CSEC Chemistry Study Notes

1. States of Matter
Definitions:
• Matter: Anything that has mass and occupies space.
• Atom: An atom is the basic unit of matter and the smallest particle of an element that retains
its chemical properties.
• Molecule: A molecule is a group of two or more atoms bonded together chemically.
• Particle Theory: A scientific model used to explain the properties and behaviour of matter by
describing it as being composed of tiny, moving particles.
• Solid: A state of matter characterized by particles that are tightly packed in a fixed
arrangement, with low energy and strong intermolecular forces.
• Liquid: A state of matter where particles are close together but can move past one another,
with moderate energy and intermolecular forces.
• Gas: A state of matter where particles are far apart and move randomly at high speeds, with
high energy and weak intermolecular forces.
• Melting: The process by which a solid changes into a liquid due to the absorption of energy.
• Freezing: The process by which a liquid turns into a solid due to the release of energy.
• Boiling: The rapid vaporization of a liquid into a gas due to the absorption of energy.
• Condensation: The process by which a gas turns into a liquid due to the release of energy.
• Sublimation: The direct transition of a solid into a gas without passing through the liquid
state, or vice versa.
• Diffusion: The movement of particles from an area of high concentration to an area of low
concentration, without the need for an external force.
• Osmosis: The movement of water molecules through a semi-permeable membrane from a
region of high-water potential to a region of low water potential.

1.1 Evidence Supporting the Particle Theory of Matter

Overview: The particle theory of matter explains that all substances are made up of small particles,
which are in constant motion and held together by forces. This theory is supported by observations
and experiments.
Evidence Supporting the Theory:
1. Brownian Motion: The random movement of tiny particles suspended in a fluid, observed
under a microscope, is evidence of the constant motion of particles. This motion is caused by
collisions with molecules of the fluid, supporting the idea that matter is made up of particles
in motion.
2. Diffusion: The spread of substances (such as a drop of ink in water or the scent of perfume in
a room) occurs due to the random movement of particles from areas of high concentration to
low concentration. This process of diffusion is a direct result of particle motion and supports
the idea that matter is composed of tiny, moving particles.
3. Changes in State: The behaviour of matter when it changes from one state to another (e.g.,
solid to liquid, liquid to gas) supports the particle theory. In solids, particles vibrate in place;
in liquids, they move around each other; and in gases, they move freely. These changes
happen when energy (in the form of heat) is added or removed, affecting the motion of the
particles.
4. Pressure and Volume Relationship in Gases (Boyle’s Law): When the volume of a gas is
reduced, the pressure increases. This is explained by the idea that gas particles are in constant
motion, and when the space between them is compressed, they collide more frequently with
the walls of the container, increasing pressure. This supports the particle theory, where
particles move and interact with each other and their environment.
5. Temperature and Particle Motion: As temperature increases, the motion of particles speeds up.
This can be observed in gases, where heating causes the particles to move faster and expand.
Conversely, cooling reduces particle movement. This direct relationship between temperature
and particle motion supports the particle theory.
6. The Behaviour of Gases (Kinetic Molecular Theory): The Kinetic Molecular Theory describes
the behaviour of gases in terms of particles moving rapidly and colliding with one another.
This theory explains the laws of gases, such as Charles' Law and Avogadro's Law, which
relate the volume, pressure, and temperature of gases to the motion and number of gas
molecules.
7. Collisions and Pressure in Fluids: In liquids and gases, the pressure exerted by the substance
is the result of countless collisions of particles with the walls of their container. This
behaviour is consistent with the idea that particles are in constant motion and that these
collisions produce measurable effects like pressure.
8. Thermal Expansion: When materials are heated, they expand. This expansion occurs because
the particles within the material move faster and require more space. This evidence supports
the idea that matter is made up of particles whose movement increases with temperature.
9. Particle Behaviour in Solutions: When a solute dissolves in a solvent (e.g., sugar in water),
the solute particles are separated and distributed uniformly throughout the solution. This
happens because the solute particles are interacting with the solvent particles, which are in
constant motion. This supports the theory that matter is made of moving particles that interact
with each other.
1.2 Distinguishing the Three States of Matter
States of Matter and Their Properties:
Solids:
• Arrangement of Particles: Particles are tightly packed in a fixed, orderly arrangement.
• Energy of Particles: Low; particles vibrate about fixed positions but cannot move freely.
• Forces of Interaction: Very strong intermolecular forces hold the particles together.

