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Electrical Installation Work
To my wife
Electrical Installation Work

Fourth Edition

BRIAN SCADDAN

OXFORD AMSTERDAM BOSTON LONDON NEW YORK PARIS

SAN DIEGO SAN FRANCISCO SINGAPORE SYDNEY TOKYO
Newnes
An imprint of Elsevier Science
Linacre House, Jordan Hill, Oxford OX2 8DP
225 Wildwood Avenue, Woburn, MA 01801-2041

First published 1992

Reprinted 1993
Second edition 1996
Reprinted 1996, 1997
Third edition 1998
Reprinted 1999 (twice), 2000, 2001
Fourth edition 2002

Copyright © Brian Scaddan, 1992, 1996, 1998, 2002

The right of Brian Scaddan to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted
in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988

No part of this publication may be reproduced in any material form (including

photocopying or storing in any medium by electronic means and whether
or not transiently or incidentally to some other use of this publication) without
the written permission of the copyright holder except in accordance with the
provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 or under the terms of
a licence issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd, 90 Tottenham Court Road,
London, England W1T 4LP. Applications for the copyright holder’s written
permission to reproduce any part of this publication should be addressed
to the publisher

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

ISBN 0 7506 5641 7

For information on all Newnes publications visit our website at:

newnespress.com

Composition by Genesis Typesetting, Rochester, Kent

Printed and bound in Great Britain
Contents

Preface xi

1 Basic information and calculations 1

Units 1
Indices 5
Simple algebra 6
Formulae or equations 7
Manipulation or transposition of formulae 8
The theorem of Pythagoras 12
Basic trigonometry 13
Areas and volumes 15

2 Electricity 16
Molecules and atoms 16
Potential difference 19
Electron flow and conventional current flow 19
Conductors and insulators 19
Electrical quantities 19
Ohm’s law 27
Electricity and the human body 28
Types and sources of supply 29
Voltage bands 29
Measuring current and voltage 30
Components of a circuit 31
Self-assessment questions 31

3 Resistance, current and voltage, power and energy 33

Resistance 33
Voltage drop 35
Power 45
Electrical energy 51
Tariffs 52
Measuring power and energy 52
Water heating 53
Efficiency 54
Self-assessment questions 55
vi Contents

4 Electromagnetism 58
Magnetism 58
Electromagnetism 59
Application of magnetic effects 63
Drawing the waveform of an alternating quantity 68
Addition of waveforms 69
Root-mean-square (r.m.s.) value 70
Average value 71
Three-phase a.c. generator 71
Inductance 72
Induced e.m.f. due to change in flux 73
Self-inductance 74
Mutual inductance 74
Time constant: symbol, T 76
Graphical derivation of current growth curve 76
Energy stored in a magnetic field 78
Inductance in a.c. circuits 78
Resistance and inductance in series (R–L circuits) 81
Impedance 81
Resistance and inductance in parallel 83
Power in a.c. circuits 84
Transformers 87
Self-assessment questions 92

5 Capacitors and capacitance 94

Capacitors 94
Capacitance 95
Dimensions of capacitors 95
Capacitors in series 96
Capacitors in parallel 97
Capacitors in d.c. circuits 98
Capacitance in a.c. circuits 99
Capacitive reactance 99
Resistance and capacitance in series 100
Resistance and capacitance in parallel 101
Working voltage 101
Applications of capacitors 101
Self-assessment questions 101

6 Resistance, inductance and capacitance in installation work 103

Power factor improvement 108
Self-assessment questions 117

7 Three-phase circuits 118

Star and delta connections 118
The neutral conductor 118
Current and voltage distribution 119
Measurement of power in three-phase systems 123
Self-assessment questions 124
 Contents vii

8 Motors 126
Direct-current motors 126
Alternating-current motors 136
Starters 145
Installing a motor 149
Fault location and repairs to a.c. machines 152
Power factor of a.c. motors 156
Motor ratings 158
Self-assessment questions 161

9 Cells and batteries 162

General background 162
The primary cell 162
The secondary cell 163
Cell and battery circuits 168
Self-assessment questions 171

10 Lighting and illumination 172

Light sources 172
Calculation of lighting requirements 182
Self-assessment questions 192

11 Electricity, the environment and the community 194

Environmental effects of the generation of electricity 194
New developments 198
The purpose and function of the National Grid 198
Generation, transmission and distribution systems 199
The aesthetic effects of the siting of generation and 200
transmission plant

