be done from one system to the other.
For instance, conversion factors between the S.I and U.S
customary systems is as follows
• 1 mi = 1609 m = 1.609 km
• 1 m = 39.37 in = 3.281 ft
• 1 ft = 0.3048 m = 30.48 cm
• 1 in = 0.0254 m = 2.54 cm
Note: these conversion factors will be provided.

Using the Chain Rule

Example: Convert
1) 10 mile/hour to m/s:
10 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑠 1 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟 1609 𝑚 16090 𝑚
∗ ∗ = = 4.47 𝑚/𝑠
1 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟 3600 𝑠 1𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑒 3600 𝑠
Conversion Between Units
Using the Chain Rule

2) 28.0m/s to miles/s:
28 𝑚 1 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑒 28 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑠
∗ = = 0.017 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑠/𝑠
1 𝑠 1609 𝑚 1609 𝑠

3) 10 mile/hour to in/s:
10 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑠 1 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟 0.0254 𝑖𝑛 1609𝑚 408.686 𝑖𝑛
∗ ∗ ∗ = = 0.1135 𝑖𝑛/𝑠
1 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟 3600 𝑠 1𝑚 1𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑒 3600 𝑠

4) 1000 inches/hour to feet/s:

1000 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠 1 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟 0.0254 𝑚 3.281 𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑡 83.3374 𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑡
∗ ∗ ∗ =
1 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟 3600 𝑠 1𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ 1𝑚 3600 𝑠
= 0.023 𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑡/𝑠
More on Conversion

• Convert the following:

i. 0.2 m/s into cgs system.
ii. 100 g into kg
iii. 100 g into kg
iv. 100 mg into kg
v. 0.005 N into cgs system.
vi. 500 Dyne into N.
vii. 10 cm into m.
viii. 0.1 cm2 into m2
ix. 0.1 liters into cm3.
x. 2.5 x 10-10 m into μm
Common Prefixes
Prefixes are used to express multiples and submultiples of units.
Pre stands for before. E.g. centi-meter (cm)
Use of Common Prefixes
Example:
Convert
(1) 5 x 10-7 m to millimeters (mm)
(2) 5 x 10-7 m to picometers (pm)

Use Cross Multiplication

Solutions:
Use cross multiplications
(1) 1 mm = 10-3 m
x = 5 x 10-7 m => x = (5 x 10-7 m x 1 mm) /10-3 m
= 5 x 10-7+3 mm = 5 x 10-4 mm
Use of Common Prefixes

Example:
Convert
(1) 5 x 10-7 m to millimeters (mm)
(2) 5 x 10-7 m to picometers (pm)

Solutions:
(2) 1 pm = 10-12 m
x = 5 x 10-7 m => x = (5 x 10-7 m x 1 pm)/ 10-12 m
= 5 x 10-7+12 pm = 5 x 105 pm
Use of Common Prefixes

Exercise:
Convert
(1) 5 x 10-7 m to micrometers (μm)
(2) 1 mg to kg
(3) 1 μg to kg
(4) 500 g to μg

Ans: (1) 5 x 10-1 μm (2) 10-6 kg (3) 10-9 kg (4) 5 x 108 μg

Decimal Points and Significant Figures
These are rules used for rounding off figures.
Decimal Points (DP)
Starts to count after the decimal point placement.
Examples:
0.03 is to 2 decimal points
1.030 is to 3 decimal points
0.030 is to 3 decimal points
0.000 is 3 decimal points

Exercise: Round off the following to 3 DP:

0.00208
2.43549
2.69152
Ans: 0.002, 2.435, 2.692
Decimal Points and Significant Figures
Significant Figures (SF)
NB: The digit zero can be significant or none depending on
where it is placed in a number.
Rule 1: All digits (figures), apart from zero, are significant
regardless of where they are placed.
Example: 234.5 has 4 SF
2345 has 4 SF
Rule 2: leading zeroes are none significant.
Example: 0.03o has 2 SF i.e. the last two are significant
0.123 has 3 SF i.e. the last three are significant
Rule 3: zeroes placed between other numbers are significant
Example: 0.103 has 3 SF i.e. the last three are significant
1003 has 4 SF i.e. all are significant
Decimal Points and Significant Figures
Rule 4: zeroes placed after decimal point are significant if they
are preceded by some other numbers.
Example: 1.030 has 4 significant figures
1.000 has 4 significant figures
0.000 has 0 significant figures
Rule 5: trailing zeroes in whole numbers are none significant
Example: 300 has 1 SF i.e. only 3 is SF
3 x 105 has 1 SF
3.4 x 105 has 2 SF
Exercise: Round off the following to 2 SF
2.43549
2.69152
30200 = 3.02 x 10^4
3.012 x 105
Reporting Answers with Correct SF and DPs
• In multiplying (or dividing) two or more quantities, the
number of significant figures in the final product (quotient)
will correspond to the same number of significant figures as
the factor with least number of significant figures.
Example: 14.71 m x 37 m = 544.27 𝑚 2 => 540 𝒎𝟐
OR 4.822 m x 5.1 m = 24.59 𝑚 2 => 25 𝒎𝟐
• When numbers are added (subtracted), the number of
decimal places in the final result should equal the least
number of decimal places of any term in the sum
(difference).
Example: 123 + 5.35 = 128 (zero decimal places)
and not 128.35 (two decimal places)
Introduction To Uncertainty of Measurements
• The uncertainty of measurements (UoM) is the range or
interval within which the true value of the measurement lies.
• When a measurement is carried out in the lab, several readings
are taken of the same quantity to increase accuracy. The
readings differ slightly from each other. An average is obtained
• The common contributors to UoM in the laboratory are
standard deviation, resolution of the instrument used,
method used in the measurement, and the external UoM
from the calibration certificate.
• Resolution is the smallest division on an instrument.
• The contributors are added together to form the total UoM.
• UoM is expressed as ±value, and is added at the end of a
measured reading.
Example: An object measured: (14.1 ±0.5) cm, where ±0.5 cm is
the UoM. Hence the true value lies in the interval [13.6 - 14.6] cm
Rule 1: MULTIPLICATION/DIVISION OF UoM
When multiplying figures containing UoM the main values are
multiplied/divided, but the UoM are added through percentage
conversion.
Example 1:
The length of an object is (14.7 ±0.5) cm, and its width is (10.2
±0.2) cm. Find the area of the object in cm
Sol. To solve (14.7 ±0.5) cm x (10.2 ±0.2) cm,
we shall first find the %UoM values.
0.5
For 14.7 ± 0.5 𝑐𝑚 the %UoM is ∗ 100 = 3.40136%
14.7
Hence we have 14.7 ± 0.5 𝑐𝑚 = 14.7 𝑐𝑚 ± 3.40136%.
Similarly, 10.2 ± 0.2 𝑐𝑚 = 10.2 𝑐𝑚 ± 1.96078%
Add the %UoM: (3.40136% + 1.96078%) = 5.362%
Multiply main values: 14.7 ∗ 10.2 = 149.94 cm
Rule 1: MULTIPLICATION/DIVISION OF UoM
We have =149.94 cm ± 5.362%
We now convert back the %UoM into cm:
5.362
UoM = 100
∗ 149.94 𝑐𝑚 = 8.04 𝑐𝑚.
We need to report the main value to 3 sf as per rule of
multiplication: 149.94 cm= 150 𝑐𝑚
The UoM to 1 sf: 8.04 cm = 8 cm
Hence our final result is
(14.7 ±0.5) cm x (10.2 ±0.2) cm= (𝟏𝟓𝟎 ± 𝟖) 𝒄𝒎
Rule 1: MULTIPLICATION/DIVISION OF UoM
DIVIDING
We divide the main values and add the %UoM
Example 1:
Solve (14.7 ±0.5) cm / (10.2 ±0.2) cm,
we shall first find the %UoM values.
0.5
first %UoM is ∗ 100 = 3.40136%
14.7
0.2
Second % UoM ∗ 100 = 1.96078%
10.2
Add the %UoM: (3.40136% + 1.96078%) = 5.362%
Divide main values: 14.7/10.2 = 1.441 cm
We now convert back the %UoM to cm:
5.362
100
∗ 1.441 = 0.0773 cm = 0.08 to 1 sf
Hence (𝟏. 𝟒𝟒 ±0.08) cm
Rule 2: MULTIPLICATION/DIVISION BY CONSTANT
Any constant multiplied or divided to a reading is also
multiplied/divided to the UoM
Example 2:
The radius of a circle is (3.0 ±0.2) cm. Find, in cm, the
(1) circumference and its uncertainty. (2) Area and its
uncertainty.
Sol
𝐶 = 2𝜋𝑟 = 2𝜋 ∗ 3.0 𝑐𝑚 ± 2𝜋 ∗ 0.2 𝑐𝑚 = 18.9 ± 1.26 𝑐𝑚
Rounding off each one to the correct sf we get 𝐶 = 𝟏𝟗 ± 𝟐 𝒄𝒎
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝜋𝑟 2 .
First we evaluate 𝑟 2 then we multiply by the constant at the end.
0.2
𝑟 2 = [3.0 ± 0.2]2𝑐𝑚 2 = 32 ± 2 ∗ 3 ∗ 100 = 9.0 ± 13.33%
13.33
=> 100
∗ 9 𝑐𝑚 = 1.2 𝑐𝑚. 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝜋𝑟 2 = 3.142 ∗ 9.0 ± 1.2 𝑐𝑚2
28.28 ± 3.77 𝑐𝑚2 = 𝟐𝟖 ± 𝟒 𝒄𝒎𝟐
Rule 3: ADDITION/SUBTRACTION OF UoM
ADDING THE UoM
UoM are added separately from the measured values.
Example 1:
Evaluate (14.7 ±0.5)cm + (10.2 ±0.2)cm.
Adding the main terms 14.7 + 10.2 𝑐𝑚 = 24.9 𝑐𝑚
Adding the UoM terms ±0.5 + ±0.2 𝑐𝑚 = ±0.7 cm
𝐴𝑛𝑠: 𝟐𝟒. 𝟗 ± 𝟎. 𝟕 𝒄𝒎

SUBTRACTING THE UoM

Evaluate (14.7 ±0.5)cm - (10.2 ±0.2)cm.
Subtracting the main terms 14.7 − 10.2 𝑐𝑚 = 4.5 𝑐𝑚
Subtracting the UoM terms ±0.5 − ±0.2 𝑐𝑚 = ±0.3 cm
𝐴𝑛𝑠: 𝟒. 𝟓 ± 𝟎. 𝟑 𝒄𝒎
Estimates and Order of Magnitude Calculations
• Getting an exact measurement may often be difficult or
impossible, either for mathematical reasons or because
limited technology or limited information, e.g temperature
of the sun, distance from earth to the sun.
• For some measurements, knowing the approximate value of
a quantity — within a factor of the power of 10 or so —
is sufficient.
• Hence order of magnitudes follow the pattern : 𝟏𝟎𝒏 where n
is an integer.
• 𝟏𝟎𝒏 = order-of-magnitude of ten to power n
• For example, 75 kg ~ 102 kg or 100 kg, where the symbol ~
means “the order of” or “is approximately.”
• Increasing a quantity by three orders of magnitude means
that its value increases by a factor of 103 = 1000.
Estimates and Order of Magnitude Calculations
• In developing these estimates, you can take considerable
liberties with the numbers.
• For example simple estimates:
π ~ 100 or 1
27 ~ 101 or 10
65 ~ 102 or 100.
• To get a less crude estimate, it’s permissible to use slightly
more accurate numbers (guided by knowledge of the
parameters). Example:
π ~ 3,
27 ~ 30,
65 ~ 70.
• Better accuracy can also be obtained by systematically
underestimating as many numbers as you overestimate.
Example: How many atoms are in a golf ball?
STRATEGY:
- Number of atoms in a golf ball. Given, radius of golf ball is 5
cm, and radius of atom is about 0.1 pm. Find the number of
atoms in this golf ball.

Solution
Use volume of sphere to calculate.
4𝜋𝑟 3
𝑉=
3
4𝜋𝑅 3 4𝜋𝑟 3
𝑉𝑔 = ; 𝑉𝑎 =
3 3
𝑉𝑔 𝑅3 0.05 𝑚 12 11
𝑛≈ = 3 = −12 = 0.5 𝑥 10 ≈ 5 x 10 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠
𝑉𝑎 𝑟 0.1 x10
Example 2: Stacked up One Dollar Bills

How many one - dollar bills, stacked flat one on top of

the other, would reach the Moon?
Given the distance to the moon is about 400000 km?
Strategy: Estimate the number of dollar bills in a millimeter,
and multiply the distance by this number, after converting to
consistent units.
Solution:
We estimate 10 dollar bills will fill a millimeter.
Convert to number of bills per km:
10 𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑠 1 x 103 𝑚𝑚 1 x 103𝑚 1 x 107 𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑠
= 1𝑚𝑚 ( 1 𝑚 )( 1 𝑘𝑚 ) = 1 𝑘𝑚
Multiply this number by total distance:
5 1 x 107 𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑠 𝟏𝟐
# bills = (4 x 10 km) x 1 𝑘𝑚 = 4 x 𝟏𝟎 𝒃𝒊𝒍𝒍𝒔
Replace bills with human beings standing on top of each other
Summary-Estimates and Order of Magnitude
• Estimates can yield useful approximate answers that can
determine whether a more precise calculation is necessary.
• If a large answer is expected but a small exact answer is
obtained, then there’s an error somewhere.

Advantages of Estimates
• Estimates serve as a partial check if the exact calculations
are correct.
• Calculations can be carried out where limited information is
available
• Can be used where it is difficult or impossible to get an exact
answer in a calculation
• Disadvantages
• It does not give precise values
• Values close to each other cannot easily be estimated apart
DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS (DA)
Dimensional analysis (DA) is a technique that uses algebra of
base quantities symbols in equations.

Dimension refers to a physical quantity. E.g Length, mass, time.

The symbols used to specify the dimensions of length, mass and
time, are L or [L], M or [M] and T or [T] respectively.
DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS (DA)
• DA uses algebra equations with base quantity symbols.

• It is mainly used for deriving equations and for checking

whether a physical equation is homogeneous i.e. to check if the
RHS symbol expressions is equal to the LHS.

• Principle of Homogeneity: states that the powers of

symbols on the RHS of the equation must equal to the
respective powers on the LHS.
DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
Note that for the RHS to be equal to the LHS:
(1) The symbols must all agree on both sides of the equation
(2) The powers on the symbols must match on both sides of the
equation
(3) When terms are being added o subtracted, it means they have
the same dimensions i.e. same units.

Example 1:
Let Force = mass x acceleration,
Using DA prove that the centripetal force equation below is
homogeneous (dimensionally correct)
𝑚𝑣 2
𝐹= 𝑟
Where m is mass, v is velocity and r is radius.
DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS

𝑚𝑣 2
Sol: 𝐅 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 ∗ 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝑟
𝐿 𝐿
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 = [𝑀]; 𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙 =
𝑇 2; 𝑣 = 𝑇
; 𝑟 = [𝐿]
Hence
[𝑀] 𝐿 [𝑀] 𝐿 2 [𝑀] 𝐿 𝑀 [𝐿]2 [𝑀] 𝐿 𝑀 [𝐿]
= => = => =
[𝑇]2 𝑇 2 [𝐿] [𝑇]2 𝑇 2 [𝐿] [𝑇]2 𝑇 2
Hence RHS = LHS
Symbols and powers on both sides are equal
DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
Example 2:
Show that the equation below is dimensionally correct
𝑃 = 𝑝0 + ρ𝑔ℎ , where P is overall pressure, 𝑝0 is the constant
pressure, ρ is density, 𝑔 is acceleration due to gravity and h is
height.

Sol.
𝐹 𝑀 𝐿 𝑀 𝑀 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑀
𝑃= = = ; 𝑝0 = ;ρ= = ;
𝐴 [𝑇]2[𝐿]2 [𝑇] 2 𝐿 [𝑇]2 𝐿 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 [𝐿]3
𝐿
𝑔=
[𝑇]2
; h = [L]
𝑀 𝑀 𝑀 𝐿 𝑀 𝑀 𝐿
Hence = + . . [L] = + . . [L]
[𝑇]2 𝐿 [𝑇]2 𝐿 [𝐿]3 [𝑇]2 [𝑇]2 𝐿 [𝐿]3 [𝑇]2
𝑀 𝑀 𝑀
=> = + Hence Homogeneous.
[𝑇]2 𝐿 [𝑇]2 𝐿 [𝐿][𝑇]2
DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
Example 3:
Newton’s law of gravitational force is given by
𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝐹= 𝑟2
. Use DA to find the SI units of the universal constant G.
Sol.
𝐿 2 2
𝐹= 𝑀 2 ; 𝑀 = [𝑀]; 𝑚 = [𝑀]; 𝑟 = [𝐿]
[𝑇]
𝐹𝑟 2 𝐿 [𝐿] 2 [𝐿]3 𝒎𝟑
Hence 𝐺 = = 𝑀 . = =
𝑀𝑚 [𝑇]2 [𝑀]2 [𝑀][𝑇]2 𝒌𝒈.𝒔𝟐
DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
Derive an equation by using DA.
Example 4:
Find a relationship between acceleration a, speed v, and distance
r for a particle traveling in a circle.
Sol.
• Start with the term having the most dimensions. Among a, v,
and r, we see that a has the most dimensions.
• Give the variables a direct proportionality relationship
• Raise the RHS dimensions to different powers
• Solve for the values of the powers by equating the powers on
both sides of the corresponding symbols.
• Rewrite the equation with the solved powers.
DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
Sol. METHOD
We start with a general equation:
𝑎 ∝ 𝑣 𝛼 𝑟 𝛽 or 𝑎 = 𝑘𝑣 𝛼 𝑟 𝛽
where k is dimensionless constant, 𝛼 and 𝛽 are numbers.
𝐿 𝐿
But 𝑎 = [𝑇]2 => [𝑇]2
= 𝑘𝑣 𝛼 𝑟 𝛽
𝐿 𝐿 𝐿 𝛼 𝛽 𝐿 𝐿 𝛼+𝛽
𝑣= and 𝑟 = [𝐿] => =𝑘 [𝐿] => =𝑘
[𝑇] [𝑇]2 [𝑇]𝛼 [𝑇]2 [𝑇]𝛼
From here we equate the powers and can see that
𝛼 = 2 ----(1) and,
1 = 𝛼 + 𝛽 ------- (2)
We solve these equations simultaneously and get 𝛽 = −1.
We then substitute back to replace 𝛼 and 𝛽
𝐿 𝐿 2−1 𝒗𝟐
=𝑘 => 𝒂=𝑘 Hence derived.
[𝑇]2 [𝑇]2 𝒓
DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
Using DA to find powers in an equation
Example 3
If energy (e) is directly proportional to mass (m) raised to power
θ, radius (r) raised to power ϕ, and time (t) raised to power φ, and
taking the constant of proportionality k =1.
(i) Write down the initial expression relating energy to m, r and t.
(ii) Find the values of θ, ϕ and φ
(iii) Write down the final expression
Sol.
𝑒 = 𝑘𝑚 𝜃 𝑟 ϕ 𝑡 φ = 𝑚 𝜃 𝑟 ϕ 𝑡 φ , for k = 1. Energy has the most
dimensions so we set it on LHS.
[𝑀][𝐿]2 [𝑀][𝐿] 2
We know 𝑒 = [𝑇]2
=> [𝑇]2
= 𝑚𝜃 𝑟 ϕ𝑡φ
i.e. 𝜃 = 1; ϕ =2; φ = −2 Hence 𝑒 = 𝑚𝑟 2 𝑡 −2
Examples of DA
Example 4
Using DA prove that the centripetal acceleration equation
below is dimensionally correct
𝑣2
𝑎= 𝑟
Where a is acceleration, v is velocity and r is radius.

Sol:
𝐿
LHS: [𝑇]2
𝑣2 [𝐿]2 𝐿
RHS: = 𝑟
=> 𝑇 2 [𝐿]
=> [𝑇]2
Hence the proof RHS = LHS
DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
Exercise
(1) Show that the equation below is dimensionally correct
𝑒 = 𝑚𝒄𝟐 , where e is energy, m is mass and c is the speed of light.

(2) Find the SI units of a, b, and c if v is velocity and t is time.

𝑣 = 𝑎𝒕𝟐 + 𝒃𝒕 + 𝒄
𝑎
(3) The ideal gas equation is given by 𝑝 + 𝑽𝟐 𝑣 − 𝑏 = 𝑅𝑇,
where 𝑝 is pressure, 𝑉 is volume, 𝑅 the universal gas constant,
and 𝑇 is the temperature. Find the dimensions of a and b.
Advantages and Disadvantages of DA
Advantages
1. It does not use number values in calculations hence does
not require use of calculators or advanced technologies
2. Can be used where SI units are not known
3. Checks for homogeneity of equation i.e. the correctness of a
relation.
4. Used to derive equations of the product and division form
Disadvantages
1. Cannot be used to quantify a calculation
2. The value of dimensionless constants cannot be determined
3. Cannot be applied to equations involving exponential and
trigonometric functions
4. Cannot derive a linear equation
5. Difficult derive equations containing more than 3 variables
UNIT 2: Vector and Scalar Quantities
Objectives: Understand and demonstrate the
concepts:
• Distinguish between scalar and vector quantities
• Find the resultant of two or more vectors using
parallelogram, triangular and polygon methods.
• Calculations of Unit vectors.
• Resolve a vector into two perpendicular vectors.
• Use component method to add a number of coplanar
vectors acting at a point.
• Dot and Cross product of two vectors
• Work done – use of dot product
• Rotation – use of cross product
Vector and Scalar Quantities
• A physical quantity can be categorized as either
being a vector or a scalar quantity.
• A quantity with magnitude only is called a scalar
quantity
e.g. mass, distance, speed, time, temperature, volume.
Scalar quantities are added or subtracted algebraically.
• A quantity with both magnitude and direction is
called a vector quantity. Denoted as 𝐴 or A
e.g. Displacement, velocity, acceleration, force, etc.
Vector quantities are added geometrically taking into
account their directions. The directions are
determined by angles they make relative to the x-axis.
Vectors
Equality of Two Vectors
• Two vectors A and B are equal if they have the same
magnitude and the same direction.
• They need not be located at the same point in space.

Negative of a Vector
• The negative of the vector A is –A and defined as the vector
that gives zero when added to A
• This means that A and -A have the same magnitude but
opposite directions.

Vector Component Representation

• 𝑨 = 𝐴𝑥 𝑖 + 𝐴𝑦 𝑗 + 𝐴𝑧 𝑘
• Where 𝑖, 𝑗, 𝑘 represents the directions in the x, y and z axes.
Geometric Addition of Vectors
• Using Triangular Method: To add two vectors A
and B head-to-tail, first draw A on a piece of paper
to a scale, say 1 cm = 1 m. Then draw B using the
same scale with B starting at the tip of A.
• The resultant (R) vector R=A+B is drawn from the
tail of A to the head of B.
• This procedure is known as the triangular or Head-
t0-Tail method.

or
Commutative Law of Vector Addition
• When two vectors are added, their sum is
independent of the order of the addition.
A+B=B+A

Vector addition is commutative.

Parallelogram Method of Adding two Vectors
• This is a tail-to-tail method
• Tails are joined, then A is projected at the head of B
and B is projected at the head of A to form a
parallelogram.
• The resultant R of the two vectors is the diagonal of
the parallelogram.

• This method combines two triangular methods

Polygon Method of Vector Addition
• This method is for finding the resultant R of several
vectors (A, B, C and D ).
• This is done by joining vectors head to tail, taking
into account the angles.
• Resolve each vector into x and y components.
Vector X Y
𝐴 𝐴𝑥 𝐴𝑦
𝐵 𝐵𝑥 𝐵𝑦
𝐶 𝐶𝑥 𝐶𝑦
𝐷 𝐷𝑥 𝐷𝑦
𝑅 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶𝑥 + 𝐷𝑥 𝐴𝑦 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶𝑦 + 𝐷𝑦

𝑅𝑥 = 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶𝑥 + 𝐷𝑥 ; 𝑅𝑦 = 𝐴𝑦 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶𝑦 + 𝐷𝑦
𝑹 = 𝑅𝑥 𝑖 + 𝑅𝑦 𝑗
Subtraction of Vectors
• To subtract a vector B from a vector A reverse the
direction of B and add individually to vector A, E.g
A - B = A + (- B )
Multiplying a Vector by a Scalar
• Multiplying or dividing a vector by a scalar gives a
vector.
3 x A = 3A pointing in the same direction as A
-3 x A = -3A pointing in opposite direction from A
Useful Tool: Trigonometric Functions
SOHCAHTOA
Gives us the relationship between angles
and sides in a right angled triangle

𝑂𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝐵
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑒 θ = 𝐻𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒
= 𝐶

𝐴𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐴
𝐶𝑜𝑠 θ = 𝐻𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒
= 𝐶

𝑂𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝐵
𝑇𝑎𝑛 θ = 𝐴𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡
= 𝐴

𝐴
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑒 θ = 𝐶
θ C 𝐵
𝐶𝑜𝑠 θ =
𝐶
B
𝐴
𝑇𝑎𝑛 θ =
𝐵
A
Components of a Vector
The x and y components of the vector R are Rx and Ry which
have magnitudes

Rx = |R| cosθ
Ry = |R| sinθ

Each vector, say R, can be resolved into x, y and z components

and the components lying on the same axis can be added
algebraically to get the resultant on that axis.
Components of a Vector – Resultant Using tables
• The scalar x - components (Rx) of the resultant R is the
algebraic sum of all the scalar x- components.
• The scalar y- and z-components of the resultant are found in
a similar way as shown in the table below.
Vector x-component y z
A Ax Ay Az
B Bx By Bz
C Cx Cy Cz
Resultant, R Rx = Ax +Bx + Cx Ry = Ay +By + Cy Ry = Az +Bz + Cz

• With all the components known, the magnitude of the

resultant, R, is given as

𝑅= 𝑅𝑥2 + 𝑅𝑦2 + 𝑅𝑧2

−1 𝑅𝑦
And the angle is given by 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( ), but you first draw R.
𝑅𝑥
Exercise
Determine the resultant force in each situation by use
of tables.

