Tests for Aggregates: Purpose and Brief Procedure

Aggregates undergo various tests to ensure their quality, strength, durability, and suitability for
concrete production. Below are the essential tests, their purpose, and a brief procedure for
each.

1. Physical Tests

Test Name Purpose Brief Procedure

Dry the sample, pass it through a series

Determines particle size
Sieve Analysis of sieves, weigh retained material on
distribution to ensure proper
(Gradation Test) each sieve, and calculate gradation
grading.
percentages.

Determines the water content Weigh a sample, oven-dry at 110°C for 24

Moisture Content
in aggregates to adjust the hours, then reweigh to calculate moisture
Test
water-cement ratio. loss.

Determines the density of

Specific Gravity Weigh the aggregate in dry, saturated,
aggregates and their ability to
and Water and submerged states, then calculate
absorb water, a ecting mix
Absorption Test specific gravity and absorption.
design.

Measures volume increase due

Bulking of Sand Fill a container with sand, add water
to moisture content in fine
Test gradually, and measure volume change.
aggregates.

2. Mechanical Tests

Test Name Purpose Brief Procedure

Apply a compressive load to a dry

Determines resistance to
Aggregate Crushing aggregate sample in a cylindrical mold and
crushing under compressive
Value (ACV) Test measure the percentage of crushed
load.
material.

Measures toughness and Place a sample in a cylindrical mold, apply

Aggregate Impact
impact resistance of repeated hammer blows, and measure the
Value (AIV) Test
aggregates. percentage of crushed material.

Rotate aggregates in a drum with steel

Los Angeles Evaluates the hardness and
balls, then sieve and calculate weight loss
Abrasion Test resistance to wear.
percentage.
Test Name Purpose Brief Procedure

Shape Tests Determines the shape of Pass aggregates through specific-shaped

(Flakiness & aggregates a ecting gauges to measure flaky and elongated
Elongation Index) workability and strength. particles.

3. Durability Tests

Test Name Purpose Brief Procedure

Assesses resistance to Expose aggregates to repeated cycles of soaking

Soundness Test weathering and in sodium sulfate/magnesium sulfate solution
disintegration. and drying, then check for weight loss.

Alkali-Silica Identifies potential for

Immerse aggregates in an alkaline solution and
Reactivity (ASR) harmful expansion due to
monitor expansion over time.
Test reactive silica.

4. Chemical Tests

Test Name Purpose Brief Procedure

Determines sulfate presence, Mix aggregates with water, filter, and test
Sulfate
which can cause concrete the solution chemically for sulfate
Content Test
deterioration. concentration.

Extract chlorides from aggregates using a

Chloride Detects chloride levels that may
solution and determine content using
Content Test cause reinforcement corrosion.
titration.
Elastic Properties of Concrete
Concrete behaves elastically under low stress levels, meaning it deforms proportionally to the
applied load and returns to its original shape when the load is removed. However, this elastic
behavior is nonlinear due to its heterogeneous composition (cement, aggregates, water, and
air). The key elastic properties include:

1. Modulus of Elasticity (E)

o Typically ranges from 14 to 40 GPa depending on the mix design, aggregate type,
and curing conditions.

o Higher-strength concrete has a higher modulus of elasticity.

2. Poisson’s Ratio (ν)

o Ranges from 0.15 to 0.25, indicating the ratio of lateral strain to longitudinal
strain.

3. Stress-Strain Behavior

o The initial portion of the stress-strain curve is nearly linear, but nonlinearity
develops at higher stresses due to microcracking.

4. Creep and Shrinkage

o Under sustained loading, concrete undergoes creep, where it continues to

deform over time even under constant stress.

o Shrinkage due to moisture loss also a ects the elastic behavior.

Plastic Properties of Concrete

When concrete is subjected to stresses beyond its elastic limit (typically 30-40% of its ultimate
strength), it exhibits plastic (irreversible) deformation. Key plastic properties include:

1. Cracking and Microcracking

o As stress increases, microcracks form, particularly at the interface between

aggregate and cement paste.

o When stress approaches the ultimate strength, cracks propagate and lead to
failure.

2. Plastic Flow (Creep at High Stresses)

o Under long-term high stress, concrete exhibits plastic creep, a permanent

deformation that does not recover after the load is removed.