12 Health and safety 202

The Health and Safety at Work Act 1974 203
Electricity at Work Regulations 1989 205
General safety 208
The mechanics of lifting and handling 209
Work, load and effort 213
Access equipment 214
The joining of materials 218
Fire safety 220
Electrical safety 221
First aid 223

13 The electrical contracting industry 225

Sample specification 229
Cost of materials and systems 234

14 Installation materials and tools 239

Cables 239
Jointing and terminations 243
viii Contents

Plastics 248
Conduit 249
Trunking 255
Traywork 260
Fixing and tools 260
Comparison of systems 265
Self-assessment questions 266

15 Installation circuits and systems 268

Lighting circuits 268
Lighting layouts 270
Power circuits 271
Space heating systems 274
Thermostats 276
Installation systems 278
Industrial installations 278
Multi-storey commercial or domestic installations 282
Off-peak supplies 284
Alarm and emergency systems 286
Call systems 290
Emergency lighting systems 291
Central heating systems 292
Extra-low-voltage lighting 294
Choice of system 295

16 Earthing 304
Earth: what it is, and why and how we connect to it 304
Earth electrode resistance 307
Earthing systems 309
Earth fault loop impedence 312
Residual current devices 315
Supplementary bonding 316
Points to note 318
Self-assessment questions 319

17 Protection and control 320

Protection 320
Control 335
Points to note (IEE Reglations) 339

18 Installation design 341

Design procedure 341
Design current 341
Nominal setting of protection 342
Correction factors 342
Current-carrying capacity 345
Choice of cable size 346
Voltage drop 346
Shock risk 347
 Contents ix

Thermal constraints 347

Example of circuit design 351
Design problem 357

19 Testing 358
Measurement of electrical quantities 358
Measurement of current 360
Measurement of voltage 362
Instruments in general 363
Selection of test instruments 365
Approved test lamps and indicators 366
Accidental RCD operation 367
Calibration, zeroing and care of instruments 367
Initial inspection 368
Testing continuity of protective conductors 370
Testing continuity of ring final circuit conductors 372
Testing insulation resistance 375
Special tests 377
Testing polarity 378
Testing earth fault loop impedance 379
External loop impedance Ze 381
Prospective fault current 381
Testing earth electrode resistance 382
Functional testing 384
Periodic inspection 386
Certification 388

20 Basic electronics technology 392

Electronics components 392
Semi-conductors 394
Rectification 397
Electronics diagrams 402
Electronics assembly 403
Self-assessment questions 404

Answers to self-assessment questions 406

Index 413
Preface

This book is intended for the trainee electrician who is working towards
NVQs, gaining competences in various aspects of installation work.
It covers both installation theory and practice in compliance with the 16th
edition of the IEE Wiring Regulations, and also deals with the electrical
contracting industry, the environmental effects of electricity and basic
electronics.
Much of the material in this book is based on my earlier series, Modern
Electrical Installation for Craft Students, but it has been rearranged and
augmented to cater better for student-centred learning programmes. Self
assessment questions and answers are provided at the ends of chapters.
Since January 1995, the UK distribution declared voltages at consumer
supply terminals have changed from 415 V/240 V ± 6% to 400 V/230 V +
10% – 6%. As there has been no physical change to the system, it is likely that
measurement of voltages will reveal little or no difference to those before, nor
will they do so for some considerable time to come. Hence I have used both
the old and the new values in many of the examples in this book.
Also, BS 7671 2001 now refers to PVC as thermosetting (PVC). I have,
however, left the original wording as all in the industry will recognize this
more easily.

Brian Scaddan
1 Basic information and
calculations

Units
A unit is what we use to indicate the measurement of a quantity. For example,
a unit of length could be an inch or a metre or a mile, etc.
In order to ensure that we all have a common standard, an international
system of units exists known as the SI system. There are six basic SI units
from which all other units are derived.

