FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY, MINNA

SCHOOL OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION

Q1a. List and explain the five (5) assumptions that are important to the
understanding of the nature of science.
The following are important to the understanding of the nature of science.
(1) Science as a body of knowledge: it involves facts, definitions,
concepts, theories and laws.
(2) Science as a set of methods and processes: it involves observing,
measuring, estimating, inferring, predicting, classifying,
hypothesizing, experimenting and concluding
(3) Science as a way of knowing about nature: it involves scientific
knowledge which is based on evidence and it can last overtime.
Creativity also plays an important role in science.
(4) Science has its limit: it cannot be used to solve any kind of problem.
Science can only address natural problems (not super natural one),
and only natural explanation can be used in science. Super natural
or magical explanation cannot be reliably tested.
Any questions that require subjective, political, religious, ethical or
esthetic judgment are generally beyond the power of science.
Science can only be used to shed light on such issues, but it seldom
provides any final answer.
(5) Scientific knowledge is inherently uncertain: what we know in
science is only with a relative level of confidence and a particular
degree of probability. Scientific knowledge is subject to change in
light of new evidence. That does not mean we shouldn’t have
confidence in scientific knowledge rather which it may change in
the future.
(6) Science can be done poorly, and it can be misused: there are many
variations of medical quackery, false advertising and other forms of
“pseudoscience”, where unconfirmed claims are presented as
“scientific fact”. Students must learn and practice the critical
strategies for recognizing such claims.
(7) Science is a very social process: it is done by people working
together collaboratively. Its procedures, results and analysis mustbe

1|Page
 shared with the scientific community, and the public, through
conferences and peer-reviewed and publications. These
communications are critically assessed by the scientific community,
where errors, oversights and fraud can be exposed, while
confirmation and consilience can be achieved to strengthen its
findings.
b. Contrast between scientific law and scientific theory: support your
argument with relevant examples.
Scientific Law: scientific law generalized a body of observation. It’s a
succinct description of relationship or a pattern in nature based on
observation and often expressed mathematically based on observation. The
difference between law and hypothesis is that, hypothesis is formulated after
only a single observation while law is made after many observations.
Examples of Scientific Laws
 Universal Low of Gravitation
 Law of Superposition
 The Ideal Gas Law
 Bernoulli’s Law
 Archimedes Law of Buoyancy
 Newton’s Law of Motion.
Scientific Theory: it summarizes hypotheses that have been supported
with repeated testing. A theory is valid as long as there is no evidence to
dispute it.
Examples of Scientific Theories
 Big Bang Theory
 Theory of Plate Tectonics
 Theory of Evolution
 Atomic Theory
 Cell Theory
 Germ Theory
 Heliocentric Theory.
Q2a. Mathematics and Statistics are classified as formal science. Justify
Mathematics and Statistics are classified as formal sciencebecausethey have
formal characteristics. They are called formal science because their contents,
arguments and procedures obeys certain rules e.g. in mathematics we have
rules for addition, division, multiplication and subtraction, rule for solving
simultaneous equation, and Pythagoras theorem

2|Page
b. “For any scientific experiment to be regarded worthwhile it must be
guided by some stage,” list them chronological order
Stages of Scientific Method
1. Identification or observation of meaningful question or problem
2. Formulation of testable predication or hypothesis
3. Identification and control of variables
4. Investigation and data collection for hypothesis testing
5. Integration of the data and conclusion
6. Acceptance or rejection of hypothesis
7. Modification or make new observation
c. Identify any five (5) values and attitude at a scientific teacher supposed to
help his/her students to internalize.
Scientific Attitude
There are some values and attitude that a science teacher supposed to help
his/her students to internalize.
1. Honesty and accuracy in recording and validating data
2. Interest and curiosity in exploring the environment
3. Objectivity and unbiased attitude
4. Openness to challenging existing ideas
5. Healthy skepticism about claim and argument
6. Respect for the use of evidence
7. Logical and rational thinking
8. Confidence and independence
9. Collaborative and team spirit
10. Respect for nature
Q3a. Define the word philosophy.
The word philosophy was taken from two Greek words namely: ‘Philo’ (which
means love) and ‘Sophia’ (which means wisdom), thus philosophy literary
mean love of wisdom. Therefore to call a person philosopher is to call him a
lover of wisdom. This is because the Greeks believed that whoever tried to
study and understand nature was trying to be wise.
b. History of science can be discussed from different perspectives or phases,
List these perspectives or phases.
History of science can be discussed from different perspective or phases:
1. Origin of western science in ancient time (from the beginning of
recorded history AD-476)
2. Science in the middle age of Europe ( AD 476-1400)

