Week 1 – 4

I. INTEGERS

1.1 Numbers and Sequences

In this section, we introduce basic material that will be used throughout the text. In particular,
we cover the important sets of numbers studied in number theory, the concept of integer
sequences, and summations and products.

Numbers
The integers are the numbers in the set {..., -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, ...}. The integers play center
stage in the study of number theory. One property of the positive integers deserves special mention.
The Well-Ordering Property. Every nonempty set of positive integers has a least element.
The well-ordering property can be taken as one of the axioms defining the set of positive integers
or it may be derived from a set of axioms in which it is not included. We say that the set of positive
integers is well ordered. However, the set of all integers (positive, negative, and zero) is not well
ordered, as there are sets of integers without a smallest element, such as the set of negative integers, the
set of even integers less than 100, and the set of all integers itself.
Another important class of numbers in the study of number theory is the set of numbers that can
be written as a ratio of integers.
Definition. The real number r is rational if there are integers p and q, with q ≠ 0, such that r = p / q. If r
is not rational, it is said to be irrational.
Example 1.1. The numbers -22/7, 0 = 0/1, 2/17, and 1111/41 are rational numbers.
Note that every integer n is a rational number, because n = n / 1. Examples of irrational numbers are
√ 2 , π ,∧e.
The sets of integers, positive integers, rational numbers, and real numbers are traditionally
denoted by Z, Z+, Q, and R, respectively. Also, we write x∈S to indicate that x belongs to the set S. Such
notation will be used occasionally in this book.

algebraic if there exist integers 𝑎_0, 𝑎_(1, …,) 𝑎_𝑛 , such that 𝑎_𝑛 𝛼^𝑛+𝑎_(𝑛−1) 𝛼^(𝑛−1)+
Definition. A number α is algebraic if it is the root of a polynomial with integer coefficients; that is, α is

∙∙∙+𝑎_0=0. The number α is called transcendental if it is not algebraic.

Example 1.2. The irrational number √ 2 is algebraic, because it is a root of the polynomial x 2 - 2.
Note that every rational number is algebraic. This follows from the fact that the number a/b, where a and
b are integers and b ≠0, is the root of bx - a.

The Greatest Integer Function

Definition. The greatest integer in a real number x, denoted by [x ], is the largest integer less than or
equal to x. That is, [ x] is the integer satisfying [x] ≤ x < [x] + 1.
Example 1.3. We have [5/2] = 2, [-5/2] = -3, [π] = 3, [-2] = -2, and [0] = 0.
 ⌈x⌉ = ceiling function ex. ⌈5/2⌉ = 3
⌊x⌋ = floor function ex. ⌊5/2⌋=2
Example 1.4. Show that if n is an integer, then [x + n] = [x] + n whenever x is a real number.
To show that this property holds, let [x] = m, so that m is an integer. This implies that m ≤ x < m + 1.
We can add n to this inequality to obtain m + n ≤ x + n < m + n + 1. This shows that m + n = [x] + n is
the greatest integer less than or equal to x + n. Hence, [x + n] = [x] + n.
Definition. The fractional part of a real number x, denoted by {x}, is the difference between x and the
largest integer less than or equal to x, namely, [x]. That is, {x} = x - [x].
The greatest integer in x is also called the integral part of x because x = [x] + {x}.
Example 1.5. We have {5/4} = 5/4 - [5/4] = 5/4 - 1 = 1/4 and {-2/3} = -2/3 - [-2/3] = -2/3 - (-1) = 1/3.