Physical Properties:
▪ Fixed shape and volume.
▪ High density.
▪ Incompressible.
▪ Does not flow.

Key Physical Properties: Solids have definite volume and shape due to the strong bonds between
particles, making them useful in construction (e.g., metals, bricks).
Diagram: Solid particles closely packed in an orderly arrangement.

Liquids:
• Arrangement of Particles: Particles are closely packed but not in a fixed arrangement. They
can move past each other.
• Energy of Particles: Moderate; particles have enough energy to overcome some
intermolecular forces, allowing flow.
• Forces of Interaction: Moderate; intermolecular forces are weaker than in solids but stronger
than in gases.

Physical Properties:

▪ Takes the shape of its container.

▪ Fixed volume but no fixed shape.
▪ Slightly compressible.
▪ Can flow and be poured.

Key Physical Properties: Liquids are essential for biological processes (e.g., water in cells), cooling
systems (e.g., coolant liquids), and as solvents in chemical reactions.
 Diagram: Liquid particles closely packed but with space to move freely.

Gases:
• Arrangement of Particles: Particles are far apart and move randomly at high speeds.
• Energy of Particles: High; particles have enough energy to overcome almost all
intermolecular forces.
• Forces of Interaction: Very weak or negligible.

Physical Properties:

▪ Fills the entire volume of its container.

▪ No fixed shape or volume.
▪ Low density.
▪ Highly compressible.
▪ Diffuses and mixes easily.

Key Physical Properties: Gases like oxygen are vital for respiration, while others like carbon dioxide
are used in carbonated beverages and fire extinguishers.
Diagram: Gas particles widely spaced and moving randomly.

Comparative Table:

State Arrangement of Particles Energy of Particles Forces of Interaction Physical Properties

Solid Fixed, tightly packed Low Strong Fixed shape, incompressible

Takes shape of container,

Liquid Closely packed but can move Moderate Moderate
incompressible

Widely spaced, random

Gas High Weak Fills container, compressible
motion
1.3 Changes of State and Energy Transfer
Overview: State changes occur when matter absorbs or releases energy, altering the motion and
arrangement of particles.
Key Processes:
Melting: • Example: Water boiling into steam.
• Description: Solid to liquid. Condensation:
• Energy Transfer: Energy is absorbed to
break intermolecular forces. • Description: Gas to liquid.
• Example: Ice melting into water. • Energy Transfer: Energy is released as
particles slow down and intermolecular
forces form.
Freezing:
• Example: Steam condensing on a cold
• Description: Liquid to solid. surface.
• Energy Transfer: Energy is released as
Sublimation:
particles lose kinetic energy and form a
fixed structure. • Description: Solid to gas (and vice
• Example: Water freezing into ice. versa).
• Energy Transfer: Energy is absorbed or
Boiling:
released during the phase change.
• Description: Liquid to gas. • Example: Dry ice sublimating into
• Energy Transfer: Energy is absorbed, carbon dioxide gas.
allowing particles to overcome
intermolecular forces completely.
Diagram: Heating and cooling curves showing state changes and plateaus.

Objective 2: Mixtures and Separations

Definitions:
1. Pure Substance: A material with a fixed composition and distinct properties (e.g., elements,
compounds).
2. Mixture: A combination of two or more substances physically combined but not chemically
bonded.
3. Solution: A homogeneous mixture of two or more substances.
4. Suspension: A heterogeneous mixture where particles are dispersed in a liquid or gas but will
eventually settle.
5. Colloid: A mixture where very small particles of one substance are evenly distributed
throughout another without settling.
6. Solubility: Solubility is the ability of a solid, liquid, or gaseous chemical substance (referred
to as the solute) to dissolve in solvent (usually a liquid) and form a solution.
7. Saturation: Saturation refers to the point at which a solution contains the maximum amount
of solute that can be dissolved in a given solvent at a specific temperature and pressure.
8. Filtration: A separation technique that uses a filter medium to remove solid particles from a
liquid or gas.
9. Distillation: A method of separating substances based on differences in boiling points.
10. Chromatography: A technique used to separate components of a mixture based on their
movement through a stationary phase.
Overview: Mixtures are physical combinations of two or more substances where each retains its
individual properties. Separation techniques exploit differences in physical properties to isolate
components.
2.1 Distinguish between pure substances and mixtures;
Pure Substances consists of only one type of particle or matter. It has a uniform and definite
composition, meaning it is made up of only one kind of element or compound.
• Types of Pure Substances:
o Elements: A substance made of only one type of atom. For example, gold (Au) or
oxygen (O₂).
o Compounds: A substance made of two or more different elements chemically bonded
together in a fixed ratio. For example, water (H₂O) or sodium chloride (NaCl).
• Properties:
o Pure substances have consistent properties throughout, such as melting point, boiling
point, density, and chemical reactivity.
o They cannot be separated into different components by physical methods (only by
chemical reactions).
• Examples:
o Distilled water (H₂O).
o Carbon dioxide (CO₂).
o Oxygen gas (O₂).