3. Failure Modes

o In compression, concrete fails by crushing due to crack propagation.

o In tension, it fails in a brittle manner with rapid crack growth.

4. Ductility (Limited in Plain Concrete)

 o Plain concrete is brittle with low ductility.

o Reinforced concrete improves ductility due to the plastic behavior of embedded

steel.

In summary, concrete is quasi-brittle, meaning it has a limited elastic range and undergoes
cracking and plastic deformation before failure.
Factor a ecting durability of concrete
The durability of concrete refers to its ability to withstand environmental and service conditions
over time without significant deterioration. Several factors a ect the durability of concrete:

1. Water-Cement Ratio (w/c)

 A lower w/c ratio (typically 0.4 to 0.5) improves durability by reducing permeability,
which prevents the ingress of harmful substances.

 A higher w/c ratio leads to more pores, increasing permeability and making the concrete
more susceptible to deterioration.

2. Permeability

 Concrete with high permeability allows water, chemicals, and gases (like CO₂ and O₂) to
penetrate, leading to durability issues such as corrosion of reinforcement and sulfate
attack.

3. Cement Quality and Type

 Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) is common, but using blended cements (e.g., fly
ash, slag, or silica fume) improves resistance to chemical attacks and enhances
durability.

 High-quality cement with appropriate fineness and composition ensures better

hydration and strength development.

4. Curing Conditions

 Proper curing (moisture and temperature control) for at least 7–28 days enhances
strength and reduces shrinkage cracks.

 Inadequate curing leads to surface cracks, increased permeability, and reduced

durability.

5. Aggregate Properties

 Strong, durable, and well-graded aggregates improve concrete strength and reduce
cracking.

 Aggregates should be free from impurities (e.g., clay, silt, organic matter) to avoid weak
bonding with cement paste.

6. Exposure to Environmental Conditions

 Freeze-thaw cycles cause expansion and crack if the concrete is not air-entrained.

 Sulfate exposure (from soil or water) can lead to chemical reactions that degrade
concrete.

 Chloride penetration (from seawater or de-icing salts) causes steel reinforcement

corrosion.

7. Alkali-Silica Reaction (ASR)

  Some aggregates react with alkalis in cement, leading to expansive gel formation,
cracking, and durability loss.

 Using low-alkali cement and supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) helps

mitigate ASR.

8. Carbonation

 Atmospheric CO₂ reacts with calcium hydroxide in concrete, reducing pH and increasing
the risk of reinforcement corrosion.

 Using dense, low-permeability concrete and protective coatings reduces carbonation

e ects.

9. Reinforcement Corrosion

 Exposure to chlorides, moisture, and oxygen causes steel reinforcement to corrode,

leading to cracking and structural failure.

 Proper cover thickness, corrosion inhibitors, and protective coatings enhance

durability.

10. Load and Stress Conditions

 Overloading or poor structural design can cause cracking, creep, and fatigue, reducing
durability.

 Proper mix design and reinforcement detailing help withstand service loads.

11. Chemical Attack

 Acidic or sulfate-rich environments deteriorate concrete over time.

 Using sulphate-resistant cement and protective coatings helps improve durability.

12. Construction Practices

 Proper mixing, placing, compaction, and curing ensure a dense, durable concrete
structure.

 Poor workmanship (e.g., honeycombing, segregation) reduces durability.

Conclusion

To improve the durability of concrete, a low water-cement ratio, quality materials, proper
curing, controlled permeability, and protection from environmental factors are essential.
Steel Corrosion in Concrete
1. Introduction

Steel reinforcement is embedded in concrete to provide tensile strength and improve structural
integrity. However, corrosion of steel in concrete is a significant durability issue, leading to
deterioration, cracking, and reduced service life of structures. Understanding the causes,
mechanisms, e ects, and prevention methods of steel corrosion in concrete is crucial for
ensuring long-term structural performance.

2. Causes of Corrosion in Reinforced Concrete

Corrosion of steel in concrete occurs mainly due to environmental and chemical factors that
break down the protective passive layer on the steel surface.

2.1. Chloride-Induced Corrosion

 Sources of Chlorides:

o De-icing salts

o Seawater exposure

o Contaminated aggregates or water used in concrete mixing

 Chlorides penetrate concrete, breaking down the passive oxide layer on steel, leading to
corrosion.