Basic units

Quantity Symbol Unit Symbol

Length l Metre m
Mass m Kilogram kg
Time s Second s
Current I Ampere A
Temperature t Degree kelvin K
Luminous intensity I Candela cd

Conversion of units
Temperature
Kelvin (K) = °C + 273.15
Celsius (°C) = K – 273.15
5
Celsius (°C) = (°F – 32)
9

 5  + 32
9°C
Fahrenheit (°F) =

Boiling point of water at sea level = 100°C or 212°F

Freezing point of water at sea level = 0°C or 32°F
Normal body temperature = 36.8°C or 98.4°F
2 Electrical Installation Work

Length

To obtain multiply by

millimetre (mm); mm cm 101

centimetre (cm); m 103
metre (m); km 106
kilometre (km).
cm mm 10–1
m 102
km 105

m mm 10–3
cm 10–2
km 103

km mm 10–6
cm 10–5
m 10–3

Area

To obtain multiply by

square millimetre (mm2 ); mm2 cm2 102

square centimetre (cm2 ); m2 106
square metre (m2 ); km2 1012
square kilometre (km2 );
also, 1 km2 = 100 hectares (ha).
cm2 mm2 10–2
m2 104
km2 1010

m2 mm2 10–6
cm2 10–4
km2 106

km2 mm2 10–12

cm2 10–10
m2 10–6
 Another Random Document on
Scribd Without Any Related Topics
 The adjusting screw may be made from the screw taken from
the carbon of an old dry cell. To permit of accurate adjustment, it
should be fitted with a large head made from a piece of 1/4-inch
hard rubber or fiber cut in a circle about 1 1/4 inches in diameter.
Bore a small hole about 1/8 inch in diameter through the center of
the head and force it on the screw. A nut screwed on the under side
will then clamp it tightly against the brass head. A hole is bored in
the center of the yoke and a battery nut which will fit the adjusting
screw soldered directly under it.
The platinum wire may be either soldered to the adjusting
screw or fastened with tinfoil in the method which has been
described.
The cup and yoke are best mounted on a piece of hard rubber
1/2 inch thick, 3 inches wide and 4 inches long. A binding post is
placed near each of the four corners.
It is possible to do extremely fine and long distance work with
the detector illustrated in Fig. 100. It is so arranged that the "bare
point" need not necessarily be revolved when making an
adjustment, and so it is possible to place it in a very sensitive
condition.
A brass standard, U, 1 1/4 inches long is cut from a piece of
1/2-inch rod. A hole bored in the top and bottom of the standard is
threaded with an 8-32 tap. A brass rod, R, 2 inches long is threaded
with an 8-32 die throughout its entire length. One end is screwed in
the top of U.
A piece of brass tubing, P, 1 1/4 inches long and having an
internal bore of 1/2 inch is slipped over U. A slot cut in P fits over a
small pin set in U and permits P to be slid up and down but not to
turn around.

Fig. 100. Electrolytic Detector.

A head in the form of a circular brass washer, E, 1/8 inch thick,

1/2 inch in diameter and having a 5/32-inch hole bored in the center
is soldered in the top of the tube, P.
A circular piece of hard rubber, H, 2 inches in diameter and 1/2
inch thick is fitted with a brass bushing having a hole in the center
with an 8-32 thread to screw on the rod, R.
A spiral spring is placed around R between U and the head E. A
small brass washer should be placed between H and E in order to
eliminate friction. When H is turned in one direction, the spring will
cause P to rise, and when turned in the other direction it will be
lowered.
 A brass arm, A, 1/4 x 1/4 x 1 1/2 inches carries a small
thumbscrew, r, at one end, while the other end is soldered to P as
shown in Fig. 96. The Woolaston wire is soldered to T.

Fig. 101. Details of Electrolytic Detector.

A small carbon cup 3/4 x 3/4 inch serves to hold the electrolyte.
A 3/8-inch hole is bored 1/4 inch deep in the bottom of the cup and
poured full of melted lead. The lead is then bored and tapped to fit a
machine screw which fastens the cup to the base. Connection is
made from a binding post to the machine screw. A second binding
post is connected to the screw which fits into the bottom of U and
holds it to the base.
If desirable a circular piece of hard wood, F, may be turned out
and glued to the base around the cup in order to give it a more
finished appearance.
 The thumbscrew, T, is used to lower the "bare point" until it
almost touches the liquid, and then the large head, H, is brought
into play to make the finer adjustment.
Increasing the Sensitiveness of an Electrolytic Detector.
The sensitiveness of an electrolytic detector may be increased in
three ways, viz., by connecting two detectors in series, by warming
the electrolyte and by agitating it.
The first method is clearly apparent.
The second is accomplished by placing the detector over a sand
bath and gently warming it. It will then show a marked increase in
the strength of the signals at a temperature of about 30 C. This
increase will continue to rise with the temperature until it reaches a
maximum at about 60 C.