Sequences
A sequence {a n} is a list of numbers a 1 , a2 , a3... We will consider many particular integer sequences in
our study of number theory. We introduce several useful sequences in the following examples.
Example 1.6. The sequence {an}, where an= n2, begins with the terms 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, .... This
is the sequence of the squares of integers. The sequence{bn}, where bn = 2n, begins with the terms 2, 4, 8,
16, 32, 64, 128, 256, .... This is the sequence of powers of 2. The sequence {c n}, where cn = 0 if n is odd
and cn = 1 if n is even, begins with the terms 0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1, . . ..
Definition. A geometric progression is a sequence of the form a, ar, ar 2, ar3, ..., ark, ..., where a, the
initial term, and r, the common ratio, are real numbers.
Example 1.7. The sequence {an}, where an= 3 · 5 n, n = 0, 1, 2, ..., is a geometric sequence with initial
term 3 and common ratio 5. (Note that we have started the sequence with the term a 0. We can start the
index of the terms of a sequence with 0 or any other integer that we choose.)
Example 1.8. Conjecture a formula for an, where the first eight terms of {a n} are 4, 11, 18, 25, 32, 39,
46, 53. We note that each term, starting with the second, is obtained by adding 7 to the previous term.
Consequently, the nth term could be the initial term plus 7(n - 1). A reasonable conjecture is that an= 4 +
7(n - 1) = 7n - 3.
Definition. An arithmetic progression is a sequence of the form a, a + d, a + 2d, ..., a + nd, ..., where a,
the initial term, and d, the common difference, are real numbers.
Example 1.9. Conjecture a formula for an, where the first eight terms of the sequence {a n} are 5, 11, 29,
83, 245, 731, 2189, 6563. We note that each term is approximately 3 times the previous term, suggesting
a formula for an in terms of 3n. The integers 3n for n = 1, 2, 3, ... are 3, 9, 27, 81, 243, 729, 2187, 6561.
Looking at these two sequences together, we find that the formula an = 3n + 2 produces these terms.
Example 1.10. Conjecture a formula for an, where the first ten terms of the sequence {a n} are 1, 1, 2, 3,
5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55. After examining this sequence from different perspectives, we notice that each term
of this sequence, after the first two terms, is the sum of the two preceding terms. That is, we see that a n=
an-l + an-2 for 3≤ n≤ 10. This is an example of a recursive definition of a sequence. The terms listed in this
example are the initial terms of the Fibonacci sequence.
Definition. A set is countable if it is finite or it is infinite and there exists a one-to-one correspondence
between the set of positive integers and the set. A set that is not countable is called uncountable.
Theorem 1.4. The set of rational numbers is countable.

I.2. Sums and Products

Because summations and products arise so often in the study of number theory, we now introduce
notation for summations and products. The following notation represents the sum of the numbers a 1,
a2, ..., an.
n

∑ ak =a1 +a2 +…+ an .

k =1

The letter k, the index of summation, is a "dummy variable" and can be replaced by any letter. For
instance,
n n n

∑ ak =∑ a j=∑ a i ,∧so forth .

k =1 j=1 i=1

5 5
Example l.11. We see that ∑ j=¿ 1+2+3+ 4+5=15 ¿, ∑ 2=¿ 2+2+2+2+2=10 ¿, and
j=1 j=1
5

∑ 2 j=¿ 21 +22 +23 +24 +25 =62¿ .

j=1

Example 1.12. We see that

1 1 1 1 1 9
∑ = + + + =
( j+1) 1 2 5 10 5
j ≤10
j ∈ ( n ∣n ∈ Z )
2

because the terms in the sum are all those for which j is an integer not exceeding 10 that is a perfect
square.
Three Properties for Summations
(1.1)
n n

∑ ca j=c ∑ a j
j =m j=m

(1.2)
n n n

∑ (a ¿ ¿ j+b j )=∑ a j+ ∑ b j ¿
j =m j=m j=m

(1.3)

( )( )
n q n q q n

∑ ∑ a i b j= ∑aj ∑ b j =¿ ∑ ∑ a i b j ¿
i=m j= p i=m j =p j= p i=m
To evaluate the sums of consecutive terms of a geometric series, we use the formula:
n+1
a r −a
S= , where r ≠ 1.
r−1
Example 1.13. Let n be a positive integer. To find the sum
n

∑ 2k =1+2+22 +…+2 n
k=0
n+1
2 −1 n +1
n 2
1+2+2 +…+2 = =2 −1
2−1
We also define a notation for products, analogous to that for summations. The product of the numbers
a1, a2, ..., an is denoted by
n

∏ a j=a 1 a 2 … a n
j=1
The letter j above is a "dummy variable," and can be replaced arbitrarily.
Example 1.14. To illustrate the notation for products, we have
5

∏ j=1 ∙ 2∙ 3 ∙ 4 ∙5=120
j=1
5

∏ 2=2 ∙2 ∙ 2∙ 2 ∙2=25=32
j=1
5

∏ 2 j=21 ∙ 22 ∙ 23 ∙ 24 ∙ 25=215
j=1

The factorial function arises throughout number theory.