2.2. Carbonation-Induced Corrosion

 Process of Carbonation:

o Carbon dioxide (CO₂) from the air reacts with calcium hydroxide in concrete to
form calcium carbonate.

o This reduces the pH of concrete from ~12-13 to below 9, leading to the loss of
passivation and initiation of corrosion.

2.3. Poor Concrete Quality

 High water-cement ratio (w/c) leads to increased porosity and permeability, allowing
aggressive agents (chlorides, CO₂, moisture) to penetrate easily.

 Poor compaction and curing create weak zones, making concrete more susceptible to
corrosion.

2.4. Inadequate Concrete Cover

 Insu icient cover thickness exposes reinforcement to environmental attacks,

accelerating corrosion.

2.5. Presence of Moisture and Oxygen

 Both moisture and oxygen are required for the electrochemical process of corrosion.
  Alternating wet and dry conditions accelerate corrosion rates.

2.6. Sulfate and Acid Attack

 Sulfates and acidic environments degrade concrete, reducing its protective ability and
increasing the risk of steel corrosion.

3. Mechanism of Corrosion in Reinforced Concrete

Steel corrosion in concrete is an electrochemical process involving anodic and cathodic

reactions.

3.1. Passive Layer Formation

 In fresh concrete, steel forms a thin passive oxide layer due to the high alkalinity (pH >
12.5), which protects it from corrosion.

3.2. Breakdown of the Passive Layer

 Chloride penetration or carbonation reduces alkalinity, causing the passive layer to

break down.

3.3. Electrochemical Corrosion Reactions

 Anodic Reaction (Oxidation of Iron)

o Fe → Fe²⁺ + 2e⁻ (Iron dissolves, forming ferrous ions)

 Cathodic Reaction (Reduction of Oxygen or Hydrogen Evolution)

o In oxygen-rich environments: O₂ + 2H₂O + 4e⁻ → 4OH⁻

o In oxygen-deficient environments: 2H⁺ + 2e⁻ → H₂

 These reactions produce iron oxides and hydroxides (rust), which expand and cause
cracking in concrete.

4. E ects of Corrosion in Concrete

4.1. Expansion and Cracking

 Rust occupies 2 to 6 times the volume of steel, creating internal stresses that crack and
spall the concrete.

4.2. Loss of Bond Between Steel and Concrete

 Corrosion reduces the bonding between steel reinforcement and concrete, leading to
structural instability.

4.3. Reduction in Steel Cross-Section

 Continued corrosion leads to thinning of the steel bars, reducing load-bearing capacity.

4.4. Structural Failure

 Severe corrosion can cause beams, columns, and slabs to weaken, ultimately leading to
structural collapse if not addressed.

5. Prevention and Protection Against Corrosion

5.1. Proper Concrete Mix Design

 Low Water-Cement Ratio (w/c < 0.45) to reduce permeability.

 Use of supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) like fly ash, silica fume, or

slag to enhance durability.

5.2. Adequate Concrete Cover

 A minimum cover thickness (25-75 mm) protects steel from environmental exposure.

5.3. Use of Corrosion-Resistant Steel

 Epoxy-coated rebars

 Galvanized or stainless steel reinforcement

 Corrosion-inhibitor-treated steel

5.4. Cathodic Protection

 Sacrificial Anodes: Zinc or aluminum anodes connected to steel to prevent oxidation.

 Impressed Current Systems: External power source used to counteract corrosion.

5.5. Use of Corrosion Inhibitors

 Chemical admixtures that delay the onset of corrosion (e.g., calcium nitrite).

5.6. Surface Coatings and Sealants

 Silane, siloxane, or polymer coatings to prevent water and chloride ingress.

5.7. Proper Drainage and Maintenance

 Ensuring e icient drainage prevents water accumulation, reducing corrosion risks.

6. Detection and Monitoring of Corrosion

6.1. Visual Inspection

 Signs of rust stains, cracking, and spalling.

6.2. Half-Cell Potential Measurement

 Measures the corrosion potential of steel in concrete using reference electrodes.

6.3. Electrical Resistivity Test

 Assesses concrete's ability to resist chloride and moisture penetration.

6.4. Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity (UPV)

 Detects internal cracks and deterioration.