Fig. 102. Increasing the Sensitiveness of an Electrolytic Detector.

Branly discovered that a fine stream of gas passed through the

electrolyte in order to agitate it increases the strength of the signals
in the phones. He devised a detector provided with two extra
platinum terminals sealed in the cup. When connected in series with
a battery and an adjustable resistance, these terminals cause
electrolysis of the water, and a fine stream of oxygen and hydrogen
gas flows through the acid electrolyte. The stream of gas agitates
the liquid just sufficiently so that when oscillations strike the
detector they augment the breaking down of the film of gas which
collects on the fine platinum point. This results in an increase in the
battery current flowing through the telephone receivers of from two
to four times and a corresponding increase in the volume of sound.
The adjustable resistance is used to regulate the decomposition of
the electrolyte and formation of gas, for if this proceeds too rapidly
an undesirable rumbling noise will be produced in the telephone
receivers.

TANTALUM DETECTOR.

The tantalum detector is especially suitable for the amateur

experimenter because its change in resistance when struck by
oscillations is so great that high resistance telephone receivers are
not necessary. Its normal resistance is about 1000-2000 ohms, and
this sometimes drops as low as 125-100 ohms when struck by
oscillations of ordinary strength. It is not nearly so sensitive as the
electrolytic or crystal detectors, but gives very much louder tones in
the telephone receivers when used for short distance work.
 Fig. 103. Tantalum Detector.

The detector is easily made by substituting a piece of tantalum

wire for the Woolaston wire of an ordinary electrolytic detector. The
dilute acid solution is removed from the cup and replaced by some
pure mercury. The connections remain the same as for the "bare
point." The potentiometer is adjusted until the potential of the
battery is in the neighborhood of 0.2-0.4 volt.
The tantalum wire may be easily secured by breaking the globe
of a tantalum lamp and using a piece of the filament. It is best to
snip off the lamp tip before breaking the globe. This precaution
admits the air and prevents an explosion which would shatter the
glass and scatter the filament in fragments.
If the universal detector is used with a tantalum point, turn the
small thumbscrew until the wire almost touches the surface of the
mercury. Then lower it with the large adjusting screw until the
tantalum touches the surface and a sharp click is heard in the
telephone receivers. Adjust the potentiometer until the signals are
the loudest.
CRYSTAL DETECTORS.

Certain minerals and crystals, principally members of the carbon and

sulphur groups, possess the peculiar property of rectifying electrical
oscillations and converting them into a pulsating direct current.
These crystals conduct the current better in one direction than in the
other. In the case of a current having a potential of ten volts and
applied to the ends of a carborundum crystal, the current may be
one hundred times greater when flowing in one direction than when
flowing in the other. This ratio decreases as the voltage is raised, for
with 25 volts it may be only about forty times greater. The crystals
when properly inserted in the aerial circuit are enabled to rectify the
oscillations and produce sounds in the telephone receivers without
the aid of a battery.
The following is a partial list of the minerals and crystals
exhibiting these properties to a sufficient extent that they are of
value as oscillation detectors in wireless telegraphy.
 In the case of iron pyrites the writer has found that a specimen
of this mineral containing very little or no copper as an impurity does
not exhibit these properties to an appreciable extent.

Fig. 104. United Wireless Carborundum Detector (horizontal type).

 In order to use the universal detector for minerals, a special
contact similar to that shown in Fig. 90 must be made. The contact
is bored and threaded on its under side to fit a brass pin 3/4 inch
long and having an 8-32 thread. The other end of the pin screws
into the hole in the bedplate. The large knurled portion of the
contact permits it to be raised or lowered without the fingers coming
in contact with the crystal. The crystal is clamped between the
contact and the spring, S. The position is varied until a sensitive spot
is found and then the pressure is carefully regulated by means of the
large adjusting screw until the signals in the telephone receivers are
the loudest. If possible avoid touching the crystals with the fingers,
as the oil and dirt, even though it cannot always be seen, spoils their
value for long distance work. Use instead a pair of steel forceps.

Fig. 105. United Wireless Carborundum Detector (vertical type).