F2 = 10 N
F2 = 10 N

F1 = 5 N F1 = 5 N

F2 = 10 N

F1 = 5 N 60◦
30◦
Exercise
Four coplanar forces act on a body at a common point as shown
below. Find their resultant showing your work.

Ans: 119 N at 143°

Unit Vectors
A unit vector is a vector with a magnitude of one (unit).
Let vector A be given by
𝑨 = 𝐴𝑎,
Then 𝑎 = 𝐀/A is a unit vector of A.
Where A is the magnitude of vector A, and 𝑎 is called a unit
vector with a magnitude of one and the direction of A.
Hence to find the unit vector for vector A, one has to divide the
vector by its magnitude:
𝑨 𝐴𝑎 𝐴𝑎
Unit vector of A is: 𝑨
= 𝑨
= 𝐴
=𝑎
Also vector A can be expressed in terms of its components:
𝑨 = 𝐴𝑎 = 𝐴𝑥 𝒊 + 𝐴𝑦 𝒋 + 𝐴𝑧 𝒌.
𝑨 𝐴𝑥 𝒊 +𝐴𝑦 𝒋+𝐴𝑧 𝒌
Hence 𝑎= = Is the unit vector of A.
𝑨 2 2 2
𝐴𝑥 +𝐴𝑦 +𝐴𝑧
Unit Vectors
Where the magnitude of vector 𝐴 is given by:

𝐴 =𝐴= 𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐴𝑦 2 + 𝐴𝑧 2

Example 1:
Find the unit vector of vector 𝑨 = 10𝑖
𝑨 10𝑖 10𝑖
Solution: 𝑎 = = = =𝑖 => 𝑎 = 𝑖 is unit vector of A.
𝑨 102 10

Example 2:
Find the unit vector of 𝑨 = 2𝒊 + 5𝒋 + 4𝒌
𝑨 2 𝒊 +5𝒋+4𝒌 (2𝒊 +5𝒋+4 𝒌)
Solution: 𝑎 = = = is unit vector of A.
𝑨 22 +52 +42 45
Unit (Basis) Vectors
The special unit vectors 𝑖, 𝑗, and 𝑘 represents unit vectors in the
x-, y- and z-axis, respectively. They are also called the basis
vectors of the Cartesian coordinates. All vectors on the
Cartesian are expressed in terms of these three unit vectors.

Example: vector A can be represented in terms of unit vectors

as
A = Ax𝑖 +Ay𝑗 + Az𝑘
Unit Vectors
In this case the addition of two vectors A and B can be
represented as
R = A + B = (Ax+Bx)𝑖 +(Ay+By) 𝑗 + (Az +Bz)𝑘
Where
Rx = (Ax+Bx)𝑖
Ry = (Ay+By)𝑗
Rz = (Az+Bz)𝑘

Example: A = 2𝑖 - 4𝑗 + 1𝑘 ; B = 5𝑖 + 3𝑗 - 1𝑘
Determine C = A + B and its magnitude
C = A + B = (2+5)𝑖 + (3 - 4)𝑗 + (1-1)𝑘
C = 7𝑖 - 1𝑗
|C| = 𝟕𝟐 + (−𝟏)𝟐 = 𝟒𝟗 + 𝟏 = 𝟓𝟎
Dot product of vectors
A dot product of two vectors is a scalar quantity.
A dot product of A and B is represented as

A.B = |A||B|cos θ
Where θ is the angle between vectors A and B
To understand this we first look at:
The dot product of unit Vectors
(1) 𝑖.𝑖=|𝑖||𝑖|Cos θ ; But, |𝑖|=1 and θ = 0° , cos(0)=1
Hence 𝑖.𝑖= 1.
(2) 𝑖. 𝑗=|𝑖||𝑗|Cos θ ; But, |𝑖|=1, |𝑗|=1 and θ = 90°
hence 𝑖. 𝑗 = 0.
Similarly, 𝑖.𝑖 = 𝑗.𝑗 = 𝑘.𝑘 = 1 and
𝑖.𝑗 = 𝑗.𝑘 = 𝑖.𝑘 = 0
Dot product of vectors
The dot product of two vectors A and B can also be represented
in terms of the components, given that
A = Ax𝑖 +Ay𝑗 + Az𝑘
B = Bx𝑖 +By𝑗 + Bz𝑘
A.B = (Ax Bx) 𝑖. 𝑖 + (Ax By) 𝑖. 𝑗 + (Ax Bz) 𝑖. 𝑘 +
(Ay Bx)𝑗. 𝑖 + (Ay By)𝑗. 𝑗 + (Ay Bz)𝑗. 𝑘 +
(Az Bx)𝑘. 𝑖 + (Az By)𝑘. 𝑗 + (Az Bz)𝑘. 𝑘
= Ax Bx + Ay By + Az Bz

Hence
A.B = |A||B|cos θ = Ax Bx + Ay By + Az Bz
Example - Dot product of vectors
(1) Given that
A = 5𝑖 +3𝑗 + 2𝑘 and B = -4𝑖 +4𝑗 + 7𝑘
(a) Find A.B:
A.B = Ax Bx + Ay By + Az Bz = 5(-4)+3(4)+2(7)
= -20+12+14 = 6
(b) Find the angle between A and B :
6
|A||B|cosθ = 6 => cos θ =
𝐴 𝐵
6 6 6
cos θ = = = = 0.108
25+9+4∗ 16+16+49 38∗ 81 55.48
−1 𝒐
= > 𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 0.108 = 𝟖𝟑. 𝟖
(2) Given forces C and D such that
C = 10 N and D = 15 N and the angle between them is 60°
Find C.D
C.D = |C||D|cos θ = 10(15) cos 60° = 150(0.5) = 75
Work done - Dot product of vectors
Find the work (W) done by a constant force given by
𝑭 = 10𝑁 𝑖 + 15𝑁 𝑗 + 8𝑁𝑘 in moving a particle over a
displacement of 𝒓 = 2𝑚 𝑖 + 3𝑚 𝑗 + 5𝑚 𝑘.

𝑊 = 𝐹. 𝑟 = (10𝑁 𝑖 + 15𝑁 𝑗 + 8𝑁𝑘).(10𝑚 𝑖 + 15𝑚 𝑗 + 8𝑚𝑘)

= 10𝑁 ∗ 2𝑚 + 15𝑁 ∗ 3𝑚 + 8𝑁 ∗ 5 = (20 + 45 + 40)𝑁𝑚
= 105 Nm = 105 J

Find the work (W) done by a varying force given by

𝑭 = (15𝑥 2 + 2)𝑁 in moving a particle over a displacement from
point x = 0 m to a point x = 2 m.
Work done - Dot product of vectors
Solution:
Because it is a varying force, you need to integrate over the entire
path of x:
2 2 2
𝑊 = 0 𝐹. 𝑑𝑥 = 0 15𝑥 + 2 𝑖. (𝑑𝑥) 𝑖 = 0 15𝑥 2 + 2 𝑑𝑥
2

15𝑥 3 15(2)3 15(0)3

=[ + 2𝑥]20 = +2 2 − − 2 0 = 40 + 4 = 𝟒𝟒 𝐉
3 3 3
Cross product of vectors
A cross product of two vectors is a vector quantity.
A cross product of A and B is represented as

A x B = |A||B|sin θ
Where θ is the angle between vectors A and B

The cross product of unit Vectors

(The cyclic Rule: positive anticlockwise and negative clockwise)
𝑖 x 𝑖= 0; 𝑖 x 𝑗= 𝑘; 𝑖 x 𝑘= -𝑗 𝑖
𝑗 x 𝑗= 0; 𝑗 x 𝑖= -𝑘; 𝑗 x 𝑘= 𝑖
𝑘 x 𝑘= 0; 𝑘 x 𝑖= 𝑗; 𝑘 x 𝑗 = -𝑖 𝑘
𝑗
Example – Cross product of vectors
Given that
A = Ax𝑖 +Ay𝑗 + Az𝑘
B = Bx𝑖 +By𝑗 + Bz𝑘
A x B = (AxBx) 𝑖x𝑖 + (AxBy) 𝑖x𝑗 + (AxBz) 𝑖x𝑘 +
(AyBx)𝑗x𝑖 + (AyBy)𝑗x𝑗 + (AyBz)𝑗x𝑘 +
(AzBx)𝑘x𝑖 + (AzBy)𝑘x𝑗 + (AzBz)𝑘x𝑘

= (AxBy) 𝑖x𝑗 + (AxBz) 𝑖x𝑘 + (AyBx)𝑗x𝑖 + (AyBz)𝑗x𝑘 +

(AzBx)𝑘x𝑖 + (AzBy)𝑘x𝑗
= AxBy𝑘 -AyBz𝑗 -AyBx𝑘 + (AyBz)𝑖 + (AzBx)𝑗 - (AzBy)𝑖
= (AyBz- AzBy) 𝑖 + (AzBx- AyBz)𝑗 + (AxBy- AyBx)𝑘
Hence
A x B = (AyBz- AzBy) 𝑖 + (AzBx- AyBz)𝑗 + (AxBy- AyBx)𝑘
Example – Cross product of vectors

This can be expressed in form of a determinant as

𝒊 𝒋 𝒌
A x B = 𝑨𝒙 𝑨𝒚 𝑨𝒛
𝑩𝒙 𝑩𝒚 𝑩𝒛

A x B = (AyBz - AzBy) 𝑖 - (AxBz - AzBx)𝑗 + (AxBy - AyBx)𝑘

Note: A cross product of two vectors produces a third vector

that is perpendicular to the first two vectors. If
C=AxB
Then C is perpendicular to both A and B. Such that
C.A = 0, C.B = 0
Example – Cross product of vectors
Given that
A = 5𝑖 +3𝑗 + 2𝑘 and B = -4𝑖 +4𝑗 + 7𝑘
Then
𝒊 𝒋 𝒌
AxB= 𝟓 𝟑 𝟐
−𝟒 𝟒 𝟕
= (3x7 - 2x4) 𝑖 + (2x(-4) - 3x7)𝑗 + (5x4 - 3x(-4))𝑘
= (21 - 8) 𝑖 + (-8 - 21)𝑗 + (20 + 12)𝑘
A x B = 13𝑖 - 29𝑗 + 32𝑘
Its magnitude is |13𝑖 - 29𝑗 + 32𝑘| = 132 + 292 + 322
= 2034 = 45.1
−1 𝑅𝑦
Its direction from the x-axis is 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑅𝑥
−1 −29
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( 13 ) = -73.17 degrees
Rotation – Cross product of vectors
The cross product of vectors represents rotation of the vectors
Example 1:
Find the magnitude of rotation for a force given by 𝑭 = 3𝑁
acting over the radius of 𝑹 = 5 𝑚 at angle of 30𝑜 .
Solution:
Rotation = 𝑭 x 𝑹 = 𝑭 𝑹 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃= 3 ∗ 5 ∗ 0.5 = 7.5 N.m
Example 2:
Find the magnitude of rotation for a force given by
𝑭 = (2𝑖 +𝑗 + 2𝑘)𝑁 acting over the radius 𝑹 = (𝑖 +𝑗 + 𝑘)𝑚.
Solution:
𝒊 𝒋 𝒌
Rotation = 𝑭 x 𝑹 = 𝟐 𝟏 𝟐 = 𝒊 𝟏 − 𝟐 − 𝒋 𝟐 − 𝟐 + 𝒌(𝟐 − 𝟏)
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= −𝒊 + 𝒌 with magnitude of |−𝒊 + 𝒌| = 𝟐 N.m
BEARING AND DIRECTIONS
There are Four (4) cardinal campus directions:
North, West, South and East.
The North is orthogonal to the West and the East
The South is also orthogonal to the West and the East
The North is anti-parallel (180°) to the South
The West is anti-parallel to the East

North East is the direction 45° from the East.

North West is 135° from the East and 45° from the North.

Other Notations:
(1) North of East: Example is 15° North of East. This is the angle
measured starting from the East going to the north
BEARING NOTATIONs
(1) North of East:
Example 1: 15° North of East.
This is the angle measured starting from the East going to the North
N

15° E

Example 2: 15° South of East. (This -15° or 345° measured from E)

This is the angle measured starting from the East going to the South. It
is negative if measured clockwise. N

E
15°
BEARING NOTATIONs
(1) N θ° E:
Example 1: E15°N
This implies Face East then turn 15° North.
N

15° E

Example 2: N15°E
This implies Face North then turn 15° East.
N
15°

E
UNIT 3: Kinematics, Forces and Motion
Topics
• Distance, Displacement,
• Speed, Velocity, Acceleration
• Graphs and interpretation
• 1D motion
• 2D motion
• Projectile Motion,
• Relative Motion
Kinematics, Forces and Motion
Definition of Motion terms
Kinematics: is the study of moving (kine-) body (matics)

Distance (x): any total length covered between two points.

It has magnitude only.

Displacement (S): The shortest distance covered between two points.

Has both magnitude and direction. It is a vector quantity.

Speed (s): The change of distance with time.

Velocity (v): The change of displacement with time

Acceleration (a): Rate of change of velocity.

Kinematics, Forces and Motion
Definition of Parameters

Distance (x):
x = s*t
where s = speed; t = time.

Displacement (S):
S = v*t
where v = velocity; t = time.

Acceleration (a):
a = (v-u)/t
where u = initial velocity; v = final velocity; t = time.
Motion in One Dimension (1 D)
• 1 D motion is motion in a straight line or motion along one
axis only. Consider the two points A and B:

Initial conditions Final conditions

A B

t0 tf
x0 xf
S0 Sf
u v
• Δt = tf - t0
• Δx = xf - x0
• ΔS = Sf - S0
• Δv = v - u
• 𝑣 = (v+u)/2
Distance (displacement) Time Graphs

• Displacement vs time graphs are used to measure velocity

• The gradient of the graph between two points gives the velocity
• 𝑣 = ∆𝑥/∆𝑡
Uniform Motion = constant velocity

• Constant change in displacement with time gives constant velocity.

• VBA = [0 - (-20) ]/[10-0]= 20/10 = 2 m/s
• VBC = 40 – 0/(30-10) = 40/20 = 2 m/s
• VAC = [40 – (-20)]/(30-0) = 60/30 = 2 m/s
• This is constant velocity. Is called uniform motion.
Non-uniform Motion.
• Changing velocity
Average velocity and Instantaneous Velocity

• Instantaneous velocity is velocity at a given point

Velocity Time Graphs
• They are used to measure acceleration
• The slope or gradient between two points is the
acceleration
• The area under the v – t graph gives displacement
FIVE General Equations of Motion in 1 D
𝑣−𝑢
1). 𝑎 =
𝑡
1
2). 𝑠 = 𝑢 + 𝑣 𝑡
2
3). 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡 --- by re-arranging 1
4). 𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠 --- by combining 1 and 2, sub. t
1
5). 𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2 --- by combining 2 and 3, sub. v
2
1
6). 𝑠 = 𝑣𝑡 − 𝑎𝑡 2 --- by combining 3 and 5, sub. u
2

They are applicable for perfectly horizontal and vertical

motions. This includes free fall motion.
Body Under Free Fall and Vertical Motion
Body under Free Fall
- Initial velocity is zero
- Final velocity is always greater than zero
- Acceleration is equal to positive gravitational acceleration

Body Thrown Vertically Upwards

- Initial velocity is greater than zero
- Final velocity at maximum height is zero
- Gravitational acceleration is negative
- Time of ascent is equal the time of descent.
- Final velocity on landing equals the initial velocity on firing
(unless in presence of air resistance, then u > v)
Body Under Free Fall
Example
A ball is dropped from a building 19.6 m tall.
(i) Find the time taken to reach the ground.
(ii) Find the final velocity on the ground.

ANS: Before any calculations, list all parameters involved in

the motion: u=0 m/s, a = 9.81m/s2, h=19.6 m, v=?, t=?
Choose the appropriate equation to use:
1
(i) 𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2 ; t = 2𝑠/𝑎 =
2
(ii) 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡 ; v = at =9.81*t =
Body Under Free Fall
Example
A ball is thrown downwards from a building 19.6 m tall with
initial velocity of 6 m/s.
(i) Find the final velocity on the ground.
(ii) Find the time taken to reach the ground.

ANS: Before any calculations, list all parameters involved in

the motion: u=6 m/s, a = 9.81m/s2, h=19.6 m, v=?, t=?
Choose the appropriate equation to use:
(i) 𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠
(ii) 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡 ;
Body Under Upward Vertical Motion
Example
A bullet is fired from the ground vertically upwards with an
initial velocity of 500 m/s.
(i) Find the maximum height reached.
(ii) Find the time taken to reach the maximum height.
(iii)If, on its way downwards, the bullet hits a stationary bird
at 10 m above the ground, what was the bullet velocity on
the bird?
(iv) For the case in (iii), above at what time from firing was the
bird hit?
Note: u=500 m/s, a = - 9.81m/s2, h=?, v=0, t=?
Start with: 𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠 ; then 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡 ;
After reaching max. h, the motion becomes free fall.
1
𝑣 = 𝑢 + 2𝑎𝑠 ; 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡 ; then 𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2
2 2
2
Motion in Two Dimension (2 D)
• This is motion in the x – y plane with the vector
quantities having both x and y components.
• The 5 equations of motion apply but each one is now
split into two equations of x and y components

(1) 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡 = > 𝑣𝑥 = 𝑢𝑥 + 𝑎𝑥 𝑡 ; 𝑣𝑦 = 𝑢𝑦 + 𝑎𝑦 𝑡
1 1 1
(2) 𝑠 = 𝑢 + 𝑣 𝑡 = > 𝑆𝑥 = 𝑢𝑥 + 𝑣𝑥 𝑡 ; 𝑆𝑦 = 𝑢𝑦 + 𝑣𝑦 𝑡
2 2 2
(3) 𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠 = > 𝑣𝑥 2 = 𝑢𝑥 2 + 2𝑎𝑥 𝑆𝑥 ; 𝑣𝑦 2 = 𝑢𝑦 2 + 2𝑎𝑦 𝑆𝑦
1 1 1
(4) 𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 = > 𝑆𝑥 = 𝑢𝑥 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑥 𝑡 ; 𝑆𝑦 = 𝑢𝑦 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑦 𝑡 2
2 2
2 2 2
1 1 1
(5) 𝑠 = 𝑣𝑡 − 2 𝑎𝑡 2 = > 𝑆𝑥 = 𝑣𝑥 𝑡 − 2 𝑎𝑥 𝑡 2; 𝑆𝑦 = 𝑣𝑦 𝑡 − 2 𝑎𝑦 𝑡 2
Projectile Fired Above the Horizontal
• This is motion in the x – y plane with the vector quantities
having both x and y components.
• The path of a projectile is a parabola
Projectile Fired Above the Horizontal
This is motion in the x – y plane with the vector quantities
having both x and y components.
The path of a projectile is a parabola
Characteristics - Projectile Fired Above Horizontal
• The x-component of velocity remains constant at all points
• The x-component of acceleration is zero at all points
• The vertical component of acceleration is equal to g or -g.
• The y- component of velocity is zero at the peak point.
• The vertical component of vy and sy are identical to a freely
falling and vertical motion of a body
• Initial velocity in y – direction is given by
uy = u*sine(θ)
• The velocity in x – direction is given by
ux = u*cos (θ) and vx = ux
• Time of ascent = time of descent
• Time of flight is the total time taken by the projectile from
firing to landing
• Range is total displacement covered in horizontal direction.
Equations - Projectile Fired Above Horizontal
• Time of ascent (for reaching max height), 𝒕𝒂:
We use: vy =uy + ayt. Note: vy = 0; ay = -g; uy = uSinθ
=> 0 = uSinθ -gt ; => - uSinθ = -gt

ta = uSinθ/g ---- (1)

• Time of flight, T:
We know the time of flight is twice the time of ascent.
 T = 2uSinθ/g ---- (2)

• Maximum height reached, H:

Use sy =(1/2)*(uy + vy)*t; uy = uSinθ, vy =0, t = ta = uSinθ/g ,
sy = H
=> H = ½*(uSinθ + 0)*uSinθ/g = u2Sin2 θ/2g
 H = u2Sin2 θ/2g ---- (3)
Equations - Projectile Fired Above Horizontal
• Range (horizontal displacement ), R :
Note: ax = 0, ux = uCosθ, t = T =?, 𝑠𝑥 =R =?
1
We use 𝑅 = 𝑢𝑥 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑥 𝑡 2
2
=> 𝑅 = uCosθ* 2uSinθ/g + 0
=> 𝑅 = 2u2Cosθ*Sinθ/g ;

According to trigonometric identities we find that

2Cosθ*Sinθ = Sin(2θ), hence substituting gives

𝑅 = u2Sin(2θ)/g ---- (4)

Equations - Projectile Fired Above Horizontal

𝑢𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝜃)
(1) Time of Ascent: 𝑡a =
𝑔

2𝑢𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝜃)
(2) Time of Flight: 𝑇 =
𝑔
𝑢2 Sin2 (𝜃)
(3) Maximum Height: H =
2𝑔
𝑢2 𝑆𝑖𝑛(2𝜃)
(4) Range: R =
𝑔
𝑢2
(5) maximum possible Range: 𝑅max =
𝑔
It Occurs at θ = 450
Example 1 - Projectile Fired Above Horizontal
A projectile is fired at an angle of 30° to the horizontal with an
initial velocity of 45 m/s. Determine:
(i) Time of ascent
(ii) Time of flight
(iii) Maximum height reached
(iv) Range of the projectile
(v) The maximum possible range
(vi) Maximum height at maximum possible range
(vii) Velocity of the projectile at 3 seconds
(viii) Is the projectile ascending or descending at x = 15 m ?
(ix) Velocity of projectile at x = 15 m
(x) Horizontal component of velocity
(xi) The angle the projectile makes with horizontal at time 3 seconds
(xii) The angle the projectile makes with the horizontal at landing
Projectile Fired Horizontally From A Height
Characteristics:
• 𝜃=0
• x-component of velocity is constant at all points
• 𝑢𝑥 = 𝑢
• 𝑎𝑥 = 0
• Initial velocity in the y direction is zero, 𝑢𝑦 = 0
• acceleration in the y direction is positive 𝑎𝑦 = +𝑔
𝒖
x - axis

H = 100 m

ground
Projectile Fired Below Horizontal From a Height
A projectile is fired along the horizontal from a height of 100 m
above the ground with an initial velocity of 45 m/s.
Determine:
(i) The final velocity at landing
(ii) The time of flight
(iii) The total horizontal displacement covered

Sol:
Data: 𝜃 = 0 ; 𝑢 = 45 𝑚/𝑠 ; 𝑢𝑥 = 𝑢 cos 0 = 𝑢; 𝑢𝑦 = 0 ; 𝑎𝑥 = 0 ;
𝑎𝑦 = 9.81; 𝑆𝑦 = 100
𝑣𝑦2 = 𝑢𝑦2 + 2𝑎𝑦 𝑆 = > 𝑣𝑦2 = 2 9.81 100 = 1962
𝑣𝑦 = 1962 = 44.29

Hence 𝑣 = 𝑣𝑥2 + 𝑣𝑦2 = 452 + 44.292 = 𝟔𝟑. 𝟏𝟒 𝒎/𝒔

Projectile Fired Below Horizontal From a Height
The time of flight :
𝑣𝑦 = 𝑢𝑦 + 𝑎𝑦 𝑡
44.29
= > 𝑡 = (𝑣𝑦 − 𝑢𝑦 )/𝑎𝑦 = = 𝟒. 𝟓𝟏 s
9.81
The total horizontal displacement covered:
1
𝑆𝑥 = 𝑢𝑥 𝑡 + 2 𝑎𝑥 𝑡 2 = > 𝑆𝑥 = 𝑢𝑥 𝑡 = 45 ∗ 4.51 = 𝟐𝟎𝟐. 𝟗𝟓 m
Projectile Fired Below Horizontal From a Height
Characteristics:
• x-component of velocity is constant at all points
• 𝑢𝑥 = 𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
• 𝑢𝑦 = 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
• acceleration in the y direction is positive 𝑎𝑦 = +𝑔
𝑢
0° x - axis

H = 100 m

ground
Projectile Fired Below Horizontal From a Height
A projectile is fired from a height of 100 m at an angle of 30°
below the horizontal with an initial velocity of 45 m/s.
Determine:
(i) The final velocity on the ground
(ii) The time of flight
(iii) The total horizontal displacement covered
Sol:
Data: 𝜃 = 30° ; 𝑢 = 45 𝑚/𝑠;
𝑢𝑥 = 𝑢 cos 30 = 45 ∗ 0.866 = 38.97 𝑚/𝑠 ;
𝑢𝑦 = 𝑢 sin 30 = 22.5 𝑚/𝑠;
𝑎𝑥 = 0; 𝑎𝑦 = 9.81; 𝑆𝑦 = 100
Projectile Fired Below Horizontal From a Height
The final velocity on the ground:
𝑣𝑦2 = 𝑢𝑦2 + 2𝑎𝑦 𝑆 = > 𝑣𝑦2 = 22.52 + 2 9.81 100 = 2468.25
𝑣𝑦 = 2468.25 = 49.68 m/s

Hence 𝑣 = 𝑣𝑥2 + 𝑣𝑦2 = 38.972 + 49.682 = 𝟔𝟑. 𝟏𝟒 𝒎/𝒔

Observation: Final velocity is the same as long as initial velocity and

height is the same.