Definition. Let n be a positive integer. Then n! (read as "n factorial") is the product of the integers 1, 2, .
n
. ., n. We also specify that 0! = 1. In terms of product notation, we have n!= ∏ j .
j=1

Example 1.15. We have 1! = 1, 4! = 1·2·3·4 = 24, and 12! =1·2·3·4·5·6·7·8·9·10·11·12 = 479,001,600.

1.3. Mathematical Induction

By examining the sums of the first n odd positive integers for small values of n, we can conjecture a
formula for this sum. We have
1 = 1,
l + 3 = 4,
1+ 3+ 5 = 9,
1 + 3 + 5 + 7 = 16,
1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 = 25,
1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 + 11 = 36.

n
From these values, we conjecture that ∑ (2 j−1)=1+3+5+ 7+· ··+2 n−1=n2 for every positive integer
j=1
n.
Definition. Mathematical induction is a valuable tool for proving results about the integers-such as the
formula just conjectured for the sum of the first n odd positive integers.
First, we will state this principle, and then we will show how it is used. Subsequently, we will use the
well-ordering principle to show that mathematical induction is a valid proof technique. We will use the
principle of mathematical induction, and the well-ordering property, many times in our study of number
theory. We must accomplish two things to prove by mathematical induction that a particular statement
holds for every positive integer. Letting S be the set of positive integers for which we claim the
statement to be true, we must show that 1 belongs to S; that is, that the statement is true for the integer 1.
This is called the basis step. Second, we must show, for each positive integer n, that n + 1 belongs to S if
n does; that is, that the statement is true for n + 1 if it is true for n. This is called the inductive step. Once
these two steps are completed, we can conclude by the principle of mathematical induction that the
statement is true for all positive integers.
Theorem 1.5. The Principle of Mathematical Induction. A set of positive integers that contains the
integer l, and that has the property that, if it contains the integer k, then it also contains k + l, must be the
set of all positive integers.
Example 1.16. We will use mathematical induction to show that
n

∑ (2 j−1)=1+3+· · ·+ 2n−1=n2
j=1

for every positive integer n. (By the way, if our conjecture for the value of this sum was incorrect,
mathematical induction would fail to produce a proof!)
We begin with the basis step, which follows because
1

∑ (2 j−1 )=2 ∙1−1=1=1 2

j=1

For the inductive step, we assume the inductive hypothesis that the formula holds for n; that is, we
n
assume that ∑ (2 j−1)=n . Using the inductive hypothesis, we have
2

j=1

n +1 n

∑ (2 j−1 )=∑ ( 2 j−1 )+(2 ( n+1 ) −1)

j=1 j=1

2
¿ n +2 ( n+1 ) −1
2
¿ n +2 n+1
2
¿(n+1)
Because both the basis and the inductive steps have been completed, we know that the result holds.
Next, we prove an inequality via mathematical induction.
Example 1.17. We can show by mathematical induction that n! ≤ n n for every positive integer n. The
basis step, namely, the case where n = l, holds because 1! = 1 ≤ 11 = 1. Now, assume that n! ≤ n n ; this is
the inductive hypothesis. To complete the proof, we must show, under the assumption that the inductive
hypothesis is true, that (n + 1)! ≤ (n + l)n+l. Using the inductive hypothesis, we have
(n + 1)! = (n + l) . n!
≤ (n + 1)nn
≤ (n + 1)(n+1)n
≤ (n + 1)n+1
This completes both the inductive step and the proof. We now show that the principle of mathematical
induction follows from the well-ordering principle.
Proof. Let S be a set of positive integers containing the integer 1, and the integer n + 1 whenever it
contains n. Assume (for the sake of contradiction) that S is not the set of all positive integers. Therefore,
there are some positive integers not contained in S. By the well-ordering property, because the set of
positive integers not contained in S is nonempty, there is a least positive integer n that is not in S. Note
that n≠1, because 1 is in S.
Now, because n > 1 (as there is no positive integer n with n < 1), the integer n - 1 is a positive integer
smaller than n, and hence must be in S. But because S contains n - 1, it must also contain (n - 1) + 1 = n,
which is a contradiction, as n is supposedly the smallest positive integer not in S. This shows that S must
be the set of all positive integers. •
A slight variant of the principle of mathematical induction is also sometimes useful in proofs.