The United Wireless Telegraph Co. makes use of carborundum

in the detectors shown in Figs. 104 and 105. The principal
advantage of carborundum over such substances as silicon, etc., is
that it is not affected by the heavy discharge of the transmitting
apparatus and does not require a new adjustment after each period
of sending. All the crystals will not work, and so a large cake should
be purchased and the desired crystals selected. The dark blue
portions of the mass, which are the hardest, will give the clearest
tones in the telephone receivers, and are preferable to the lighter
colored crystals. Since the crystals conduct better in one direction
than in the other, as explained above, the adjustment must be made
with the view of determining in which position the particular crystal
will work the best.
Carborundum will produce sounds in the telephone receivers
without the aid of any battery, but for careful work a battery and a
potentiometer are necessary.
The other crystals given in the column merely require that the
telephone receivers be connected to the detector terminals as in the
wiring diagram in Fig. 108.
The Clapp-Eastham detector makes use of a crystal of iron
pyrites held in a brass retaining cup beneath the metal contact point.
It is not affected by strong signals and requires no battery or
potentiometer. When adjusted it will remain in a sensitive condition
for a long time without further attention.
 Fig. 106. Clapp-Eastham Ferron Detector.

Silicon Detector.—While the silicon and "perikon" detectors

are classed as mineral or crystal detectors they deserve special
attention.

Fig. 107. Silicon Crystal in Cup.

 Silicon gives fair results if a crystal is placed between two metal
electrodes as, for instance, between the contact and spring of the
"universal" detector, but is much more sensitive when properly
mounted. A brass cup such as that shown in Fig. 90 is made and the
interior brightened by scraping with a file. The cup is then poured
full of a molten fusible alloy and the silicon pressed in it until it cools
and becomes set. It should then present an appearance similar to
that shown by A in Fig. 107. The silicon is ground down by rubbing
on the surface of a clean oilstone kept well wet with water, until the
surface is flat and shows a polish.

Fig. 108. Silicon Detector Circuits.

The cup containing the silicon is placed over the hole in the
bedplate of the universal detector. A knurled brass thumbscrew
having a point on its lower end is screwed into the collar on the
spring, S, and brought to bear on the polished surface of the silicon.
The pressure may be easily regulated by means of the large
adjusting screw until the signals in the telephone receivers are the
loudest. It is not advisable to fasten the cup to the bedplate but
merely to brighten the bottom so as to insure a good contact. The
cup may then be moved around so that different portions of the
polished surface of the silicon may be brought into play when
desirable.
If the knurled brass thumbscrew is fitted with a platinum point
which can be brought to bear on the surface of the silicon, the
efficiency of the detector will be materially increased.
When mounting silicon or other crystals some careless
experimenters use lead or a metal having a high melting point
instead of a fusible alloy. This is poor policy because the high
temperature coats the surface of the crystals and the interior of the
cup with a non-conducting layer which destroys the sensitiveness
and makes it unfit for long distance work. A fusible alloy melting at
about the boiling point of water or even lower should be used. Such
alloys are usually composed of tin, lead and bismuth. The addition of
a little cadmium serves to make the fusing point considerably lower
in each case. The alloys may be prepared by the experimenter from
the following formulae, or are obtainable from a firm manufacturing
fire plugs for automatic fire extinguishers.
 The lead should be melted first and then the bismuth, tin and
cadmium added in the order named.
Perikon Detector.—The Perikon detector is one of the latest
types to come into extensive use. It consists of two crystals, zincite
and chalcopyrites,4 set in cups in the manner just described and
placed in contact with each other. The minerals are mounted similar
to those in Fig. 105. The zincite should present a rather flat surface
with the grain of the crystal parallel to the sides of the cup so that
the top surface corresponds to the end of a stick of wood sawed at
right angles to the grain. More than one crystal of zincite is usually
set in the same cup. The chalcopyrites should present a rather blunt
point. The cup containing the chalcopyrites is the smaller and is
bored and threaded to fit a thumbscrew which passes through the
collar in the spring, S, of the "universal" detector. The bottom of the
cup containing the zincite is brightened so as to insure a good
contact and then placed on the bed plated under the cup containing
the chalcopyrites which is fastened to the thumbscrew. The zincite
may then be moved around until the most sensitive portion is found.
The chalcopyrites is lowered until it comes into contact with the
zincite and then the pressure regulated by means of the large
adjusting screw.

Fig. 109. Perikon Detector Elements.