The time of flight:

First find the vertical final velocity on the ground
𝑣𝑦 +𝑢𝑦 2∗𝑆𝑦 2∗100
𝑆𝑦 = 𝑡 => 𝑡 = =>𝑡= = 𝟐. 𝟕𝟕 𝑠
2 𝑣𝑦 +𝑢𝑦 49.68+22.5
Projectile Fired Below Horizontal
The total horizontal displacement covered
𝑣𝑥 +𝑢𝑥
𝑆𝑥 = 𝑡
2
2(38.97)
𝑆𝑥 = 2
2.77 = 𝟏𝟎𝟕. 𝟗𝟓 𝑚
Projectile Fired Below Horizontal
METHOD 2: The time of flight
The total vertical displacement covered
1 2 1
𝑆𝑦 = 𝑣𝑜𝑦 𝑡 + 2 𝑎𝑦 𝑡 = > 100 = 22.5𝑡 + 2 ∗ 9.81𝑡 2
4.905𝑡 2 +22.5𝑡 − 100 = 0
This is a quadratic equation that requires the use of quadratic
formula
−𝑏± 𝑏 2+4𝑎𝑐
𝑡= 2𝑎
where 𝑎 = 4.905; 𝑏 = 22.5; 𝑐 = −100
−22.5± (22.5)2 +4(4.905)(−100)
𝑡= 2(4.905)

−22.5± 506.25+1962) −22.5±49.68

𝑡= =
9.81 9.81
𝑡 = −7.36 𝑠 or 𝑡 = 2.77 𝑠
Hence: 𝑡 = 𝟐. 𝟕𝟕 𝒔
Projectile Fired Below Horizontal
METHOD 2: The final velocity on the ground
𝑣𝑦 = 𝑣𝑜𝑦 + 𝑎𝑦 𝑡
𝑣𝑦 = 22.5 + 9.81(2.77)
𝑣𝑦 = 49.70
Also recall 𝑣𝑥 = 38.97 𝑚/𝑠

2 2
𝑣𝑓 = 𝑣𝑥 + 𝑣𝑦

𝑣𝑓 = 38.97 2 + 49.7 2

Hence: 𝑣𝑓 = 𝟔𝟑. 𝟏𝟔 𝒎/𝒔

The total horizontal displacement covered
1
𝑆𝑥 = 𝑣𝑜𝑥 𝑡 + 2 𝑎𝑥 𝑡 2; But 𝑎𝑥 = 0 = > 𝑆𝑥 = 𝑣𝑜𝑥 𝑡
𝑆𝑥 = 38.97 2.77 = 𝟏𝟎𝟕. 𝟗𝟓 𝒎
Home Work
An airplane is flying horizontally at a height of 500 m
with a velocity of 72 km/h over a flood affected area,
from tropical cyclone Anna. Food packets are to be
dropped for the people standing at a particular dry
point. With a sketch diagram calculate:
(a) final velocity at landing
(b) time taken to reach the ground
(c) the angle at landing, measured from positive x-axis
(d) At what horizontal distance from that place should
the food packets be released from the plane so as
to reach the intended spot?
Solution - Home Work

𝑢 = 20 𝑚/𝑠

500 m

Data: 𝑢𝑥 = 20 m/s, 𝑢𝑦 = 0 m/s; 𝑎𝑦 = 9.81 𝑚/𝑠; 𝑎𝑥 = 0 𝑚/𝑠

𝑣𝑦2 = 𝑢𝑦2 + 2𝑎𝑆
𝑣𝑦2 = 2 9.81 500
𝑣𝑦 = 99.045 m/s
𝑣𝑓 = 20 2 + 99.045 2 = > 𝑣𝑓 = 𝟏𝟎𝟏. 𝟎𝟒 𝒎/𝒔
Solution - Home Work
𝑣𝑦 = 𝑢𝑦 + 𝑎𝑦 𝑡 = > 𝑡𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑐 = 10.1 s

𝑣𝑦
θ
ϕ
𝑣𝑥

−1 𝑣𝑦 99.045
ϕ= 𝑡𝑎𝑛 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 = 78.6°
𝑣𝑥 20
𝜃 = 180 - 78.6 = 101.4°

Horizontal distance:
𝑣𝑥 +𝑢𝑥 2∗20
𝑆𝑥 = 𝑡 = > 𝑆𝑥 = 10.1 = 𝟐𝟎𝟐 𝒎
2 2
Relative Velocity
If vA is the velocity of A and vB that of B, then the
velocity of A relative to B will be
vA/B = vA − vB
Read: velocity of A relative to B
Object B in this case is the reference frame or observer.

Example
Find the velocity of body A relative to B if:
(1) A moves at 20m/s in the opposite direction of B
moving at 5m/s
(2) A moves at 20m/s in the same direction of B
moving at 20m/s
Homework
A cruise ship sails due north at 4.50 m/s while a Coast
Guard patrol boat heads 45.0° north of west at 5.20
m/s. What are the
(a) x – component, and
(b) y - component of the velocity of the cruise ship
relative to the patrol boat?

Vector X m/s Y m/s

Ship 0 4.5
Guard -3.68 3.68
𝑣𝑆/𝐺 3.68 0.82

𝑣𝑆/𝐺 = 𝑣𝑆 − 𝑣𝐺
Exercise- Bearings and vectors
A car located at the origin moves 10 km due north at
4.50 m/s to reach point A, then moves 2 km at 40.0°
east of north at 4.00 m/s to reach point B, and then
moves 10 km at 2.00 m/s at 10.0° north of east to
reach point C. Determine :
(a) The sketch of the journey with labels
(b) Distance covered
(c) Average speed of the journey
(d) Time taken for the displacement
(e) Displacement
(f) Average velocity of the journey
(g) The angle of the displacement measured from the east
Solution Exercise
Calculating average speed of the journey:
For the average speed, first calculate the time taken for each
portion of the distances i.e.
t0A for distance d0A; tAB for distance dAB; tAB for distance dAB;
Total time = t0A + tAB + tBC
Total distance = d0A + dAB + dBC
Average speed = (d0A + dAB + dBC)/(t0A + tAB + tBC)
 UNIT 4: Newton’s Laws of Motion
Objectives
At the end of this Unit, learner should be able to
understand and demonstrate the concepts of:
• Defining Newton’s laws of motion: first law, second
law, and third law of motion.
• Force, mass and acceleration
• The normal force
• Forces in equilibrium.
• Static and kinetic friction,
• Coefficient of friction
• Incline and the critical angle
• Acceleration of a system of objects on a pulley.
 Newton’s Laws of Motion & Applications
Sir Isaac Newton was a British Physicist who
postulated the basic (classical) laws of motion. He is
the father of classical mechanics.
Newton’s First Law of Motion
It is also called the law of inertia. Inertia is resistance
to change of motion.
- It states that, a body will continue in its state
of constant motion in a straight line or in its
state of rest unless it is acted upon by an
external force.
• The tendency of an object to continue in its original
state of motion or rest is called inertia.
• Inertia is directly proportional to mass.
 Newton’s Laws of Motion
Newton’s Second Law of Motion
It is the law of net force or Law of acceleration.
- States: the net force is directly proportional to
the acceleration, provided mass is constant.
- Acceleration is directly proportional to net
force provided mass is constant.
- 𝑭𝑛𝑒𝑡 = Σ𝑭 ; 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑚𝑎;
- 𝒎𝒂𝒚 = Σ𝑭𝒚 and 𝒎𝒂𝒙 = Σ𝑭𝒙 𝑭𝑥_𝑛𝑒𝑡 = Σ𝑭𝒙
- SI unit of force is the Newton (N). 1 N = 1kg.m/s2
- When net force is zero on an object, its acceleration
is zero, which means the velocity is constant.
Newton’s Laws of Motion
• A speedboat with mass 3.50 x 102 kg, including the
passenger, has an engine that produces a net
horizontal force of 7.70 x 102 N, after accounting for
forces of resistance.
(a) Find the acceleration of the speedboat.
(b) Starting from rest, how long does it take the boat
to reach a speed of 12.0 m/s?
 Newton’s Third Laws of Motion
It states that, for every action there is an equal
and opposite reaction.
- forces in nature exist in pairs during interaction.

• In all cases, the action and reaction forces act on

different objects, hence produce no net force.
• Locomotion depends on Newton’s 3rd Law of motion
 Newton’s Third Law of Motion
Illustration of action – reaction force pairs.
𝑛 is the normal force by the table acting on the
object

𝐹𝑔 = − 𝐹′𝑔
𝑛′ = - 𝑛

Definition:
Normal force is a reaction force that always acts
perpendicular to the surface.
Normal Forces
Case 1: Normal force on a horizontal surface
The normal force by object:
Apply newton’s 2nd law:
𝒎𝒂𝒚 = Σ𝑭𝒚 = 𝑛 - mg
But 𝒂𝒚 = 𝟎 ; = > 𝑛 - mg = 0
𝑛 = mg

Note: forces pointing upwards we take them to be positive, and

forces acting downwards as negative.

The two forces are the normal force by the table, acting upward,
and the force of gravity, directed downward.
Normal Forces
Case 2: Normal Force on a horizontal Surface with an
Applied Force
The three forces acting on the block are the normal force by
the table, directed upward; the gravity force, directed
downward and applied force acting at an angle θ.
Apply newton’s 2nd law: 𝒎𝒂𝒚 = Σ𝑭𝒚
𝒎𝒂𝒚 = Σ𝑭𝒚 = > 0 = 𝑛 - mg + 𝐹𝑎𝑝𝑝 Sin θ
𝑛 = mg - 𝐹𝑎𝑝𝑝 Sin θ 𝑛 = mg + 𝐹𝑎𝑝𝑝 Sin θ
Normal and Kinetic Friction Forces
Case 3: the Normal Force on a Level Surface Under
Upward Acceleration
The diagram shows a block on a flat surface. The surface is
accelerating upwards, such as in an elevator. The two forces
acting on the block are the normal force, directed upward, and
the gravity force, directed downward.
Apply 2nd Law:
FBD:
𝒎𝒂𝒚 = Σ𝑭𝒚
𝑚𝑎𝑦 = 𝑛 - mg
𝑛 = mg + 𝑚𝑎𝑦

Note: We always take the direction of motion as positive

direction. In this case upward is positive.
Normal and Kinetic Friction Forces
Case 4: the Normal Force on a Level Surface Under
downward Acceleration
The diagram shows a block on a flat surface. The surface is
accelerating downwards, such as in an elevator. The two forces
acting on the block are the normal force, directed upward, and
the gravity force, directed downward.
Apply 2nd Law:
FBD:
𝒎𝒂𝒚 = Σ𝑭𝒚
𝑚𝑎𝑦 = mg − 𝑛
= > 𝑛 = mg - 𝑚𝑎𝑦

Note: direction of motion is downwards, hence we take that as

the positive direction.
Normal Forces
Case 5: the Normal Force on a Slope
A common variation on second law problem is an
object resting on a surface tilted at some angle, θ.
Normal Forces
Case 5: the Normal Force on a Slope
Normal force always acts perpendicular to the surface.

𝑛 = mgCosθ = Fy' and Fx' = mgSinθ

Normal, Static and Kinetic Frictional Forces
• Friction is a contact force that comes from the interaction
between two rough surfaces.
• The rougher the surfaces between two bodies in contact the
more the frictional force between them.
• Friction on a sliding object acts in a direction opposite the
direction of motion. In direction of the car for moving car
• Static friction is friction experienced by an object before
the start of motion.
• Kinetic friction is friction experienced by an object while
in already motion. Frictional Force is denoted by f.
𝑓𝑠 = 𝜇𝑠 𝑛 𝑓𝑘 = 𝜇𝑘 𝑛
Where fk and fs are kinetic and static frictional forces,
respectively. μk and μs are coefficient of kinetic and static,
frictions. 𝑛 is the normal.
Example 1: Normal and Kinetic Friction Forces
A block having a mass of 4.00 kg rests on a slope that
makes an angle of 30.0° with the horizontal. If the
coefficient of static friction is 0.650, calculate
(a) the normal force, (b) the maximum possible static
friction force, and (c) the actual (minimum) static
friction force required to prevent the block from
moving. (d) Will the block begin to move or remain at
rest? Use g = 9.82m/s2

maximum friction = theoretical friction

fs-mx=0.65*mgcos(30) = 22.1 N
fs-min =mgsin(30) =19.6 N
fs-max > fs-min, hence will not move
Friction Force and Critical Angle
Note: As the angle of the slope increases, the magnitude of the
static friction force (𝜇. 𝑚𝑔. cos𝜃) decreases and the component
of the force acting down the slope (𝑚𝑔. sin𝜃) increases.
When the angle of the slope is equal to or exceeds a critical
angle, the block will start to slide down the slope and kinetic
friction will take over.
Critical angle, θc, is the angle at which the object just begins
to slide down the slop.
At critical angle the maximum static frictional force is equal to
the force along the slope.
𝜇𝑠𝑚𝑔𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝜃𝑐) = 𝑚𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃𝑐)
= > 𝜇𝑠𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝜃𝑐) = sin(𝜃𝑐)
= > 𝝁𝒔 = tan(𝜽𝒄)
𝜽𝑪 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏 𝝁𝒔
Friction Forces and Acceleration on Incline
The acceleration of the block along the incline is given by
𝒎𝒂𝒙′ = Σ𝑭𝒙′
𝒎𝒂𝒙′ = 𝒎𝒈𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 − 𝝁𝒌 𝒎𝒈𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 Use 𝝁𝒌 bcoz body in motion
𝒂𝒙′ = 𝒈𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 − 𝝁𝒌 𝒈𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽
𝒂𝒙′ = 𝒈(𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 − 𝝁𝒌 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽)

If the block slides at constant speed, the acceleration is zero:

𝟎 = 𝒈(𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 − 𝝁𝒌 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽)
= >𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 = 𝝁𝒌 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽
𝝁𝒌 = 𝑻𝒂𝒏 𝜽
:. 𝝁𝒌 = 𝝁𝒔 At constant speed
Example 2: Friction Forces and Critical Angle
Let 35o be the critical angle of an inclined plane on which a 10
kg block of wood slides down. Taking g = 9.82 m/s2, determine:
(a) The coefficient of static friction
(b) The static frictional force
(c) Acceleration of the block at this angle
(d) Suppose the angle of the incline is increased to 40°, and the
coefficient of kinetic friction is 0.45. Find
(i) The acceleration of the block
(ii) Velocity of the block after 2 seconds
(iii) kinetic frictional force
Example 2: Friction Forces and Critical Angle
(a) The coefficient of static friction
μs= tan(θc)= tan(35)= 0.70
(b) The static frictional force
F = μs.n = 0.7*mgcos(35) = 56.31 N
(c) Acceleration of the block at this angle
𝒎𝒂𝒙′ = 𝒎𝒈𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 − 𝝁𝒔 𝒎𝒈𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 , but at critical angle,
𝒎𝒈𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽=𝝁𝒔 𝒎𝒈𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 hence acceleration is zero
(d) Suppose the angle of the incline is increased to 40°, and the
coefficient of kinetic friction is 0.45. Find
(i) The acceleration of the block
𝒂𝒙′ = 𝒈𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 − 𝝁𝒌 𝒈𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 => 6.312 - 3.385 = 2.927 m/s2
(ii) Velocity after 2 seconds from the rest position
V = u + at => V = 0 + 2.927 (2) = 5.85 m/s
(iii) The kinetic frictional force: f = 0.45mgcos (40) = 33.85 N
Tension Forces
Case 1: Vertical tension Forces on a Static object
𝒎𝒂𝒚 = Σ𝑭𝒚
𝟎 = 𝑻 − 𝒎𝒈
T = mg

Case 2: Vertical tension forces on upward accelerating object

𝒎𝒂𝒚 = Σ𝑭𝒚
𝒎𝒂𝒚 = 𝑻 − 𝒎𝒈 (m𝑎𝑦 is +ve)
T = mg + 𝐦𝒂𝒚
T = m(g + 𝒂𝒚 )
Tension Forces
Case 3: Vertical tension forces on downward accelerating
object (not free fall)

𝒎𝒂𝒚 = Σ𝑭𝒚
-𝒎𝒂𝒚 = 𝑻 − 𝒎𝒈 (m𝑎𝑦 is -ve)
T = mg - 𝒎𝒂𝒚 = 𝒎(𝒈 − 𝒂𝒚 )
Tension Forces
Case 4: two tensions at arbitrary Angles. Find T1 and T2.

𝒎𝒂𝒚 = Σ𝑭𝒚 𝒎𝒂𝒙 = Σ𝑭𝒙

𝒎𝒂𝒚 = 𝑻𝟏𝒚 + 𝑻𝟐𝒚 − mg 𝒎𝒂𝒙 = −𝑻𝟏𝒙 + 𝑻𝟐𝒙
0 = 0+𝑻𝟐 Cosθ-mg 0 = 𝑻𝟐 Sinθ - 𝑻𝟏
𝑻𝟐 = mg/Cosθ (1) 𝑻𝟏 = 𝑻𝟐 Sinθ (2)
𝑻𝟏 = 𝒎𝒈Sinθ/Cosθ
𝑻𝟏 = 𝒎𝒈Tanθ
Two-body problems
Newton’s second law of motion also applies to systems of objects.
Solving such two-body problems is a matter of writing the
second law for each object.
NOTE: All forces in the direction of motion are positive

1. 𝒎𝟏 𝒂 = 𝑻 − 𝒎𝟏 g
2. 𝒎𝟐 𝒂 = −𝑻 + 𝒎𝟐 g
Solve simultaneously to get:
𝒂 𝟏 = 𝒂𝟐 = 𝒂
𝑚2 −𝑚1
𝑎=𝑔
𝑚2 +𝑚1
𝑚2𝑚1
𝑇 = 2𝑔
𝑚2 + 𝑚1

Note: You should know how to derive these two equations.

Two-body problems
Example
Two masses are tied to a massless string and suspended on
pulley as shown below. If m1 = 33 kg and m2=76 kg, find
(1) the acceleration of the masses
(2) The tension in the string

Solution:
Substitute directly into the first two
equations and solve.
Or
Solve using
𝑚2 −𝑚1
𝑎= g
𝑚2+𝑚1
2𝑚2 𝑚1
𝑇= 𝑚2+𝑚1
g
Forces and static Equilibrium
When two or more forces are balanced, they are said to be in
equilibrium.
This occurs when the body or bodies they act on are static.
In this case Newton’s second law of motion is still applied.

Static equilibrium is defined as the object’s state of zero

net force and zero net toque.
𝐹 = 0 and 𝜏 = 0 (the two general conditions for equilib.)
The four specific conditions for equilibrium are:
𝐹𝑥 = 0 ---- net force in x direction
𝐹𝑦 = 0 ----- net force in y direction
𝐹𝑧 = 0 ----- net force in z direction
𝜏=0 ----- net torque
Note: Torque is rotational force
Example 1: Forces in Equilibrium
The system in Figure is in equilibrium with the string in the
center exactly horizontal. Find
(a) FBD for each mass
(b) tensions T1, T2, and T3
(c) angle θ ,

Note: To solve a problem of many-bodies system, we apply

Newton’s second law for each body.
Example 1: Forces in Equilibrium
T1 T1y T3y
T3
35° 𝜃°
T1x T2 T2 T3
T3x

40 N 50 N
Example 1: Forces in Equilibrium
The system in Figure is in equilibrium with the strings in the
center exactly horizontal. Find
(a) tensions T1, T2, T3 and
(b) angle θ ,
Apply Newton’s 2nd law to each body,
𝑇1𝑦 = 𝟒𝟎 𝑵, also 𝑇1𝑦 = 𝑇1 cos(35)
𝑇1𝑦 40
𝑇1 = cos 35
= cos(35) = 𝟒𝟖. 𝟖𝟑 𝑵
𝑇1𝑥 = 40𝑇𝑎𝑛 35 = 𝟐𝟖 𝑵
𝑇2 = 𝑇1𝑥 = 𝟐𝟖 𝑁
𝑇2 = 𝑇3𝑥 = 𝟐𝟖 𝑵
𝑇3𝑦 = 𝟓𝟎 𝑵;

2 2 −1 28
𝑇3 = 𝑇3𝑥 + 𝑇3𝑦 = 𝟓𝟕. 𝟑𝟏 𝑵; 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 50
= 𝟐𝟗. 𝟐𝟓𝒐
Example 1: Forces in Equilibrium
The system below shows a wooden beam weighing 5 kg tied to a
rope on one end and on another end it is placed against the wall.
The system is in equilibrium and the tension in the rope is 100
N. what is the frictional force between the wall and the beam?

Rope
60°
Wall

beam
Frictional
force
Example 1: Forces in Equilibrium

FBD:
Tx

𝐹𝑤 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 60 °

Ty
T
f
Fw f Ty
𝐹𝑥 = 𝐹𝑤 − 𝑇𝑥 = 0
mg Tx Fw
𝐹𝑦 = 𝑓 + 𝑇𝑦 − 𝑚𝑔 = 0

On the second equation:

𝑓 + 100 sin 60 − 5 ∗ 9.81 = 0
𝑓 = −86.602 + 49 mg
𝑓 = −𝟑𝟕. 𝟔 𝑁
Forces in Dynamic State
A body or a system of bodies is said to be in dynamic
state when there is a net resultant force acting on the
body, and the body moves.
Consider the diagram below, which is a two body
problem, where m1 and m2 may be unbalanced.
Example 1: Forces in Dynamic State
Two blocks of mass m1 = 4 kg and m2 = 10 kg are
connected via a pulley as shown. The coefficient of
kinetic friction between m1 and the table is 0.2. Sketch
the FBD and determine the acceleration of the system
and the tension in the cord.
Example 1: Forces in Dynamic State
• To solve this problem we apply Newton’s second law
of motion to each body.
• All forces and net forces in the direction of motion
are taken as positive.

FBDs 𝑛
𝑇
𝑓𝑘 𝑇

𝑚1 𝑔
𝑚2 𝑔
Example 1: Forces in Dynamic State

we get

Direction of motion
𝑚1 𝑎 = 𝑇 − 𝑓𝑘 ..(1)
𝑚2 𝑎 = −𝑇 + 𝑚2 𝑔 ..(2)

Adding the two equations above gives,

𝑎(𝑚2 + 𝑚1 ) = 𝑚2 𝑔 − 𝑓𝑘 ; but 𝑓𝑘 = 𝜇𝑘 𝑚1 𝑔
= > 𝑎(𝑚2 + 𝑚1 ) = 𝑚2 𝑔 − 𝜇𝑘 𝑚1 𝑔 = 𝑔(𝑚2 − 𝜇𝑘 𝑚1 )
𝑔(𝑚2 −𝜇𝑘 𝑚1 )
=>𝑎= is the acceleration
(𝑚2 +𝑚1 )
Example 1: Forces in Dynamic State
𝑔(𝑚2 −𝜇𝑘 𝑚1 )
=>𝑎=
(𝑚2 +𝑚1 )
Substituting values gives,
𝑔(𝑚2 −𝜇𝑘 𝑚1 ) 9.82(10−0.2∗4)
𝑎= =
(𝑚2 +𝑚1 ) (10+4)
𝑎 = 𝟔. 𝟒𝟓 m/s2
To find the tension, we substitute acceleration into (1),
𝑚1 𝑎1 = 𝑇 − 𝑓𝑘 ..(1)
= > 𝑇 = 𝑚1 𝑎1 + 𝑓𝑘 = 𝑚1 𝑎1 + 𝜇𝑘 𝑚1 𝑔
= > 𝑇 = 4 ∗ 6.45 + 0.2 ∗ 4 ∗ 9.82 = 𝟑𝟑. 𝟔𝟔 𝑵
Example 2: Forces in Dynamic State
A block of mass m1 = 3.70 kg on an inclined plane with coefficient
of kinetic friction of 0.3 and angle Ɵ = 300 is connected by a cord
over a massless, frictionless pulley to a second block of mass m2
= 2.30 kg hanging, as shown.