3|Page
 3. Rise of modern science (AD 1400-present time)
4. Twentieth century scientific evolution
c. The Origin of Science is often traced to the Egyptians and Babylonians.
State any three (3) contributions of each that justify the above statement.
Contribution of Egyptians
The kingdom of Egypt was divided into three religious centers, which were
Memphis, Heliopolis and Hermopolis. These centers were administered by
priest-scholars. They were called scholars because they were the intellectual
class of the ancient Egypt.This power was tremendous and even the kings
were subject to it. The contribution of Egyptians includes:
(1) Astronomy originated with the Egypt through their study of the
heavens, the stars, and the weather.
(2) Egyptian also originated mathematics. The evidence was the finding
of Rind Mathematical Papyrus and ancient text (famous writing of
Hermes Trismegistus).
(3) They are said to have performed caesarean operation and removed
cataracts from eyes.
(4) The first physician of the ancient world and the most famous was
the Black Egyptian called IMHOTEP
(5) They also invented writing called Hieroglyphic and paper (papyrus)
on which they recorded their ideas and culture
Contribution of Babylonians (present day Iraq)
(1) They developed science of mathematics, astronomy and
engineering (Irrigation & Canal Construction) in 800-1600BC
(2) They were the first to record the accurate astronomical observation
(rising and setting of the Planet Venus).
(3) They realized the important of fixed unit of measurement. Their unit
of length was the finger; the foot contained twenty fingers; the
cubit, thirty fingers. The measurements of weight were the grain,
the shekel and the talent and the medium of exchange was the
barley.
(4) They were the first to divide the day into hours, minutes, and
seconds.
(5) They divided the circle into 360 degrees
Q4a. The 19th century has been regarded as the beginning of the scientific
age because of many reasons. Vividly itemize them
1. There was very rapid growth of knowledge of nature during the period.

4|Page
 2. It was during this period that the view or idea people had of the natural
universe changed, by recognizing that ‘man’ was also subject to the
same physical laws and processes as the world around him. Therefore
‘man’ should also be studied.
3. It was also realized that all the field of knowledge could use the
scientific method and not just pure science alone
4. Again, within this century, people started carrying out scientific
investigations, with the sole objective of gaining more knowledge. It
was understood that such investigators were moved by their insatiable
curiosity concerning the unknown.
5. The knowledge obtained by investigators above was used by applied
researchers to produce and invent things. For example, in 1864, James
Clerk Maxwell, a British physicist conducted research to determine the
relationship between heat and other forms of energy. He expressed his
findings in mathematical formulas to design cars and even rocket
engine that use fuel more efficiently.
6. Thus within this period, scientific research and industrial development
went hand in hand. This was unlike in former ages when the need to
solve a problem lead to inventions unless those inventions were
produced by accident.
Q4.b Outline the major discoveries of the 19th century scientific revolution
1. The understanding that atoms and molecules are the basic building
blocks of matter.
2. The understandings that cell are the basic building block of living
things. Although in 1665, Robert Hook used his primitive microscope to
observe that plant materials have a cellular structure (Dampier: 1989).
He only saw the outline of the cells and note what is inside. To say that
cells are the basic building blocks of living things means that every
human being, other animal and plants are built up from cells. It is just
like building houses with blocks. Living things are built with cells.
3. In human beings also, the cells which aid reproduction are called
gametes. The gametes from fathers are called sperm, while those from
mother are called egg or ova. The combination of sperm from man and
the eggs from his wife brings pregnancy, which ultimately result in
bringing baby or babies into the world after nine month of pregnancy
this is what happens in all living things - whether plant or animals that
is why it is said that ‘cells are the building blocks of living things’.
4. The statement that ‘cells are the building of living things’ is called the
cell theory. Scientist observed from experiment that all living things
were composed of cell.
5. Another fundamental theory of biology proposed in 19 th century was
the theory of evolution. Although there are many theories of evolution,