 The Perikon detector gives excellent results without a battery
and is preferably used in that manner. If a battery is used, a
potentiometer to lower the voltage is necessary.
When adjusting this or the carborundum detector where a
battery is used, the pressure must be very carefully regulated until it
is found to be the best. When the pressure is light the signals in the
phones are due to an imperfect contact, and when it is slightly
increased the rectifying properties of the crystal are brought into
play.
The Perikon detector illustrated in Fig. 110 is somewhat similar
to that used for commercial work.
The standards or posts supporting the cups which contain the
elements are brass rods 1/2 inch square and 1 1/2 inches high. A
hole is bored in the bottom of each and threaded with an 8-32 tap to
receive a machine screw which passes through the base and holds
them in an upright position. A hole is bored 1 1/8 inches from the
bottom, in the face of one standard and threaded with an 8-32 tap.
A brass rod 1 1/4 inches long, carrying at one end a cup 1 inch in
diameter and 3/8 inch deep, is threaded to fit in the hole in the
standard. The zincite is mounted in this cup.
 Fig. 110. Perikon Detector.

The other standard is cut in half with a hack saw and a 1/8-inch
hole bored 1/4 inch deep in the axis of each piece. A pin, 1/2 inch
long, is set in the lower half by soldering it in the hole. The upper
half of the standard is placed over the pin and left free to move
when twisted. A 1/8-inch brass tube, 1 inch long, passes through the
upper part of the standard. A 1/8-inch brass rod, 1 3/4 inches long,
passes through the tube.
The small cup containing the zincite is mounted on one end of
the rod and a hard rubber handle on the other.
A brass spring is placed between the cup and the standard in
order to press the chalcopyrites against the zincite. The cup is
mounted out of center so that by revolving it and twisting the
standard at the same time the chalcopyrites may be brought into
contact with any portion of the zincite. By screwing the rod
supporting the zincite cup in or out of the standard the pressure with
which the two elements are pressed together may be regulated.
 The base of the detector is hard rubber of the dimensions
indicated in the illustration. Four binding posts on each corner of the
base are necessary. The detector is connected in a similar manner to
the silicon detector shown in Fig. 108. If a battery is used the circuit
should be like that of the "bare point" electrolytic, and the current
must flow from the zincite to the chalcopyrites.

LEAD PEROXIDE DETECTOR.

The peroxide of lead detector makes use of no liquids, but still may
be classed as an electrolytic since its action is of that nature.

Fig. 111. Peroxide of Lead Detector.

It consists of a pellet of lead peroxide held between an

electrode of lead and one of platinum. Contrary to most other
detectors, the resistance is increased upon the passage of electrical
oscillations. The oscillations stimulate chemical action and increase a
counter-electromotive force sufficiently so that a decrease in the
current sent through the phones by the local battery takes place.
The action may be outlined more in detail as follows. The current of
the local battery decomposes part of the lead peroxide into its
components, lead and oxygen. The lead ions are positively electrified
and so they tend to pass upward toward the lead electrode which is
negative. The negative ions of oxygen gas tend to pass downwards
towards the platinum. But the lead and platinum electrodes with the
intervening lead peroxide constitute a small cell acting independently
of the local battery and sending a current in the opposite direction.
This counter-electromotive force tends to send the ions in an
opposite direction to that in which they are sent by the battery
current. Upon the passage of electrical oscillations this counter
electromotive force is increased and sufficient ions sent out in
opposition to those of the battery current so that an appreciable
drop in the current flowing through the telephone receivers takes
place. The sudden current drop produces a sound in the receivers.
The lead pellets may be secured from a druggist who can mold
them in his tablet press. They should be subjected to as great a
pressure as possible in order to reduce resistance and prevent
crumbling.
A piece of platinum foil about 1/2 inch square is placed beneath
the pellet on the crystal electrode. A piece of clean, bright sheet lead
3/8 inch in diameter and 1/8 inch thick is laid on the pellet and the
whole clamped together by tightening the thumbscrew passing
through the collar on the spring, S. The detector is connected up
similar to the "bare point," The platinum is made the positive of the
local battery. Adjustment is secured by regulating the pressure.
It is very necessary that the pellets be kept dry, as otherwise a
loud singing and hissing noise, due to the decomposition of the
water, will render the reception of signals very difficult.
THE MARCONI MAGNETIC DETECTOR.