Determine the
(a) free body diagram for each mass,
(b) magnitude of the acceleration of each block, and
(c) tension in the cord?
(d) actual direction of motion is it towards m1 or m2?
Note: Direction of f is always opposite the direction of motion.
Example 2: Forces in Dynamic State

(a) Free body diagram for each mass

T
f
T
f
T
m2

m2g
Example 2: Forces in Dynamic State
Take all forces in the direction of motion as positive.
𝑚1 𝑎 = 𝑚1 𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 − 𝑇 − 𝑓𝑘 ...(1)
𝑚2 𝑎 = 𝑇 − 𝑚2𝑔 ..(2)

Adding the two equations above gives,

𝑎(𝑚2 + 𝑚1 ) = −𝑚2𝑔 + 𝑚1 𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 − 𝜇𝑘 𝑚1 𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃)
= > 𝑎(𝑚2 + 𝑚1 ) = 𝑔[−𝑚2 + 𝑚1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 − 𝜇𝑘 𝑚1 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃)]
𝑔[−𝑚2+𝑚1𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃)−𝜇𝑘 𝑚1 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃)]
=>𝑎 =
(𝑚2 +𝑚1 )

9.82[−2.3+3.7𝑠𝑖𝑛 30 −0.3(3.7)𝑐𝑜𝑠(30)] −13.8589

= =>𝑎 = = −𝟐. 𝟑𝟏 𝒎/𝒔𝟐
(2.3+3.7) 6
Example 2: Forces in Dynamic State
Note: Acceleration will have different value if we change direction
(c) tension in the cord?
We use the second equation,
𝑚2 𝑎 = 𝑇 − 𝑚2 𝑔
= > 𝑇 = 𝑚2𝑔 −𝑚2 𝑎2 = 2.3(9.82 + 2.31)
𝑇 = 𝟐𝟖 𝑵
d) The actual direction of the acceleration of m2?
To find the direction of the acceleration we look at the sign of the
acceleration. If it is positive then the assumed direction in the
question is the actual direction of motion. If the acceleration is
negative then the actual direction is the opposite of assumed
direction. In our case the actual motion will be in the direction of
M2, which is down.
Example 3: Forces in Dynamic State
A 10 kg box is attached to a 7 kg box which rests on a 30o
incline as shown in the Figure. The coefficient of kinetic friction
between each box and the surface is μk = 0.1.

With the aid of a diagram showing forces acting on the boxes,

calculate:
a) the frictional force for the 10 kg box,
b) the frictional force for the 7 kg box,
c) the acceleration of the system and
d) the tension in the rope.
Example 3: Forces in Dynamic State

a) the frictional force for the 10 kg box,

𝑓𝑘 = 𝜇𝑘 𝑚𝑔 = 0.1 ∗ 10 ∗ 9.82 = 𝟗. 𝟖𝟐 𝑵
b) the frictional force for the 7 kg box,
𝑓𝑘 = 𝜇𝑘 𝑚𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠 30 = 0.1 ∗ 7 ∗ 9.82 ∗ 0.866025 = 𝟓. 𝟗𝟓𝟑 𝑵
c) the acceleration of the system:
𝑚1 𝑎1 = 𝑇 − 𝑓1 ..(1)
𝑚2 𝑎2 = −𝑇 − 𝜇𝑘 𝑚2𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 + 𝑚2 𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃) ..(2)
𝑎1 = 𝑎2 = 𝑎 ..(3)
Example 3: Forces in Dynamic State
c) the acceleration of the system:
𝑎1 = 𝑎2 = 𝑎 ..(3)
= > 𝑚1 𝑎 = 𝑇 − 𝑓1 and 𝑚2 𝑎 = −𝑇 − 𝜇𝑚2 𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 + 𝑚2𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃)
Adding the two,
𝑎(𝑚2 + 𝑚1 ) = −𝜇𝑚1 𝑔 − 𝜇𝑚2𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 + 𝑚2 𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃)
−𝜇𝑚1 𝑔−𝜇𝑚2 𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 +𝑚2 𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃)
𝑎=
(𝑚2 +𝑚1 )
−0.1∗10∗9.82−0.1∗7∗9.82𝑐𝑜𝑠 30 +7∗9.82𝑠𝑖𝑛(30)
=>𝑎 =
(10+7)
−9.82−0.1∗7∗9.82∗0.866+7∗9.82∗0.5
=>𝑎 = = 1.1 𝑚/𝑠2.
(17)
Example 3: Forces in Dynamic State
c) the tension in the rope.
We use 𝑚1 𝑎1 = 𝑇 − 𝑓1
= > 𝑚1 𝑎 = 𝑇 − 𝜇𝑚1 𝑔
= > 𝑇 = 𝑚1 𝑎 + 𝜇𝑚1 𝑔 = 10(1.7+0.1*9.82) = 10.82 N
Forces in Dynamic State
Three blocks of mass 4kg, 8kg and 7 kg are connected
as shown in the figure below. The coefficient of kinetic
friction between the 8 kg mass and the table is 0.2.
Determine the
(a) sketch of the free body diagrams
(b) acceleration of the system and,
(c) the tension in each cord.

Note: this object will tend to move to heavier side.

Example 4: Forces in Dynamic State
As usual you apply Newton’s 2nd Law of motion for
each body, with forces in the direction of motion being
positive.
Start with free body diagram for each body

1 2 2
1

Direction of motion
Example 4: Forces in Dynamic State
We write Newton’s second Law of motion for each
FBD.
T1 T1 T2 T2
f 8 kg
7 kg
4 kg
m3g
m1g

𝑚1𝑎 = 𝑇1 − 𝑚1𝑔 --(1)

𝑚3𝑎 = −𝑇2 + 𝑚3𝑔 --(2) 𝑚2𝑎 = 𝑇2 − 𝑓 − 𝑇1 -- (3)
We solve simultaneously; 𝑇1 = −15.712 + 𝑇2 − 𝑚2𝑎 (4)
𝑚1 𝑎 = −15.712 + 𝑇2 − 𝑚2 𝑎 − 𝑚1 𝑔 (5) solve 2 and 5
𝑚1 𝑎 + 𝑚3 𝑎 = −15.712 − 𝑚1 𝑔 − 𝑚2 𝑎 + 𝑚3 𝑔
13.748
𝑎 𝑚1 + 𝑚2 + 𝑚3 = −15.712 + 7 − 4 9.82 = 13.748; 𝑎 = = 0.724
19
𝒂 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟐𝟒 𝑚/𝑠2; 𝑇1 = 𝑚1 𝑎 + 𝑚1 𝑔 = 4 0.724 + 9.82 = 42.176 N;
𝑇2 = 𝑚3 𝑔 − 𝑚3𝑎 = 𝑚3 9.82 − 0.724 = 63.672 𝑁
Example 6 - Equilibrium
A uniform ladder 10.0 m long and weighing 50.0 N
rests against a frictionless vertical wall as in Figure
below. If the ladder is just on the verge of slipping when
it makes a 50.0° angle with the ground.
Find the coefficient of static friction between the ladder
and ground.
Example 6 - Equilibrium
Sketch the force diagram:

Where n is normal, f is frictional force, and P is push by

the wall.
Apply the three conditions for equilibrium.
𝐹𝑥 = 0 ; 𝐹𝑦 = 0; 𝜏 = 0
𝑃
𝐹𝑥 = 𝑓 − 𝑃 = 𝜇𝑛 − 𝑃 = 0 ; => 𝜇 = --- (1)
𝑛
𝐹𝑦 = 𝑛 − 50 = 0 ; => n = 50 N ----- (2)
Example 6 - Equilibrium
Sketch the force diagram:
𝜏 = 𝑭 𝑋 𝒓 = 𝐹𝑟 sin 𝜃
Where F is magnitude of force, r is distance of force from the
pivot, and 𝜃 is the angle between force and the arm, r.
𝜏 = 𝜏𝑛 + 𝜏𝑓 + 𝜏𝑃 + 𝜏𝑔 = 0
𝜏𝑛 + 𝜏𝑓 + 𝜏𝑃 − 𝜏𝑔 = 0
=> n 0 + 𝑓 0 + 10 ∗ 𝑃 ∗ sin 50 − 5 ∗ 50 ∗ sin 40 = 0
=>10 ∗ 𝑃 ∗ sin 50 = 160.697
=>𝑃(7.66044) = 160.697
160.697
=> 𝑃 = = 20.98 N ---- (3)
7.66044
Substituting equations 2 and 3 into 1 gives
𝑃 20.98
𝜇= = = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟐
𝑛 50
UNIT 3: WORK, ENERGY AND POWER
Objectives:
Understand
• Work, energy and power
• Forms of energy
• Potential and Kinetic Energy; Mechanical Energy
• Gravitational potential energy
• Conservative Forces and Non-conservative forces
• Conservation of ME
• Conservation of Energy
• Work - Energy Theorem
WORK
Work is the product of force (F) and displacement (𝑑)
in the direction of the force.
𝑊 = 𝐹𝑑 cos 𝜃 (Joule)
Or as a dot product 𝑊 = 𝐹. 𝑑
Where 𝜃 is the angle between the force and the
displacement.

SI unit: joule ( J)
1 J = kg. 𝑚2 /𝑠 2
Work is a scalar quantity though a dot product of two
vectors
WORK
• Work can either be positive or negative depending on
whether 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 is positive or negative. This, in turn, depends
on the direction of F relative the direction of 𝛥𝑥
• If positive then work is done on the load, if negative then
work is done by the load

• Work is done when lifting up the bucket.

• No work is done on a bucket when it is kept in the same
position.

𝑊 = 𝐹𝑑𝐶𝑜𝑠θ
WORK
Example
Determine the work done by the force of 20 N in Figure below if
the angle 𝜃 = 25° and the load moves through ∆𝑥 = 10 𝑚

Solution
𝑊 = 𝐹. 𝑑 = 𝐹𝑑𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 20 ∗ 10 ∗ cos 60° = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝑱
Energy and Forms of energy
• Energy is the ability to do work. The SI Unit of
energy is Joules (J).
• There are several forms of energy:
• Potential energy (PE) – energy possessed by an
object by reason of it’s position
• Kinetic energy – energy stored by reason of motion
• Chemical energy – energy stored by reason of
stationary charges
• Electrical energy – energy stored by reason of
moving charges
• Heat energy - energy dissipated by reason of change
in temperature
• etc
Kinetic Energy
• This is energy possessed by a body in motion.
• Applying Newton’s 2nd Law on work equation:
𝑊 = 𝐹. Δx, But 𝛥x = 𝑠 = displacement.
= > 𝑊 = 𝐹𝑠 = > W = ma𝑠.
= > a𝑠 =W/m --- (1)
and one of the equations of motion 𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠
=> 𝑎𝑠 = (𝑣 2 − 𝑢2 )/2 ---- (2)
We substitute equation (2) into (1)
2 2 𝑚
W/m = (𝑣 −𝑢 )/2 => 𝑊 = (𝑣 2 −𝑢2 )
2
𝑚
𝑊= (𝑣 2 −𝑢2 ) = ∆𝑲𝑬
2
𝑚
∆𝑲𝑬 = KE𝒏𝒆𝒕 = (𝑣 2 −𝑢2 )
2
Work – Energy Theorem
𝑚
𝑊= (𝑣 2 −𝑢2 ) --- (work-energy theorem).
2

𝑊 = ΔKE Or W = KE𝒏𝒆𝒕

Work-Energy Theorem states that:

work done is equal to the positive change in
kinetic energy. 𝑊 = ΔKE
Or
work done is equal to the negative change in
potential energy. 𝑊 = -ΔPE
Kinetic Energy
𝑚 2 2 𝑚𝑣 2 𝑚𝑢2
KE𝒏𝒆𝒕 = (𝑣 −𝑢 ) = −
2 2 2

KE𝒏𝒆𝒕 = KE𝒇 - KE𝒊

𝑚𝑢2
KE𝒊 =
2
𝑚𝑣 2
KE𝒇 =
2
For an object starting from rest, 𝑢 = 0.
Hence general equation for KE is:
𝑚𝑣 2
KE = ----- hence derived
2
Gravitational Potential Energy
Energy acquired due to change in height. Object gains
GPE in shifting fro point A to B. similarly it losses GPE
if it shifts from B to A. B

𝛥𝑦

A
Using the definition of work,
𝑊 = 𝐹𝑑𝐶𝑜𝑠θ = mg𝛥𝑦
𝑊 = mg𝛥𝑦
Since 𝛥𝑦 is strictly height we denote it as h
𝑊 = mgℎ =PE
GPE = mg𝒉 (J) ----- hence derived
Mechanical Energy
Note: KE + PE = ME (mechanical energy)
Where does the energy possessed as PE at a height go
as an object falls to a lower level?
The answer is that PE is converted into KE as the
object gains motion. Hence in vertical motion and free
fall, mechanical energy is conserved. This means
ME is constant under the work of gravitational force.
ΔME = 0 ----- (conservation of ME)
ΔME = 𝑀𝐸𝑓 − 𝑀𝐸𝑖 = 0 = > 𝑀𝐸𝑓 = 𝑀𝐸𝑖
Law of conservation of ME states that:
Final ME is equal to the initial ME.
𝑀𝐸𝑖 = 𝑀𝐸𝑓 ----- (conservation of ME)
Mechanical Energy
ME = KE +PE = constant, therefore
ΔKE + ΔPE = 0 or ΔKE = −ΔPE
𝑚𝑣 2 𝑚𝑢2
- =−(𝑚𝑔ℎ𝑓 − 𝑚𝑔ℎ𝑖 ) or
2 2
𝑚𝑣 2 𝑚𝑢2
- = 𝑚𝑔(ℎ𝑖 − ℎ𝑓 )
2 2
𝑣2 𝑢2
- = 𝑔(ℎ𝑖 − ℎ𝑓 )
2 2
Mechanical Energy
𝑢2 𝑣2
+ 𝑔ℎ𝑖 = + 𝑔ℎ𝑓 or
2 2

KE𝒊 + PE𝒊 = KE𝒇 + PE𝒇 ----- (conservation of ME)

A diver drops from 10 m
Example
A diver of mass m drops from a board 10.0 m above
the water’s surface. Take g = 9.82 and neglect air
resistance.
(a) Use conservation of mechanical energy to find his
speed 5.00 m above the water’s surface.
(b) Find the speed as he hits the water.
Example
Sln:
𝑚𝑢2 𝑚𝑣 2
(a) + 𝑚𝑔ℎ𝑖 = + 𝑚𝑔ℎ𝑓 ; factor out m
2 2
u =0, ℎ𝑓 = 5 m hence
𝑣2
0 + 10𝑔 = + 5𝑔
2
𝑣 2 = 10 g => 𝑣 = 10 ∗ 9.82 =9.91=m/s
Example
(b) Find his speed as he hits the water.
Sln:
𝑚𝑢2 𝑚𝑣 2
(b) + 𝑚𝑔ℎ𝑖 = + 𝑚𝑔ℎ𝑓 ; factor out m
2 2
u =0, ℎ𝑓 = 0 hence
𝑣2
0 + 10𝑔 = −0
2
𝑣 2 = 20g => 𝑣 = 20 ∗ 9.82 =
Example
Find the change in PE as the skier of mass 50 kg slides
down from point A to B. Take g = 9.82 m/s2

What would be the change in PE if the skier had

climbed from point B to A?
Example
Sln:
ΔPE = 𝑚𝑔(ℎ𝑓 − ℎ𝑖 )
ℎ𝑓 = 0, ℎ𝑖 = 10
ΔPE = −50 ∗ 9.82 ∗ 10 = -4,910 J
Conservative and Non-conservative Forces
There are two types of forces: Conservative and
non-conservative forces.
Conservative forces transform energy from KE to PE
and vise versa without loss of energy to other forms or
the surrounding.
In short, Conservative forces conserve ME.
Good example is gravitational force acting on a body.
-Secondly the work done by a conservative force is
independent of the path taken, but depends on the
shortest distance between the two points.
1

A 2 B
Conservative and Nonconservative Forces
Non-conservative forces do not conserve ME, but leaks
out energy to the surrounding into other forms of
energy. They randomly disperse the energy of bodies on
which they act.
This dispersal of energy often takes the form of heat,
light and/or sound. Examples are Kinetic frictional
forces and air drag.

Secondly the work done by a non-conservative force

depends of the path taken. The longer the path, the
more work needed.
Conservation of Energy
The law of conservation of energy states that
Energy can neither be created nor destroyed but can be
transformed from one form to another.
Case 1: Under conservative forces – ME = constant
ΔME = ΔKE + ΔPE = 0 -- (conservation of ME energy)

Case 2: If we include the presence of NC forces then

ΔME = 𝑊𝑛𝑐 or ΔKE + ΔPE = 𝑊𝑛𝑐
𝑊𝑛𝑐 =ΔKE + ΔPE ---(conservation of energy law)
This is also known as the extended work-energy
theorem.
where 𝑊𝑛𝑐 is work done by NC forces.
Conservation of Energy
Example
An object of mass 2 kg falls from a height of 10 m. The
work done by air resistance is - 6 J. Assuming there are
no other mechanical energy losses. Find the final
velocity of the object on the ground.
Solution
ΔME = 𝑊𝑛𝑐 => ΔKE + ΔPE = 𝑊𝑛𝑐
𝑚𝑣 2 𝑚𝑢2
− + 𝑚𝑔ℎ𝑓 − 𝑚𝑔ℎ𝑖 = 𝑊𝑛𝑐
2 2
2 2 2
𝑣 − 𝑢 + 2𝑔ℎ𝑓 − 2𝑔ℎ𝑖 = 𝑊𝑛𝑐
m
2
𝑣 2 − 𝑢2 + 2𝑔(ℎ𝑓 − ℎ𝑖 ) = 𝑊𝑛𝑐
m
Conservation of Energy
Example (cont.)
But 𝑢 = 0, ℎ𝑓 = 0; ℎ𝑖 = 10; 𝑊𝑛𝑐 = −6.0 𝐽; m = 2 kg; g =
9.82 m/s2
Hence
2 2 2
𝑣 − 𝑢 + 2𝑔(ℎ𝑓 − ℎ𝑖 ) = 𝑊𝑛𝑐
m
2 2
𝑣 + 2 ∗ 9.82(−10) = (−6.0)
2
𝑣 2 = 196.4 − 6 = 190.4
𝑣 = 190.4 = 𝟏𝟑. 𝟖 m/s
POWER
Power is the rate of doing work.
The SI unit of power is watt (w)
1 w = 1 J/s
The faster a force produces work the more power it has.
Δ𝑊 Δ𝐸
𝑃= or 𝑃 = ----( Power)
Δ𝑡 Δ𝑡

ΔFdcosθ Δd
P= = FCosθ = = Fvcos θ
Δ𝑡 Δ𝑡

P = Fvcosθ
P = Fv --- (Power)
Exercise - POWER
(1) A speedboat of mass 1.00 x 103 kg moves from rest
to 20.0 m/s in 5.00 s, neglecting resistance.
(i) Using the work energy theorem, what is the force of
the boat? Ans: 4000 N. use F = ∆KE/d
(ii)What is the average power of the boat? 10,000 w

(2) A bullet of mass 10 g is fired vertically up, from a

gun, with an initial velocity of 200.0 m/s. Neglecting
air resistance what is the power of the gun?
ANS: 19.64 w. Use P = Fg*u = weight *u
UNIT 4 : LINEAR MOMENTUM AND IMPULSE
Objectives
At the end of this Unit, student should be able to
understand and demonstrate the concepts of:
• Linear Momentum
• Impulse-Momentum Theorem
• Conservation of Linear Momentum
• Types of collisions
- elastic collision
- inelastic collision
- Perfect inelastic collision
• Collisions in One Dimensions, and
• Collisions in Two Dimensions
LINEAR MOMENTUM AND IMPULSE
The concepts of momentum and impulse is important
as it gives us an understanding of the exchange of
energy between objects during collision. The game of
pool as well as road accidents are governed by the
concepts of momentum and impulse.

Momentum is the product of mass and its velocity.

𝑝 = 𝑚𝑣 (kgm/s)
Linear momentum is momentum in a straight line.
Momentum ( 𝑝) is a vector quantity with the same
direction as the velocity of the mass.
𝑝𝑥 = 𝑚𝑣𝑥 (kg.m/s) and 𝑝𝑦 = 𝑚𝑣𝑦 (kg.m/s)
LINEAR MOMENTUM AND IMPULSE
Relationship between Momentum and KE of a body.
Recall that
𝑚𝑣 2
𝐾𝐸 = and 𝑝 = 𝑚𝑣
2
=> 𝑝2 = (𝑚𝑣)2 leading to
𝑝2
𝐾𝐸 = and 𝑝 = 2𝑚𝐾𝐸
2𝑚

Exercise:
(1) Two masses m1 and m2, with m1 < m2, have equal
kinetic energy. Compare their momenta.
(2) When a body’s momentum is doubled, what
happens to its KE?
LINEAR MOMENTUM AND IMPULSE
Impulse is the product of force and time.
It is the measure of how long a force acts on an object.
Impulse ( 𝐼) is a vector quantity with the same direction
as the force.
Consider Newton’s 2nd law of motion
∆𝑣 ∆(𝑚𝑣)
𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑚𝑎 = 𝑚 =
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡
Here the force and mass are constant
∆(𝑝)
𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 =
∆𝑡
∆ 𝑝 = 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 ∆𝑡 = 𝐼
𝐼 = 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 ∆𝑡 or 𝐼 = ∆ 𝑝 ----- (Impulse)
Defn: Impulse is simply change in momentum.
LINEAR MOMENTUM AND IMPULSE
∆ 𝑝 = 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 ∆𝑡 = 𝐼
But ∆ 𝑝 = 𝑚𝑣𝑓 - 𝑚𝑣𝑖
Hence 𝐼 = 𝑚𝑣𝑓 - 𝑚𝑣𝑖 =𝑚(𝑣𝑓 - 𝑣𝑖 )
𝐼 = 𝑚(𝑣𝑓 - 𝑣𝑖 )
𝐼 = 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 ∆𝑡

Impulse-momentum theorem: impulse is equal to

change in momentum. 𝐼 = ∆ 𝑝

-For a changing force, Impulse is given by average force

𝐼 = 𝐹𝑎𝑣𝑔 ∆𝑡
LINEAR MOMENTUM AND IMPULSE
Impulse from force time graphs

The magnitude of the impulse delivered by a force

during the time interval Δt is equal to the area under
the force versus time graph.
Exercise
A golf ball with mass 5.0 x 10−2 kg is struck with a golf
stick and is momentarily deformed by 2 cm. Assume
that the ball leaves the golf stick face with a velocity of
44 m/s.
Note that the force on the ball varies from zero when
contact is made up to some maximum value (when the
ball is maximally deformed) and then back to zero
when the ball leaves the golf stick.
(a) Find the magnitude of the impulse due to the
collision.
(b) Estimate the duration of the collision and the
average force acting on the ball.
Exercise
(a) Find the magnitude of the impulse due to the
collision.
𝐼 = 𝑚(𝑣𝑓 - 𝑣𝑖 )
But 𝑣𝑓 =44 m/s; 𝑣𝑖 = 0 m/s; m = 0.05 kg
𝐼 = 0.05 x (44 – 0) = 2.2 kg.m/s

(b) Estimate the duration of the collision and the

average force acting on the ball.
𝑣+𝑢 𝑣+𝑢
S=( )Δt; S = 2 cm = 0.02 m; ( ) = 22 m/s
2 2
=> Δt = 0.02/22 = 9.1 x 10−𝟒 s
𝐼 = 𝐹𝑎𝑣𝑔 ∆𝑡 => 𝑭𝒂𝒗𝒈 = 𝐼/∆𝑡 = 2.2/9.1 x 10−4 = 2.4 x10𝟑 N
Exercise
In a car crash test, a car of mass 1.50 x 103 kg collides
with a wall and rebounds as in Figure below. The initial
and final velocities of the car are 𝑣𝑖 = -15.0 m/s; 𝑣𝑓 =
2.6 m/s, respectively. If the collision lasts for 0.150 s,
find (a) the impulse delivered to the car due to the
collision
(b) the magnitude and direction of the average force
exerted on the car.
Exercise
1.50 x 103 kg; 𝑣𝑖 = -15.0 m/s; 𝑣𝑓 = 2.6 m/s, t = 0.150 s
(a) the impulse delivered to the car due to the collision
𝐼 = 𝑚(𝑣𝑓 - 𝑣𝑖 )
= 1.50 x 103 x [2.6 –(-15)] = 1.50 x 103 x (2.6 +15)
= 2.64 x 10𝟒 kg.m/s
(b) the magnitude and direction of the average force
exerted on the car.
𝐼 = 𝐹𝑎𝑣𝑔 ∆𝑡 => 𝐹𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝐼/∆𝑡 =2.64 x 104 /0.15
= 1.76 x 10𝟓 N in the positive x-axis direction
Isolated System and Net Momentum
Defn: An isolated system is a system that has zero
external net force and zero net torque acting on it.
Its entire velocity does not necessarily have to be zero.