Mixtures consists of two or more different substances (elements, compounds, or both) that are
physically combined, not chemically bonded. The components of a mixture can vary in proportions.
Types of Mixtures:
o Homogeneous Mixtures (Solutions): These have a uniform composition throughout,
and the individual components are not visible. For example, salt dissolved in water or
air.
o Heterogeneous Mixtures: These have a non-uniform composition, and the different
components are visible or can be easily distinguished. For example, a salad, sand and
water, or oil and water
• Properties:
o Mixtures do not have fixed composition or properties. The physical properties (such
as density, boiling point) can vary depending on the proportions of the substances in
the mixture.
o The components can usually be separated by physical methods such as filtration,
distillation, or centrifugation.
• Examples:
o Air (a mixture of gases like oxygen, nitrogen, and others).
o Concrete (a mixture of cement, sand, gravel, and water).
o Salad (a mixture of various vegetables and dressings).
Summary of Key Differences:

Property Pure Substances Mixtures

Composed of one type of element Composed of two or more different

Composition
or compound. substances.

Cannot be separated by physical

Separation Can be separated by physical methods.
methods.

Properties depend on the mixture's

Properties Uniform and constant properties.
components.

Water (H₂O), Oxygen (O₂), Carbon

Examples Air, Saltwater, Soil, Salad
dioxide (CO₂)

PRACTICAL ACTIVITIES
The boiling point of pure water and a sodium chloride (NaCl) solution differ due to a phenomenon
known as boiling point elevation, which occurs when a non-volatile solute (like NaCl) is dissolved in
a solvent (like water).
Objective:
To compare the boiling points of pure water and a sodium chloride (NaCl) solution.
Materials Needed:
• Distilled water (for pure water) • Weighing balance (for measuring NaCl)

• Sodium chloride (NaCl) • Distilled water (for preparing the solution)

• Beakers or heatproof containers • Measuring cylinder (for precise volume

measurement)
• Thermometer (capable of measuring
temperatures around 100°C) • Tripod and wire gauze (if using a Bunsen
burner)
• Bunsen burner or hot plate

• Stirring rod
Procedure:
Step 1: Prepare the Sodium Chloride Solution
1. Measure a known mass of sodium chloride (NaCl) using the weighing balance.

2. Dissolve the sodium chloride in a specific volume of distilled water. For example, dissolve 10
grams of NaCl in 100 mL of water to prepare a moderately concentrated solution.

3. Stir the solution thoroughly to ensure all the NaCl dissolves completely.

Step 2: Set Up the Experiment

4. Place two beakers (one with pure water and one with the NaCl solution) on separate heat sources
(Bunsen burners or hot plates).

5. Insert a thermometer into each beaker, ensuring it doesn't touch the sides or bottom of the beaker
(so it measures the temperature of the liquid).

6. Begin heating both beakers at the same time, starting with low heat and gradually increasing.

Step 3: Heat the Samples

7. For Pure Water: Start heating the distilled water in one beaker and observe the temperature.
Record the temperature at which it starts to boil (when large bubbles rapidly form).

8. For NaCl Solution: Similarly, heat the sodium chloride solution in the other beaker. Observe the
temperature at which it begins to boil and record the temperature.