6.5. X-ray and Ground-Penetrating Radar (GPR)

 Used for non-destructive evaluation of steel condition.

7. Repair and Remediation Methods

7.1. Patch Repair

 Removing corroded concrete and replacing it with high-quality repair mortar.

7.2. Electrochemical Realkalization

 Restoring concrete alkalinity to re-passivate steel.

7.3. Cathodic Protection Systems

 Applying sacrificial anodes or impressed current to stop corrosion.

7.4. Crack Injection

 Using epoxy or polyurethane resins to seal cracks and prevent water ingress.

8. Conclusion

Steel corrosion in concrete is a major durability challenge that a ects structural integrity and
service life. Preventive measures, early detection, and timely repairs are essential to minimize
damage and ensure long-term performance. By using high-quality materials, proper design
practices, and corrosion protection methods, reinforced concrete structures can withstand
environmental challenges and remain durable for decades.
Concrete Curing
1. Introduction

Concrete curing is the process of maintaining moisture, temperature, and time to ensure
proper hydration of cement and achieve the desired strength and durability. Proper curing
prevents premature drying, cracking, and low strength development, ensuring long-term
performance.

2. Importance of Curing

Curing plays a crucial role in concrete's mechanical and durability properties, including:

2.1. Strength Development

 Cement hydration continues as long as there is su icient moisture and temperature.

 Without curing, strength may be reduced by 50% or more.

2.2. Crack Prevention

 Rapid evaporation causes plastic shrinkage cracks.

 Poor curing leads to thermal and drying shrinkage cracks.

2.3. Durability Enhancement

 Well-cured concrete resists chloride penetration, carbonation, and sulfate attack.

 Reduces permeability, preventing corrosion of reinforcement.

2.4. Surface Hardness and Wear Resistance

 Proper curing ensures dense and abrasion-resistant surfaces.

 Inadequate curing results in dusting and weak surfaces.

3. Methods of curing
3.1. Water-Based Curing Methods

These methods supply moisture to concrete to maintain hydration and prevent drying.

3.1.1. Ponding

 A water pond is created over the concrete surface.

 Best suited for horizontal surfaces like slabs, pavements, and floors.

 Advantages: Ensures uniform moisture and temperature.

 Disadvantages: Requires a large water supply and is impractical for vertical structures.

3.1.2. Sprinkling or Fogging

 Water is sprayed at regular intervals to keep the surface moist.

 Commonly used in hot and windy conditions to prevent rapid drying.

  Advantages: Suitable for large open areas.

 Disadvantages: Requires continuous water supply.

3.1.3. Wet Coverings (Burlap, Cotton Mats, Sand, or Straw)

 Saturated materials (burlap, hessian, sand, or straw) are placed on the surface.

 Commonly used for curved or vertical surfaces (e.g., columns, beams).

 Advantages: E ective for large concrete elements.

 Disadvantages: Needs frequent rewetting to maintain moisture.

3.2. Sealing-Based Curing Methods

These methods prevent moisture loss by creating a protective layer on the surface.

3.2.1. Plastic Sheets or Polyethylene Covers

 Plastic sheets (polythene, polyethylene) are placed over fresh concrete.

 Used in road construction and industrial floors.

 Advantages: Reduces water loss, economical.

 Disadvantages: Can cause uneven hydration if not properly placed.

3.2.2. Membrane-Forming Curing Compounds

 Liquid membrane coatings (wax-based, resin-based, or acrylic-based) are sprayed to

form a moisture barrier.

 Used in highway and large-scale concrete projects.

 Advantages: Easy to apply, reduces labor costs.

 Disadvantages: Not as e ective as continuous water curing.

3.3. Heat-Based Curing Methods

These methods accelerate strength gain by applying heat, commonly used for precast
concrete and cold-weather concreting.

3.3.1. Steam Curing

 Steam is applied to maintain high temperature and humidity.

 Used for precast concrete elements, bridges, and tunnels.

 Advantages: Accelerates early strength development.

 Disadvantages: Requires special equipment, expensive.

3.3.1.1 Low-Pressure Steam Curing

 Concrete is exposed to steam at atmospheric pressure.

 Speeds up strength gain without damaging the concrete matrix.

 Used for precast elements like pipes, blocks, and slabs.