Because there is no net force or net torque acting on it,

it will not change its velocity or direction.

In an isolated system momentum is conserved.

𝜏𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 0; 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 0
m1 m2
Isolated System
Conservation of Linear Momentum
When a collision occurs within an isolated system, the
total momentum of the system does not change.
Instead, it remains constant both in magnitude and in
direction.
The momenta of the individual objects in the system
may change, but the vector sum of all the momenta will
not change.

The law of Conservation of momentum:

In an isolated system, the sum of the initial
momentum is equals the sum of the final momentum.
𝑃𝑖 = 𝑃𝑓 = > (𝑃𝑠𝑦𝑠 )𝑖 = (𝑃𝑠𝑦𝑠 )𝑓
Conservation of Momentum
Before and after a head-on collision between two
particles. Note: Always take note of directions.

F1 F2

m1 m2

Collisions are governed by Newton’s 3rd Law of motion

Force of mass 2 on mass 1 and vise versa.
The two forces should be equal but opposite
Conservation of Momentum

According to Newton’s 3rd law of motion: 𝐹21 = - 𝐹12

𝐹21 Δt = - 𝐹12 Δt or ∆𝑝1 = −∆𝑝2
𝑚1 𝑣1𝑓 - 𝑚1 𝑢1𝑖 =−( 𝑚2 𝑣2𝑓 - 𝑚2 𝑢2𝑖 )
𝑚1 𝑣1𝑓 - 𝑚1 𝑢1𝑖 = 𝑚2 𝑢2𝑖 - 𝑚2 𝑣2𝑓
- 𝑚1 𝑢1𝑖 - 𝑚2 𝑢2𝑖 = - 𝑚2 𝑣2𝑓- 𝑚1 𝑣1𝑓
𝑚1 𝑢1𝑖 + 𝑚2 𝑢2𝑖 = 𝑚1 𝑣1𝑓 + 𝑚2 𝑣2𝑓
𝑝1𝑖 +𝑝2𝑖 = 𝑝1𝑓 +𝑝2𝑓 or
𝑝𝑖 = 𝑝𝑓 --- (conservation of momentum)
This is analogous to conservation of mechanical energy.
Types of Collisions
There are 3 types of collisions: elastic, inelastic and
perfect inelastic collisions.
Elastic Collisions (perfect elastic collisions).
• An elastic collision is defined as one in which both
momentum and kinetic energy of the system are
conserved. i.e.
𝑝𝑖 = 𝑝𝑓 and 𝐾𝐸𝑖 = 𝐾𝐸𝑓
• The collisions of subatomic particles and that of air
molecules with the walls of a container at ordinary
temperatures are highly elastic.
• The collision between billiard balls are only
approximately elastic, because some loss of kinetic
energy takes place — through sound and heat
Types of Collisions
Inelastic collisions.
• An inelastic collision is a collision in which only
momentum is conserved, but kinetic energy is NOT.
𝑝𝑖 = 𝑝𝑓
• A perfect inelastic collision is when two objects
collide and stick together so that their final velocities
are the same. i.e.
𝑣1𝑓 = 𝑣2𝑓 = 𝑣𝑓 also 𝑝𝑖 = 𝑝𝑓
• Example of perfect inelastic occurs when two pieces of
soft mud collide and stick together and move with
common velocity after they collide.
1D Collision: Inelastic Collisions in 1D
1 D Collision is collision in a straight line.
• Example is a head-on collision.
• Consider two objects having masses m1 and m2
moving with known initial velocity components 𝑢1𝑖
and 𝑢2𝑖 along a straight line. If the two objects collide
head-on, stick together, and move with a common
velocity component 𝑣𝑓 after the collision, then the
collision is perfectly inelastic.
• Using the conservation of momentum: 𝑝𝑖 = 𝑝𝑓
𝑚1 𝑢1𝑖 + 𝑚2 𝑢2𝑖 = 𝑚1 𝑣1𝑓 + 𝑚2 𝑣2𝑓
𝑣2𝑓 =𝑣1𝑓 = 𝑣𝑓
𝑚1 𝑢1𝑖 + 𝑚2 𝑢2𝑖
𝑣𝑓 = --- (final v of perfect inelastic collision)
𝑚1 + 𝑚2
Exercise
A pickup truck of mass 1.80 x 103 kg is traveling
eastwards at 15.0 m/s, while a compact car with mass
9.00 x 102 kg is traveling westward at 15.0 m/s. The
vehicles collide head-on, becoming entangled.
(a) Find the speed of the entangled vehicles after the
collision.
(b) Find the change in the velocity of each vehicle.
(c) Find the change in the kinetic energy of the system
consisting of both vehicles.
Exercise
(a) Find the speed of the entangled vehicles after the
collision.
𝑚1𝑢1𝑖 + 𝑚2𝑢2𝑖 1800∗15 +900∗(−15) 13500
𝑣𝑓 = = =
𝑚1 + 𝑚2 1800+900 2700
𝑣𝑓 = +5 m/s this is towards +ve x-axis
(b) Find the change in the velocity of each vehicle.
𝑚1: 𝑣1𝑓 − 𝑢1𝑖 = 5-15 = -10 m/s
𝑚2: 𝑣2𝑓 − 𝑢2𝑖 = 5 - (-15) = +20 m/s
(c) Find the change in the kinetic energy of the system
consisting of both vehicles.
𝑚1(𝑢1𝑖 )2 𝑚2(𝑢2𝑖 )2
𝐾𝐸𝑖 = + = 202500 + 101250 = 303750 J
2 2
𝑚1(𝑣𝑓)2 𝑚2(𝑣𝑓)2
𝐾𝐸𝑓 = + = 22500 + 11250 =33750 J
2 2
Exercise
(c) Find the change in the kinetic energy of the system
consisting of both vehicles.
Δ𝐾𝐸 = 𝐾𝐸𝑓 - 𝐾𝐸𝑖
= 33750 J - 303750 J
= -270’000 J
There is loss in KE.
Perfect Inelastic 1 D Collision Application
Application: The Ballistic Pendulum
The ballistic pendulum is a device used to measure the
initial velocity of a fast-moving projectile such as a bullet.
The bullet is fired at close range into a large block of wood
suspended on two light wires. The bullet embeds in the
block, and the entire system swings up to a height h. We
obtain the initial speed of the bullet by measuring h and the
two masses. Combines conservation of ME and Momentum
Collisions in 1D - The Ballistic Pendulum
As an example of the technique, assume that the mass of
the bullet, m1, is 5.00 g, the mass of the pendulum, m2, is
1.000 kg, and h is 5.00 cm.
(a) Find the vertical velocity of the system after the bullet
embeds into the block.
(b) Calculate the initial speed of the bullet.

Analysis for Solution:

This is an example of a perfectly inelastic collision
For part (a) use the conservation of mechanical energy
For part (b) use the conservation of momentum.
Collisions in 1D - The Ballistic Pendulum
(a) Find the velocity of the system in the vertical direction
after the bullet embeds into the block.
Sln: Conservation of mechanical energy.
(𝐾𝐸𝑖−𝑠𝑦𝑠 + 𝑃𝐸𝑖−𝑠𝑦𝑠 )at-collision = (𝐾𝐸𝑓−𝑠𝑦𝑠 + 𝑃𝐸𝑓−𝑠𝑦𝑠)top
Note: 𝑢𝑠𝑦𝑠 = ?, ℎ𝑖 = 0, ℎ𝑓 = 0.05 m, 𝑣𝑠𝑦𝑠 =0
Hence 𝑃𝐸𝑖−𝑠𝑦𝑠 = 0; 𝐾𝐸𝑓−𝑠𝑦𝑠= 0.
Equation becomes:
𝐾𝐸𝑖−𝑠𝑦𝑠 = 𝑃𝐸𝑓−𝑠𝑦𝑠
(𝑚𝑠𝑦𝑠 )(𝑢𝑠𝑦𝑠 )2 (𝑢𝑠𝑦𝑠 )2
= (𝑚𝑠𝑦𝑠 )𝑔ℎ𝑓 => = 𝑔ℎ𝑓
2 2
𝑢𝑠𝑦𝑠 = 2 𝑔ℎ𝑓
𝑢𝑠𝑦𝑠 = 2 ∗ 9.82 ∗ 0.05 = 0.9982 = 0.991m/s
Collisions in 1D - The Ballistic Pendulum
(b) Calculate the initial speed of the bullet.

𝑝𝑖 = 𝑝𝑓 (Momentum before collision =

momentum after collision)
𝑚1 𝑢1 + 𝑚2 𝑢2 = 𝑚1 𝑣𝑓 + 𝑚2 𝑣𝑓
𝑚1 𝑢1 + 𝑚2 𝑢2 =(𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )𝑣𝑓
But 𝑢2 = 0; 𝑣𝑓 = 𝑣𝑖−𝑠𝑦𝑠 =0.9991m/s

(𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )𝑣𝑓 0.005+1 0.9991

𝑢1 = = = 199.2 m/s
𝑚1 0.005
Collisions in 1D – Elastic Collision
Consider two objects that undergo an elastic head-on
collision. In this case, both the momentum and
the kinetic energy of the system are conserved.
𝑚1 𝑢1 + 𝑚2 𝑢2 = 𝑚1 𝑣1 + 𝑚2 𝑣2 --- (Conservation of p)
----- (1)
𝑚1 (𝑢1 )2 𝑚2 (𝑢2 )2 𝑚1 (𝑣1 )2 𝑚2 (𝑣2 )2
+ = + -- (Conser. of KE)
2 2 2 2
----- (2)
where u and v are positive if an object moves to the
right and negative if it moves to the left.
The two equations above can be solved simultaneously.
Collisions in 1D – Elastic Collision
𝑚1 𝑢1 + 𝑚2 𝑢2 = 𝑚1 𝑣1 + 𝑚2 𝑣2 --- (Conservation of p)
The equation above can be simplified as
𝑚1 (𝑢1 −𝑣1 ) = 𝑚2 (𝑣2 - 𝑢2 ) ----- (3)
Next we simplify equation (2):
𝑚1 (𝑢1 )2 𝑚2 (𝑢2 )2 𝑚1 (𝑣1 )2 𝑚2 (𝑣2 )2
+ = + -- (Conser. of KE)
2 2 2 2
The equation above has 2 as a common factor. Hence
It becomes:
𝑚1 (𝑢1 )2 + 𝑚2 (𝑢2 )2 = 𝑚1 (𝑣1 )2 + 𝑚2 (𝑣2 )2
Putting common factors together:
𝑚1 (𝑢1 )2 - 𝑚1 (𝑣1 )2 = 𝑚2 (𝑣2 )2 - 𝑚2 (𝑢2 )2
2 2
𝑚1 (𝑢1 - 𝑣1 ) = 𝑚2 (𝑣2 - 𝑢2 2 )
2
Collisions in 1D – Elastic Collision
𝑚1 (𝑢1 2 - 𝑣1 2 ) = 𝑚2 (𝑣2 2 - 𝑢2 2 )
We see the equation above contains the difference of
two squares. Can be written as
𝑚1 (𝑢1 − 𝑣1 ) (𝑢1 + 𝑣1 ) =𝑚2 (𝑣2 − 𝑢2 ) (𝑣2 + 𝑢2 ) --- (4)

Now substitute equation (3) into (4):

Recall equation (3) is:
𝑚1 (𝑢1 −𝑣1 ) = 𝑚2 (𝑣2 - 𝑢2 ) ----- (3)
We have
𝑚2 (𝑣2 - 𝑢2 )(𝑢1 + 𝑣1 ) =𝑚2 (𝑣2 + 𝑢2 ) (𝑣2 − 𝑢2 ) --- (4)
The common factor in equation (4) is 𝑚2 (𝑣2 - 𝑢2 )
Collisions in 1D – Elastic Collision
Hence equation (4) becomes
(𝑢1 + 𝑣1 ) = (𝑣2 + 𝑢2 ) or
𝑢1 − 𝑢2 = 𝑣2 − 𝑣1 --- (5) --- relative velocity equation

Note: 𝑢1/2 = 𝑢1 − 𝑢2 and 𝑣2/1 = 𝑣2 −𝑣1

𝑢1/2 = 𝑣2/1 ---- (5b) --- it is easy to remember
𝑣2 −𝑣1
𝑒= =1 ---- (6)
𝑢1 −𝑢2
Here 𝑒 is called the coefficient of restitution. It is 1
for perfect elastic collision and less than one inelastic
collision.
Note that equation (5) together with equation (1) are used
to solve elastic collision problems.
Example 1 – 1D Perfectly Elastic Collision
Two billiard balls of identical masses move toward each
other. Assume that the collision between them is
perfectly elastic. If the initial velocities of the balls are
+30.0 cm/s and -20.0 cm/s, respectively.
What are the velocities of the balls after the collision?
Assume friction and rotation are negligible.

Sln:
Solution of perfectly elastic problems are obtained by
solving the two equations, the conservation of
momentum and relative velocity equations, for two
unknowns, the final velocities of the two balls.
Exercise – 1D Elastic Collision
Sln:
We use eqn (1) and eqn (5) to solve the problem
𝑚1 𝑢1 + 𝑚2 𝑢2 = 𝑚1 𝑣1 + 𝑚2 𝑣2 --- (1)
Since m1 = m2, we have
𝑚1 𝑢1 + 𝑚1 𝑢2 = 𝑚1 𝑣1 + 𝑚1 𝑣2 or
𝑢1 + 𝑢2 = 𝑣1 + 𝑣2 --- (p1)
We now bring in eqn (5): 𝑢1 − 𝑢2 = 𝑣2 − 𝑣1 --- (5)
We solve eqn (1) and (5) as simultaneous equations.
Adding them: 𝑢1 +𝑢2 + 𝑢1 − 𝑢2 =𝑣1 + 𝑣2 + 𝑣2 −𝑣1
2𝑢1 =2𝑣2 => 𝑢1 =𝑣2 Hence since 𝑢1 =+30 cm/s then
𝑣2 = +30 cm/s
Exercise – 1D Elastic Collision
Sln:
We now solve for 𝑣1 by substituting into eqn (5)
𝑢1 − 𝑢2 = 𝑣2 − 𝑣1 --- (5)
30 – (-20) = 30 - 𝑣1
=> 20 = - 𝑣1 or
=> 𝑣1 = -20 cm/s

• Notice that the bodies exchanged the velocities. This

is always the case when two objects of equal mass
undergo an elastic head-on collision.
Example 2 – 1D Perfectly Elastic Collision
Two billiard balls of masses m1=2 kg and m2 =3 kg
move toward each other. Assume that the collision
between them is perfectly elastic. If the initial velocities
of the balls are +30.0 cm/s and -20.0 cm/s.
What are the velocities of the balls after the collision
and what is the value of the coefficient of restitution?
Assume friction and rotation are negligible.

Sln:
Solution of perfectly elastic problems are obtained by
solving the two equations, the conservation of
momentum and relative motion equations, for two
unknowns, the final velocities of the two balls.
Exercise – 1D Elastic Collision
Sln:
We use eqn (1) and eqn (5) to solve the problem
𝑚1 𝑢1 + 𝑚2 𝑢2 = 𝑚1 𝑣1 + 𝑚2 𝑣2 --- (1)
𝑢1 − 𝑢2 = 𝑣2 − 𝑣1 --- (5)
Data:
m1 = 2 kg, m2 = 3 kg, 𝑢1 =+0.30 m/s , 𝑢2 =-0.20 m/s
We solve eqn (1) and (5) as simultaneous equations.
2(0.3) + 3(−0.2) = 2𝑣1 + 3𝑣2 --- (1)
0.3 + 0.2 = 𝑣2 − 𝑣1 --- (5)
Solve simultaneously:
Exercise – 1D Elastic Collision
Exercise: elastic collision of two identical balls with
same but opposite direction velocities.

Two billiard balls of identical masses move toward each

other. Assume that the collision between them is
perfectly elastic. If the initial velocities of the balls are
+20.0 cm/s and -20.0 cm/s, respectively.
What are the velocities of the balls after the collision?
Assume friction and rotation are negligible.
2D Motion - Glancing (off centre) Collisions
• 2D collisions takes into account the x-axis and y-axis
components of the velocities and momentum.
• Directions of the vectors such as velocities are taken care of by
the angles. The signs will be determined by the direction of
components in the x - and y – axes.

The conservation of momentum principle in 2D implies that the

total momentum of the system is conserved in each
direction:

Before collision After collision

m2 m2
m1 m1
2D Motion - Glancing (off centre) Collisions
The conservation of momentum principle in 2D implies that the
total momentum of the system is conserved in each direction:
𝑚1 𝑢1𝑥 + 𝑚2 𝑢2𝑥 = 𝑚1 𝑣1𝑥 + 𝑚2 𝑣2𝑥
𝑚1 𝑢1𝑦 + 𝑚2 𝑢2𝑦 = 𝑚1 𝑣1𝑦 + 𝑚2 𝑣2𝑦
or
𝑚1 𝑢1 𝑐𝑜𝑠θ1 + 𝑚2 𝑢2 𝑐𝑜𝑠θ2 = 𝑚1 𝑣1 𝑐𝑜𝑠ϕ1 + 𝑚2 𝑣2 𝑐𝑜𝑠ϕ2
𝑚1 𝑢1 𝑠𝑖𝑛θ1 + 𝑚2 𝑢2 𝑠𝑖𝑛θ2 = 𝑚1 𝑣1 𝑠𝑖𝑛ϕ1 + 𝑚2 𝑣2 𝑠𝑖𝑛ϕ2

Where 𝑢1𝑥 = 𝑢1 𝑐𝑜𝑠θ1 ; 𝑢1𝑦 = 𝑢1 𝑠𝑖𝑛θ1 , etc.

Before collision After collision

m2
m1 m2
m1
2D Motion - Glancing Collisions
Now, consider a 2D problem in which an object of mass
m1 collides with an object of mass m2 that is initially at
rest. After the collision, object 1 moves at an angle θ
with respect to the horizontal, and object 2 moves at an
angle ɸ with respect to the horizontal. This is called a
glancing collision (off-center collision).
2D Motion - Glancing Collisions
Applying the law of conservation of momentum in
component forms, and noting that the initial y-
component of momentum is zero, we have
𝑚1 𝑢1𝑥 + 0 = 𝑚1 𝑣1 𝑐𝑜𝑠θ + 𝑚2 𝑣2 cosɸ
0 + 0 = 𝑚1 𝑣1 𝑠𝑖𝑛θ + 𝑚2 𝑣2 𝑠𝑖𝑛ɸ
If the collision is elastic, we can write two more
equations, for relative motion, in the form
𝑢1𝑥 − 𝑢2𝑥 = 𝑣2𝑥 − 𝑣1𝑥
𝑢1𝑦 − 𝑢2𝑦 = 𝑣2𝑦 − 𝑣1𝑦 --- (2-D Relative velocity eqns.)

These 4 equations can be used to solve 2D collision

problems.
Example 1 2D Collision
An object of mass 5 kg moving at 50 m/s and 10° above
the x-axis collides with a stationary object on the x-axis
of mass 8 kg. Assume the collision is perfectly elastic.
Find the
(a) Final velocity of 5 kg mass
(b) Final velocity of 3 kg mass
Solution - 2D Collision
(a) Final velocity of 5 kg mass
𝑚1 𝑢1𝑥 + 𝑚2 𝑢2𝑥 = 𝑚1 𝑣1 𝑐𝑜𝑠ɸ1 + 𝑚2 𝑣2 cosɸ2 -- (1)
𝑚1 𝑢1𝑦 + 𝑚2 𝑢2𝑦 = 𝑚1 𝑣1 𝑠𝑖𝑛ɸ1 + 𝑚2 𝑣2 𝑠𝑖𝑛ɸ2 -- (2)
𝑢1𝑥 − 𝑢2𝑥 = 𝑣2𝑥 − 𝑣1𝑥 -- (3)
𝑢1𝑦 − 𝑢2𝑦 = 𝑣2𝑦 − 𝑣1𝑦 -- (4)
Data: 𝜃1 = 10°, 𝜃2 = 0°, 𝑢1𝑥 = 0.9848𝑢1 = 49.2404 𝑚/𝑠;
𝑢1𝑦 = 8.682 𝑚/𝑠 ; 𝑢2𝑥 = 0 ; 𝑢2𝑦 = 0 ; 𝑚1 = 5 𝑘𝑔 ; 𝑚2 =
8 𝑘𝑔
246.202 = 5𝑣1 𝑐𝑜𝑠(ɸ1 ) + 8𝑣2 cos(ɸ2 ) -- (5)
43.41 = 5𝑣1 𝑠𝑖𝑛(ɸ1 ) + 8𝑣2 sin(ɸ2 ) -- (6); and
49.2404 = 𝑣2 cos(ɸ2 ) − 𝑣1 cos(ɸ1 ) -- (7)
8.682= 𝑣2 sin(ɸ2 ) − 𝑣1 sin(ɸ1 ) -- (8)
Solution - 2D Collision
From equations 7 and 8 wen have

𝑣1 cos ɸ1 = 𝑣2 cos ɸ2 − 49.2404 -- (9)

𝑣1 sin ɸ1 = 𝑣2 sin ɸ2 − 8.682 -- (10)

Substitute 9 and 10 into 6 and 7.

8.682= 𝑣2 sin(ɸ2 ) − 0.5𝑣1 -- (8)

246.202 = 5 𝑣2 cos ɸ2 − 49.2404 + 8𝑣2 cos ɸ2 -- (9)

43.41 = 5 𝑣2 sin ɸ2 − 8.682 + 8𝑣2 sin ɸ2 -- (10)
Solution - 2D Collision
We now simplify equations 9 and 10:
246.202 = 5 𝑣2 cos ɸ2 − 49.2404 + 8𝑣2 cos ɸ2 -- (9)
= > 246.202 = 13𝑣2 cos ɸ2 − 246.202
= > 13𝑣2 cos ɸ2 = 492.404
= > 𝑣2 cos ɸ2 = 37.88 --- (11)
We do the same on equation 10:
43.41 = 5 𝑣2 sin ɸ2 − 8.682 + 8𝑣2 sin ɸ2 -- (10)
𝑣2 sin ɸ2 = 6.68 --- (12)
Hence our two equations are
𝑣2 cos ɸ2 = 37.88 --- (11)
𝑣2 sin ɸ2 = 6.68 --- (12)
We divide equation 12 by equation 12:
Solution - 2D Collision
𝑣2 cos ɸ2 = 37.88 --- (11)
𝑣2 sin ɸ2 = 6.68 --- (12)
We divide equation 12 by equation 12:
𝑣2 sin ɸ2 6.68
= = > Tan ɸ2 = 0.176
𝑣2 cos ɸ2 37.88
= > ɸ2 = 𝑇𝑎𝑛−1 0.176 = 𝟗. 𝟗𝟖°
We now substitute this value into equation 12:
6.68
𝑣2 = = 𝟑𝟖. 𝟓𝟓 𝒎/𝒔
sin 9.98
Wen now solve for 𝑣1 and ɸ1 by substituting 𝑣2 and ɸ2
into equations 9 and 10
Solution - 2D Collision
Recall equations 9 and 10 are
𝑣1 cos ɸ1 = 𝑣2 cos ɸ2 − 49.2404 -- (9)
𝑣1 sin ɸ1 = 𝑣2 sin ɸ2 − 8.682 -- (10)
=>
𝑣1 cos ɸ1 = 38.55 cos 9.98 − 49.2404
𝑣1 sin ɸ1 = 38.55 sin 9.98 − 8.682
=>
𝑣1 cos ɸ1 = −11.273 ---- (13)
ɸ1
𝑣1 sin ɸ1 = − 2.001 ---- (14)
Divide 13 into 14 above:
−2.001
Tan ɸ1 = = 0.1775 => ɸ1 = 𝑇𝑎𝑛−1 0.176 = 10.1°
−11.273
overall: ɸ1 = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟏° + 𝟏𝟖𝟎° = 𝟏𝟗𝟎. 𝟏°
Solution - 2D Collision
−2.001 −2.001
𝑣1 = = = 𝟏𝟏. 𝟒𝟑 m/s
sin 190.1 −0.175