Step 4: Record and Compare the Results

9. Carefully note the boiling point for both the pure water and the NaCl solution as indicated by the
thermometer.

10. Compare the temperatures and note the difference.

Expected Results:
1. Pure Water:
The boiling point of pure water should be around 100°C (212°F) at 1 atmosphere of pressure.
2. Sodium Chloride Solution:
The boiling point of the sodium chloride solution should be higher than the boiling point of
pure water due to the phenomenon of boiling point elevation. The exact boiling point will
depend on the concentration of NaCl in the solution, but typically, you can expect it to be
around 101–103°C (or higher for more concentrated solutions).
Additional Considerations:
Boiling Point Elevation: You should observe that the sodium chloride solution takes longer
to reach the boiling point compared to pure water, as it requires a higher temperature to boil.
Conclusion:
The experiment should demonstrate that pure water boils at a lower temperature (100°C), while the
sodium chloride solution boils at a higher temperature due to the presence of NaCl, which lowers
the vapor pressure and leads to a boiling point elevation. This result is consistent with the concept of
colligative properties in solutions, where the boiling point increases with the addition of a solute.
2.2 Distinguish among solutions, suspensions and colloids
Solution
Definition: A solution is a homogeneous mixture where one substance (the solute) is completely
dissolved in another substance (the solvent), forming a uniform composition. The particles of the
solute are extremely small (typically less than 1 nanometer) and are completely dissolved in the
solvent.
Properties:
o The particles are not visible to the naked eye or even under a microscope.
o The solute does not settle out over time.
o The solution is transparent or clear (depending on the solute).
o It does not scatter light (no Tyndall effect).
Examples:
o Salt dissolved in water.
o Sugar dissolved in tea.
o Air (a mixture of gases like oxygen and nitrogen).
Suspensions:
Definition: A suspension is a heterogeneous mixture in which solid particles are dispersed in a liquid
or gas but are large enough to be seen with the naked eye. The particles in a suspension are relatively
large (greater than 1 micrometer) and do not dissolve. They can be separated by filtration or settling.
• Properties:
o The particles are visible to the naked eye and may be seen to settle out over time if
left undisturbed.
o Suspensions are often cloudy or murky.
o The particles scatter light, showing the Tyndall effect.
o They can be separated by filtration.
• Examples:
o Muddy water.
o Sand in water.
o Flour in water.
Colloids:
Definition: A colloid is a heterogeneous mixture in which the particle size is intermediate (between
that of solutions and suspensions). The particles are dispersed throughout the mixture but do not settle
out over time. The particles in a colloid range from 1 nanometer to 1 micrometer. They are small
enough to remain suspended but large enough to scatter light.
• Properties:
o Colloids do not settle out over time.
o The particles are too small to be seen by the naked eye, but they can scatter light,
showing the Tyndall effect (like fog or milk).
o Colloids can be separated by methods like ultrafiltration.
• Examples:
o Milk (a colloidal suspension of fat droplets in water).
 o Fog (water droplets suspended in air).
o Gelatin (a colloid of proteins in water).
o Shaving cream (air dispersed in soap).

Summary of Key Differences:

Property Solutions Suspensions Colloids

Composition Homogeneous mixture Heterogeneous mixture Heterogeneous mixture

Medium-sized particles (1 nm to 1
Particle Size Extremely small (<1 nm) Large particles (>1 µm)
µm)

Not visible under a Not visible, but scatter light

Visibility of Particles Visible to the naked eye
microscope (Tyndall effect)

Settling Particles do not settle Particles settle over time Particles do not settle

Cannot be separated by
Separation Can be separated by filtration Can be separated by ultrafiltration
filtration

Light Scattering No Tyndall effect Tyndall effect (scatters light) Tyndall effect (scatters light)

Saltwater, sugar in water,

Examples Muddy water, sand in water Milk, fog, gelatin, shaving cream
air

In summary:
• Solutions are homogeneous mixtures where the solute is completely dissolved in the solvent.
• Suspensions have larger particles that can be seen and settled over time.
• Colloids have intermediate-sized particles that remain suspended and scatter light, exhibiting
the Tyndall effect
 2.3 Identify different types of solutions.
Solutions can be classified based on the physical states of the solute and the solvent, as well as the
concentration of the solute. Here are the different types of solutions:
Based on Physical State of Solute and Solvent:
• Solid in Liquid Solutions:
o Example: Salt or sugar dissolved in water.
o The solute (salt or sugar) is a solid, and the solvent is a liquid (water).

• Gas in Liquid Solutions:

o Example: Carbonated drinks (carbon dioxide dissolved in water).
o The solute (carbon dioxide) is a gas, and the solvent is a liquid (water).