  Limitation: Requires a controlled environment.

3.3.1.2 High-Pressure Steam Curing (Autoclaving)

 Uses high-pressure steam (above atmospheric pressure, ~175°C to 200°C) in an

autoclave.

 Produces high-strength concrete with reduced shrinkage and permeability.

 Used in aerated concrete, precast structural elements, and fiber-reinforced

concrete.

 Limitation: High energy consumption and costly setup.

3.3.2. Heating Coils or Infrared Curing

 Electric heating coils or infrared lamps supply heat to the concrete.

 Used in cold climates where hydration is slow.

 Advantages: Ensures curing in freezing conditions.

 Disadvantages: High energy cost.

3.3.3. Insulated Blankets and Covers

 Thermal insulation blankets trap heat generated during hydration.

 Used in mass concrete structures.

 Advantages: Cost-e ective, retains internal heat.

 Disadvantages: Less e ective in severe cold.

4. Internal Curing

 Involves lightweight aggregates or superabsorbent polymers that release stored

water over time.

 Used in high-performance concrete to reduce shrinkage and cracking.

 Advantages: Improves durability, minimizes cracking.

 Disadvantages: Increases material cost.

4. Curing Duration

The minimum curing period depends on concrete mix, environmental conditions, and
cement type.

4.1. Standard Curing Period

 7 days for Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC).

  10–14 days for blended cements (e.g., fly ash, slag cement).

 28 days for mass concrete structures.

4.2. E ect of Temperature on Curing

 Hot Weather: Rapid evaporation requires extended curing.

 Cold Weather: Hydration slows down, requiring insulated curing.

5. Factors A ecting Curing E iciency

5.1. Water-Cement Ratio (w/c)

 Lower w/c ratio (< 0.45) leads to less bleed water and requires strict curing.

 Higher w/c ratio (> 0.5) leads to higher evaporation losses.

5.2. Ambient Temperature & Humidity

 High temperature + Low humidity = Rapid moisture loss, requiring extended curing.

 Cold temperature = Slower hydration, requiring heat-assisted curing.

5.3. Wind and Airflow

 High wind speed accelerates evaporation, requiring windshields or fog curing.

5.4. Concrete Type

 High-strength concrete requires longer curing.

 Blended cement concretes (e.g., fly ash, slag) take longer to gain strength.

6. Consequences of Improper Curing

 Strength Reduction: Can reduce compressive strength by 30–50%.

 Cracking: Increases shrinkage cracks and weakens the structure.

 Dusting & Surface Scaling: Weak surfaces deteriorate under tra ic.

 Higher Permeability: Increases corrosion risk and reduces durability.

7. Conclusion

Curing is a critical step in concrete construction that directly impacts strength, durability, and
resistance to environmental factors. Selecting the appropriate curing method based on site
conditions and ensuring adequate curing duration is essential for long-lasting, high-quality
concrete structures.

curing is convenient for large structures, while heat curing is essential in cold climates. Proper
curing ensures high strength, durability, and long service life of concrete.
Relationship Between Concrete Strength and Curing
Curing plays a crucial role in the development of concrete strength. The hydration process
of cement, which is responsible for strength gain, relies heavily on maintaining adequate
moisture and temperature during the initial hardening phase. Below is an explanation of how
curing impacts the strength of concrete:

1. E ect of Curing on Concrete Strength

 Hydration of Cement:
The strength of concrete is directly linked to the chemical reaction between cement
particles and water (hydration). The longer the hydration process continues, the more
strength develops. Curing ensures constant moisture availability for the hydration
process to proceed uninterrupted.

 Incomplete Hydration:
If concrete is not properly cured, the hydration process will be incomplete, and only part
of the cement will react with water. As a result, the concrete will have lower strength
compared to properly cured concrete.

 Water Loss:
If moisture is allowed to evaporate too quickly, it reduces the e ective hydration
process, resulting in lower strength and increased cracking. Proper curing keeps water
in the concrete to maintain the hydration.

2. Curing Time and Strength Development

 Early Strength Gain:

Proper curing helps concrete achieve early strength within the first 7 days. If curing is
inadequate, early strength may be significantly lower, and the concrete may not perform
as expected in the early life of the structure.