𝑢2 𝑣2

ɸ2 = 𝟗. 𝟗𝟖°
𝟏𝟎°
ɸ1 = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟏°

𝑣1
Exercise - Glancing Collisions
A car with mass 1.50 x 103 kg traveling east at a speed
of 25.0 m/s collides at an intersection with a 2.50 x 103
kg pickup truck traveling north at a speed of 20.0 m/s.
Find the magnitude and direction of the velocity of the
wreckage immediately after the collision, assuming that
the vehicles undergo a perfectly inelastic collision (that
is, they stick together) and assuming that friction
between the vehicles and the road can be neglected.
Exercise - Glancing Collisions
𝑚1 𝑢1𝑥 + 𝑚2 𝑢2𝑥 = 𝑚1 𝑣1𝑥 + 𝑚2 𝑣2𝑥
𝑚1 𝑢1𝑦 + 𝑚2 𝑢2𝑦 = 𝑚1 𝑣1𝑦 + 𝑚2 𝑣2𝑦
𝜃1 = 0𝑜 ; 𝜃2 = 90𝑜 ; 𝜙1 = 𝜙2 = 𝜙; 𝑣1𝑥 = 𝑣2𝑥 = 𝑣𝑥 ;
𝑣1𝑦 = 𝑣2𝑦 = 𝑣𝑦 ; 𝑣1 = 𝑣2 = 𝑣; m1= 1500 kg; m2 = 2500
kg; 𝑢1𝑥 =25 m/s;
𝑣𝑥 = 𝑣1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙1 = 𝑣2 cos𝜙2 =𝑣𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙
𝑣𝑦 = 𝑣1 sin 𝜙 = 𝑣2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙=𝑣𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙 Hence
𝑚1 𝑢1𝑥 = 𝑚1 𝑣𝑥 + 𝑚2 𝑣𝑥
𝑚2 𝑢2𝑦 = 𝑚1 𝑣𝑦 + 𝑚2 𝑣𝑦
=> 𝑚1 𝑢1𝑥 = 𝑣𝑥 (𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )
𝑚2 𝑢2𝑦 = 𝑣𝑦 (𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )
Exercise - Glancing Collisions
=> 𝑚1 𝑢1𝑥 = 𝑣𝑥 (𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )
𝑚2 𝑢2𝑦 = 𝑣𝑦 (𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )
But 𝑢1𝑥 = 𝑢1 cosθ1 = 𝑢1 cos 0 = 𝑢1𝑥 = 25 m/s
𝑢2𝑦 = 𝑢2 sinθ2 = 𝑢2 sin 90 = 𝑢2𝑦 = 20 m/s
Hence
𝑚1 𝑢1 = 𝑣𝑥 (𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )
𝑚2 𝑢2 = 𝑣𝑦 (𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )
1500*25 =4000𝑣𝑥 = > 𝑣𝑥 = 75/8= 9.375 m/s
2500*20 =4000𝑣𝑦 = > 𝑣𝑦 = 12.5 m/s
=> 𝑣 = (75/8)2 +12.52 = 15.625 m/s
And 𝜙=𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (12.5/ 9.375) = 53.1
Exercise 2 - Glancing Collisions
An object of mass 𝑚1 = 20.00 𝑘𝑔 traveling westwards at an angle
of 1500to the positive x-axis having initial velocity of 25.00 m/s,
collides with a mass 𝑚2 = 30.00 𝑘𝑔 traveling eastwards at an
angle of 200 to the positive x-axis and velocity of 20.00 m/s.
Assume a perfect elastic collision.
Question
(a) List all the given data
(b) Sketch the FBD before collision
(c) Find the x and y components of initial velocity of 𝑚1
(d) Find the x and y components of initial velocity of 𝑚2
(e) Find the x and y components of final velocity of 𝑚1
(f) Find the x and y components of final velocity of 𝑚2
(g) Find the final velocities of 𝑚1 and 𝑚2
(h) Find the directions of 𝑚1 and 𝑚2 after collision
Exercise 2 - Glancing Collisions
Solutions
(a) Data
𝑚1 = 20 𝑘𝑔; 𝑢1 = 25 𝑚 𝑠 ; 𝜃1 = 150°;
𝑚2 = 30 𝑘𝑔; 𝑢2 = 20 𝑚 𝑠 ; 𝜃2 = 20°;

(b) Sketch the FBD before collision

(c) Find the x and y components of initial velocity of 𝑚1

𝑢1𝑥 = 25 cos 150 = −25 cos 30 = −𝟐𝟏. 𝟔𝟓 𝒎/𝒔
𝑢1𝑦 = 25 sin 150 = 25 sin 30 = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟓 𝒎/𝒔
Exercise 2 - Glancing Collisions
Solutions
(d) Find the x and y components of initial velocity of 𝑚2
𝑢2𝑥 = 20 cos 20 = 𝟏𝟖. 𝟕𝟗𝟒 𝒎/𝒔
𝑢2𝑦 = 20 sin 20 = 𝟔. 𝟖𝟒𝟎 𝒎/𝒔

(e) Find the x and y components of final velocity of 𝑚1

The four equations for elastic collision are
𝑚1 𝑢1𝑥 + 𝑚2 𝑢2𝑥 = 𝑚1 𝑣1𝑥 + 𝑚2 𝑣2𝑥 -- (i)
𝑚1 𝑢1𝑦 + 𝑚2𝑢2𝑦 = 𝑚1 𝑣1𝑦 + 𝑚2 𝑣2𝑦 -- (ii)
𝑢1𝑥 − 𝑢2𝑥 = 𝑣2𝑥 − 𝑣1𝑥 -- (iii)
𝑢1𝑦 − 𝑢2𝑦 = 𝑣2𝑦 − 𝑣1𝑦 -- (iv)
Exercise 2 - Glancing Collisions
Solutions
Substituting values into the above equations gives
130.82 = 20𝑣1𝑥 + 30𝑣2𝑥 -- (i b)
455.2 = 20𝑣1𝑦 + 30𝑣2𝑦 -- (ii b)
−40.444 = 𝑣2𝑥 − 𝑣1𝑥 -- (iii b)
5.66 = 𝑣2𝑦 − 𝑣1𝑦 -- (iv b)
We solve the above equations simultaneously.
Eqns. (iii b) and (i b) gives
𝑣2𝑥 = 𝑣1𝑥 − 40.444
= > 130.82 = 20𝑣1𝑥 + 30(𝑣1𝑥 − 40.444)
= > 1344.14 = 50𝑣1𝑥
= > 𝒗𝟏𝒙 = 𝟐𝟔. 𝟖𝟖 𝒎/𝒔
Exercise 2 - Glancing Collisions
Solutions
(f) Eqns. (iv b) and (ii b) gives
𝑣2𝑦 = 𝑣1𝑦 + 5.66
= > 455.2 = 20𝑣1𝑦 + 30(𝑣1𝑦 + 5.66)
= > 455.2 − 169.8 = 50𝑣1𝑥
= > 𝒗𝟏𝒚 = 𝟓. 𝟕𝟏 𝒎/𝒔
Eqns. (ii b)
455.2 = 20 5.71 − 30𝑣2𝑦
= > 𝒗𝟐𝒚 = −𝟏𝟏. 𝟑𝟔𝟖 𝒎/𝒔
Eqns. (iii b)
−40.444 = 𝑣2𝑥 − 26.88
= > 𝒗𝟐𝒙 = −𝟏𝟑. 𝟓𝟔 𝒎/𝒔
Exercise 2 - Glancing Collisions
Solutions
(g) Find the of final velocity of 𝑚1 and 𝑚2
Final velocity of 𝑚1 :

𝑣1 = 𝑣1𝑥 2 + 𝑣1𝑦 2 = 26.882 + 5.712

755.1385 = 𝟐𝟕. 𝟒𝟖 𝒎 𝒔

Final velocity of 𝑚2 :

𝑣2 = 𝑣2𝑥 2 + 𝑣2𝑦 2 = (−13.56)2+(−11.368)2

313.105 = 𝟏𝟕. 𝟔𝟗 𝒎 𝒔
Exercise 2 - Glancing Collisions
(h) Find the directions of 𝑚1 and 𝑚2 after collision
Direction of 𝑚1 after collision:
−1 𝑣1𝑦 5.71
𝜑1 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑣1𝑥
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 26.88
= 𝟏𝟐 °

Direction of 𝑚2 after collision:

−1 𝑣2𝑦 −11.368
𝜑2 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑣2𝑥
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 −13.56
= 40 ° => 180° − 40 ° = 𝟏𝟒𝟎 °
Circular Motion
Objectives:
• At the end of this unit, learner must understand and
demonstrate the concepts of:
• Rotational Motion vs linear motion,
• Angular displacement,
• Angular velocity (Angular frequency)
• Period of motion,
• Angular acceleration,
• Centripetal Acceleration,
• Centripetal force,
• Centrifugal force,
• Tangential velocity and acceleration,
Type of Motions: Linear and Circular
• There are two main types of motions:
(1) Linear motion, and
(2) Circular motion (also called angular motion)

In linear motion velocity of an object predominantly changes

in magnitude and rarely changes in direction. This is because
motion follows a straight path. Examples are velocities in 1D
and 2D motion. Linear motion is also known as tangential
motion

In circular motion Object moves in a circular path. velocity

of an object predominantly changes in direction and rarely
changes in magnitude (constant speed). This is because motion
follows a circular path. Examples are velocity of a rotating
wheel and the velocity of the earth around the sun.
 Forces in Circular Motion
• There are two types of forces involved in circular motion
(1) Radial forces, and
(2)Tangential forces (linear forces)

• The radial forces (Fr) act along the radius of rotation.

• The tangential forces (Ft) act perpendicular to the radius of
rotation. For uniform circular motion, tangential
velocity is constant and the tangential force is zero.
• Uniform circular motion – motion around a circle at
constant speed.
 Circular Motion: Radial Forces
Radial Forces
There are two types of radial forces:
(1) Centripetal force
(2) Centrifugal force (a pseudo force)

A centripetal force is force that acts towards the center of

the rotation. It is also called a center-seeking force. Examples
are gravitational force, tension in a string holding an object
swirling in a circle, frictional force on a road banking, etc.
A centrifugal force is a force that acts away from the center
of rotation, but along the radius of rotation. It acts opposite to
the centripetal force. Examples are the weight of an object
moving around a circle, gravitational force of the moon on an
object on earth.
 Circular Motion - Parameters
All variables in linear motion have their equivalent in circular
motion:

Variable Linear Motion Circular Motion

Position 𝑠 (m) θ (radians)
Velocity 𝑣 (m/s) ω (rads/s)
Acceleration 𝑎 (m/𝑠 2) α (rads/𝑠 2)
time t (s) t (s)
Mass 𝑚 (kg) 𝐼 (𝑘𝑔𝑚2)
Force 𝐹 (N) τ (Nm)
Equations of Motion
.
Linear Motion Equation Angular Motion Equation
𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡 𝜔𝑓 = 𝜔𝑖 + α𝑡
1 1
𝑠= 𝑢+𝑣 𝑡 𝜃 = ω𝑓 + ω𝑖 𝑡
2 2
𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠 𝜔𝑓 2 = 𝜔𝑖 2 + 2α𝜃
1 2 1 2
𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 𝜃 = 𝜔𝑖 𝑡 + α𝑡
2 2
1 2 1 2
𝑠 = 𝑣𝑡 − 𝑎𝑡 𝜃 = 𝜔𝑓 𝑡 − α𝑡
2 2
Angular Displacement, Velocity and Acceleration
Angular displacement

Δ𝜃 = 𝜃𝑓 − 𝜃𝑖 (rads)
(angular displacement).

• Distance/circumference C around a circle is given by

C = 2pr
Where r = radius and angle θ = 2p radians=360 ◦
We have S = C, where S is displacement
The relationship becomes:
s = θr or θ = s/r ---( Linear and Angular displace.)
Note: 1 rad = 360/ 2p = 57.3 ◦, 1 rev = 2p = 24 hrs, 1◦ = 4 min
Angular Displacement, Velocity and Acceleration
Units Conversion

Radians to degrees:
2p (rads.)= 360◦ = > 1 rad = 360/ 2p = 57.3 ◦

Degrees to minutes:
360◦ = 24 hours = > 1◦ = 4 min

Revolutions to others:
1 rev = 2p (rads.); 1 rev = 360◦; 1 rev = 24 hours
Tangential Velocity or Linear Velocity (v)
From angular displacement
𝑠
𝜃= ----- (angular and linear displacement)
𝑟
Taking derivative both side gives
𝑑 𝑑 𝑠
(𝜃) = ( ); where r is a constant.
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑟
𝑑(𝜃) 1 𝑑𝑆
=> =
𝑑𝑡 𝑟 𝑑𝑡

Recall that : 𝑑𝜃= Δ𝜃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑡= Δ𝑡

𝑑(𝜃) 𝑑𝑆
We get = ω and =υ
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
υ
Hence we have ω= ------(angular and tangential v)
𝑟
Angular Acceleration & Tangential Acceleration
From angular velocity
υ
ω= rad/s -- (angular and tangential velocity)
𝑟
Taking derivative both side gives
𝑑 𝑑 υ
(ω) = ( )
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑟
𝑑ω 1 𝑑υ
=> =
𝑑𝑡 𝑟 𝑑𝑡

𝑎
=> α = (rads/s2) -- (angular & Tangential accel.)
𝑟
Note:
Tangential motion is also referred to as linear motion.
Exercise
A wheel rotates with a constant angular acceleration
of 3.50 rad/s2. If the angular velocity of the wheel is
2.00 rad/s at t = 0,
(a) through what angle does the wheel rotate between
t = 0 and t = 2.00 s? Give your answer in radians
and in revolutions. Ans: 11 rads; 1.75 rev
1
Hint: use 𝜃 = 𝜔𝑖 𝑡 + α𝑡 2
2
(b) What is the angular velocity of the wheel at t =
2.00 s?
Ans: 9 rads/s
Use: 𝜔𝑓 2 = 𝜔𝑖 2 + 2α𝜃
Centripetal Acceleration -- (for uniform motion)
• For circular motion at constant speed, the
acceleration vector always points toward the center
of the circle. Such an acceleration is called a
centripetal (center-seeking) acceleration. Its
magnitude is given by
𝑣2
𝑎𝑐 = (m/s2) ------ (centripetal Acceleration)
𝑟
𝑎
Recall that: υ = 𝑟ω and α = (rad/s2)
𝑟
Substituting leads to
ω2 𝑟 2
𝑎𝑐 = = 𝑟ω2
𝑟
α 𝑎𝑐
and 𝑎𝑡 = --- all accelerations
ω 2
Centripetal Acceleration -- (for uniform motion)
Total Acceleration ---- (for changing speed)
• When an object moves in a circle but is speeding up
or slowing down, a tangential component of
acceleration is also present:
𝑎𝑡
α= => 𝑎𝑡 = 𝑟α
𝑟
Because the tangential and centripetal accelerations
are perpendicular to each other, we can find the
magnitude of the total acceleration using
Pythagoras theorem:
𝑎= 𝑎𝑡 2 + 𝑎𝑐 2 -- note that 𝑎𝑐 and 𝑎𝑡 have same units
Exercise
A race car accelerates uniformly from a speed of 40.0
m/s to a speed of 60.0 m/s in 5.00 s while traveling
counterclockwise around a circular track of radius
4.00 x 102 m. When the car reaches a speed of 50.0
m/s, calculate
(a) the centripetal acceleration
Ans: 6.25 m/s2
(b) the angular velocity, Ans: 0.125 rad/s
(c) the tangential acceleration,
Ans: 4m/s2
(d) the total acceleration.
Ans: 7.42 m/s2
Centripetal Force
• Using Newton’s 2nd Law of Motion the centripetal
force is given as
𝐹𝑐 = 𝑚𝑎𝑐 or
𝑣2
𝐹𝑐 = 𝑚
𝑟
• Direction of centripetal force is towards the center of
circle hence it is a radial force (acting along the
radius)
Centripetal Force
• Newton’s second law for uniform circular motion
involves forces that are directed either towards the
center of a circle or away from it.
• A force acting towards the center of the circle
is by convention negative. Examples include
gravitational force, and the tension in a string of a
swinging object.
• For circular motion Newton’s 2nd Law of motion:
y

𝑣2
−𝑚 = 𝐹𝑟 Fc +ve x
𝑟
- ve
Example 1
A car travels at a constant speed of 13.4 m/s on a level
(unbanked) circular path of radius 50.0 m, as shown.
What minimum coefficient of static friction between
the tyres and road will allow the car to make the
circular turn without sliding? Use g = 9.82 m/s2

Soln: write the radial and vertical components of

Newton’s 2nd law. Note static frictional force is
preventing the car tyres from sliding off the road.
Example
Radial equation of Newton’s 2nd Law:
𝑣2 𝑣2
−𝑚 = 𝐹𝑟 => −𝑚 = −𝜇𝑠 𝑛
𝑟 𝑟
- Frictional force is directed towards center.
Vertical equation of Newton’s 2nd Law:
m𝑎𝑦 = 𝐹𝑦
=> 0 = 𝑛 -mg
=> 𝑛 = mg
Substituting into the first equation gives
𝑣2 𝑣2 𝑣2
−𝑚 = −𝜇𝑠 𝑚𝑔 => 𝑚 = 𝜇𝑠 𝑚𝑔 => = 𝜇𝑠 𝑔
𝑟 𝑟 𝑟
𝑣2 (13.4)2
=> 𝜇𝑠 = => 𝜇𝑠 = = 0.36
𝑔𝑟 9.982 ∗50
Car on a Banked Road

𝑭𝒄 = N*Sinθ

mg = NCosθ = > N = mg/Cosθ

= > 𝑭𝒄 = mg*tan(θ) θ
𝑭𝒄𝒊 = 𝒎𝒈 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜽
𝒗𝟐
=> 𝐫
= 𝒈 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜽
Frictional Force on a Car on Banked Road
Banked curve with Friction
The direction of frictional force is dependent on three
(3) circumstances:
Case 1: A car moving at constant speed. The car does
not slide up or down. The frictional force is zero on the
tyres. Centripetal force is coming from banking only.
Case 2: A car increasing its speed. The car would tend
to slide up the incline. The frictional force points down
the incline. Friction contributes to the centripetal force
together with the banking.
Case 3: A car slowing down. The car would tend to
slide down the incline. The frictional force points up the
incline. There is zero contribution to centripetal force.
Frictional Force on a Car with increasing Speed
Frictional force for car sliding up the incline
The centripetal force contribution from frictional force
on a car increasing its speed is determined by the
formula below.
𝐹𝑐𝑓 = 𝑓. cos 𝜃
Where
𝑓 = 𝜇𝑠 𝑵
𝒎𝒈 f
But, 𝑵 =
𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 −𝝁𝒔 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝜽)

This is because
N𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 + 𝒇𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 = 𝒎𝒈 for 𝐹𝑦
Frictional Force on a Car on Banked Road
N𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 = 𝒇𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 + 𝒎𝒈;
But, 𝑓 = 𝜇𝑠 𝑵
Hence,
N𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 = 𝜇𝑠 𝑵𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 + 𝒎𝒈;
Putting like terms together,
N𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 − 𝜇𝑠 𝑵𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 = 𝒎𝒈;
= > N[𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 − 𝜇𝑠 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 ] = 𝒎𝒈
𝒎𝒈
𝐍= ---- Hence shown
𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 −𝜇𝑠 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽
Frictional Force on a Car on Banked Road
Now total centripetal force is
𝑭𝒄 = 𝑵𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 + 𝒇𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃)
𝑭𝒄 = 𝑵𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 + 𝜇𝑠 𝑵𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃)
f
𝑭𝒄 = 𝑵(𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 + 𝜇𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 )
Substituting for N

𝒎𝒈(𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 + 𝝁𝒔 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽)
𝑭𝒄 = ------ (total centripetal force)
(𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽− 𝝁𝒔 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽)
𝐦𝒗𝟐 𝒎𝒈(sin 𝜃 + 𝜇𝑠 .cos 𝜃) 𝒗𝟐 𝒈(sin 𝜃 + 𝜇𝑠 cos 𝜃)
=> = or =
𝐫 (cos 𝜃− 𝜇𝑠 .sin 𝜃) 𝐫 (cos 𝜃− 𝜇𝑠 sin 𝜃)
Frictional Force on a Car on Banked Road
In this case therefore the centripetal force contribution
from frictional force is given by
𝑭𝒄𝒇 = 𝜇𝑠 𝑵𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
𝝁𝒔 𝒎𝒈𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽
=> 𝑭𝒄𝒇 = (𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽− 𝝁𝒔 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽)
𝐦𝒗𝟐 𝜇𝑠 𝒎𝒈 cos 𝜃
= or
𝐫 (cos 𝜃− 𝜇𝑠 .sin 𝜃)
𝒗𝟐 𝜇𝑠 𝒈 cos 𝜃
=
𝐫 (cos 𝜃− 𝜇𝑠 sin 𝜃)
Frictional Force on a Car on Banked Road
Centripetal force for car slowing down (sliding
down) incline
- There is zero centripetal force contribution from
frictional force for car sliding down incline.
- However the frictional force is not zero, but directed
upwards.
- The x-component of the frictional force is cancelled by
force of the banking wall.
- The y-component of the frictional force contributes to
the normal force.
- There is centripetal force contribution from the
banking effect.
Frictional Force on Slowing Car on a Curve

𝑚𝑔 = 𝑁𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 + 𝑓𝑦 --- (1)

𝑚𝑔 = 𝑁𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 + 𝜇𝑠 𝑁𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃 fx
𝑚𝑔
𝑁 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃+𝜇 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑠 θ
fy
f
𝐹𝑐 = 𝑁𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃 --- (2)

𝑚𝑔𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃
= > 𝐹𝑐 =
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃+𝜇𝑠 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃
Example 2
A road has a banked curve with 31.0° tilt and with maximum
radius of 316 m. Neglecting friction, if a race car negotiates the
curve too slowly, it tends to slip down the incline as it turns,
whereas if it’s going too fast, it may begin to slide up the incline.

(a) Find the necessary centripetal acceleration on this banked

curve so that the car won’t tend to slip down or slide up the
incline. (Neglect friction.)

(b) Calculate the speed of the race car.

Solution
Data: θ = 31.0°; r = 316 m, 𝐹𝑐 = 𝑁𝑟

(a) Find N in terms of mg:

θ
𝑚𝑔
𝑁𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑚𝑔 or N = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑣2
But, 𝐹𝑐 = −𝑚
𝑟
𝑚𝑔𝑆𝑖𝑛(θ)
𝐹𝑐 = −𝑁𝑆𝑖𝑛(θ) = −
cos(θ) Where negative sign is the direction
𝑣2
=>𝑚 𝑟
= 𝑚𝑔 ∗ 𝑇𝑎𝑛(θ)
𝑣2 𝑣2
=> 𝑟
= 𝑔 ∗ 𝑇𝑎𝑛(θ), But, 𝑎𝑐 = 𝑟
= > 𝑎𝑐 = 𝑔𝑇𝑎𝑛 θ = 9.82 ∗ 𝑇𝑎𝑛 31 = 𝟓. 𝟗 m/s2
Solution
(b) Calculate the speed of the race car.
𝑣2
𝑎𝑐 = 𝑟
𝑣 2 = 𝑟𝑎𝑐
=> 𝑣 = 𝑟𝑎𝑐 = 316 ∗ 5.9 = 43.18 m/s
Example 3
A racetrack is to have a banked curve with radius of
245 m. What should be the angle of the bank if the
normal force alone is to allow safe travel around the
curve at 58.0 m/s?
Solution
𝐹𝑐 = 𝑁𝑟
𝑣2
𝑎𝑐 = −𝑔 ∗ 𝑇𝑎𝑛(θ) and 𝑎𝑐 = −
𝑟
𝑣2
=> = 𝑔 ∗ 𝑇𝑎𝑛(θ)
𝑟
𝑣2 582
𝑇𝑎𝑛(θ)= = > 𝑇𝑎𝑛(θ)= = 1.398
𝑔𝑟 9.82∗245
𝒐
θ=𝑇𝑎𝑛−1 (1.398) => θ = 54.43
Period, Linear and Angular Frequency
Period (T): Time taken for one complete rotation.
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 2𝜋𝑟
𝑇 = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 (s) or 𝑇= 𝑣

Linear Frequency (f): Number of rotations per second.

1 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝑓= (𝑠 −1); 𝑓= (𝑠 −1)
𝑇 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
Where f is the linear frequency.

The distance covered in radians for one period is 2πr. Hence

2𝜋𝑟 𝑣
𝑣= 𝑇
or 𝑣 = 2𝜋𝑟𝑓 But, 𝜔=𝑟 or 𝑣 = 𝑟𝜔
Substituting for 𝑣 gives: ωr = 2𝜋𝑟𝑓
=> 𝝎 = 𝟐𝝅𝒇 (rads/s)
This is angular frequency in terms of linear frequency.
Period, Linear and Angular Frequency
A car goes round a circular path 20 times in 1 minute.
Find
(a) Period of motion
(b) Linear frequency of motion
(c) Angular frequency of motion

Solution
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 60
(a) 𝑇 = 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 = 20 = 𝟑 𝒔
1
(b) 𝑓 = 𝑇 = 1/3 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟑𝟑 𝒔−𝟏
(c) 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 = 2𝜋 0.333 = 𝟐. 𝟎𝟗 𝐫𝐚𝐝/𝐬
Gravitational Force as a Centripetal Force
• The tale of the falling apple
Newton’s Gravitational Force Law
• Force is directly proportional to the product of the two
masses and inversely proportional to the square of the
distance between them.