• Liquid in Liquid Solutions:

o Example: Alcohol in water (like ethanol in water).
o The solute and solvent are both liquids. Alcohol and water mix to form a
homogeneous solution.

• Solid in Solid Solutions:

o Example: Alloys like brass (copper and zinc) or bronze (copper and tin).
o Both solute and solvent are solids, and the solute is dissolved in the solvent to form a
homogeneous mixture.

• Gas in Gas Solutions:

o Example: Air (oxygen, nitrogen, and other gases mixed together).
o Both solute and solvent are gases, and they form a homogeneous mixture in the
atmosphere.

2.4 Investigate the effect of temperature on the solubility of solids in water.

To investigate the effect of temperature on the solubility of solids in water, you can carry out an
experiment where you measure how much of a substance, such as potassium nitrate (KNO₃), dissolves
in water at different temperatures. Below is a step-by-step guide to carrying out this experiment and
determining the solubility of potassium nitrate in water:
Objective:
To determine the solubility of potassium nitrate (KNO₃) in water at various temperatures and observe
how temperature affects the solubility of the salt.
Materials Needed:
• Potassium nitrate (KNO₃) • Stirring rod • Graduated cylinder (for
crystals measuring water)
• Thermometer
• Distilled water • Stirring plate (optional)
• Balance (for measuring
• Beakers or test tubes (at mass) • Filter paper (optional)
least 3)
• Bunsen burner or hot plate • Stopwatch or timer
Procedure:
Step 1: Prepare the Solution at Different Temperatures
1. Measure the Amount of Water: Pour a known volume of distilled water (e.g., 50 mL) into
each of the beakers or test tubes.
2. Add Potassium Nitrate (KNO₃): Weigh a small, known amount of KNO₃ (e.g., 2 g) and add it
to the water in the first beaker.
3. Heat the Water: Heat the water in the first beaker to a specific temperature (e.g., 20°C) and
stir the solution with a stirring rod. Observe whether the potassium nitrate dissolves
completely.
4. Continue Adding Solute: Gradually add small amounts of KNO₃ to the water, stirring
continuously, until no more dissolves and the solute begins to accumulate at the bottom of the
beaker. This indicates the solution has reached its saturation point at that temperature.
5. Record the Temperature and Mass of Solute: Once the solution is saturated, record the
temperature and the amount of KNO₃ that has dissolved in the water.
6. Repeat for Different Temperatures: Repeat the process for different temperatures (e.g., 30°C,
40°C, 50°C, 60°C, etc.). For each temperature, ensure you use the same volume of water and
follow the same procedure to determine the solubility at each temperature.
Step 2: Cooling and Measuring
1. Cool the Solution: After reaching the saturation point at a high temperature, allow the solution
to cool slowly back to room temperature.
2. Observe Precipitation: If any KNO₃ precipitates out of the solution upon cooling, it indicates
that the solution was supersaturated at higher temperatures.
3. Filter (Optional): If any solid KNO₃ has formed during cooling, you can filter it out using
filter paper to obtain the exact amount of dissolved solute.
Step 3: Plotting the Solubility Curve
1. Record Data: For each temperature, you should have two key pieces of data:
o Temperature (°C)
o Mass of KNO₃ dissolved in 50 mL of water (g)
2. Create a Solubility Curve: Plot the data on a graph:
o X-axis: Temperature (°C)
o Y-axis: Solubility (grams of KNO₃ dissolved per 50 mL of water)
Expected Results:
As the temperature of the water increases, the solubility of potassium nitrate (KNO₃) in water is
expected to increase. This is because heating increases the kinetic energy of water molecules,
allowing them to break apart the ionic bonds in the potassium nitrate more effectively and allowing
more KNO₃ to dissolve.
Theory Behind the Experiment:
• Temperature and Solubility: In general, for most solid solutes (such as salts), solubility
increases with increasing temperature. This is because heating increases the energy of the
molecules in the solvent (water), making it easier for the solute particles (KNO₃) to break free
and dissolve in the solvent.
• Effect of Temperature on Solubility: Potassium nitrate is known to have a significant increase
in solubility with temperature. At lower temperatures, only a small amount can dissolve, but
at higher temperatures, the solubility increases greatly.