 Long-Term Strength:
Concrete continues to gain strength over time, even after the initial curing period. For
most concrete mixes, the strength will continue to increase for up to 28 days and
beyond, with the rate of increase gradually slowing down after the first few weeks.
Proper curing in the early stages is essential for ensuring the concrete reaches its
maximum potential strength in the long term.

3. Temperature and Curing Conditions

 Optimal Temperature for Curing:

The ideal curing temperature ranges from 10°C to 30°C. At temperatures below 10°C,
hydration slows down significantly, leading to reduced strength gain. Above 30°C,
excessive evaporation can occur, making proper moisture retention critical.

 E ect of High Temperature:

High temperatures can cause rapid evaporation, which may result in shrinkage cracks
and reduced strength. Steam curing or cooling techniques should be employed in hot
climates to prevent these issues.
  E ect of Low Temperature:
In cold weather, slower hydration can delay strength development. Insulated curing or
heating is required in cold weather to ensure that concrete continues to gain strength.

4. Curing Methods and Concrete Strength

The method of curing also significantly impacts the strength of concrete:

 Water Curing (Ponding, Sprinkling, Wet Covering):

o Advantages: Ensures continuous moisture supply, leading to good strength

development.

o Disadvantages: Requires significant water usage and can be di icult to

maintain over large surfaces.

 Membrane Curing:

o Advantages: Easy to apply, especially for large projects. Reduces evaporation

e ectively.

o Disadvantages: Does not provide extra moisture, which could limit long-term
strength.

 Steam Curing:

o Advantages: Accelerates early strength gain, especially useful for precast

concrete.

o Disadvantages: High energy costs, and requires controlled environments.

 Internal Curing (Self-Curing):

o Advantages: Helps reduce drying shrinkage, particularly in high-performance

concrete.

o Disadvantages: Requires special materials, and is more costly.

5. Conclusion: Curing and Concrete Strength

The quality of curing directly impacts concrete strength. Proper curing ensures that concrete
remains moist and at an optimal temperature for a su icient amount of time, allowing
hydration to continue e ectively.

 Inadequate curing can reduce the final strength by 30-50%, as the hydration process
is incomplete.

 Optimal curing can help achieve the concrete's design strength and improve
durability over its service life.

Therefore, adequate curing is essential for concrete to reach its full potential strength,
enhancing both its short-term performance and long-term durability.
E ect of w/c ratio on concrete performances
The water-cement (w/c) ratio is one of the most important factors influencing the performance,
strength, durability, and workability of concrete. It is defined as the ratio of the weight of water to
the weight of cement used in a concrete mix. This ratio directly a ects the hydration process,
which is the chemical reaction between cement and water that gives concrete strength.

E ects of Water-Cement Ratio on Concrete Performance:

1. Strength:

A lower w/c ratio (e.g., 0.4 or below) results in higher strength because there is less excess
water, leading to a denser and stronger cement paste.

A higher w/c ratio (above 0.6) reduces strength because excess water creates pores, weakening
the concrete.

2. Durability:

Lower w/c ratios produce less permeable concrete, improving resistance to moisture, chemical
attacks, and freeze-thaw cycles.

A high w/c ratio increases permeability, making concrete more vulnerable to corrosion, sulfate
attacks, and weathering.

3. Workability:

A higher w/c ratio improves workability, making the concrete easier to mix, place, and compact.

However, excessive water can lead to segregation (where aggregates separate from the mix) and
bleeding (water rising to the surface), reducing uniformity and durability.

To improve workability without increasing water, plasticizers or superplasticizers can be used.

4. Shrinkage & Cracking:

High w/c ratios cause more drying shrinkage, leading to cracking in hardened concrete.

A lower w/c ratio helps reduce shrinkage and enhances long-term stability.

5. Curing Requirements:

Concrete with a low w/c ratio requires proper curing to ensure full hydration and strength
development. Without adequate curing, the concrete may dry out too quickly, leading to
incomplete hydration and weaker concrete.

Conclusion:

The water-cement ratio must be carefully balanced to achieve both workability and strength.
While a low w/c ratio enhances strength and durability, it may reduce workability, requiring the
use of admixtures. A high w/c ratio improves workability but weakens concrete and increases
long-term maintenance issues. Proper curing is essential to maximize the benefits of an optimal
w/c ratio.