𝒎𝟏 𝒎𝟐 𝒎𝟏 𝒎𝟐
𝑭∝ 2
𝑭=𝑮
𝑟 𝑟2
Where
G = 5. 6673 x 10−11 𝑘𝑔−1 𝑚3𝑠 −2
Is the universal gravitation constant. It is universal
because it applies everywhere.
Newtonian Gravitational Force
The general formula for gravitational force is given as
𝑴𝒎
𝑭𝒈 = 𝑮 2
𝑟
Where M is the mass of the bigger object e.g. Earth.
Hence
𝑮𝑴
𝒎 = 𝒎g
𝑟2
𝑮𝑴
g = 2 as gravitational acceleration of any object near
𝑟
mass M.
We see gravitational acceleration on earth depends
only on distance, r, (height above sea level) of object
from the center of the earth.
Newtonian Gravitational Force
Gravitational force of m1 on m2
𝒎𝟏 𝒎𝟐
𝑭𝟏𝟐 = 𝑮
𝑟2
Gravitational force of m2 on m1
𝒎𝟐 𝒎𝟏
𝑭𝟐𝟏 = 𝑮
𝑟2
we see 𝑭𝟏𝟐 = 𝑭𝟐𝟏 . But the acceleration is different.
Acceleration of orange to Earth vs Earth to orange:
Applying Newton’s 2nd Law.
𝑮𝒎𝟐 𝑮𝒎𝟐
𝑭𝟏𝟐 = 𝑴𝟏 = 𝑴𝟏 *𝒂𝟏 => 𝒂𝟏 =
𝑟2 𝑟2
𝑮𝑴𝟏 𝑮𝑴𝟏
𝑭𝟐𝟏 = 𝒎𝟐 = 𝒎𝟐 *𝒂𝟐 => 𝒂𝟐 =
𝑟2 𝑟2
We see that 𝒂𝟏 ≠ 𝒂𝟐 for different masses.
Exercise
Find the acceleration of an orange of mass 0.5 kg at the
surface of the
(a) Earth of radius 6378 x 103 m and mass 5.972 x 1024
kg
(b) Moon of radius 1773 x 103 m and mass 7.348 x 1022
kg
Take G = 5. 6673 x 10 −11
What would be the acceleration in each case above if
the orange had a mass of 5kg ?
Gravitational Acceleration at an Altitude
Free-fall acceleration g at various altitudes:
𝑮𝑴
𝑔 = 2 , where Where, 𝑟 ≥ 𝑅𝐸 .
𝑟
Where 𝑅𝐸 is radius of the earth.
Gravitational Acceleration Inside Earth’s Sphere
Consider a body taken to a depth d inside the Earth’s
surface. The body will be attracted by the mass of the
Earth which is enclosed in a sphere of radius r’=(R - d),
where R is the radius of the Earth. If the mass of the
portion is denoted by 𝑀′, the acceleration due to gravity
at the point is given by 𝑔𝑑′ and the density of the earth
by ρ. Then
𝐺𝑀 ′ 4𝜋(𝑅−𝑑)3 𝜌 4𝜋(𝑅−𝑑)𝜌
𝑔𝑑′ = =𝐺 =𝐺 --- (1)
(𝑅−𝑑)2 3(𝑅−𝑑)2 3
Now, acceleration due to gravity at the surface can be
written as
4𝜋(𝑅)3 𝜌 4𝜋𝑅𝜌
𝑔=𝐺 =𝐺 --- (2)
3(𝑅)2 3
Gravitational Acceleration Inside Earth’s Sphere
Dividing equation (1) by (2), we get
𝒅
𝒈′𝒅 = 𝒈(𝟏 − ) ---- (3)
𝑹
𝑅 3𝑅
d can be expressed in terms of R, i.e. 𝑑 = , , 𝑅, etc.
2 4
This is the gravitation acceleration at any depth d
inside the earth’s crust. Acceleration decreases with
increase in depth.
𝑅 𝑹 𝟏
At 𝑑 = we have 𝒈′𝒅 =𝒈 𝟏− =𝒈 𝟏−
2 𝟐𝑹 𝟐
𝒈
=
𝟐
When 𝑑 = 𝑅, 𝑔𝑑′ = 0. This occurs at center of the earth
Hence gravitational force is maximum at sea
level (where the radius of the earth is defined)
Gravitational Potential Energy (GPE)
In the previous topic we introduced the concept of
gravitational potential energy and found that the
potential energy associated with an object could be
calculated from the equation.
𝑃𝐸𝑔 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ
where h is the height difference between two points.
This equation, however, does not include details of the
distance from the Erath’s center.
For objects high above Earth’s surface, such as a
satellite, an alternative must be used because g varies
with distance from the center. In that case we
𝑮𝑴
substitute with g = 2 and ℎ = 𝑟.
𝑟
Gravitational Potential Energy (GPE)
Gravitational Potential Energy is defined as the negative
work done by gravitational force to bring an object from
infinity to a point that is r from the center of the Earth.
It can also be defined as the positive work done against
gravity to move an object from point r in space to infinity.
𝐺𝑃𝐸 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ
𝑮𝑴
substitute with g = 𝑟2
and ℎ = 𝑟.
𝑀𝐸 𝑚𝑟 𝑀𝐸 𝑚
𝐺𝑃𝐸 = 𝐺 2 = 𝐺 (J) ----- (1)
𝑟 𝑟
The work done by gravitational force is negative because
gravity is an attractive force.
𝑀𝐸 𝑚
𝐺𝑃𝐸 = −𝐺 ---- (2)
𝑟
Gravitational Potential Difference (GPD)
The GPD is the difference in gravitational potential energy
between two points in a gravitational field.

GPD between two points A and B is

𝐺𝑃𝐷 = ∆𝑃𝐸 = (𝐺𝑃𝐸𝐵 − 𝐺𝑃𝐸𝐴 ) = (𝐺𝑃𝐸𝑓 −𝐺𝑃𝐸𝑖 )
𝑀𝐸 𝑚 𝑀𝐸 𝑚 𝑀𝐸 𝑚 𝑀𝐸 𝑚
= −𝐺 − −𝐺 = −𝐺 +𝐺
𝑟𝑓 𝑟𝑖 𝑟𝑓 𝑟𝑖
1 1
∴ 𝐺𝑃𝐷 = 𝐺𝑀𝐸 𝑚(𝑟 − 𝑟 ) ----- (3)
𝑖 𝑓

Work Done by Gravitational Force

Work done by gravitational force is given by
𝑊𝑔 = −∆𝐺𝑃𝐸 ----(4)
Also recall work done, W = ∆𝐾𝐸 ; Hence
−∆𝐺𝑃𝐸 = ∆𝐾𝐸 = > ∆𝐺𝑃𝐸 + ∆𝐾𝐸 = 0 ---- (conservation of ME)
Gravitational Potential Energy
Definition: Gravitational Potential Energy is the
negative work done by gravitational force to move an
object from infinity to point at r distance from the
center of the earth.
Therefore using the equation for GPD between two
points, with point A at infinity and point B at r:

𝐺𝑃𝐷 = ∆𝑃𝐸 = 𝑃𝐸𝑓 − 𝑃𝐸𝑖

1 1 1 1
= 𝐺𝑀𝐸 𝑚 − = 𝐺𝑀𝐸 𝑚 −
𝑟𝑖 𝑟𝑓 ∞ 𝑟
𝐺𝑀𝐸 𝑚
∴ 𝐺𝑃𝐸 = − ---- (5)
𝑟
Just as given in equation (2)
Gravitational Potential Energy
An asteroid with mass 𝑚 = 1.00 x 109 kg comes from deep space,
effectively from infinity, and falls towards Earth.
(a) Find the change in potential energy when it reaches a point
4.00 x 108 𝑚 from the center of the Earth (just beyond the
orbital radius of the Moon).
(b) Find the work done by the force of gravity in (a).
(c) Calculate the asteroid’s speed at that point, assuming it was
initially at rest when it was arbitrarily far away.
(d) How much work would have to be done on the asteroid by
some other agent so the asteroid would be traveling at only
half the speed found in (c) at the same point?
Gravitational Potential Energy
Solutions:
(a) Find the change in potential energy when it reaches a point
4.00 x 108 𝑚 from the center of the Earth.
Data:
𝑟𝑓 = 4.00 x 108 𝑚 ; 𝑟𝑖 ≈ ∞; G = 6. 67 x 10−11 𝑘𝑔−1 𝑚 3𝑠 −2;
𝑀𝐸 =5.98 x 1024 kg; 𝑚 = 1.00 x 109 kg
1 1
∆𝑃𝐸 = 𝑃𝐸𝑓 − 𝑃𝐸𝑖 = 𝐺𝑀𝐸 𝑚(𝑟 − 𝑟 )
𝑖 𝑓
1 1
= 6. 67 x 10−11 x 5.98 x 1024 *1.00 x 109 kg (∞ − 4.00 x 108 );
1
But = 0.
∞
∆𝑃𝐸 = - 9.97 x 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟒 J
(b) work done by the force of gravity.
𝑊𝑔 = −∆𝑃𝐸 = 9.97 x 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟒 J is the work done by gravity.
Gravitational Potential Energy
Solution
(c) Calculate the asteroid’s speed at that point,
assuming it was initially at rest.
Data: u = 0; v = ?; 𝑚 = 1.00 x 109 kg
Use conservation of Mechanical Energy:
∆𝐾𝐸 + ∆𝑃𝐸 = 0
1
𝑚(𝑣 2 −𝑢 2 ) − 9.97 x 1014 = 0
2
1
𝑚(𝑣 2 ) = 9.97 x 1014
2

2 2 14 2
𝑣 = 1.00 x 109 ∗ 9.97 x 10 => 𝑣 = 1.00 x 109
∗ 9.97 x 1014

𝑣 = 𝟏. 𝟒 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝒎/𝒔
Gravitational Potential Energy
Solution
(d) How much work would have to be done on the asteroid
by some other agent so the asteroid would be traveling at
only half the speed found in (c) at the same point?
Apply the work–energy theorem:
Work done by an external force = change in KE.
𝑊 = ∆𝐾𝐸 = 𝐾𝐸𝑓 − 𝐾𝐸𝑖
1 1
∆𝐾𝐸 = 𝑚(𝑣 2−𝑢2) ; But v = u; u = 1.41 x 103;
2 2
𝑚 = 1.00 x 109 kg
1 1 2 1
∆𝐾𝐸 = 𝑚𝑢2 ( ) − 12 = 𝑚𝑢2 −0.75 = −7.46 𝑥 1014𝐽
2 2 2
𝟏𝟒
𝑊 = −𝟕. 𝟒𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 𝑱
Escape speed (velocity)
• If an object is fired upward from the Earth’s surface
with an initial speed that is large enough, it can
escape the earth’s gravitational force, and never
return to earth. This initial speed is called Earth’s
escape speed.
Escape velocity is the minimum initial velocity
required to escape a planet’s gravitational force.
• Earth’s escape speed can be found by applying the
law of conservation of mechanical energy.
• Suppose an object of mass m is projected vertically
upward from Earth’s surface with an initial speed 𝑣𝑖 ,
the initial mechanical energy (kinetic plus potential
energy) of the object–Earth system is given by
Escape speed
Conserved mechanical energy: 𝑲𝑬𝒊 + 𝑷𝑬𝒊 = 𝑲𝑬𝒇 + 𝑷𝑬𝒇
𝟏 𝑮𝑴𝑬 𝒎 𝟏 𝑮𝑴𝑬 𝒎
𝒎𝒗𝟐𝒊 − = 𝒎𝒗𝟐𝒇 −
𝟐 𝑹𝑬 𝟐 𝑹∞
We neglect air resistance and assume the initial speed
is just large enough to allow the object to reach infinity
with a speed of zero.
This value of 𝑣𝑖 is the escape speed 𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑐 .
At infinite distance from Earth, its kinetic energy is zero
because 𝑣𝑓 = 0, and the gravitational potential energy
is also zero.
𝟏 𝑮𝑴𝑬 𝒎
𝒎𝒗𝟐𝒊 − =0
𝟐 𝑹𝑬
𝟏 𝑮𝑴𝑬
𝒗𝟐𝒊 = where 𝒗𝒊 = 𝒗𝒆𝒔𝒄𝒂𝒑𝒆
𝟐 𝑹𝑬
Escape speed
2𝐺𝑀𝐸
𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑐 = =---- (escape velocity equation)
𝑅𝐸

2𝐺𝑀𝐸
𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑐 = = 11,200 m/s ---- (Earth’s escape velocity)
𝑅𝐸

Where,
𝑅𝐸 = 6.371 𝑥 106𝑚
G = 6. 67 x 10−11 𝑘𝑔 −1 𝑚3 𝑠 −2 ;
𝑀𝐸 =5.98 x 1024 kg
Example - Escape speed
A satellite is launched from the surface of the earth to the
Moon.
If the satellite leaves the earth’s surface at escape speed,
at what speed is it moving when 1.50 x 105 𝑘𝑚 from the
center of Earth? Neglect any friction effects.
Solution - Escape speed
(a) If the satellite leaves the earth’s surface at escape speed, at
what speed is it moving when 1.50 x 105 𝑘𝑚 from the center
of Earth? Neglect any friction effects.
Use conservation of ME.
𝑲𝑬𝒊 + 𝑷𝑬𝒊 = 𝑲𝑬𝒇 + 𝑷𝑬𝒇
𝟏 𝑮𝑴𝑬 𝒎 𝟏 𝑮𝑴𝑬𝒎
=> 𝒎𝒗𝟐𝒊 − = 𝒎𝒗𝟐𝒇 −
𝟐 𝑹𝑬 𝟐 𝒓𝒇
𝟏 𝑮𝑴𝑬 𝟏 𝑮𝑴𝑬
=> 𝒗𝟐𝒊 − = 𝒗𝟐𝒇 −
𝟐 𝑹𝑬 𝟐 𝒓𝒇

Data: 𝑣𝑖 = 𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑐 =11.2 x103𝑚/𝑠; 𝑟𝑓 = 1.5 𝑥 108𝑚; 𝑅𝐸 = 6.371 𝑥 106

G = 6. 67 x 10−11 𝑘𝑔 −1 𝑚 3𝑠 −2; 𝑀𝐸 =5.98 x 1024 kg;
𝟏 𝟏
𝒗𝟐𝒇 = 𝒗𝟐𝒊 + 𝟐𝑮𝑴𝑬 − = (11.2 x 103)2 + 2(6. 67 x
𝒓𝒇 𝑹𝑬
Solution - Escape speed
𝟏 𝟏
𝒗𝟐𝒇 = 𝒗𝟐𝒊 + 𝟐𝑮𝑴𝑬 − = (11.2 x 103)2 + 2(6. 67 x
𝒓𝒇 𝑹𝑬
Kepler’s Three Laws of Planetary Motion
• Johannes Kepler (1571 - 1630) was a German
astronomer, who first worked as an assistant to a
Danish astronomer, Brahe. He studied Brahe’s data
in an effort to deduce a mathematical model for the
motions of the planets.
• He discovered that the orbit of Mars around the sun
was in the form of an ellipse with the Sun at one of
the focal points.
• He then generalized this analysis to include the
motions of all planets.
• The complete analysis is summarized in three
statements known as Kepler’s laws:
Kepler’s Three Laws of Planetary Motion
1. All planets move in elliptical orbits with the Sun as
one of the focal points. AKA law of the ellipse
2. A line joining a planet and the sun sweeps out equal
areas in equal time intervals no matter where the
planet is located on its orbit. AKA law of equal areas
3. The square of the orbital period of a planet is directly
proportional to the cube of its average distance from
the Sun. AKA law of square period
• Kepler’s First Law: The first law arises as a
natural consequence of the inverse square law as
seen in Newton’s law of gravitation. Any object
1
bound to another by a force that varies as 2 will
𝑟
move in an elliptical orbit.
Ellipse - Kepler’s 3 Laws of Planetary Motion
An ellipse is a curve drawn such that the sum of the
distances from any point on the curve to the two focal
points is always the same.
Perihelion – when earth is closest to the sun. (helius=sun)
Aphelion – when earth is farthest from the sun. (apo=far)

𝑝 + 𝑞 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

The Sun is one of the focal points

Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion
• Kepler’s second Law: A line joining a planet and
the sun sweeps out equal areas in equal time
intervals.
• Consider a planet in an elliptical orbit about the Sun
(Fig. below).

In a given period 𝑑𝑡, the planet moves from point Ⓐ to

point Ⓑ. The planet moves more slowly on that side of
the orbit because it’s farther away from the sun.
Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion
• On the opposite side of its orbit, the planet moves
from point Ⓒ to point Ⓓ in the same amount of time,
𝑑𝑡, moving faster because it’s closer to the sun.

• The two areas swept out by the planet in its elliptical

orbit about the Sun are equal if the time interval
between points Ⓐ and Ⓑ is equal to the time interval
between points Ⓒ and Ⓓ.
Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion
• kepler’s third Law: The derivation of Kepler’s third
law is easier carried out for the special case of a circular
orbit. We take gravity as a centripetal force.
• Consider a planet of mass 𝑀𝑝 moving around the Sun,
which has a mass of 𝑀𝑆 , in a circular orbit.
• Because the orbit is circular, (i) the two focal points will
become one (ii) the focal point will be at the center of
the circle (iii) the planet will move at a constant speed
v.
By using gravitation force as a centripetal force we get the
equation:
𝑀𝑝 𝑣 2 𝐺𝑀𝑆 𝑀𝑝
𝐹𝑐 = 𝐹𝑔 = > 𝑀𝑝 𝑎𝑐 = =
𝑟 𝑟2
Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion
• The speed v of the planet in its orbit is equal to the
circumference of the orbit divided by the time
required for one revolution, T, called the period of
the planet, so
2𝜋𝑟
𝑣=
𝑇
• Substituting, the preceding expression becomes
𝐺𝑀𝑆 2𝜋𝑟 2
=
𝑟 𝑇
2 (2𝜋)2 3
= > 𝑇 = 𝑟
𝐺𝑀𝑆
∴ 𝑻𝟐 = 𝑲𝒔 𝒓𝟑
Where 𝐾𝑠 = 2.97 x 10 −19 𝑠 2 /𝑚 𝑠 is Kepler’s Constant.
Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion
Example – Geosynchronous Satellite
A geosynchronous satellite is a satellite that maintains its
position in space relative to a location on earth.
From a telecommunications point of view, it is
advantageous for satellites to remain at the same location
relative to a location on Earth. This can occur only if the
satellite’s orbital period is the same as the Earth’s period of
rotation on its axis, approximately 24.0 h.
(a) At what distance from the center of the Earth can this
geosynchronous orbit be found?
(b) What’s the orbital speed of the satellite?
Example - Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion
Solution
(a) Find the distance r to geosynchronous orbit. Apply
Kepler’s third law:
2 (2𝜋)2
𝑇 = 𝑟3
𝐺𝑀𝐸
Data: 𝑇 = 24 ℎ = 86 400 𝑠, G = 6. 67 x 10−11 𝑘𝑔 −1 𝑚 3 𝑠 −2 ;
𝑀𝐸 =5.98 x 1024 kg;
Solve for r :
𝐺𝑀𝐸
𝑟 = (2𝜋)2 𝑇 2
3

𝑟 = 4.23 x 𝟏𝟎𝟕 m
(b) Find the orbital speed.
Divide the distance traveled during one orbit by the period:
𝑑 2𝜋𝑟 2𝜋 4.23 x 107
𝑣= = = = 𝟑. 𝟎𝟖 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝒎/𝒔
𝑇 𝑇 86400
UNIT 5: Rotational Kinematics, Dynamics & Equilibrium
Objectives:
At the end of this Unit, learner must understand and
demonstrate the concepts of:
• Moment of Inertia;
• Torque
• Angular momentum
• Forces and Torques on the Motion of Rigid Bodies
• Translational and Rotational Equilibrium
Rotational Kinematics, Dynamics & Equilibrium
• Circular Motion: motion of an object in a circle
around a fixed axis that is located away from objects
center of mass.
• Angular Motion: type of rotation where the axis of
rotation may be located at or away from the object’s
center of mass.
• Circular motion is a special case of angular motion.
• There are two forms of angular motion:
Spin and Revolution
• Spin motion: rotation where the axis of rotation is
located at the object’s center of mass.
• Revolving motion: rotation where the axis of
rotation is located away from object’s center of mass.
Angular Displacement, Velocity and Acceleration
As discussed in circular motion

Under angular motion an object can rotate either

clockwise or counter clockwise.
- Counterclockwise rotation is taken as positive
- Clockwise rotation is taken as negative.
Exercise
A compact disc (CD) rotates from rest up to an angular
velocity of -31.4 rad/s in a time of 0.892 s.
(a) What is the angular acceleration of the disc,
assuming the angular acceleration is uniform?
(b) Through what angle does the disc turn while
coming up to speed?
(c) If the radius of the disc is 4.45 cm, find the
tangential velocity of a microbe (m=1 x 10-6 kg)
riding on the rim of the disc when t = 0.892 s.
(d) What is the magnitude of the tangential
acceleration of the microbe at the given time and radius
in part (c)?
Exercise
A compact disc (CD) rotates from rest up to an angular
velocity of -31.4 rad/s in a time of 0.892 s.
(a) What is the angular acceleration of the disc,
assuming the angular acceleration is uniform?
∆ω
α= = (-31.4 – 0)/ 0.892 = -35.2 rad/s2
∆t

(b) Through what angle does the disc turn while

coming up to speed?
θ = t(ω𝑓 +ω𝑖 )/2 = 0.892(-31.4 + 0)/2 = -14.0 rad
Exercise
If the radius of the disc is 4.45 cm, find the tangential
velocity of a microbe riding on the rim of the disc when
t = 0.892 s.
(c) 𝑣 = 𝜔𝑟 = -1.4 m/s
(d) What is the magnitude of the tangential
acceleration of the microbe at the given time?
𝑎 = α𝑟 = -35.2 * 0.0445 = -1.57 m/s2
Torque
Force cause linear motion and linear acceleration
whilst torque cause angular motion and angular
acceleration.
There is a definite relationship, however, between the
two concepts.

• Figure above depicts a door pivoted at point O.

• There are three factors that determine the
effectiveness of the force in opening the door: the
magnitude of force, F, radius (r) from the
pivot, and angle 𝜃 between F and r.
Torque (𝝉)
By definition torque (𝜏) is the cross product of force (F)
and the radial distance (r) from the center of rotation.
In simpler terms, torque is an angular force.
𝝉=𝑭𝐱𝒓 (N.m)
𝝉 = 𝐹𝑟sin(θ) the torque is maximum when θ = 90°
Torque is a vector whose direction is perpendicular to
both F and r.
Use RHR.
Exercise - Torque (𝝉)
Two people are trying to use a revolving door, which is
initially at rest. A woman on the left exerts a force of
625 N perpendicular to the door and 1.20 m from the
hub’s center, while the man on the right exerts a force
of 8.50 x 102 N perpendicular to the door and 0.800 m
from the hub’s center. Find the net torque on the
revolving door.
Exercise - Torque (𝝉)
The woman exerts a negative (clockwise) torque on the
door, while the man exerts a counterclockwise (positive
) torque.
𝜏𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝜏
𝜏𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝜏𝑤 + 𝜏𝑚
𝜏𝑛𝑒𝑡 = − 𝐹𝑤 𝑟𝑤 + 𝐹𝑚 𝑟𝑚
𝜏𝑛𝑒𝑡 = −625 ∗ 1.2 + 8.50 x 102 ∗ 0.8
𝜏𝑛𝑒𝑡 = -750 + 680 = -70 N.m
The woman wins.
Exercise - Torque (𝝉)
A man applies a force of F = 3.00 x 102 N at an angle of
60.0° to the door at 2.00 m from the hinges. Find the
torque on the door, choosing the position of the hinges
as the axis of counterclockwise rotation.

Sln:
𝝉 = 𝐹𝑟sin(θ) = 3.00 x 102 * 2*sin(60) = 519.62 N.m

or 60°

60°
Torque on a Rotating Object
Consider a solid disk rotating about its axis as in Fig. 1.
The disk consists of many particles at various distances
from the axis of rotation as shown in Fig. 2.
The net torque is sum of individual torques:
𝜏𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝜏 = 𝐹𝑟= 𝑚𝑎𝑟 = 𝑚𝑟. 𝑟𝛼 = 𝑚𝑟 2 𝛼
= > 𝜏𝑛𝑒𝑡 = (𝑚𝑟 2 )𝛼 = 𝐼𝛼
Where 𝐼 = 𝑚𝑟 2 ---- (Moment of inertia)
𝜏 = 𝐼𝛼 -----(Torque)

Fig. 1 Fig. 2
Torque on a Rotating Object
The equation below agrees with Newton’s 2nd LoM of
acceleration
𝜏 = 𝐼𝛼
The net torque is directly proportional to angular
acceleration provided the moment of inertia is
constant.