5|Page
 the one which the scientific circle accepts is the theory of evolution by
natural selection, which was proposed by Charles Darwin in 1859.
Charles Darwin is also called the ‘Newton of Biology.
Q5. Discuss the contributors of the following philosophers to the
development of science
i. Nicolas Copernicus (1473-1543AD)
ii. Galileo (1564-1642AD)
iii. Johannes Kepler (1571-1630AD)
iv. Isaac Newton (1642-1727AD)
1. Nicolaus Copernicus (1997 - 1543): The first great change in scientific
outlook after the renaissance was made by a polish mathematician and
as astronomer called Nicolaus Copernicus (1997 - 1543). To
Copernicus, the sun is at the centre of the universe while the earth and
other heavenly bodies move round in a uniform, circular motion. This
view is known as Copernican world system or heliocentric theory
(Nwala and Agbakoba: 1997). It is important to note that the
Copernican theory was not based on experimentation. He based his
theory on logical assumptions or hypotheses and his taste for aesthetic
symmetry. He considered theory as a serious work in astronomy rather
than in philosophy. So he set out to justify it observationally and
mathematically. As a result, he had a lot of conflicts with the church
authorities. The implication of his theory is that humanity no longer
stands at the centre of creation, since the earth is no longer at the
centre of the universe.
2. Galileo Galilee (1564 – 1642), an Italian, provided most beautiful
evidence; to justify than ancient authority should no longer be
accepted without criticisms. He invented telescope and used it to view
the heavens and thus confirmed the Copernican theory that the sun
was at the centre of the universe. Galileo also got into trouble with the
church authorities for his audacity to be on the side Copernicus. Credit
is usually given to Galileo for discovering and establishing the true
method of physical sciences. This is because he combined
experimental and inductive with mathematical deductions to obtain his
results. The experiment he carried out was to use the telescope to
view the heavens. With aid of his telescope, he saw countless stars,
whose existence no one had suspected. At the same time Galileo was
searching the heavens with his telescope,
3. Johannes Kepler (1571 – 1630), he was the first to apply mathematics
as an empirical instrument in searching for the laws of heavenly
motions. He was an advocate of the heliocentric theory. His great
achievement as an astronomer was the discovery of the three laws of
planetary motion. The laws are as follows:
6|Page
  All planets travel about the sun in an elliptical (oval) path,
 A planet move faster in its orbit as it nears the sun,
 There is a relation between its distance from the sun and time it takes
to make an orbit (that is one movement round the sun).
What Galileo and Kepler could not provide, although they tried quite hard,
were answers to these questions:
 If the earth revolves on its exit round the sun, then why then do
objects not fly of it?
 How is it possible for the earth suspended in empty space to go round
the sun – whether in circles or ellipses – without anything pushing it?
4. Isaac Newton (1642 – 1727 AD), the year 1660 seems to be the most
important time in early development of modern science. It was in that
year that Isaac Newton achieved one of the greatest successes of all
times. In other words, through his work, he confirmed the results of
Copernicus, Kepler and Galileo. Thus all the results (of Copernicus,
Kepler, Galileo and Newton) formed the first great synthesis of physical
knowledge, which is the primary aim of science. This means that
sciences aim to be able to combine many facts, so as to be able to
explain. Predict and control nature. Newton proposes a principle of
gravitational attraction, and uses it to answer the questions posed by
the works of Galileo and Kepler. The basic ideas in the principle are
‘each object in the universe attracts all other bodies to the centre of its
form, and that if the mass of one of the two attracting bodies is
doubled, the force will be only one –quarter (1/4) as great’ By using
this theory, Newton was able to explain the motion of the planets
round the sun, the familiar fall to ground of fruit form trees, and all
other motion which we see on earth. The accuracy of Newton’s theory
or law proved to be amazing. With the help of this theory, generations
of astronomers have been able to explain and predict astronomical.
5. Francis Bacon (1561 – 1626) is regarded as the first person to attempt
to arrange the steps of the scientific method in a logical manner. He
emphasized the role of scientific discoveries and inventions in giving
man mastery over the force of nature. At last, we have seen the true
beginning of modern science. At renaissance, science was still a
branch of philosophy, but after that period, it succeeded in finding its
own method of observation and experiment. Where it is necessary,
mathematical analysis is also used.
6. Laurent Lavoisier (1743 – 1794 AD). He discovered that it was a gas,
which he named oxygen that enables combustion (burning) and
respiration to take place. The revolution in chemistry is both a
revolution in method as well as ideas. Lavoisier insisted that the

7|Page
 central concern of the new chemistry was the use of gravimetric
method. This involves paying particular attention to the weight of the
ingredients involved in chemical reactions and of the products that
result. He found from his experiment that the weight of the product of
combustion (burning), for instance, equals that of the original
ingredients. His discovery became known as the law of the
conservation of mass (or matter)

8|Page