Conclusion:
This experiment will allow you to determine how temperature affects the solubility of potassium
nitrate in water. The solubility is expected to increase as the temperature rises, and you should observe
a steep increase in the amount of solute that can dissolve at higher temperatures. You can use the
solubility curve to predict how much potassium nitrate will dissolve in water at any given temperature
within the range you have tested.

2.5 Apply suitable separation techniques based on properties of mixtures.

To separate mixtures, the suitable separation technique depends on the physical properties of the
components, such as particle size, solubility, density, boiling point, and magnetic properties. Below
are examples of mixtures and the appropriate separation methods based on their properties:
1. Filtration
• Property Used: Particle size (solid insoluble in liquid).
• Mixture Example: Sand and water.
• Method:
o Pass the mixture through filter paper.
o The sand (solid) is trapped on the filter paper (residue), and water (liquid) passes
through (filtrate).
2. Evaporation
• Property Used: Boiling point (solute remains after solvent evaporates).
• Mixture Example: Salt and water.
• Method:
o Heat the solution until the water (solvent) evaporates.
o The salt (solute) remains as crystals.

3. Distillation
• Property Used: Difference in boiling points.
• Mixture Example: Ethanol and water.
• Method:
o Heat the mixture; the component with the lower boiling point (ethanol) vaporizes
first.
o Condense the vapor back to a liquid in a condenser and collect it in a separate
container.

4. Fractional Distillation
• Property Used: Close boiling points of liquids.
• Mixture Example: Crude oil or alcohol-water mixture.
• Method:
o Heat the mixture in a fractionating column.
o Components vaporize and condense at different levels of the column according to
their boiling points.
5. Decantation
• Property Used: Density difference between immiscible liquids or solid-liquid mixtures.
• Mixture Example: Oil and water.
• Method:
o Allow the mixture to settle.
o Pour off the top layer (oil) without disturbing the bottom layer (water).
6. Centrifugation
• Property Used: Density (solid-liquid mixtures where solids are very fine).
• Mixture Example: Blood (separating plasma and red blood cells).
• Method:
o Spin the mixture at high speed in a centrifuge.
o Denser components (e.g., red blood cells) settle at the bottom, while less dense
components (e.g., plasma) remain on top.

7. Chromatography
• Property Used: Solubility and affinity for a stationary phase.
• Mixture Example: Ink or dye mixtures.
• Method:
o Apply a drop of the mixture on chromatography paper.
o Allow a solvent to flow through the paper.
o Components travel different distances based on their solubility and interaction with
the paper.

8. Crystallization
• Property Used: Solubility and temperature.
• Mixture Example: Salt and water (pure salt crystals).
• Method:
o Heat the solution to evaporate some water until it becomes saturated.
o Cool the solution to form crystals of the solute.

9. Sublimation
• Property Used: Ability to sublimate (solid to gas without melting).
• Mixture Example: Ammonium chloride and sand.
• Method:
o Heat the mixture.
o Ammonium chloride sublimates into gas and condenses back as a solid, leaving the
sand behind.

10. Separating Funnel

• Property Used: Density and immiscibility of liquids.
• Mixture Example: Oil and water.
• Method:
o Pour the mixture into a separating funnel.
o Allow the layers to form.
o Open the tap to release the denser liquid (water) first.
Summary of Separation Techniques:

Mixture Property Used Technique

Sand and water Particle size Filtration

Salt and water Boiling point Evaporation

Ethanol and water Boiling point Distillation

Oil and water Density, immiscibility Decantation/Separating Funnel

Ink Solubility and affinity Chromatography

Ammonium chloride and sand Sublimation property Sublimation

Crude oil Close boiling points Fractional Distillation

Blood Density Centrifugation

2.6 Describe the extraction of sucrose from sugar cane.

The extraction of sucrose (table sugar) from sugarcane involves several steps, primarily designed to
separate the sucrose from the plant material and purify it. Below is a detailed description of the
process:
• Steps in Extraction:
o Crushing: Sugar cane is crushed to release juice.
o Precipitation: Lime is added to remove impurities.
o Filtration: Removes solids from the liquid.
o Evaporation: Water is removed by heating.
o Crystallization: Sugar is allowed to cool and crystallize.
o Centrifugation: Separates crystals from the remaining liquid.
1. Harvesting
• Step: Sugarcane is harvested either manually or mechanically.
• Goal: Collect the mature sugarcane stalks for processing.
2. Washing
• Step: The harvested sugarcane is washed to remove dirt, mud, and other impurities.
• Goal: Ensure cleanliness of the raw material before crushing.
3. Crushing and Extraction
• Step: The sugarcane is crushed using large rollers to extract the juice.
• Process Details:
o The crushed sugarcane passes through a series of heavy rollers in a mill.
o Water is sprayed on the crushed cane during this process (a technique called
imbibition) to extract the maximum amount of juice.
• Goal: Extract raw juice containing sucrose, water, and other plant materials.
4. Clarification
• Step: The raw juice is treated to remove non-sugar impurities.
• Process Details:
o The juice is heated to 70–80°C and mixed with lime (calcium hydroxide).
o This neutralizes acids in the juice and causes impurities to coagulate.
o The juice is then filtered or settled to remove the coagulated impurities, leaving a
clear juice.
• Goal: Remove impurities and clarify the juice.
5. Evaporation
• Step: The clarified juice is concentrated by evaporating water.
• Process Details:
o The juice is heated in multiple-effect evaporators, reducing its water content.
o The result is a thick syrup known as massecuite.
• Goal: Increase sucrose concentration.
6. Crystallization
• Step: The concentrated syrup is seeded with fine sugar crystals and cooled to form sucrose
crystals.
• Process Details:
o The syrup is placed in a vacuum pan where it is boiled under reduced pressure to
encourage crystallization.
o The sucrose crystallizes out of the syrup.
• Goal: Form sugar crystals.
7. Centrifugation
• Step: The mixture of sugar crystals and molasses is separated using a centrifuge.
• Process Details:
o The centrifuge spins the mixture, separating the crystals (sugar) from the molasses (a
dark, viscous liquid).
• Goal: Isolate the sucrose crystals.
8. Drying
• Step: The wet sugar crystals are dried using hot air.
• Process Details:
o The crystals are tumbled in rotating drums with warm air to remove any remaining
moisture.
• Goal: Produce dry, granulated sugar.
9. Refining (Optional)
• Step: If white sugar is required, the raw sugar undergoes further purification.
• Process Details:
o The raw sugar is dissolved and reprocessed to remove remaining impurities.
o It is filtered, decolorized using activated carbon or bone char, and recrystallized.
• Goal: Produce refined white sugar.
10. Packaging
• Step: The purified sugar is packaged for distribution and sale.
• Goal: Provide market-ready sugar.
Byproducts:
1. Molasses: A byproduct used in animal feed, ethanol production, or as a sweetener.
2. Bagasse: The fibrous residue from crushed cane, used as a biofuel or in paper production.

Summary:
The extraction of sucrose from sugarcane involves crushing the cane, extracting and clarifying the
juice, concentrating it into syrup, crystallizing the sucrose, separating it from molasses, and drying the
crystals. The process ensures maximum sugar yield while generating useful byproducts like molasses
and bagasse.
Discuss the purification of water for domestic use.
• Overview: Water purification involves removing impurities and harmful microorganisms to
make water safe for drinking and domestic use.
• Stages of Water Purification:
1. Screening:
▪ Removes large debris such as leaves, twigs, and other solids.
2. Coagulation and Flocculation:
▪ Chemicals like alum are added to cause small particles to clump together
(floc formation).
3. Sedimentation:
▪ Flocs settle at the bottom of the tank, leaving clearer water at the top.
4. Filtration:
▪ Water is passed through layers of sand and gravel to remove smaller particles
and microorganisms.
5. Chlorination:
▪ Chlorine is added to kill bacteria, viruses, and other pathogens.
6. Storage and Distribution:
▪ Purified water is stored in reservoirs and distributed through pipes for
domestic use.
• Alternative Methods:
o Boiling: Kills microorganisms but does not remove chemical impurities.
o Activated Carbon Filters: Removes odors and some chemical contaminants.
o Reverse Osmosis: Removes dissolved salts and impurities through a semi-permeable
membrane.
Objective 3. Atomic Structure
Key Definitions
1. Atom: The smallest unit of an element that retains the properties of that element. It consists of
a nucleus containing protons and neutrons, surrounded by electrons arranged in shells.
2. Proton: A positively charged subatomic particle found in the nucleus of an atom.
3. Neutron: A subatomic particle with no charge (neutral) found in the nucleus of an atom.
4. Electron: A negatively charged subatomic particle that orbits the nucleus in energy levels or
shells.
5. Atomic Number (Z): The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom, which determines the
element's identity.
6. Mass Number (A): The sum of the protons and neutrons in an atom's nucleus.
7. Relative Atomic Mass: The weighted average mass of the isotopes of an element relative to
1/12th of the mass of a carbon-12 atom.
8. Isotope: Atoms with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons, resulting
in different mass numbers.
9. Radioactive Isotopes: Isotopes that are unstable and emit radiation as they decay into more
stable forms.