The torque has replaced force, moment of inertia

replaced mass, and angular acceleration replaced linear
acceleration
The general equation for moment of inertia is
𝐼 = 𝑚𝑟 2
Moment of Inertia for different shapes
Moment of inertia is different for different shapes and
rotations.
Example 1 - Moment of Inertia
A baton made up of four fastened masses that are
fastened to the ends of light rods is rotated as shown
below. Each rod is 1.0 m long.
Find the moment of inertia of the system about an
axis perpendicular to the page passing through the
point where the rods cross. M= 0.30kg and m=0.20 kg.
Example - Moment of Inertia
The appropriate equation to use from the table is:
𝐼 = 𝑚𝑟 2 + 𝑀𝑟 2 --- (total moment of inertia)
2 2
= 2m∗(b/2) + 2M∗(a/2)
2 2
= 2*0.2*(0.5) + 2*0.3*(0.5)
= 0.1 + 0.15 = 0.25 kg.m2
Example 2 - Moment of Inertia
A majorette performing before a crowd spins the same
strange button given in example 1 about the y-axis as
shown below. Each rod is 1.0 m long. If the radius of
mass m is 0.01 m, of mass M is 0.05 m. Calculate the
moment of inertia about this axis.
Example 2 - Moment of Inertia
Two equations for moment of inertia are applicable:
2
m: 𝐼 = 𝑚𝑟 2
5
M: 𝐼 = 𝑀𝑟 2

2 2
=> 𝐼 = 𝑀𝑟 + 𝑚𝑟 2
5
2
= 2*0.3 ∗ 0.52 + 2* ∗ 0.2 ∗ 0.012
5
= 0.15 + 0.000016 = 0.150 kg.m2
Torque and the Two Conditions for Equilibrium
An object is in mechanical equilibrium if it satisfies
the following two conditions:
1. The net external force on it is zero: 𝐹 = 0
In this case 𝐹𝑥 = 0 and 𝐹𝑦 = 0
The object has 𝑎 = 0
2. The net external torque on it is zero: 𝜏 = 0
In this case the object has 𝛼 = 0
 Clockwise torque is assigned a negative sign
 Counter clockwise torque is assigned a positive sign
Objects in Equilibrium
1. Sketch the system. Include coordinates and choose a
convenient rotation axis for computing the net torque on the
object.
2. Sketch a FBD diagram of the object, showing all external
forces acting on it. For systems with more than one object, draw
a separate FBD diagram for each object.
3. Apply 𝜏 = 0, the second condition of equilibrium.
This condition yields a single equation for each object of interest.
If the axis of rotation has been carefully chosen, the equation
often has only one unknown and can be solved immediately.
4. Apply 𝐹𝑥 = 0 and 𝐹𝑦 = 0 , the first condition of
equilibrium. This yields two more equations per object of
interest.
Objects in Equilibrium
5. Solve the system of equations simulteneously. For each
object, the two conditions of equilibrium yield three equations,
usually with three unknowns. Solve by substitution.
Example 1
A woman of mass m = 55.0 kg sits on the left end of a uniform
seesaw (made of a plank) of length L = 4.00 m, pivoted in the
middle as shown.
(a) Where should a man of mass m = 75.0 kg sit if the system is
to be balanced?
(b) Find the normal force exerted by the pivot if the plank has a
mass of m = 12.0 kg.
.
Example 1
Strategy:
First compute the torques on the seesaw about an axis that
passes through the pivot point. Then Compute the torques about
an axis through the left end of the plank.
Solution
Net torque equilibrium equation 𝜏 = 𝜏𝑤 + 𝜏𝑚 + 𝜏𝑝/𝑅 + 𝜏𝑝/𝐿 = 0
The torque due to the plank about the pivot: The RHS gives us
𝐿 𝐿
𝜏𝑝/𝑅 = −𝐹x 2 = −𝐹 2 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃
Where F is the force of gravity, L/2 is the distance from pivot
and 𝜃 is the angle between F and L. The negative sign is for
clockwise torque.
Example 1
Solution
The torque due to the plank on the RHS about the pivot: The
RHS gives us L/2 = 2, 𝜃 = 90o; The mass of the plank on RHS is
equal to the mass on the LHS so we assign each m/2.
𝐿 𝑚 𝐿 4𝑚
𝜏𝑝/𝑅 = −𝐹x = − 𝑔 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃 = − 𝑔 = −𝑚𝑔
2 2 2 4
Similarly torque on LHS is
𝐿 𝑚 𝐿 4𝑚
𝜏𝑝/𝐿 = 𝐹x 2 = 2
𝑔 2 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 4
𝑔 = 𝑚𝑔
Hence net torque about the pivot due to the plank alone is
𝜏𝑝 = 𝜏𝑝/𝑅 + 𝜏𝑝/𝐿 = 2𝑚𝑔 − 2𝑚𝑔 = 𝟎
This means no net torque due to the plank.
Next we look at the torque due to the woman;
Example 1
A woman of mass m = 55.0 kg sits on the left end of a seesaw of
length L = 4.00 m, pivoted in the middle as shown. Mass of man
is m = 75 kg.
Solution
𝜏𝑝 = 𝜏𝑤 − 𝜏𝑚 = 0
The torque due to the woman at the LHS gives us
L/2 = 2, 𝜃 = 90o; m = 55 kg
𝐿
𝜏𝑤 = 𝑚𝑔 2 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 55 9.82 (2) = 1080.2 𝑁𝑚. This torque is +ve
Similarly torque of man 75 kg on RHS at distance x from pivot
𝜏𝑚 = −𝑚𝑔𝑥𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃 = −75 9.82𝑥 = −736.5𝑥 𝑁𝑚.
Hence total net torque about the pivot is
𝜏 = 1080.2 − 736.5𝑥 = 𝟎 = > 736.5𝑥 = 1080.2
1080.2
x= = 𝟏. 𝟒𝟕 𝒎 ------ ( distance of man from pivot)
736.5
Example 1
A woman of mass m = 55.0 kg sits on the left end of a seesaw of
length L = 4.00 m, pivoted in the middle as shown. Mass of man
is m = 75 kg.
(b) Find the normal force n exerted by the pivot on the seesaw.

Solution
Net force equilibrium equation 𝐹 = −𝐹𝑤 − 𝐹𝑚 − 𝐹𝑝 +𝑛 = 0
−𝐹𝑤 − 𝐹𝑚 − 𝐹𝑝 +𝑛 = 0
= > (−55 − 75 − 12)9.82 + 𝑛 = 0
= > 𝑛 = −55 − 75 − 12 9.82 = 1394.44 N
Example 2
A uniform wooden pole with mass 50.0 kg is pivoted at quarter
its length with right hand side being longer than the left.
Determine what mass must be placed at the far left hand side to
bring the system into equilibrium.
Soln:
L
L/4 3L/4

L/8 3L/8
37.5 kg
12.5 kg
𝑚𝑔𝐿 12.5𝑔𝐿 3𝐿 𝑚 12.5 3
𝜏= + − 37.5𝑔 ∗ =0 => + − 37.5 ∗ = 0
4 8 8 4 8 8
𝑚 12.5 112.5 𝑚 100
=> 4
+ 8
− 8
=0 => 4
− 8
= 0 𝑚 = 𝟓𝟎 𝒌𝒈
Example 3 - Equilibrium
A 50.0 N steel ball is held in a person’s hand with the
forearm horizontal, as in the Figure. The biceps muscle
is attached 0.030 m from the joint, and the ball is
0.350 m from the joint. Find the upward force F
exerted by the biceps on the forearm (the ulna) and the
downward force R exerted by the humerus on the
forearm, acting at the joint. Neglect the weight of the
forearm and slight deviation from the vertical of the
biceps.
Example 3 - Equilibrium

Apply the second condition for equilibrium:

𝜏=0 => 𝜏𝑅 +𝜏𝐹 + 𝜏𝑤 =0
R(0)+F(0.03)-50(0.35) =0
F = 50(0.35)/0.03 = 583 N
Apply the first condition for equilibrium:
𝐹𝑦 = 0 => −𝑅+𝐹 − 50=0
-R+583-50 =0 => R =533 N
Example 4 - Equilibrium
A uniform ladder 10.0 m long and weighing 50.0 N
rests against a frictionless vertical wall as in Figure
below. If the ladder is just on the verge of slipping when
it makes a 50.0° angle with the ground.
Find the coefficient of static friction between the ladder
and ground.
Example 4 - Equilibrium
Sketch the force diagram:

Where n is normal, f is frictional force, and P is push by

the wall.
Apply the three conditions for equilibrium.
𝐹𝑥 = 0 ; 𝐹𝑦 = 0; 𝜏 = 0
𝑃
𝐹𝑥 = 𝑓 − 𝑃 = 𝜇𝑛 − 𝑃 = 0 ; => 𝜇 = --- (1)
𝑛
𝐹𝑦 = 𝑛 − 50 = 0 ; => n = 50 N ----- (2)
Example 4 - Equilibrium
𝜏 = 𝜏𝑛 + 𝜏𝑓 + 𝜏𝑃 + 𝜏𝑔 = 0
𝜏𝑛 + 𝜏𝑓 + 𝜏𝑃 − 𝜏𝑔 = 0
=> n 0 + 𝑓 0 + 10 ∗ 𝑃 ∗ sin 50 − 5 ∗ 50 ∗ sin 40 = 0
=>10 ∗ 𝑃 ∗ sin 50 = 160.697
=>𝑃(7.66044) = 160.697
160.697
=> 𝑃 = = 20.98 N ---- (3)
7.66044
Substituting equations 2 and 3 into 1 gives
𝑃 20.98
𝜇= = = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟐
𝑛 50
Example 5 - Equilibrium
A uniform horizontal beam 5.00 m long and weighing
3x102 N is attached to a wall by a pin connection that
allows the beam to rotate. Its far end is supported by a
cable that makes an angle of 53.0° with the horizontal.
A person weighing 6 x 102 N stands 1.50 m from the
wall. Find the magnitude of the tension T in the cable
and the components of the force R exerted by the wall
on the beam.
Example 5 - Equilibrium
Data: Lb= 5.00 m; Fb = 3x102 N; 𝜃=53.0° Fm = 6 x
102 N; Lm = 1.50
Sketch force diagram

The equations of equilibrium are

𝐹𝑥 = 0 ; 𝐹𝑦 = 0; 𝜏 = 0
Example 5 - Equilibrium

The equations of equilibrium are

𝐹𝑥 = 𝑅𝑥 − 𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑠 53 = 0 => 𝑅𝑥 = 𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑠 53 ----- (1)
𝐹𝑦 = 𝑅𝑦 − 600 − 300 + 𝑇𝑠𝑖𝑛 53 = 0;
𝑅𝑦 = 900 − 𝑇𝑠𝑖𝑛 53 ------ (2)
𝜏 = 𝜏𝑅𝑦 − 𝜏600 − 𝜏300 + 𝜏𝑇𝑠𝑖𝑛(53) = 0
=>𝑅𝑦 0 − 600 1.5 − 300 2.5 + 5𝑇𝑠𝑖𝑛 53 = 0
Example 5 - Equilibrium
𝑅𝑥 = 𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑠 53 ----- (1)
𝑅𝑦 = 900 − 𝑇𝑠𝑖𝑛 53 ------ (2)

=>𝑅𝑦 0 − 600 1.5 − 300 2.5 + 5𝑇𝑠𝑖𝑛 53 = 0

0 − 900 − 750 + 3.993𝑇 = 0
1650
𝑇= = 𝟒𝟏𝟑. 𝟐𝟐𝟑 𝑵 ------ (3)
3.993
We substitute eqn. 3 into eqn. 1 and 2:
𝑅𝑥 = 𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑠 53 = 413.223 𝑐𝑜𝑠53 = 𝟐𝟒𝟖. 𝟔𝟖 𝑵
𝑅𝑦 = 900 − 𝑇𝑠𝑖𝑛 53 = 900 − 413.223 0.7986
𝑅𝑦 = 𝟓𝟕𝟎 𝑵
Exercise - Equilibrium
A person with mass 55.0 kg stands 2.00 m away from the wall on
a uniform 6.00 m beam, as shown. The mass of the beam is 40.0
kg. Find the hinge force components and the tension in the wire.

Ry T sin(30)
6m
Rx
T cos(30)
2m
3m
55xg 40xg

ANS: T = 752 N; Rx = -651 N; Ry = 556 N

Exercise – Revision on Torque
In the Figure below, calculate the net torque (magnitude and
direction) on the beam about:
(a) an axis through O perpendicular to the page and
(b) an axis through C perpendicular to the page.
Solution – Revision on Torque
(a) an axis through O perpendicular to the page
𝜏 = 30 0 + 25 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛60 − 10 4 𝑠𝑖𝑛20
= > 𝜏 = 25 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛60 − 10 4 𝑠𝑖𝑛20 = 43.3 − 13.68
= > 𝜏 = 𝟐𝟗. 𝟔𝟐 Nm in the counterclockwise direction

(b) an axis through C perpendicular to the page.

𝜏 = 30 2 sin(45) + 25 0 𝑠𝑖𝑛60 − 10 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛20
= > 𝜏 = 42.426 + 0 − 6.84
= > 𝜏 = 𝟑𝟓. 𝟔 𝑵𝒎 in the counterclockwise direction
Angular Momentum
In the Figure below, an object of mass m rotates in a circular
path of radius r, acted on by a net force, 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 . The resulting net
torque (𝜏𝑛𝑒𝑡 ) on the object increases the object’s angular speed
from the value 𝜔𝑖 to the value 𝜔𝑓 in a time interval ∆𝑡.
∆𝜔 (𝜔𝑓 −𝜔𝑖) 𝐼𝜔𝑓 −𝐼𝜔𝑖
𝜏 = 𝐼𝛼 = 𝐼 =𝐼 =
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡 ∆𝑡
𝐼 𝜔𝑓 𝐼𝜔𝑖
𝜏= −
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡
𝐿 = 𝐼𝜔 ---- (angular momentum).
𝐿 𝑓 − 𝐿𝑖 ∆𝐿
Hence 𝜏= =
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡
∆𝐿
𝜏=
∆𝑡
∆𝐿
Hence 𝜏𝑛𝑒𝑡 = --- (impulse–momentum theorem)
∆𝑡
Angular Momentum
In the equation
∆𝐿
𝜏𝑛𝑒𝑡 =
∆𝑡
For equilibrium, 𝜏𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 0, and
∆𝐿 = 0 or
𝐿𝑓 − 𝐿𝑖 = 0
𝐿𝑖 = 𝐿𝑓 ---- (conservation of angular momentum)
𝐼𝑖 𝜔𝑖 = 𝐼𝑓 𝜔𝑓
• We can now state that in an isolated system, the
mechanical energy, linear momentum, and
angular momentum are conserved. An isolated
system has no energy gain or loss.
Exercise - Angular Momentum
A student sits on a pivoted stool while holding a pair of
weights. The stool is free to rotate about a vertical axis
with negligible friction. The moment of inertia of
student, weights, and stool is 2.25 kg.m2 . The student is
set in rotation with arms outstretched, making one
complete turn every 1.26 s, arms outstretched.
Exercise - Angular Momentum
(a) What is the initial angular speed of the system?
(b) As he rotates, he pulls the weights inward so that
the new moment of inertia of the system (student,
objects, and stool) becomes 1.80 kg.m2 . What is the
new angular speed of the system?
(c) Find the work done by the student on the system
while pulling in the weights. (Ignore energy lost
through dissipation in his muscles.)
Exercise - Angular Momentum
Solution
(a) The angular speed can be obtained from the
frequency, which is the inverse of the period.
𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓
1
Where 𝑓 = is the linear frequency and T is the period
𝑇
T= time taken for one complete rotation.
Hence:
1 1
𝜔𝑖 = 2𝜋𝑓 = 2𝜋 = 2𝜋 = 4.99 rad/s
𝑇 1.26
Exercise - Angular Momentum
Solution
(b) There are no external torques acting on the system,
so the new angular speed can be found with the
principle of conservation of angular momentum:
𝐿𝑖 = 𝐿𝑓 or 𝐼𝑖 𝜔𝑖 = 𝐼𝑓 𝜔𝑓
But 𝐼𝑖 = 2.25, 𝐼𝑓 = 1.8, , 𝜔𝑖 = 4.99
𝜔𝑓 =2.25*4.99/1.8 = 6.24 rad/s

(c) The work done on the system during this process is

the same as the system’s change in rotational kinetic
𝐼
energy. 𝑊 = ∆𝐾𝐸 = ( 𝐼𝑓 𝜔𝑓 2 − 𝐼𝑖 𝜔𝑖 2 ) = 7.03 Joules
2
Example - Angular Momentum
A solid, uniform, frictionless cylindrical disc of mass M = 3.00 kg
and radius R = 0.40 m is used to draw water from a well as
shown. A bucket of mass m = 2.00 kg is attached to a cord that is
wrapped around the cylinder.
(a) Find the tension T in the cord and acceleration a of the
bucket.
(b) If the bucket starts from rest at the top of the well and falls
for 3.00 s before hitting the water, how far does it fall?

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Solution
(a) Find the tension T in the cord and acceleration a of the
bucket. This problem combines linear and angular motion.
Apply the net force to the bucket in Figure (c). There are two
forces: the tension T acting upward and gravity mg acting
downward. We take direction of motion as positive.
𝑚𝑎 = 𝑚𝑔 − 𝑇 --- (1)
Apply the net torque to the disc in Figure (d). Because the system
is accelerating, we take the direction of motion as positive. Note:
The normal and gravity force have zero torque about the arm.
𝑀𝑅 2 𝛼
τ = 𝐼𝛼 = 2
But 𝐼𝛼 = 𝐹 x 𝑅 and F = T
𝑀𝑅 2 𝛼 𝑀𝑅𝛼
Hence 𝑇𝑅 = 2
or 𝑇 = 2
----- (2)
𝑎
Also 𝛼 = 𝑅 ---- (3)

(c) (d)
Solution
(a) Find the tension T in the cord and acceleration a of the
bucket.
𝑀𝑅𝛼 𝑎
𝑚𝑎 = 𝑚𝑔 − 𝑇 --- (1) ; 𝑇= ----- (2); 𝛼= ---- (3)
2 𝑅
Substitute Eqn. 3 into Eqn. 2:
𝑀𝑅𝑎 𝑀𝑎 𝑀𝑎
𝑇= = => 𝑇= ----(4)
2𝑅 2 2
Substitute Eqn. 4 into Eqn. 1:
𝑀𝑎 𝑀 𝑚𝑔
𝑚𝑎 = 𝑚𝑔 − 2
=> (𝑚 + 2 )𝑎 = 𝑚𝑔 => 𝑎 = 𝑀
(𝑚+ )
2
2 9.8 19.6
𝑎= 3 = = 𝟓. 𝟔 𝒎/𝒔𝟐
2+ 3.5
2

Substitute into Eqn. 4 to find T.

𝑀𝑎 3 5.6
𝑇= 2
= 2
= 𝟖. 𝟒 𝑵
Solution
(b) If the bucket starts from rest at the top of the well and falls
for 3.00 s before hitting the water, how far does it fall?
Data: u = 0; t = 3 s; a = 5.6 m/s2;
1 2 1
𝑦 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 => 𝑦 = 0 + 5.6 32 = 𝟐𝟓. 𝟐 𝒎
2 2
Rotational Kinetic Energy
An object rotating about some axis with an angular speed 𝜔 has
rotational kinetic energy given by
1
𝐾𝐸𝑟 = 𝐼𝜔2
2
In angular motion, mass is replaced by moment of inertia.

A system such as a spherical ball rolling down a hill is described

by three forms of energy:
(1) Gravitational potential energy PEg ,
(2) Translational kinetic energy KEt ,
(3) Rotational kinetic energy KEr
All these forms of energy, plus the potential energy of any other
conservative forces, must be included in our equation for the
conservation of mechanical energy of an isolated system:
Rotational Kinetic Energy
𝑀𝐸 = 𝐾𝐸𝑟 + 𝐾𝐸𝑡 + 𝑃𝐸𝑔 -------- (Mechanical energy)
Mechanical energy is the sum of rotational KE, translational KE
and gravitational PE.

(𝐾𝐸𝑟 +𝐾𝐸𝑡 + 𝑃𝐸𝑔 )𝑖 = (𝐾𝐸𝑟 +𝐾𝐸𝑡 + 𝑃𝐸𝑔 )𝑓 -- (conservation of ME)

This is the equation of conservation of mechanical energy
of an isolated system. This relation is true only if we ignore
dissipative forces such as friction, sound or light
- Otherwise, it’s necessary to revert to a general work–energy
theorem:
𝑊𝑛𝑐 = ∆𝑀𝐸 or
𝑊𝑛𝑐 = ∆𝐾𝐸𝑟 + ∆𝐾𝐸𝑡 + ∆𝑃𝐸𝑔 -----(work–energy theorem)
Where 𝑊𝑛𝑐 is the work done by none conservative forces.
Strategy for Solving Rotational Problems
1. Choose two points of interest, one where all necessary
information is known, and the other where information is
desired.
2. Identify the conservative and none conservative forces acting
on the system being analyzed.
3. Write the general work–energy theorem equation,
4. Substitute general expressions for the terms in the
equation.
5. Use v = rw and a = r𝜶 to eliminate either 𝜶 or w from the
equation.
6. Solve for the unknown.
Example 1 - Rotational KE.
A uniform, solid ball of mass M and radius R starts from rest at a
height of h = 2.00 m and rolls down an incline of θ = 30.0° slope,
as shown. What is the linear speed of the ball when it leaves the
incline? Assume that the ball rolls without slipping.
Solution- Rotational KE.
Step 1: The two points of interest are the top and bottom of the
incline, with the bottom acting as the zero point of gravitational
potential energy.
Step 2: As the ball rolls down the hill, gravitational potential
energy is converted into both translational and rotational kinetic
energy without dissipation, so ME is conserved
Step 3: (𝐾𝐸𝑟 +𝐾𝐸𝑡 + 𝑃𝐸𝑔 )𝑖 = (𝐾𝐸𝑟 +𝐾𝐸𝑡 + 𝑃𝐸𝑔 )𝑓
1 2 1
Step 4: 0 + 0 + 2𝑀𝑔 = ( 𝑀𝑅 𝜔 ) + 𝑀𝑣 2 + 0
2 2
2 5 2
𝑣
Step 5: let 𝑣 = 𝜔𝑅 or 𝜔 = 𝑅
𝑀𝑅 2 𝑣 2 1
Step 6: 2𝑀𝑔 = 5𝑅 2
+ 2 𝑀𝑣 2

1 2 1 2 7 2 20𝑔 20 9.8
=> 2𝑀𝑔 = 5 𝑀𝑣 + 2 𝑀𝑣 => 2𝑔 = 10 𝑣 => 𝑣 = 7
= 7

=> 𝑣 = 𝟓. 𝟐𝟗 𝐦/𝐬
Example 2 - Rotational KE.
Two blocks with masses m1 = 5.00 kg and m2 = 7.00 kg are
attached by a string (as shown) over a pulley with mass M = 2.00
kg. The pulley, which turns on a frictionless axle, is a hollow
cylinder with radius 0.050 m over which the string moves
without slipping. The horizontal surface has coefficient of kinetic
friction 0.350. Use the work-energy theorem to find the speed of
the system when the block of mass m2 has dropped 2.00 m.
Solution - Rotational KE.
Data: m1 = 5.00 kg ; m2 = 7.00 kg ; M = 2.00 kg. ; hollow R =
0.050 m; μ = 0.350. v = ? ; m2 at 2.00 m.

Apply the general work – energy theorem: 𝑊𝑛𝑐 = ∆𝑀𝐸

𝑊𝑛𝑐 = ∆𝐾𝐸𝑟 + ∆𝐾𝐸𝑡 + ∆𝑃𝐸𝑔
1 1 1
𝜇𝑛 ∆𝑥 = 𝐼 𝜔𝑓2 − 𝜔𝑖2 + 𝑚1 𝑣𝑓2 − 𝑢𝑖2 + 𝑚2 𝑣𝑓2 − 𝑢𝑖2 +
2 2 2
𝑚2 𝑔(ℎ𝑓 − ℎ𝑖 )
1 1 1
−𝜇𝑚1 𝑔 ∆𝑥 = 2 𝐼 𝜔𝑓2 − 𝜔𝑖2 + 𝑚 𝑣
2 1 𝑓
2
− 𝑢𝑖2 + 2 𝑚2 𝑣𝑓2 − 𝑢𝑖2 +
𝑚2 𝑔(ℎ𝑓 − ℎ𝑖 )

Note: Work done by frictional force is negative because the

direction of frictional force is opposite the direction of
displacement.
Solution - Rotational KE.
1 1 1
−𝜇𝑚1 𝑔 ∆𝑥 = 2 𝐼 𝜔𝑓2 −0 + 𝑚 𝑣
2 1 𝑓
2
− 0 + 2 𝑚2 𝑣𝑓2 − 0 +
𝑚2 𝑔(0 − 2)
𝑣
But 𝜔 = 𝑅 and 𝐼 = 𝑀𝑅2
1 2
2𝑣 1 2 1
−5 0.35 9.8 2 = 2
𝑀𝑅 𝑅2 + 2
(5)𝑣𝑓 + 2 (7)𝑣𝑓2 − 2 9.8 (7)
1 1 1
−34.3 = 𝑀𝑣 + 2
𝑓 (5)𝑣𝑓2 + (7)𝑣𝑓2 − 137.2
2 2 2
1 1
−34.3 = 𝑣 + 2
𝑓 (5)𝑣𝑓2 + (7)𝑣𝑓2 − 137.2
2 2
5 7
=> −34.3 = 𝑣𝑓2 (1 + 2 + 2) − 137.2
137.2−34.3 102.9
𝑣𝑓2 = 7
= 7
= 14.7
𝑣 = 14.7 = 𝟑. 𝟖𝟑 𝒎/𝒔