When an oscillatory discharge takes place through a coil of wire

surrounding a needle, it magnetizes the needle in a totally different
manner from a voltaic current. The needle will have several poles
throughout its length, many of them reversed. Rutherford applied
this phenomenon to the detection of electrical oscillations, but it
remained for Marconi to improve it and give the magnetic detector
its existing form. This type of detector is very sensitive, free from all
adjustment and is not made inoperative by the heavier discharge of
the transmitter during each period of sending.

Fig. 112. Marconi Magnetic Detector.

A small transformer is provided with a core composed of a band

or cord of iron wires in the form of an endless belt which passes
around two pulleys kept in motion by a clockwork motor. The band
revolves in the field of a strong horseshoe magnet and passes
directly over the poles after issuing from the transformer bobbin, so
that the portion approaching the bobbin are constantly in a state of
increasing magnetism. The actual operation is based upon the
property of iron called hysteresis, for the magnetism of the core lags
behind that of the permanent magnet and is of a different degree
from what it ought to be, in view of its position in the vicinity of the
permanent magnet. The moment the oscillations pass through the
primary coil of the transformer, this lag is set free and the
magnetism assumes its full value. The change in magnetism induces
a current in the secondary, which registers as a sound in the
telephone receivers.

Fig. 113. Details of Transformer.

The primary coil is made up of a single layer of No. 36 B. S.

gauge silk covered wire wound on a thin walled glass or hard rubber
tube. The ends of the tube, which is 2 inches long and 1/4 inch
external diameter, are slightly flared so as not to chafe the band.
The primary is thoroughly shellacked and covered with a single layer
of paper.
The secondary is also of No. 36 B. S. silk covered wire and is
wound between two disks of hard rubber, 1/4 inch thick and 1 1/2
inches in diameter, placed 3/8 inch apart in the center of the
secondary and the intervening space wound full of wire.
The terminals of both the primary and secondary are extended
to binding posts mounted on the case of the instrument.

Fig. 114. Method of Joining Ends of Band.

The core or revolving band is made by winding 100 strands of

No. 36 silk covered soft iron wire between two small pegs, placed a
distance apart, equal to twice the circumference of the oval formed
by the two pulleys. The wire is all wound in the same direction. It
should be carefully removed from the pegs and kept taut while it is
slightly twisted, doubled, and then further twisted into a rope or
cord. The ends are threaded together with a separate piece of
insulated wire, into a link which will pass easily through the primary
tube.
 Fig. 115. Pulley.

The pulleys around which the band revolves are made of hard
wood. They are 4 inches in diameter and 3/8 inch thick and have a
V-shaped groove cut in the edge. In order to minimize friction and
wear, it is advisable to fit them with a bearing which may be made
out of brass tubing and a couple of washers. One of the pulleys is
geared to a clockwork motor so that the band makes a complete
revolution about once every two minutes. An old eight day clock may
be adapted for this purpose, or, what is much better, the motor from
an old phonograph.

Fig. 116. Pulley Bearings.

The horseshoe magnet is mounted with its north pole pointing

towards and nearly touching the middle of the outside of the
secondary. The south pole is placed opposite the end of the primary
tube which is on the side towards which the band is revolving, that
is, the band in revolving passes first over the north pole and then
over the south. Two magnets are sometimes used with their north
poles together in the center of the secondary, and a south pole
opposite each end of the primary tube.

Fig. 117. Circuit of Magnetic Detector.

The commercial instrument is placed in a glass covered case

which protects it from dust and injury. The clockwork motor is
concealed in the lower part of the case. This is a good plan but an
experimental detector may be merely mounted on a flat wooden
base as illustrated in Fig. 112.
The secondary terminals are connected directly to the telephone
receivers while the primary leads to the aerial and the ground. When
the detector is started up it should make a very slight hissing sound
in the telephone receivers as the band passes slowly through the
coils. This shows the instrument to be in good working order and
ready for the reception of signals.
The Audion.—Dr. Lee DeForest was led by the flickering of a
sensitive gas flame to investigate whether or not it would respond to
Hertzian vibrations as well as to those of heat and sound. His
experiments led to the invention of the audion, a peculiar instrument
making use of ionized gas for its operation.
The audion consists of an incandescent lamp having a metallic
filament, on either side of which are a grid and a plate made of
nickel. When the filament is lighted it throws off ions which act as a
relay to high frequency oscillations passing between the plate and
the grid. A properly constructed audion is exceedingly sensitive and
produces very loud tones in the telephone receivers. It has the
further advantages of entire absence of adjustment except the
governing of the battery voltage, and is capable of extremely fine
tuning.