Overview:
Atomic structure is the fundamental concept in chemistry that describes how atoms, the basic units of
matter, are organized. Each atom consists of three main subatomic particles: protons, neutrons, and
electrons. The arrangement and properties of these particles determine the atom's identity, behavior,
and interactions with other atoms.
Atoms with atomic numbers ranging from 1 to 20 illustrate increasing complexity in their structure,
from the single proton and electron of hydrogen to the multi-layered shells of calcium. These
structures form the basis of the periodic table, chemical bonding, and the variety of substances we
observe in the physical world. Additionally, the study of isotopes and their applications highlights the
versatility of atomic structures in scientific and industrial contexts.

3.1 Describe with illustrations, the structure of atoms of atomic number 1 to 20.
• The atom consists of three basic particles:
o Protons: Positively charged particles located in the nucleus.
o Neutrons: Neutral particles located in the nucleus.
o Electrons: Negatively charged particles arranged in energy levels (shells) around the
nucleus.
• The number of protons in an atom equals the number of electrons, making the atom
electrically neutral.
• Atoms with atomic numbers 1 to 20:
 o Hydrogen (Z=1): One proton and one electron, no neutrons.
o Helium (Z=2): Two protons, two neutrons, and two electrons.
o Larger atoms like Carbon (Z=6) and Calcium (Z=20) have more protons, neutrons,
and electrons distributed in increasing shells.

3.2 State properties of electrons, protons, and neutrons.

Particle Relative Mass Relative Charge

Proton 1 +1

Neutron 1 0 (neutral)

Electron 1/1836 (~0.0005) -1

• Protons: Determine the atomic number and identity of the element.

• Neutrons: Contribute to the mass of the atom and influence isotope formation.
• Electrons: Involved in chemical bonding and reactions.

3.3 Define atomic number and mass number.

• Atomic Number (Z): The number of protons in an atom's nucleus. It determines the element's
position on the periodic table.
• Mass Number (A): The total number of protons and neutrons in an atom's nucleus.

3.4 Define relative atomic mass.

• Relative Atomic Mass (Ar): The average mass of an element's isotopes compared to 1/12th of
the mass of a carbon-12 atom.
o Example: Chlorine has isotopes with masses of 35 and 37. Its relative atomic mass is
approximately 35.5 due to the weighted average.
3.5 Interpret notations of the form:
a c
X
b d
Where:
• a: Mass number (total number of protons and neutrons).
• b: Atomic number (number of protons).
• c: Charge (difference between protons and electrons).
• d: Number of particles or atoms (optional, often omitted).
• X: Symbol of the element.
Example:
12
C
6
 • Carbon (C) has:
o Mass number (A): 12 (6 protons + 6 neutrons).
o Atomic number (Z): 6 (6 protons).
o Neutral charge (equal protons and electrons).

3.6 Define isotopy.

• Isotopes: Atoms with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons. This
difference in neutrons leads to different mass numbers.
o Example: Carbon-12 and Carbon-14 are isotopes of carbon. Both have 6 protons, but
Carbon-12 has 6 neutrons, and Carbon-14 has 8 neutrons.
3.7 List uses of radioactive isotopes.
• Applications of Radioactive Isotopes:
1. Carbon Dating: Determining the age of archaeological and geological samples by
measuring the decay of Carbon-14.
2. Radiotherapy: Treating cancer by using isotopes like Cobalt-60 to target and destroy
cancerous cells.
3. Tracers: Tracking the movement of substances within organisms or systems using
isotopes like Technetium-99m.
4. Pacemakers: Using isotopes to power pacemakers and other medical devices.
5. Energy Generation: Producing energy in nuclear reactors through isotopes like
Uranium-235.