Fig. 118. Fleming Oscillation Valve.

Fleming originated the oscillation valve illustrated in Fig. 118. It

consists of an ordinary incandescent lamp with a carbon filament,
having a metal cylinder, C, placed around the filament, but attached
to an independently insulated platinum wire sealed in the glass.
When the lamp is lighted by passing a current through the filament,
the incandescent carbon liberates negative ions. If oscillations are
then set up in a circuit which includes a pair of sensitive telephone
receivers and is formed by connecting the negative terminal of the
filament with the platinum cylinder, negative electricity will be
enabled to pass from the filament to the cylinder but not in the
opposite direction, and so sounds will be produced in the telephone
receivers. High frequency oscillations themselves could not be made
to pass through the telephone receivers because of the choking
action of the iron cores of the electromagnets.

Fig. 119. Flame Audion.

The simple but sensitive form of detector illustrated in Fig. 119

is not of practical value for commercial work, but is very interesting
as the progenitor of the audion, and provides a good field for
amateur investigation. Its only drawback is that the gas flame is very
difficult to keep steady and every flicker registers as a sound in the
telephone receivers.
A Bunsen burner using coal gas furnishes the flame, and a salt
of an alkaline metal heated in the flame, the ions. The hydroxides of
caesium, potassium and sodium give the best results in the order
named.
The salt is contained in a piece of trough-shaped platinum foil,
about 3/8 inch long and 1/16 inch wide. This trough is made the
cathode or negative of the telephone circuit and placed in the outer
oxidizing flame just above its juncture with the interior reducing
flame and must be kept incandescent. The upper electrode or anode
is a piece of platinum wire about 1/16 inch above the trough.

Fig. 120. Circuit of Flame Audion.

The arrangement and construction of the detector is clearly

indicated by the drawing so that it is unnecessary to go into details.
The block, E, which fits on the tube of the Bunsen burner, is made of
fiber. Two double binding posts, D, are fastened to E to support the
rods, R, which are fitted at the tops with binding posts, B, into which
the electrodes may be clamped.
Twelve dry cells are connected with a multiple point switch so
that an electromotive force of 6-18 volts, varying in steps of one cell
at a time, may be secured. The flame is best provided with a mica
chimney to protect it from drafts. By keeping plenty of salt in the
trough and carefully adjusting the voltage, this detector may be
made marvelously sensitive.

[3] The different detectors in order of their sensitiveness are

electrolytic, perikon, magnetic, silicon, carborundum.

[4] Peacock ore or bornite, which consists of about 60 parts of

copper, 14 parts of iron and 26 parts of sulphur, may be
substituted for the chalcopyrites with excellent results.
 CHAPTER XIV. TUNING COILS AND
TRANSFORMERS.

A tuning coil is merely a variable inductance wound in single layer on

a suitable form.
Fig. 121 illustrates a double slide tuner. The base is a piece of
hard wood, 12 inches long, 1 inch thick and 5 1/2 inches wide. Two
wooden heads 4 x 4 x 3/4 inches support the form upon which the
coil is wound.

Fig. 121. Double-slide Tuning Coil.

 The form is a piece of wooden curtain pole, 9 inches long and 3
inches in diameter. Some may prefer to use a cardboard tube in
place of the curtain pole. A tube can be made by winding a long
strip of cardboard 9 inches wide around a suitable form and
cementing the layers together with shellac. The liberal use of shellac
will stiffen the tube and cause it to better retain its shape. The tube
is held tightly between the two heads by means of a brass rod which
passes through the center and is clamped by two nuts.
A square brass rod 10 1/2 inches long is fastened to the center
of the top of the heads and a similar rod to the center of the front
face.

Fig. 122. Sliders.

Fig. 122 shows two forms of sliders. The first one is the better
and to be preferred. A short square brass tube, S, fits snugly upon
the square brass rod, R. It cannot turn around but is free to slide
back and forth. A strip of spring brass, C, is soldered to the lower
face of the square tube. It is bent in a double turn and a punch mark
made near the lower end as shown in the illustration. The
indentation is made with a center punch, but should not be deep
enough to break through the metal.
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